text:
Hof, Bavaria
Munich, Germany
railway bridge over the Rhine
Mainz
Gustavsburg
structural system
cantilever bridge
Regnitz
Main
Haßfurt
Beam
truss
online

categories: People from Bavaria,1912 deaths,1832 births

paragraph: Heinrich Gottfried Gerber

paragraph: Gottfried Heinrich Gerber (November 18, 1832 in Hof, Bavaria – January 3, 1912 in Munich, Germany) was a German engineer and inventor of the Gerber carrier. He received several patents for his systems for building bridges.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Gerber studied at the Polytechnic schools in Nuremberg and Munich, and in 1852 he joined the Bavarian Staatsbaudienst, where he worked on the railways. He assisted in the planning for the Großhesseloher bridge and the bridge was completed in 1857. During this time Gerber developed the Pauli carrier foresaw. After the bridge was finished Gerber was appointed as the chief engineer of the Maschinenfabrik Klett bridge department in Nuremberg.

paragraph: When the company in 1859 was awarded the contract for the construction of the railway bridge over the Rhine at Mainz he decided to manufacture the bridge parts in a temporary facility near the site in Gustavsburg. Gerber moved in 1860 with his family to the assembling site in order to manage the manufacture and construction of the bridge until its completion in 1863.

paragraph: In his subsequent time in Nuremberg, he was working on continuous structural systems, which could be calculated more simple. In 1866 he was awarded the Bavarian patent ″Balkenträger mit freiliegenden Stützpunkten″ ("bar carrier with exposed bases"). This cantilever bridge system was first realized in 1867 at a bridge over the Regnitz at Bamberg and in the Main Bridge in Haßfurt. This construction spread rapidly and became known worldwide as Gerber Beam.

paragraph: 1868 Gerber went back to Gustavsburg to manage the construction of the second track of the Rhine bridge. Then he located with an office in Munich. As part of the conversion of the Nuremberg headquarters in "Maschinenbau-Actiengesellschaft Nürnberg", in 1873, the plant "MAN-Werk Gustavsburg" and his Munich office was merged to Süddeutsche Bridge AG in Munich and became independent with Gerber as Chief Executive. During this time he dealt among other things with development work on intersections of truss, the other duties of the Executive Board were to him less. At his own suggestion, this company was merged in 1884 into the "Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft Nürnberg" (now MAN). Gerber was a board member there and had a seat in the technical advisory board. He devoted himself to continue his research and consulting activities.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ludwig Freytag, "Heinrich Gerber, Altmeister der deutschen Eisenbaukunst". In: Conrad Matschoss (Ed.): "Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technik und Industrie". vol 10. Springer, Berlin 1920, , p. 93–102. – online.

alias:
Henrique Gerber
Heinrich Gerber

description: German engineer

wikidata_label: Heinrich Gottfried Gerber

wikipedia_title: Heinrich Gottfried Gerber


text:
The Stereo
Let Go
Animal Chin
Gin Blossoms

categories: 1974 births,Living people,British record producers

paragraph: Jamie Woolford

paragraph: Jamie Woolford (born November 15, 1974 in Luton, England) is a record producer, engineer, singer-songwriter and touring musician. He is a founding member of rock bands The Stereo, Let Go and Animal Chin. In 2013, he released his first solo record title "A Framed Life In Charming Light" on Get Well Records.

paragraph: Woolford has produced recordings by bands such as Punchline, the A.K.A.s and the Gin Blossoms.

paragraph: Jamie currently lives in Arizona with his wife Erica and 3 kids.

wikidata_label: Jamie Woolford

wikipedia_title: Jamie Woolford


text:
cyclist
1924 Summer Olympics
Nationalist faction
Spanish Civil War

categories: Italian male cyclists,1899 births,Sportspeople from Parma,Olympic cyclists of Italy,Italian people of the Spanish Civil War,Cyclists at the 1924 Summer Olympics,1938 deaths

paragraph: Francesco Del Grosso

paragraph: Francesco Del Grosso (28 September 1899 – 22 July 1938) was an Italian cyclist. He competed in two events at the 1924 Summer Olympics. He was killed fighting for the Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War.

description: cyclist

wikidata_label: Francesco Del Grosso

wikipedia_title: Francesco Del Grosso


text: Japanese

text: samurai

text: Sengoku period

text: Saitō clan

text: Mino Province

text: Mount Inaba

text: Oda Nobunaga

text: Siege of Inabayama Castle

text: Toyotomi Hideyoshi

text: Miki Castle

text: Takenaka Shigekado

text: Battle of Sekigahara

text: Tokugawa Ieyasu

text: hatamoto

text: Iwate Castle

text: Sekigahara Village

text: Takenaka Shigekata

text: Battle of Toba–Fushimi

text: Pokémon Conquest

text: Pokémon

text: Pikachu

text: Raichu

text: Samurai Warriors

text: Samurai Warriors 3

text: Warriors Orochi 3

text: The Ambition of Oda Nobuna

text: Sengoku Basara

text: tuberculosis

text: Kojuro Katakura

text: Information on Iwate Castle

text: Information on Bodaisan Castle

text: Woodblock print

text: Photo of Shigeharu's Grave

categories: 1544 births,1579 deaths,Samurai,Toyotomi retainers

paragraph: Takenaka Shigeharu

paragraph: , who was also known as Hanbei (半兵衛), was a Japanese samurai during the Sengoku period of the 16th century.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He initially served the Saitō clan of Mino Province, but later plotted an uprising and took over the Saitō clan's castle at Mount Inaba. He then directed the defense against the forces of Oda Nobunaga during the Siege of Inabayama Castle. Toyotomi Hideyoshi was so impressed by him that he invited Shigeharu to join his forces as a strategist. Shigeharu made many contributions to Hideyoshi with his exceptional talent in that field.

paragraph: He died of illness during Hideyoshi's attack against the Mōri in the Chūgoku region of Japan, while Miki Castle was being besieged.

paragraph: Section::::Descendants.

paragraph: Takenaka Shigekado, Shigeharu's son and successor, continued to serve Hideyoshi after his father's death. At the Battle of Sekigahara, he fought on the side of Tokugawa Ieyasu, and his holdings at Bodaisan were secured. The Takenaka family thus became a family of hatamoto, and would soon move from their old castle of Bodaisan to the new Iwate Castle. The holdings of the Takenaka included Sekigahara Village.

paragraph: In the mid-19th century, Shigeharu's descendant Takenaka Shigekata served as commander of the Tokugawa forces in Fushimi at the Battle of Toba–Fushimi.

paragraph: Section::::Popular culture.

paragraph: BULLET::::- He is a playable character in "Pokémon Conquest" ("Pokémon + Nobunaga's Ambition" in Japan, with his partner Pokémon being Pikachu and Raichu), in the "Samurai Warriors" games from "Samurai Warriors 3" and in the game Warriors Orochi 3. A young female version of Takenaka Hanbei is in "The Ambition of Oda Nobuna".

paragraph: BULLET::::- He appears in the "Sengoku Basara" series and game. His weapon of choice is a linked sword and darkness based attacks. In Anime however, he contracted tuberculosis and dies after dueling with Kojuro Katakura.

paragraph: BULLET::::- His nickname, Hanebei, is used in the video game ""

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- People of the Sengoku period in popular culture.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Information on Iwate Castle (in Japanese)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Information on Bodaisan Castle (in Japanese)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Woodblock print

paragraph: BULLET::::- Photo of Shigeharu's Grave

description: Japanese samurai

wikidata_label: Takenaka Shigeharu

wikipedia_title: Takenaka Shigeharu


text:
Swedish
king of Sweden
Blot-Sweyn
epithet
regnal
Westrogothic law
Levene
Västergötland
Stenkil
line of Swedish kings
Sweden
Stenkil
Halsten Stenkilsson
Uppland
Anund Gårdske
Nationalencyklopedin
Anund Gårdske
Inge the Elder
Gregory VII
Halsten Stenkilsson
västgötar
tithe
Encyclopædia Britannica
Viking Age
old family of kings
warlord
translatio imperii
historical reconstruction
scholion
Adam of Bremen
Stenkil
Halsten
Anund Gårdske
Olav Kyrre
Norway
Tora Torbergsdatter
Yngling dynasty
Sture Bolin
Sweyn Estridsen
Westrogothic law
Västergötland
Blot-Sweyn
Inge the Elder
Magnus Barefoot
Snorri Sturluson
Heimskringla
Svithjod
Inge
Hervarar saga
runestone
Hovgården
Adelsö
Lake Mälaren
Uppland
Sweden
Rundata
U 11

categories: Year of birth missing,People from Västergötland,House of Stenkil,Swedish monarchs,11th-century Swedish monarchs,Year of death missing,11th-century Swedish people

paragraph: Håkan the Red

paragraph: Håkan the Red (Swedish: "Håkan Röde") was a king of Sweden, reigning for about a decade in the second half of the 11th century. There is little information on him, and it is mostly contradictory. Nothing is known about his reign.

paragraph: Swedish historian Adolf Schück has asserted that, rather than "Blot-Sweyn" being an individual king, there are indications that that may have been an epithet for King Håkan.

paragraph: His cognomen "the Red" comes from the regnal list of the "Westrogothic law", written in early 13th century. The same source claims that he was born in Levene, in Västergötland.

paragraph: Section::::Succession sequence.

paragraph: Despite contradiction in the sources, Håkan's position as a "successor" of Stenkil in the line of Swedish kings is generally accepted as correct. Perhaps he reigned from c. 1066/1070 in some areas of Sweden (succeeding Stenkil or Halsten Stenkilsson), and from c. 1075 in Uppland as well (succeeding Anund Gårdske). The regnal line in "Nationalencyklopedin" omits Anund Gårdske and presents Håkan as successor of Halsten Stenkilsson. Nationalencyclopedin also suggests that he may have ruled jointly with Inge the Elder in the 1080s. A papal letter from Gregory VII is addressed to Inge together with either Håkan or Halsten Stenkilsson as kings of the västgötar, ordering them to collect tithe and send priests to Rome to educate themselves.

paragraph: According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "[a]t the end of the Viking Age [approximately 1050], Sweden remained a loose federation of provinces. The old family of kings died out in 1060; after the death of the last of these kings' son-in-law, Stenkil, in 1066, a civil war broke out. Around 1080 Stenkil's sons, Ingi and Halsten, ruled, [...]." If "civil war" is an appropriate characterisation of the period from 1066 to 1080, the rulers of that epoch would be in the grey area between "king" and "warlord". Describing this period for Sweden as a whole in a linear translatio imperii kind of regnal succession, can then only be achieved at least partially based on speculative historical reconstruction, which appears to have happened in diverging directions from the early 13th century on, at the latest.

paragraph: Section::::Succession sequence.:Adam of Bremen.

paragraph: A scholion in Adam of Bremen's "History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen" (written 1070s–early 1080s) says that Håkan was elected king after Stenkil's son Halsten had been deposed, and after Anund Gårdske also had been rejected. At his enthronement he was obliged to "take the mother of young Olof in marriage". It is not clear from Adam's text which Olof is meant, but it has been suggested that he might be King Olav Kyrre of Norway, whose mother Tora Torbergsdatter was a cognatic descendant of the Norwegian branch of the Yngling dynasty. While this remains unproven, the marriage was probably a politically well-planned act to gain support for Håkan's rule. Historian Sture Bolin has argued that the passage about Olof's mother in fact refers to Tora Torbergsdotter marrying the Danish King Sweyn Estridsen, and has nothing to do with Håkan. However, while Adam of Bremen mentions a Tora at Sweyn's court, he characterises her as his concubine rather than wife.

paragraph: Section::::Succession sequence.:Regnal list of the "Westrogothic law".

paragraph: According to the regnal list of the "Westrogothic law", Håkan the Red would have ruled 13 years, as Stenkil's "predecessor". He was born in Levene in Viste Hundred in Västergötland, and was buried there after his demise. The Levene estate is also associated with King Stenkil, suggesting that Håkan might have sprung from the same kin group. Another Swedish king list from the 13th century has the sequence Stenkil - Halsten - Näskonung - Blot-Sweyn - Håkan the Red (Haquinus rufus) - Inge the Elder.

paragraph: Section::::Succession sequence.:Sagas.

paragraph: In "Magnus Barefoot's Saga", a part of Snorri Sturluson's "Heimskringla" (1225), he is given as the "successor" of Stenkil (who died in 1066):

paragraph: Steinkel, the Swedish king, died about the same time as the two Haralds fell, and the king who came after him in

paragraph: Svithjod was called Håkan. Afterwards Inge, a son of Steinkel,

paragraph: was king, [...]

paragraph: Similarly, in "Hervarar saga" (13th century):Steinkel had a son called Ingi, who became King of Sweden after Håkan.

paragraph: Section::::Runestone.

paragraph: Presumably it was Håkan the Red who ordered the carving of a runestone found in Hovgården (Adelsö island in Lake Mälaren, Uppland, Sweden). The Rundata catalog number of this runestone is U 11.

description: King of Sweden

wikidata_label: Håkan the Red

wikipedia_title: Håkan the Red


text:
Swedish
Christian
Inge
King of Sweden
blót
Temple at Uppsala
Westrogothic law
Västergötland
Håkan the Red
Blót
Iceland
legendary saga
Hervarar saga
Stenkil
Indo-European ritual
horse sacrifice
Saint Eskil
Strängnäs
Aelnoth of Canterbury
Adam of Bremen
Orkneyinga saga
Uppland
Snorri Sturlusson
Heimskringla
Erik Årsäll

categories: Pagan restorations,11th-century murdered monarchs,11th-century monarchs in Europe,Swedish pagans,House of Stenkil,Swedish monarchs,11th-century Swedish monarchs,11th-century Swedish people

paragraph: Blot-Sweyn

paragraph: Sweyn (, "Sweyn the Sacrificer") was a Swedish king c. 1080, who replaced his Christian brother-in-law Inge as King of Sweden, when Inge had refused to administer the blóts (pagan sacrifices) at the Temple at Uppsala. There is no mention of Sweyn in the regnal list of the "Westrogothic law", which suggests that his rule did not reach Västergötland. According to Swedish historian Adolf Schück he was probably the same person as Håkan the Red and was called the "Blót Swain" (a "swain" who was willing to perform the blót) as an epithet rather than a personal name.

paragraph: Section::::Becoming king.

paragraph: The earliest source that deals with Blot-Sweyn's coming to power is the Icelandic legendary saga "Hervarar saga":

paragraph: However, Inge did not permit the people to follow the old ways, unlike his father Stenkil. The Swedes reacted strongly and asked Inge to either comply with the old traditions or abdicate. When Inge proclaimed that he would not abandon Christianity, the people pelted him with stones and chased him away. This was the opportunity for Sweyn to assume power, and the account provided by "Hervarar saga" concerning his inauguration contains a rare description of the ancient Indo-European ritual of horse sacrifice:

paragraph: Section::::Legend of Saint Eskil.

paragraph: The later "Legend of Saint Eskil" tells that Inge was chased away from the kingdom. They then elected an idolator for king by the name Sweyn, an unworthy man and with reason called "Blood-Sweyn". He had this name because he made the people drink blood from bulls that had been sacrificed to the gods, and he ate the sacrificial meat. The people assembled around their king in Strängnäs, where they butchered oxen and sheep, and gave offerings to their gods. They had a great banquet in honour of the king and their gods. The English bishop Eskil then appeared and tried to convert the pagans to Christianity. They would not listen, however. Eskil prayed, and God sent thunder, hail, snow and rain destroying the sacrificial altar and beasts of sacrifice. Not a single drop fell on the bishop. The pagans were not impressed and furiously, they attacked Eskil. A diviner named Spåbodde hit him on the head with a stone, while another man crushed his head with an axe. Some chieftains dragged the dying martyr to the king saying that Eskil had used magic arts to control the weather. As soon as the unrightful king had sentenced Eskil to death, he was taken to the valley where the monastery later was founded, and he was stoned to death

paragraph: This legend is, however, only known from the late 13th century. An account by Aelnoth of Canterbury (c. 1122) relates that an Eskillinus was killed by pagan Swedes and Geats at an unspecified time. Since he is not mentioned by the clerical historian Adam of Bremen (c. 1075), he may have flourished in the late 11th century. According to another opinion, Eskil's death is more probably dated in c. 1016, several generations before Blot-Sweyn.

paragraph: Section::::How Sweyn was killed.

paragraph: According to "Hervarar saga", the rule of Sweyn was not to last. Before long, the Christian Inge decided to kill the pagan Sweyn:

paragraph: A similar account appears in the "Orkneyinga saga", but in this text, Sweyn remains inside and is burnt to death:

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: It is possible that Inge was not immediately accepted by the stubbornly pagan Swedes of Uppland. The 13th-century historian Snorri Sturlusson wrote in the "Heimskringla" that Blót-Sweyn had a pagan successor who continued the sacrifices:

paragraph: This ""Eirik Arsale"" (Erik Årsäll) is mentioned in other sources as being the son of Blot-Sweyn, but today is not considered a historical person by most historians.

description: politician

wikidata_label: Blot-Sweyn

wikipedia_title: Blot-Sweyn


text: Erfurt

text: Nuremberg

text: geodesist

text: cartographer

text: geodesist

text: wood engraving

text: stereographic projection

text: Viborg, Denmark

text: Naples

text: Paris

text: Budapest

text: Klosterneuburg

text: Martin Waldseemüller

text: Sebastian Munster

text: Bohemia

text: Mikuláš Klaudyán

text: sundials

text: Regiomontanus

text: Martin Behaim

text: Johannes Cochlaeus

text: 0°

text: Mercator projection

text: Regensburg

text: Austria

text: Original woodcut of the "Romweg map"

text: Cut of the 1500 "Romweg" map, coloured

text: Cut of the 1501 coloured edition

categories: 15th-century births,German astronomers,Year of birth uncertain,German cartographers,People from Erfurt,1532 deaths

paragraph: Erhard Etzlaub

paragraph: Erhard Etzlaub (born ca. 1455[?]-1465 in Erfurt; died 1532 in Nuremberg), was an astronomer, geodesist, cartographer, instrument maker and physician.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: One "Erhart Etzlauber" became a citizen of Nuremberg in 1484, but his profession was not recorded on that occasion. Assuming that the "Eberhardus Eczleiben" who matriculated at the "Erfurter Hochschule" in 1468 is very probably the same person, then the year of his birth should be between 1455-1460 rather than later.

paragraph: From letters from a third party dated 1500 and 1507, we learn that he was a well-known instrument ("compass") maker and a geodesist, and from a letter dated 1517, that "he had also practicised as a physician for at least four years" and that he "comes from Erfurt". In 1515, he declared himself to be an "astronomer and physician, from Erfurt University".

paragraph: His death is officially quoted as the 15th entry in an official list of 20 people buried between December 20, 1531 and February 21, 1532. Therefore, he very probably died in January or early February 1532. There were no inheritors.

paragraph: Section::::The cartographer.

paragraph: Section::::The cartographer.:The "Romweg" Map.

paragraph: On the occasion of the "Holy Year 1500," when many pilgrims were expected to go to Rome, he designed his famous "Rom-Weg" map (= the Way to Rome), a 41 x 29 cm wood engraving in stereographic projection to a scale of about 1:5,600,000. This is the earliest printed road map of central Europe. It is, as all of Etzlaub's maps, "south up". Distances between cities can be computed by dotted lines, where a one-dot-step means one "German Mile" (7400m). Coloured prints (according to author's innovative requirements) show political regions, too.

paragraph: The area of the map is between latitudes 58° (Viborg, Denmark) and 41° (Naples). No longitudes are given, but Paris shows up at the western margin, and Budapest at the eastern one. Data may have been drawn from c.1421 Klosterneuburg "Fridericus" map as well as from Etzlaub's own interviews with travelling merchants.

paragraph: Section::::The cartographer.:The "Roman Empire" road map.

paragraph: This was a second and improved edition of principally the same map, 1501, 54.5 x 39.7 cm, printed in Nuremberg by "Georg Glogkendon". In 1533, Glogkendon's son Albrecht printed one more (unchanged) edition. The area covered by that later map was expanded to latitude 40° (south of Salerno), and about 74 more km towards west, and the map was more detailed in former marginal regions.

paragraph: From all three editions, only 6 samples are known to have survived (e.g. the ones held by SUB (Göttingen), Germanisches Nationalmuseum (Nuremberg), Bibliothèque Nationale (Paris), British Library (London)), but Etzlaub's data were widely used during the first half of the 16th century, among others by Martin Waldseemüller and Sebastian Munster. Often, even the "south up" display was copied.

paragraph: Section::::The cartographer.:More maps.

paragraph: Besides the innovative "Romweg" map and its later editions, only two still existing maps are definitely known to be designed by Etzlaub:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. A 1492 wood-cut (39 x 27 cm, printed by "Jorg [George] Glogkendon, Nuremberg"), showing 100 localities and their names within a radius of 120 km from Nuremberg.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Another map of Nuremberg's territory, 1519, painted on parchment by Nuremberg painter "Michel Graf" (scale ca. 1:30.000, 94 x 84 cm).

paragraph: BULLET::::- An earlier similar map, from 1516, came to us only as a copy made in 1600.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A 1507 plan of "Hauseck" real estates bought by the Nuremberg magistrate is lost.

paragraph: BULLET::::- With some probability (being very similar to the 1519 map), a map from 1516, parchment, 60 x 69 cm is Etzlaub's design.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The earliest map of Bohemia, created by Mikuláš Klaudyán (Nikolaus Klaudian or Claudianus) and printed in Nuremberg in 1518, is likely to be somehow "connected" to Etzlaub: Klaudyán stayed at Nuremberg several times during the years before, and one of Etzlaub's Almanachs appeared in Czech language in 1517 although Etzlaub is very unlikely to have spoken it. The Klaudyán map is "South-up", shows an outline of Bohemia's borders similar to the "Romweg" map, and is coloured in a similar way.

paragraph: Section::::The instrument maker.

paragraph: ""Kompast"" [sic!] was the term used for pocket-size sundials produced in Nuremberg since Regiomontanus' days, which were fitted with a compass, too, and were also used by seafarers. Only two of Etzlaub's pieces remain: one, from 1511, is kept by "Germanisches Nationalmuseum" (Nuremberg), another one, from 1513 and in "Drecker's" collection, purportedly "went to the USA".

paragraph: In his time, Etzlaub's pieces were demanded: In a 1507 letter, "Michel Beheim," brother of famous globe maker Martin Behaim, tells his brother "Wolfgang" that such pieces (i.e. more than one) will be sent to him to Lisbon within a few weeks, as soon as Etzlaub would have finished them. Johannes Cochlaeus notes on Etzlaub's work in "Brevis Germaniae Descriptio," 1512, that his sundials were even demanded in Rome.

paragraph: Miniature maps (latitudes 67°–0°, "South-up", no longitudes given) are engraved on the outside of the instrument's lids, allowing its user to adjust the gnomone according to actual latitude. To cope with compass bearings between the cities given, varying latitudes were used, reducing scale for lower latitudes, which was innovative, but conceptually opposite to Mercator's later approach ("F.W. Krücken," 2004). In 1917, "Joseph Drecker" (1853–1931) had examined the 1513 miniature map and declared it to be a Mercator projection. After carefully analyzing both Etzlaub's und Mercator's maps, "Krücken" finds out: ""There is no reason to see Etzlaub as a precursor of Mercator's projection"."

paragraph: Instructions on the use of his sundials were given by Etzlaub in "Codex ad Compastum Norembergensem" which was kept by "Staatsbibliothek," Munich, Germany, but seems lost.

paragraph: Section::::Etzlaub's "almanachs".

paragraph: Those were calendars to be hanged on the wall, giving festive days, new and full moon, some planet's positions and hints on healthcare like best times for blood-letting. They show up since 1515. It is likely that Etzlaub published them every year, although the preserved samples are not continuous. According to different regions where they would be sold, the same content was presented in a varying design. From 1520, four different versions exist, designed for "Hochstift Eichstädt", "City of Regensburg", "Pfalzbayern" and Austria.

paragraph: Since 1517, Etzlaub's coat of arms

paragraph: shows up in many but not all of his almanacs. It seems, however, to be unknown to relevant German collections of heraldry.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brigitte English, "Erhard Etzlaub's Projection and Methods of Mapping", in: "Imago Mundi", 48 (1996), pp. 103–123.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fritz Schnelbögl, „Leben und Werk des Nürnberger Kartographen Erhard Etzlaub“ in "Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg Bd. 57. 1970", S. 216-231, Facsimile, German.

paragraph: BULLET::::- F.W. Krücken, Düsseldorf 2004, On Etzlaub's and Mercator's maps, German

paragraph: BULLET::::- Original woodcut of the "Romweg map"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Facsimile of the 1500 "Romweg" map, not coloured, but high resolution

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cut of the 1500 "Romweg" map, coloured

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cut of the 1501 coloured edition

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1492, Surroundings of Nuremberg, zoomable map (Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, Austria)

description: German geodesist, catrographer, instrument maker, physician, astronomer

wikidata_label: Erhard Etzlaub

wikipedia_title: Erhard Etzlaub


text:
King of Sweden
Halsten
Philip Halstensson
Inge the Elder
Hervarar saga
Westrogothic law
Östergötland
Sigurd I of Norway
Småland
House of Stenkil
Ulvhild Håkansdotter
Haakon Finnsson
Nils Svensson
Sverker the Elder
Ragnhild of Tälje

categories: 1125 deaths,12th-century Swedish monarchs,1105 births,House of Stenkil,12th-century Swedish people,Swedish monarchs

paragraph: Inge the Younger

paragraph: Inge the Younger was King of Sweden in c. 1110–c. 1125 and the son of king Halsten and he was probably Halsten's youngest son. According to unreliable traditions Inge would have ruled together with his brother Philip Halstensson after the death of their uncle Inge the Elder: In English literature both have also been called "Ingold".

paragraph: Hallstein's sons were Philip and Ingi, and they succeeded to the Kingdom of Sweden after King Ingi the elder. (The 13th century "Hervarar saga")

paragraph: Other sources say that after the death of Philip (1118), Inge the Younger was the sole king of Sweden, but the year of his own death is unknown. According to the regnal list in the "Westrogothic law", Inge was poisoned with an evil drink in Östergötland:

paragraph: Niunði war Ingi konongær, broðher Philipusær konongs, oc heter æptir Ingæ kononge, Halstens konongs brødhær. Hanum war firigiort mæð ondom dryk i Østrægøtlanði, oc fek aff þy banæ. Æn Sweriki for e wæl, mædhæn þer frænlingær rædhu.

paragraph: The tenth (Christian king) was king Inge, the brother of king Philip, and he was named after king Inge (the Elder). He was killed by evil drink in Östergötland and it was his bane. But Sweden fared forever well, while these kinsmen ruled.

paragraph: It is not known whether Inge was still alive when the Norwegian king Sigurd I of Norway invaded Småland in 1123, but when Inge died, it was the end of the House of Stenkil.

paragraph: Inge is reported to have been married to Ulvhild Håkansdotter who was the daughter of the Norwegian Haakon Finnsson and who would later marry the Danish king Nils Svensson and even later the Swedish king Sverker the Elder. However, according to another tradition, he was the husband of Ragnhild of Tälje.

description: King of Sweden

wikidata_label: Inge the Younger

wikipedia_title: Inge the Younger


text:
Battle of Fotevik
Danish
Gothenland
Sweden
Swedish monarchs
Snorri Sturlason
Niels I of Denmark
Margaret Fredkulla
Inge the Elder
Saxo Grammaticus
Inge the Younger
Saxo Grammaticus
Geats
Westrogothic law
Svear
Ragnvald Knaphövde
Västergötland
jarl
Uppsala
Siwardus
Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen
Sigtuna
Asser
Hamburg-Bremen
Danish archbishopric
Thor's Hammer
Richeza
Boleslaw III of Poland
Canute
Rügen
Rani
Canute Lavard
civil war
Eric Emune
Östergötland
Sverker I
Battle of Fotevik
Scania
Volodar of Minsk
Rurikid
Viking
Sverker I
Canute V
Svend III
Niels
Valdemar
bishop of Schleswig
Prince-Archbishop of Bremen

categories: Kings of the Geats,Dukes of Schleswig,12th-century Swedish monarchs,1134 deaths,Swedish monarchs,1106 births,House of Estridsen

paragraph: Magnus I of Sweden

paragraph: Magnus I (; ) (born about 1106, died 4 June 1134 in the Battle of Fotevik), was a Danish duke who ruled "Gothenland" in southern Sweden from the 1120s to c. 1132. His status as ruler of Sweden was disputed in his own time, but today he is recognized as one of the historical Swedish monarchs. Snorri Sturlason gives him the epithet "Magnus the Strong".

paragraph: Section::::Youth and appearance.

paragraph: Magnus was the son of King Niels I of Denmark and Margaret Fredkulla, the second or eldest daughter of King Inge the Elder of Sweden. His elder brother Inge was killed in a riding accident, leaving Magnus as the sole heir to Niels. He grew up to be a tall and strong young man, a head taller than anyone else. The chronicles give different opinions about his character, depending on their political preferences. The near-contemporary "Roskilde Chronicle" calls him merry and generous and a "lover of firmness in character". Saxo Grammaticus, on the other hand, says that he was well endowed by nature but still a violent brute.

paragraph: Section::::The road to kingship.

paragraph: When Margaret's first cousin King Inge the Younger died at an unknown time in the 1120s, Magnus claimed the throne as the eldest grandson of Inge the Elder. According to the chronicler Saxo Grammaticus, Magnus was recognized by the Geats ("Götarna") of Gothenland, but according to the Westrogothic law, the prerogatives of selecting a king lay with the Svear, another tribe to the north of the Geats. The Svear, on their part, had selected Ragnvald Knaphövde, whose saga was however short. According to the brief chronicle incorporated in the Westrogothic law, Ragnvald showed disrespect towards the Geats by not giving hostages when riding his tour of installation. In retaliation, Ragnvald was murdered by the Geatish population, an event sometimes dated to c. 1129. "At his death", according to Saxo, "power was transferred to Magnus". Magnus is not mentioned as King in the Westrogothic law, nor in any Swedish king-list, leaving a question-mark around his actual sphere of power. The law-speaker of Västergötland, Karl of Edsvära, governed his province around this time and is occasionally known in the sources as jarl or even "king".

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: The few sources from this period indicate that Christianity was still not implemented everywhere. The Bishop of Uppsala, Siwardus, was appointed by the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in 1123, but forced to flee "by pagans" in 1130. Another bishop, Henry, was then appointed in Sigtuna by the Danish Archbishop Asser, and appears as a strong supporter of Magnus. The alterations also indicate the clerical rivalry between Hamburg-Bremen and the Danish archbishopric. There is also a story in Saxo's chronicle that Magnus at one time undertook a belated Viking expedition to a part of Sweden, and brought back a few heavy Thor's Hammers which he had robbed on a holy island. The still insufficiently Christianized Swedes henceforth saw him as a temple defiler who had robbed the gods.

paragraph: Around 1127, Magnus married Richeza, daughter of Boleslaw III of Poland. The couple had two sons, Canute (born 1129, later to become king of Denmark) and Niels (born 1130). In 1130, Magnus backed Boleslaw III in conquering Rügen. The Polish forces together with a Danish fleet compelled the Rani to recognize Polish rule over the island.

paragraph: Section::::Civil war in Denmark.

paragraph: In 1131, Magnus had his cousin and potential rival for the Danish throne, Canute Lavard, murdered. After this deed he had to return to Gothenland, where he was still recognised as king. Though he was eventually backed by Niels, Magnus found himself in a civil war against Lavard's half-brother Eric Emune. The civil war weakened Magnus's position in Sweden. The Swedes chose a landowner from Östergötland, Sverker I, to be their king. According to Saxo's chronology of events this happened around 1132.

paragraph: Magnus and his father Niels eventually engaged the enemy in the Battle of Fotevik in Scania on 4 June 1134. According to Saxo, Niels panicked and fled when Eric approached, but Magnus confronted his adversaries with a small troop of determined followers. "He preferred death to escape in order not to eclipse his old reputation for courage. Finally, when he had fought rashly and killed many enemies, he fell over the heap of corpses that had piled up around him." After the decisive defeat, Niels escaped with his ships but was killed later the same year.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: After Magnus's death, his widow Richeza returned to the other side of the Baltic Sea where she married Volodar of Minsk, a Rurikid ruler of Viking origins. She later returned to Sweden and thirdly married the man who defeated Magnus, King Sverker I.

paragraph: Magnus's son, Canute V, contested the Danish throne with his second cousin, Svend III. When Canute died in 1157, Magnus's legitimate descent became extinct. Canute's elder son Niels died in 1180. Canute's illegitimate posthumous son, Valdemar, bishop of Schleswig and Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, died in 1236 as the last descendant of king Magnus.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bricka, Carl Frederik, "Dansk Biografisk Lexikon", vol. XI [Maar – Müllner], 1897. http://runeberg.org/dbl/11/0047.html

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gillingstam, Hans. "Magnus Nilsson", "Svenskt biografiskt lexikon", https://sok.riksarkivet.se/sbl/Presentation.aspx?id=10158

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kosiarz, Edmund, "Wojny na Bałtyku X–XIX w." Gdańsk, 1978.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sawyer, Peter. "När Sverige blev Sverige". Alingsås: Viktoria, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saxo Grammaticus. "Danmarks kronike", Vol. I-II. Kobenhavn: Aschenfeldt's, 1985 ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tunberg, Sven. "Sveriges historia till våra dagar. Andra delen. Äldre medeltiden". Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt & Söners Förlag, 1926.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Västgötalagen", http://project2.sol.lu.se/fornsvenska/01_Bitar/A.L5.D-Vidhem.html

description: King of Sweden

wikidata_label: Magnus I of Sweden

wikipedia_title: Magnus I of Sweden


text: mwami

text: Rwanda

text: Roman Catholicism

text: Rwanda

text: Nyanza

text: Yuhi V Musinga

text: Tutsi

text: Catholicism

text: instructed in Christianity

text: Léon Classe

text: famine

text: Ruzagayura famine

text: Ruanda-Urundi

text: mandate

text: Hutu

text: Twa

text: World War II

text: Ruanda-Urundi

text: ubuhake

text: indentured service

text: Bahutu Manifesto

text: Gregoire Kayibanda

text: Hutu Social Movement

text: Usumbura

text: Urundi

text: André Perraudin

text: cerebral haemorrhage

text: untreated syphilis

text: Kigeli V

text: Rosalie Gicanda

text: Rwandan Genocide

text: Idelphonse Nizeyimana

text: UN war crimes court

text: Order of St. Gregory the Great

text: Democratic Republic of Congo

categories: 1959 deaths,Converts to Roman Catholicism,Rwandan Roman Catholics,Knights Commander with Star of the Order of St. Gregory the Great,1911 births,Rwandan kings,Tutsi people

paragraph: Mutara III Rudahigwa

paragraph: Mutara III Rudahigwa (March 1911 – 25 July 1959) was King ("mwami") of Rwanda between 1931 and 1959. He was the first Rwandan king to be baptised, and Roman Catholicism took hold in Rwanda during his reign. His Christian names were Charles Léon Pierre, and he is sometimes referred to as Charles Mutara III Rudahigwa.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Rudahigwa was born in March 1911, in the royal capital of Rwanda, Nyanza, to King Yuhi V Musinga, and Queen Kankazi (later Queen Mother Radegonde Nyiramavugo III Kankazi), the first of his eleven wives. He was a member of the Tutsi Abanyiginya clan.

paragraph: In 1919 he began his education at the Colonial School for Chiefs' Sons in Nyanza, subsequently becoming his father's secretary in 1924. In January 1929 he was appointed a chief and administered a province.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Rudahigwa became king on 16 November 1931, the Belgian colonial administration having deposed his father, Yuhi V Musinga, four days earlier. He took the royal name Mutara, becoming Mutara III Rudahigwa. He is sometimes referred to as Charles Mutara III Rudahigwa.

paragraph: He was the first Rwandan king to convert to Catholicism, converting in 1943 and taking the Christian name Charles Léon Pierre. His father had refused to convert to Christianity, and the Rwandan Catholic Church eventually perceived him as anti-Christian and as an impediment to their civilising mission. Rudahigwa had been secretly instructed in Christianity by Léon Classe, the head of the Rwandan Catholic Church, since 1929, and was groomed by the Belgians to replace his father. In 1946 he dedicated the country to Christ, effectively making Christianity a state religion. His conversion spearheaded a wave of baptisms in the protectorate.

paragraph: His reign coincided with the worst recorded period of famine in Rwanda between 1941 and 1945, which included the Ruzagayura famine (1944 - 1945), during which time 200,000 out of the nation's population of around two million perished.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Rising ethnic tensions.

paragraph: During Rudahigwa's reign there was a marked stratification of ethnic identity within Ruanda-Urundi, the Belgian-ruled mandate of which Rwanda formed the northern part. In 1935, the Belgian administration issued identity cards formalising the ethnic categories, Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. After World War II, a Hutu emancipation movement began to grow throughout Ruanda-Urundi, fueled by increasing resentment of the inter-war social reforms, and also an increasing sympathy for the Hutu within the Catholic Church. Although in 1954, Rudhahigwa abolished the "ubuhake" system of indentured service that exploited Hutus, this had little real practical effect.

paragraph: The monarchy and prominent Tutsi sensed the growing influence of the Hutu and began to agitate for immediate independence on their own terms, culminating in Rudahigwa's demand for independence from Belgium in 1956. In 1957, a group of Hutu scholars wrote the "Bahutu Manifesto". This political manifesto denounced the "exploitation" of the Hutus by the ethnic Tutsi and called for their liberation from first Tutsi, and then Belgian, rule. Hutu political parties quickly formed after that, with future-president Gregoire Kayibanda forming the Hutu Social Movement (soon renamed "MDR-PARMEHUTU"), and Joseph Gitera creating Association for Social Promotion of the Masses (APROSOMA).

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Death.

paragraph: On 24 July 1959, Rudahigwa arrived in Usumbura (now Bujumbura), Urundi, for a meeting with Belgian colonial authorities arranged by Father André Perraudin. The following day, he visited his Belgian doctor at the colonial hospital, where he died. The Belgian authorities put out conflicting explanations for his death. One was that he complained of a severe headache and had been treated by his doctor, but collapsed as he left the hospital of what was later determined, by three doctors, to be a cerebral haemorrhage. Another Belgian explanation was that he died from a reaction to a penicillin shot. An autopsy was not carried out due to the objections of Queen Mother Kankazi.

paragraph: Rumours that he had been deliberately killed by the Belgian authorities were rife, and tensions rose: ordinary Rwandans gathered along routes and stoned Europeans' cars. Rumours that he was in poor health, suffering from the effects of excessive drinking, as well as the effects of untreated syphilis, are claims unverified by any evidence. A Twa attendant of the king said he was in great health at the time, which is supported by his active engagement in sporting activities then, including vigorous games of tennis.

paragraph: Rudahigwa was succeeded by Jean-Baptiste Ndahindurwa, as Kigeli V.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Mutara married Nyiramakomali on 15 October 1933 and they divorced in 1941. He married Rosalie Gicanda, a Christian, in a church wedding on 13 January 1942.

paragraph: After Rudahigwa's death, Rosalie Gicanda remained in Rwanda. She was murdered in 1994 during the Rwandan Genocide on the orders of Idelphonse Nizeyimana. He was later detained, convicted by a UN war crimes court, and sentenced to life imprisonment.

paragraph: Section::::Titles, styles, honours and awards.:Honours.:Foreign honours.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Knight Commander with Star of the Order of St. Gregory the Great, 1947 by Archbishop Giovanni Battista Dellepiane, Apostolic Delegate to Democratic Republic of Congo.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Généalogies de la noblesse (les Batutsi) du Ruanda, "Vicariat Apostolique du Ruanda Kabgayi" (1950) (in French). Detailed genealogical record of Rwandan nobility:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scanned copy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Plain text copy

description: Rwandan king

wikidata_label: Mutara III Rudahigwa

wikipedia_title: Mutara III Rudahigwa


text: PC

text: Conservative Party

text: Comptroller of the Household

text: courtesy title

text: first-class

text: cricket

text: Marylebone Cricket Club

text: Dumfriesshire

text: Privy Council

text: Comptroller of the Household

text: Lord Aberdeen

text: Lord Palmerston

text: Scottish peerage

text: House of Lords

text: Lord-Lieutenant of Dumfriesshire

text: Caroline Margaret Clayton

text: Sir William Clayton, 5th Baronet

text: Gretna Green

text: Scotland

text: Marquess of Queensberry rules

text: boxing

text: Oscar Wilde

text: Lord Francis William Bouverie Douglas

text: Ober Gabelhorn

text: Matterhorn

text: Reverend Lord Archibald Edward Douglas

text: Lady Florence Caroline Douglas

categories: Marylebone Cricket Club cricketers,Conservative Party (UK) hereditary peers,UK MPs 1847–1852,Scottish Tory MPs (pre-1912),Lord-Lieutenants of Dumfries,Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom,1818 births,UK MPs 1852–1857,1858 deaths,Scottish cricketers

paragraph: Archibald Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry

paragraph: Archibald William Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry PC (18 April 1818 – 6 August 1858), styled Viscount Drumlanrig between 1837 and 1856, was a Scottish Conservative Party politician. He notably served as Comptroller of the Household between 1853 and 1856.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Douglas was the son of John Douglas, 7th Marquess of Queensberry, by Sarah Douglas, daughter of Major James Sholto Douglas. He became known by the courtesy title Viscount Drumlanrig when his father succeeded to the marquessate of Queensberry in 1837.

paragraph: Section::::Cricket.

paragraph: He played first-class cricket for the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1841.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: Lord Drumlanrig was returned to parliament for Dumfriesshire in 1847. In early 1853 he was sworn of the Privy Council and appointed Comptroller of the Household under Lord Aberdeen, a post he held until 1856, during the last year under the premiership of Lord Palmerston. In 1856 he also succeeded his father in the marquessate. However, as this was a Scottish peerage, it did not entitle him to a seat in the House of Lords. He stood down from the House of Commons in early 1857. Apart from his political career he was also Lord-Lieutenant of Dumfriesshire from 1850 to 1858.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Lord Queensberry married Caroline Margaret Clayton (1821–1904), daughter of General Sir William Clayton, 5th Baronet, at Gretna Green, Scotland, in 1840. They had six children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady Gertrude Georgiana Douglas (died 1893), married Thomas Stock.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry (1844–1900), the man behind the Marquess of Queensberry rules that formed the basis of modern boxing, and, much later, the downfall of author and playwright Oscar Wilde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lord Francis William Bouverie Douglas (1847–1865), beaten by A. W. Moore and party by a day to first ascent of the Ober Gabelhorn, killed a week later in the first successful ascent of the Matterhorn.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reverend Lord Archibald Edward Douglas (1850–1938).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady Florence Caroline Douglas (1855–1905) (twin), war correspondent, travel writer, and feminist.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lord James Edward Sholto Douglas (1855–1891) (twin), married racehorse breeder Martha Lucy Hennessy in 1888, committed suicide.

paragraph: Lord Queensberry died while hunting in August 1858 aged forty, officially from the explosion of his gun. However, the event was widely believed to be a suicide. The Marchioness of Queensberry died in February 1904.

description: British politician


text: PC

text: FBA

text: F.W. Maitland

text: Oliver Wendell Holmes

text: Cambridge Apostle

text: William Frederick Pollock

text: Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet

text: Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer

text: Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet

text: Ernest Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth

text: Master of the Rolls

text: Eton College

text: Trinity College, Cambridge

text: Equity

text: Torts

text: Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence

text: Law Quarterly Review

text: The Society of Authors

text: Privy Council

text: Frederick John Pollock

text: Walter Herries Pollock

text: historical fencing

text: Alfred Hutton

text: Egerton Castle

text: "The Principles of Contract" (1876)

text: Alfred Hutton

text: HEMA

text: Works by Sir Frederick Pollock

text: Online Library of Liberty

categories: 1845 births,People educated at Eton College,Academics of the University of Oxford,1937 deaths,Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge,Fellows of the British Academy,Anglo-Saxon studies scholars,English Queen's Counsel,Contributors to the Oxford English Dictionary,Professors of Jurisprudence (University of Oxford),Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom,Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom,Legal scholars,English legal scholars,Members of Lincoln's Inn,Legal historians

paragraph: Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet

paragraph: Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet PC, FBA (10 December 1845 – 18 January 1937) was an English jurist best known for his "History of English Law before the Time of Edward I", written with F.W. Maitland, and his lifelong correspondence with US Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes. He was a Cambridge Apostle.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Pollock was the eldest son of William Frederick Pollock, Master of the Court of Exchequer, and Juliet Creed, daughter of the Rev, Harry Creed. He was the grandson of Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, the great-nephew of Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet, and the first cousin of Ernest Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth, Master of the Rolls.

paragraph: He was educated at Eton College, where he was a King's Scholar, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected Fellow in 1868 (later Honorable Fellow in 1920). In 1871 he was admitted to the Bar. He wrote a series of text books that took a new approach to the teaching of English Law including "The Principles of Contract at Law and in Equity" (1876) and "The Law of Torts" (1887).

paragraph: Rather than relying on specific applications of law these works emphasised underlying principles. They acted as models for future textbooks and helped modernise English legal education. Pollock taught at the University of Oxford (1883–1903), as Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence. He was Professor of Common Law in the Inns of Court (1884–1890). He was Editor of the Law Reports from 1895 to 1935. He was the first editor of the "Law Quarterly Review" which was founded in 1885. He was also, in 1894, the Chairman of The Society of Authors He was admitted to the Privy Council in 1911. He was elected Treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1931.

paragraph: On 13 August 1873 he married Georgina Harriet Deffell (died on 30 March 1935), a daughter of John Deffell. Their first child, daughter Alice Isabella, was born on 15 June 1876. Pollock's son, Frederick John Pollock (1878–1963), a noted historian, succeeded to the baronetcy.

paragraph: Section::::Fencing.

paragraph: Together with his younger brother Walter Herries Pollock, he participated in the first English revival of historical fencing, originated by Alfred Hutton and his colleagues Egerton Castle, Captain Carl Thimm, Colonel Cyril Matthey, Captain Percy Rolt, Captain Ernest George Stenson Cooke, Captain Frank Herbert Whittow.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Principles of Contract" (1876)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Law of Torts" (1887)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Leading Cases Done into English" (1876)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Spinoza, His Life and Philosophy" (1880)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "History of English Law before the Time of Edward I" (1895, with Frederic William Maitland)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A First Book of Jurisprudence For Students of the Common Law" (1896)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Encyclopædia of the Laws of England with forms and precedents" (1907, with Sir Alexander Wood Renton & Maxwell Anderson Robertson)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "For My Grandson" (1933)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alfred Hutton

paragraph: BULLET::::- HEMA

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Works by Sir Frederick Pollock: at Online Library of Liberty

description: British academic

wikidata_label: Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet

wikipedia_title: Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Baronet


text: Spanish

text: conquistador

text: Americas

text: Camagüey

text: Bartolomé de las Casas

text: Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar

text: invasion

text: Hernán Cortés

text: Carlos V

text: Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

text: Pánuco

text: Narváez expedition

text: Castile

text: Cuéllar

text: Valladolid

text: Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar

text: Antonio Velázquez de Narváez

text: Jamaica

text: Cuba

text: Bartolomé de las Casas

text: Juan de Grijalva

text: Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar

text: Hernán Cortés

text: Aztec Empire

text: Veracruz

text: Aztec

text: Tenochtitlan

text: Gonzalo de Sandoval

text: Totonac

text: Cempoala

text: Aztec Empire

text: smallpox

text: New Spain

text: adelantado

text: Florida

text: Charles V

text: Sanlúcar de Barrameda

text: Jungle Prada Site

text: St. Petersburg

text: Apalachee

text: Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

text: Andrés Dorantes de Carranza

text: Alonso del Castillo Maldonado

text: Estevanico

text: Culiacán

text: Sinaloa

text: Melchor Diaz

text: Universidad de Valencia

text: Reséndez, Andrés

text: Schneider, Paul

text: "Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca"

text: Biography of Pánfilo de Narváez

text: "Historia de las Indias"

text: "Shipwrecked"

text: World Digital Library

categories: 1528 deaths,1470 births,Spanish colonial period of Cuba,Spanish explorers of North America,Explorers of Mexico,Spanish conquistadors,16th-century Spanish people,Spanish explorers,Explorers of the United States,Castilian conquistadors,16th-century South American people,People of Spanish Florida

paragraph: Pánfilo de Narváez

paragraph: Pánfilo de Narváez (; 147?–1528) was a Spanish "conquistador" and soldier in the Americas.

paragraph: Born in Spain, he first embarked to Jamaica in 1510 as a soldier. He came to participate in the conquest of Cuba and led an expedition to Camagüey escorting Bartolomé de las Casas. Las Casas described him as exceedingly cruel towards the natives.

paragraph: He is most remembered as the leader of two failed expeditions: In 1520 he was sent to Mexico by the Governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, with the objective of stopping the invasion by Hernán Cortés which had not been authorized by the Governor. Even though his 900 men outmanned those of Cortés 3 to 1, Narváez was outmaneuvered, lost an eye and was taken prisoner. After a couple of years in captivity in Mexico he returned to Spain where King Carlos V named him "adelantado", with the mission of exploring and colonizing Florida. In 1527 Narváez embarked for Florida with five ships and 600 men, among them Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca who later described the expedition in his "Naufragios". A storm south of Cuba wrecked several of the ships. The rest of the expedition continued on to Florida, where the men were eventually stranded among hostile natives. The survivors worked their way along the US gulf coast trying to get to the province of Pánuco. During a storm Narváez and a small group of men were carried out to sea on a raft and were not seen again. Only four men survived the Narváez expedition.

paragraph: Section::::Birth and family.

paragraph: Pánfilo de Narváez was born in Castile (in either Cuéllar or Valladolid) in 1470 or 1478. He was a relative of Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the first Spanish governor of Cuba. His nephew was Antonio Velázquez de Narváez. Bartolomé de las Casas described him as "a man of authoritative personality, tall of body and somewhat blonde inclined to redness"

paragraph: Section::::Jamaica and Cuba.

paragraph: Narváez took part in the Spanish conquest of Jamaica in 1509. In 1511 he went to Cuba to participate in the conquest of that island under the command of Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar. He led expeditions to the eastern end of the island in the company of Bartolomé de las Casas and Juan de Grijalva. As reported by de las Casas, who was an eyewitness, Narváez presided over the infamous massacre of Caonao, where Spanish troops put to the sword a village full of Indians who had come to meet them with offerings of food. Following the massacre, Narváez asked de las Casas, "What do you think about what our Spaniards have done?" to which de las Casas replied, "I send both you and them to the Devil!"

paragraph: In 1515, Panfilo de Narvaez and Antonio Velazquez were Cuba's first procuradores.

paragraph: Section::::Mexico.

paragraph: In 1519, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the governor of Cuba authorized and paid for Hernán Cortés to man an expedition to Mexico. But having second thoughts about Cortés' loyalty, he recalled the expedition shortly after embarking. Cortés disobeyed and proceeded with the planned expedition that would eventually result in the overthrow of the Aztec Empire. Arriving from Cuba Narváez was named governor of Mexico by Velázquez who sent him and 1400 men on 19 ships to México to intercept Cortés.

paragraph: Narváez disembarked at Veracruz, where Cortés had left behind a small garrison as he set out with the rest of his men for the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. The garrison was manned by Cortés' captain Gonzalo de Sandoval who managed to capture some of Narváez's men and send them to Tenochtitlan to alert Cortés of the coming danger. Unable to defeat the garrison Narváez went to the Totonac town of Cempoala, where he set up camp.

paragraph: When the news of Narváez's arrival reached Cortés, the latter gathered a contingent of his troops, perhaps as few as 250 men, and returned to the coast. On May 27, 1520, Cortés men moved in on Narváez's camp at Cempoala under the cover of a driving rain, and quickly took control of the artillery and horses before entering the city. Narváez took a stand at the main temple of the city of Cempoala with a contingent of musketeers and crossbowmen. Finally Gonzalo de Sandoval arrived with reinforcements to Cortés who managed to set the main temple on fire, driving out Narváez and his men. Narváez was severely wounded, losing his right eye to a pike thrust. He was taken prisoner and spent two years as a prisoner at the garrison of Veracruz before he was sent back to Spain. His men, who had been promised gold by Cortés, joined the conquistadors and returned to Tenochtitlan where they participated in the conquest of the Aztec Empire.

paragraph: In the meantime, the deadly disease of smallpox spread from a carrier in Narváez's party to the native population of New Spain, killing many.

paragraph: Section::::Florida.

paragraph: Narváez was subsequently appointed "adelantado" of Florida by Charles V. He sailed from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on June 17, 1527, with a fleet of five ships and 600 men. Though intending to sail west to the mouth of the Rio de las Palmas (modern Rio Soto la Marina) in northern Mexico, a combination of the Gulf current and an inexperienced navigator caused their course to veer north. The expedition arrived on the west coast of Florida in April 1528, weakened by storms and desertions. He landed with 300 men near Tampa Bay—at what is currently known as the Jungle Prada Site in St. Petersburg—among hostile natives.

paragraph: From there, his expedition moved on northward through interior Florida until it reached the territory of the powerful Apalachee Indians. Unable to find the gold and other riches he sought and tired of the hostilities with the Indians, Narváez ordered the construction of four rafts to return to the sea from the interior. He manned one raft for himself with the strongest men, the other led by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca the second in command, who had had several heated confrontations with Narvaez over his strategy. Cabeza de Vaca pleaded with Narváez not to let the rafts become separated, but Narváez did so anyway. Narváez party moved slowly westwards with some men on land and others on the raft. As the party was crossing a river the wind pulled the raft to sea, with Narváez on board, and he was never seen again.

paragraph: The storm wrecked two of the four rafts, and the other two made it to the island of Galveston where they were captured by the local Indians. Only four of the 86 survivors escaped their captivity, the others having been either killed or starved to death. Only four men survived the trek: Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Andrés Dorantes de Carranza, Alonso del Castillo Maldonado and the Berber slave Estevanico (Esteban).

paragraph: Cabeza de Vaca wrote a narration entitled "Naufragios" ("Castaways"), in which he described the journey made by these four survivors on foot across the present day southwestern United States and northern Mexico. This trek took eight years before they arrived in Culiacán (Sinaloa), where they found Melchor Diaz as mayor and captain of the province.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maura, Juan Francisco (2008) (in Spanish). "El Gran Burlador de Ámerica: Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca". Parnaseo-Lemir. Valencia:Universidad de Valencia. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pánfilo de Narváez". "Encyclopedia of World Biography". Vol. 11. 2nd ed. Detroit: Gale, 2004. p. 315.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reséndez, Andrés (2007). "A Land So Strange: The Epic Journey of Cabeza de Vaca". Basic Books, Perseus.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schneider, Paul (2006). "Brutal Journey: The Epic Story of the First Crossing of North America". Henry Holt.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Cabeza de Vaca's Trail with Pánfilo de Narváez in North America"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca". "The West". PBS.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography of Pánfilo de Narváez. About.com.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Historia de las Indias". Bartolome de las Casas.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Shipwrecked" by "Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, and the Description of the Journey Which he Made Through Florida with Panfilo de Narvaez," from the World Digital Library

description: Spanish conquistador and soldier in the Americas

wikidata_label: Pánfilo de Narváez

wikipedia_title: Pánfilo de Narváez


text: spiritual master

text: warrior

text: poet

text: philosopher

text: Guru Tegh Bahadur

text: Sikhs

text: Sikh Guru

text: Mughal

text: Sikhism

text: Sikh

text: Khalsa

text: the Five Ks

text: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Guru

text: Guru Tegh Bahadur

text: Sikh guru

text: Mata Gujri

text: Patna

text: Bihar

text: Sodhi

text: Bengal

text: Assam

text: Takht Sri Patna Harimandar Sahib

text: Kashmiri Pandit

text: Aurangzeb

text: Delhi

text: Vaisakhi

text: Chandi di Var

text: Markandeya Purana

text: Mata Jito

text: Jujhar Singh

text: Zorawar Singh

text: Fateh Singh

text: Mata Sundari

text: Ajit Singh

text: Mata Sahib Devan

text: Anandpur

text: Vaisakhi

text: harvest festival

text: Panj Pyare

text: Amrit

text: Singh

text: Five K's

text: Kesh

text: Kangha

text: Kara

text: Kirpan

text: Kacchera

text: jizya

text: dharam

text: Guru Nanak

text: Guru Arjan

text: Adi Granth

text: Guru Granth Sahib

text: Bathinda

text: Dasam Granth

text: Jaap Sahib

text: Amrit Savaiye

text: Benti Chaupai

text: Nitnem

text: Puranas

text: Sarbloh Granth

text: Mughal Empire

text: Battle of Bhangani

text: Guru Hargobind

text: Battle of Nadaun

text: Battle of Guler (1696)

text: Battle of Anandpur (1700)

text: Battle of Anandpur (1701)

text: Battle of Nirmohgarh (1702)

text: Battle of Basoli

text: First Battle of Chamkaur (1702)

text: First Battle of Anandpur (1704)

text: Second Battle of Anandpur

text: Battle of Sarsa

text: Battle of Chamkaur (1704)

text: Battle of Muktsar

text: Ranjit Singh

text: moksha

text: Malwa (Punjab)

text: Guru Har Gobind

text: Wazir Khan

text: assassinate

text: Godavari

text: Nanded

text: Banda Singh Bahadur

text: Baj Singh

text: Binod Singh

text: Guru Gobind Singh Children's Foundation

text: Ganga Sagar (urn)

text: Mazhabi

text: Sikh

text: Bhai Jiwan Singh

categories: Sikh warriors,Poets from Bihar,Sikh gurus,People from Marathwada,Punjabi people,17th-century Sikh poets,1708 deaths,Sikh male poets,Writers from Patna,17th-century Indian poets,1666 births

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh ()(5 January 1666 – 7 October 1708), born Gobind Rai, was the tenth Sikh Guru, a spiritual master, warrior, poet and philosopher. When his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was beheaded for refusing to convert to Islam, Guru Gobind Singh was formally installed as the leader of the Sikhs at age nine, becoming the tenth Sikh Guru. His four sons died during his lifetime – two in battle, two executed by the Mughal army.

paragraph: Among his notable contributions to Sikhism are founding the "Sikh" warrior community called "Khalsa" in 1699 and introducing "the Five Ks", the five articles of faith that Khalsa Sikhs wear at all times. Guru Gobind Singh also continued the formalisation of the religion, wrote important Sikh texts, and enshrined the scripture the Guru Granth Sahib as Sikhism's eternal Guru.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.

paragraph: Gobind Singh was the only son of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, and Mata Gujri. He was born in Patna, Bihar in the Sodhi Khatri family

paragraph: while his father was visiting Bengal and Assam. His birth name was Gobind Rai, and a shrine named Takht Sri Patna Harimandar Sahib marks the site of the house where he was born and spent the first four years of his life. In 1670, his family returned to Punjab, and in March 1672 they moved to Chakk Nanaki in the Himalayan foothills of north India, called the Sivalik range, where he was schooled.

paragraph: His father Guru Tegh Bahadur was petitioned by Kashmiri Pandits in 1675 for protection from the fanatic persecution by Iftikar Khan, the Mughal governor of Kashmir under Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Tegh Bahadur considered a peaceful resolution by meeting Aurangzeb, but was cautioned by his advisors that his life may be at risk. The young Gobind Rai – to be known as Gobind Singh after 1699 – advised his father that no one was more worthy to lead and make a sacrifice than him. His father made the attempt, but was arrested then publicly beheaded in Delhi on 11 November 1675 under the orders of Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam and the ongoing conflicts between Sikhism and the Islamic Empire. After this martyrdom, the young Gobind Rai was installed by the Sikhs as the tenth Sikh Guru on Vaisakhi on 29 March 1676.

paragraph: The education of Guru Gobind Singh continued after he became the 10th Guru, both in reading and writing as well as martial arts such as horse riding and archery. In 1684, he wrote the Chandi di Var in Punjabi language – a legendary war between the good and the evil, where the good stands up against injustice and tyranny, as described in the ancient Sanskrit text Markandeya Purana. He stayed in Paonta, near the banks of river Yamuna, till 1685.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh had three wives:

paragraph: BULLET::::- at age 10, he married Mata Jito on 21 June 1677 at Basantgaṛh, 10 km north of Anandpur. The couple had three sons: Jujhar Singh (b. 1691), Zorawar Singh (b. 1696) and Fateh Singh (b. 1699).

paragraph: BULLET::::- at age 17, he married Mata Sundari on 4 April 1684 at Anandpur. The couple had one son, Ajit Singh (b. 1687).

paragraph: BULLET::::- at age 33, he married Mata Sahib Devan on 15 April 1700 at Anandpur. They had no children, but she had an influential role in Sikhism. Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed her as the "Mother of the Khalsa".

paragraph: The life example and leadership of Guru Gobind Singh have been of historical importance to the Sikhs. He institutionalized the Khalsa (literally, Pure Ones), who played the key role in protecting the Sikhs long after his death, such as during the nine invasions of Panjab and holy war led by Ahmad Shah Abdali from Afghanistan between 1747 and 1769.

paragraph: Section::::Founding the Khalsa.

paragraph: In 1699, the Guru requested the Sikhs to congregate at Anandpur on Vaisakhi (the annual spring harvest festival). According to the Sikh tradition, he asked for a volunteer from those who gathered, someone willing to sacrifice his head. One came forward, whom he took inside a tent. The Guru returned to the crowd without the volunteer, but with a bloody sword. He asked for another volunteer, and repeated the same process of returning from the tent without anyone and with a bloodied sword four more times. After the fifth volunteer went with him into the tent, the Guru returned with all five volunteers, all safe. He called them the "Panj Pyare" and the first Khalsa in the Sikh tradition.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh then mixed water and sugar into an iron bowl, stirring it with a double-edged sword to prepare what he called Amrit ("nectar"). He then administered this to the "Panj Pyare", accompanied with recitations from the Adi Granth, thus founding the "khande ka pahul" (baptization ceremony) of a Khalsa – a warrior community. The Guru also gave them a new surname "Singh" (lion). After the first five Khalsa had been baptized, the Guru asked the five to baptize him as a Khalsa. This made the Guru the sixth Khalsa, and his name changed from Guru Gobind Rai to Guru Gobind Singh.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh initiated the Five K's tradition of the Khalsa,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kesh: uncut hair.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kangha: a wooden comb.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kara: an iron or steel bracelet worn on the wrist.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kirpan: a sword or dagger.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kacchera: short breeches.

paragraph: He also announced a code of discipline for Khalsa warriors. Tobacco, eating 'halal' meat (a way of slaughtering in which the animal's throat is slit open and it is left to bleed before being slaughtered), fornication and adultery were forbidden. The Khalsas also agreed to never interact with those who followed rivals or their successors. The co-initiation of men and women from different castes into the ranks of Khalsa also institutionalized the principle of equality in Sikhism regardless of one's caste or gender. Guru Gobind Singh's significance to the Sikh tradition has been very important, as he institutionalized the Khalsa, resisted the ongoing persecution by the Mughal Empire, and continued "the defence of Sikhism and Hinduism against the Muslim assault of Aurangzeb".

paragraph: He introduced ideas that indirectly challenged the discriminatory taxes imposed by Islamic authorities. For example, Aurangzeb had imposed taxes on non-Muslims that were collected from the Sikhs as well, for example the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims), pilgrim tax and "Bhaddar" tax – the last being a tax to be paid by anyone following the Hindu ritual of shaving the head after the death of a loved one and cremation. Guru Gobind Singh declared that Khalsa does not need to continue this practice, because "Bhaddar" is not dharam, but a "bharam" (illusion). Not shaving the head also meant not having to pay the taxes by Sikhs who lived in Delhi and other parts of the Mughal Empire. However, the new code of conduct also led to internal disagreements between Sikhs in the 18th century, particularly between the Nanakpanthi and the Khalsa.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh had deep respect for the Khalsa, and stated that there is no difference between the True Guru and the "sangat" (panth). Before his founding of the Khalsa, the Sikh movement had used the Sanskrit word "Sisya" (literally, disciple or student), but the favored term thereafter became Khalsa. Additionally, prior to the Khalsa, the Sikh congregations across India had a system of "Masands" appointed by the Sikh Gurus. The "Masands" led the local Sikh communities, local temples, collected wealth and donations for the Sikh cause. Guru Gobind Singh concluded that the "Masands" system had become corrupt, he abolished them and introduced a more centralized system with the help of Khalsa that was under his direct supervision. These developments created two groups of Sikhs, those who initiated as Khalsa, and others who remained Sikhs but did not undertake the initiation. The Khalsa Sikhs saw themselves as a separate religious entity, while the Nanak-panthi Sikhs retained their different perspective.

paragraph: The Khalsa warrior community tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh has contributed to modern scholarly debate on pluralism within Sikhism. His tradition has survived into the modern times, with initiated Sikh referred to as Khalsa Sikh, while those who do not get baptized referred to as Sahajdhari Sikhs.

paragraph: Section::::Sikh scriptures.

paragraph: In the 16th and 17th century multiple versions of the Sikh scripture by unknown authors, all claiming to be the words of Guru Nanak, were in circulation. Guru Arjan (d. 1606) attempted to remove corruption and interpolation of the text, and compiled a purer version of the Adi Granth. In the 17th century the text was called the "Pothi", and three manuscripts claimed to be authentic. There was a Kartarpur version (dated 1604); a slightly longer Khara Mangat version (dated 1642); and a third (quite different) Lahore version (date unknown).

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh is credited in the Sikh tradition with finalizing the "Kartarpur Pothi" into the Guru Granth Sahib in Bathinda and releasing it in 1706. The final version did not accept the extraneous hymns in other versions, and included the compositions of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh also declared this text to be the eternal Guru for Sikhs.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh composed other texts, particularly the Dasam Granth which many Sikhs consider to be a scripture next in importance after the Guru Granth Sahib. The Dasam Granth includes compositions such as the Jaap Sahib, Amrit Savaiye and Benti Chaupai which are part of the daily prayers/lessons (Nitnem) of Sikhs. The Dasam Granth is largely versions of Indian theology from the Puranas and secular stories. The Sarbloh Granth has also been attributed to the Guru.

paragraph: Section::::Wars.

paragraph: The period following the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur – the father of Guru Gobind Singh, was a period where the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb was an increasingly hostile enemy of the Sikh people. The Sikh resisted, led by Gobind Singh, and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts peaked during this period. Both Mughal administration and Aurangzeb's army had an active interest in Guru Gobind Singh. Aurangzeb issued an order to exterminate Guru Gobind Singh and his family.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh believed in a "Dharam Yudh" (war in defence of righteousness), something that is fought as a last resort, neither out of a wish for revenge nor for greed nor for any destructive goals. To Guru Gobind Singh, one must be prepared to die to stop tyranny, end persecution and to defend one's own religious values. He led fourteen wars with these objectives, but never took captives nor damaged anyone's place of worship.

paragraph: Section::::Wars.:Significant battles.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh fought 13 battles against the Mughal Empire and the kings of Siwalik Hills.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Bhangani (1688), which states chapter 8 of Gobind Singh's "Bicitra Natak", when Fateh Shah, along with mercenary commanders Hayat Khan and Najabat Khan, attacked his forces without any purpose. The Guru was aided by forces of Kripal (his maternal uncle) and a Brahmin named Daya Ram, both of whom he praises as heroes in his text. The Guru's cousin named Sango Shah was killed in the battle, a cousin from Guru Hargobind's daughter.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Nadaun (1691), against the Islamic armies of Mian Khan and his son Alif Khan, who were defeated by the allied forces of Guru Gobind Singh, Bhim Chand and other Hindu kings of Himalayan foothills. The non-Muslims aligned to the Guru had refused to pay tribute to the Islamic officials based in Jammu.

paragraph: In 1693, Aurangzeb was fighting the Hindu Marathas in the Deccan region of India, and he issued orders that Guru Gobind Singh and Sikhs should be prevented from gathering in Anandpur in large numbers.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Guler (1696), first against the Muslim commander Dilawar Khan's son Rustam Khan, near Sutlej river, where the Guru teamed up with the Hindu king of Guler and routed the Muslim army. The commander sent his general Hussain Khan against the armies of the Guru and the Guler kingdom, a war fought near Pathankot, and Hussain Khan was defeated and killed by the joint forces.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Anandpur (1700), against the Mughal army of Aurangzeb, who had sent 10,000 soldiers under the command of Painda Khan and Dina Beg. In a direct combat between Guru Gobind Singh and Painda Khan, the latter was killed. His death led to the Mughal army fleeing the battlefield.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Anandpur (1701), against the neighbouring Hindu kingdom chiefs who controlled the mountain kingdoms. This was accompanied by a battle wherein Jagatullah was killed by Sikh forces. The hill chiefs laid a siege of Anandpur, and the Guru had to temporarily leave Anandpur as a condition for peace. According to Louis Fenech, his wars with kings of the Himalayan kingdoms was likely triggered by the growing army of Sikhs, which then raided and plundered villages in nearby mountainous kingdoms for supplies; the Hindu kings joined forces and blockaded Anandpur.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Nirmohgarh (1702), against the forces of Aurangzeb, led by Wazir Khan on the banks of Nirmohgarh. The battle continued for two days, with heavy losses on both sides, and Wazir Khan army left the battlefield.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Basoli (1702), against the Mughal army; named after the kingdom of Basoli whose Raja Dharampul supported the Guru in the battle. The Mughal army was supported by rival kingdom of Kahlur led by Raja Ajmer Chand. The battle ended when the two sides reached a tactical peace.

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Battle of Chamkaur (1702)

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Battle of Anandpur (1704), the Mughal army led first by Saiyad Khan and then by Ramjan Khan;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second Battle of Anandpur, The Mughal general was fatally wounded by Sikh soldiers, and the army withdrew. Aurangzeb then sent a larger army with two generals, Wazir Khan and Zaberdast Khan in May 1704, to destroy the Sikh resistance. The approach the Islamic army took in this battle was to lay a protracted siege against Anandpur, from May to December, cutting off all food and other supplies moving in and out, along with repeated battles. Some Sikh men deserted the Guru during Anandpur siege in 1704, and escaped to their homes where their women shamed them and they rejoined the Guru's army and died fighting with him in 1705. Towards the end, the Guru, his family and followers accepted an offer by Aurangzeb of safe passage out of Anandpur. However, as they left Anandpur in two batches, they were attacked, and one of the batches with Mata Gujari and Guru's two sons – Zorawar Singh aged 8 and Fateh Singh aged 5 – were taken captive by the Mughal army. Both his children were executed by burying them alive into a wall. The grandmother Mata Gujari died there as well.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Sarsa (1704), against the Mughal army led by general Wazir Khan; the Muslim commander had conveyed Aurangzeb's promise of a safe passage to Guru Gobind Singh and his family in early December. However, when the Guru accepted the offer and left, Wazir Khan took captives, executed them and pursued the Guru. The retreating troops he was with were repeated attacked from behind, with heavy casualties to the Sikhs, particularly while crossing the Sarsa river.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Chamkaur (1704) Regarded as one of the most important battle of the Sikh history. It was against the Mughal army led by Nahar Khan; the Muslim commander was killed, while on Sikh side the remaining two elder sons of the Guru – Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, along with other Sikh soldiers were killed in this battle.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Muktsar (1705), the Guru's army was re-attacked by the Mughal army, being hunted down by general Wazir Khan, in the arid area of Khidrana-ki-Dhab. The Mughals were blocked again, but with many losses of Sikh lives – particularly the famous "Chalis Mukte" (literally, the "forty liberated ones"), and this was the last battle led by Guru Gobind Singh. The place of battle called Khidrana was renamed about a 100 years later by Ranjit Singh to Mukt-sar (literally, "lake of liberation"), after the term "Mukt" (moksha) of the ancient Indian tradition, in honour of those who gave their lives for the cause of liberation.

paragraph: Section::::Wars.:Death of family members.

paragraph: Guru's mother Mata Gujri and his two younger sons were captured by Wazir Khan, the Muslim governor of Sirhind. His youngest sons, aged 5 and 8, were executed by burying them alive into a wall after they refused to convert to Islam, and Mata Gujri collapsed on hearing her grandsons' death. Both his eldest sons, aged 13 and 17, also killed in the battle of December 1704 against the Mughal army.

paragraph: Section::::Wars.:Mughal accounts.

paragraph: The Muslim historians of the Mughal court wrote about Guru Gobind Singh as well as the geopolitics of the times he lived in, and these official Persian accounts were the readily available and the basis of colonial era English-language description of Sikh history.

paragraph: According to Dhavan, the Persian texts that were composed by Mughal court historians during the lifetime of Guru Gobind Singh were hostile to him, but presented the Mughal perspective. They believed that the religious Guru tradition of Sikhs had been corrupted by him, through the creation of a military order willing to resist the Imperial army. Dhavan writes that some Persian writers who wrote decades or a century after the death of Guru Gobind Singh evolved from relying entirely on court histories of the Mughals which disparage the Guru, to including stories from the Sikh "gurbilas" text that praise the Guru.

paragraph: The Mughal accounts suggest that the Muslim commanders viewed the Sikh "panth" as one divided into sects with different loyalties, and after the battle of Anandpur, the Mughals felt that the Guru's forces had become a small band of left over warriors.

paragraph: Section::::Post-war years.

paragraph: After the Second Battle of Anandpur in 1704, the Guru and his remaining soldiers moved and stayed in different spots including hidden in places such as the Machhiwara jungle of southern Panjab.

paragraph: Some of the various spots in north, west and central India that the Guru lived after 1705, include Hehar with Kirpal Das (maternal uncle), Manuke, Mehdiana, Chakkar, Takhtupura and Madhe and Dina (Malwa (Punjab) region). He stayed with relatives or trusted Sikhs such as the three grandsons of Rai Jodh, a devotee of Guru Har Gobind.

paragraph: Section::::Post-war years.:Zafarnama.

paragraph: Guru Gobind Singh saw the war conduct of Aurangzeb and his army against his family and his people as a betrayal of a promise, unethical, unjust and impious. After all of Guru Gobind Singh's children had been killed by the Mughal army and the battle of Muktsar, the Guru wrote a defiant letter in Persian to Aurangzeb, titled "Zafarnama" (literally, "epistle of victory"), a letter which the Sikh tradition considers important towards the end of the 19th century.

paragraph: The Guru's letter was stern yet conciliatory to Aurangzeb. He indicted the Mughal Emperor and his commanders in spiritual terms, accused them of a lack of morality both in governance and in the conduct of war. The letter predicted that the Mughal Empire would soon end, because it persecutes, is full of abuse, falsehood and immorality. The letter is spiritually rooted in Guru Gobind Singh's beliefs about justice and dignity without fear.

paragraph: Section::::Final days.

paragraph: Aurangzeb died in 1707, and immediately a succession struggle began between his sons who attacked each other. The official successor was Bahadur Shah, who invited Guru Gobind Singh with his army to meet him in person in the Deccan region of India, for a reconciliation but Bahadur Shah then delayed any discussions for months.

paragraph: Wazir Khan, a Muslim army commander and the Nawab of Sarhandh, against whose army the Guru had fought several wars, commissioned two Afghans, Jamshed Khan and Wasil Beg, to follow the Guru's army as it moved for the meeting with Bahadur Shah, and then assassinate the Guru. The two secretly pursued the Guru whose troops were in the Deccan area of India, and entered the camp when the Sikhs had been stationed near river Godavari for months. They gained access to the Guru and Jamshed Khan stabbed him with a fatal wound at Nanded. Some scholars state that the assassin who killed Guru Gobind Singh may not have been sent by Wazir Khan, but was instead sent by the Mughal army that was staying nearby.

paragraph: According to Senapati's "Sri Gur Sobha", an early 18th century writer, the fatal wounds of the Guru was one below his heart. The Guru fought back and killed the assassin, while the assassin's companion was killed by the Sikh guards as he tried to escape.

paragraph: The Guru died of his wounds a few days later on 7 October 1708 His death fuelled a long and bitter war of the Sikhs with the Mughals. After that the struggle continued by Banda Singh Bahadur along with Baj Singh, Binod Singh and others.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of places named after Guru Gobind Singh

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guru Gobind Singh Children's Foundation

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ganga Sagar (urn)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mazhabi Sikh

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bhai Jiwan Singh

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Singh, Prof. Surinderjit, "Guru Gobind Singh's Zafarnamah" Transliteration and Poetic Rendering in English. Singh Brothers, Amritsar. 2003. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sri Dasam Granth Sahib: Questions and Answers: The book on Sri Dasam Granth Sahib

alias:
Gobind Rai
Guru Gobind Rai
Khalsa founder

description: The tenth and last human Guru of Sikhism

enwikiquote_title: Guru Govind Singh

wikidata_label: Guru Gobind Singh

wikipedia_title: Guru Gobind Singh


text:
Bang Tango
Stephen Shareaux
Zen From Mars
Kik Tracee
Enuff Z'Nuff
Fear Factory
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Faith No More
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hard rock
Universal Music
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Mandy Lion
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Twisted Sister's
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Chicago, Illinois
Faith No More
Chuck Mosley
Megadeth
David Ellefson
Thom Hazaert
Vince Neil
Slaughter
Queensrÿche
Great White
Kix
Autograph
Lynch Mob
Vixen
Marty Casey
Les Warner
David Ellefson
Mark Slaughter
Jesse Camp
Doll Skin
A Killer's Confession
Fear Factory
Bang Tango
Rowan Robertson
Megadeth
David Ellefson
EMP Label Group
Thom Hazaert
Kik Tracee
Stephen Shareaux
Mark Slaughter
New Jersey
Jackson, MN
Kik Tracee
Zen From Mars
Enuff Z'Nuff
Mike Heller
Fear Factory
Malignancy
Raven
Flipp
Matt Wallace
Flipp
horror/comedy
Thom Hazaert
Indianapolis, Indiana

wikipedia_title:
Bang Tango
Stephen Shareaux
Zen From Mars
Kik Tracee
Enuff Z'Nuff
Fear Factory
Chuck Mosley
Faith No More
David Ellefson
Hard rock
Universal Music Group
Howard Benson
Riki Rachtman
Less Than Jake
Mandy Lion
Andrew Wilkow
Twisted Sister
Dee Snider
Chicago
Faith No More
Chuck Mosley
Megadeth
David Ellefson
Thom Hazaert
Vince Neil
Slaughter (band)
Queensrÿche
Great White
Kix (band)
Autograph (American band)
Lynch Mob (band)
Vixen (band)
Marty Casey
Les Warner
David Ellefson
Mark Slaughter
Jesse Camp
Doll Skin
A Killer's Confession
Fear Factory
Bang Tango
Rowan Robertson
Megadeth
David Ellefson
EMP Label Group
Thom Hazaert
Kik Tracee
Stephen Shareaux
Mark Slaughter
New Jersey
Jackson, Minnesota
Kik Tracee
Zen From Mars
Enuff Z'Nuff
Mike Heller
Fear Factory
Malignancy (band)
Raven (British band)
Flipp
Matt Wallace
Flipp
Comedy horror
Thom Hazaert
Indianapolis

categories: American male non-fiction writers,Film directors from Illinois,Guitarists from Chicago,1987 births,Alternative rock guitarists,American rock guitarists,Heavy metal guitarists,American documentary filmmakers,American music video directors,21st-century American guitarists,American heavy metal guitarists,21st-century American non-fiction writers,Songwriters from Illinois,American autobiographers,American rock songwriters,American heavy metal musicians,Alternative metal musicians,American film editors,Musicians from Chicago,Lead guitarists,Actors from Illinois,Living people,American male guitarists,American guitarists,American documentary film directors,Documentary film editors,Fingerstyle guitarists,American male songwriters,Alternative metal guitarists,American actors,American alternative rock musicians,Male actors from Chicago,American funk guitarists

paragraph: Drew Fortier

paragraph: Andrew Lawrence Fortier (born July 14, 1987) is an American musician, guitarist, filmmaker, actor, and author. He is best known for his work with Bang Tango, Stephen Shareaux, and Zen From Mars; which he cofounded, and includes members of Kik Tracee, Enuff Z'Nuff, Flipp, and Fear Factory. He was guitarist for the now late Chuck Mosley (Faith No More). He has directed and edited the documentary as well as the upcoming David Ellefson produced horror film "Dwellers" which Fortier also wrote and stars in. He is the author of "Dark, Depressing, and Hilarious" which is an autobiography on his career thus far.

paragraph: Section::::Film career.

paragraph: Fortier took 4 years filming and editing what would become a documentary on 80's hard rock band Bang Tango. Originally intended as a studio documentary, the film became expanded upon once original members of the band became involved and more information was revealed regarding the band's history.The film was never given an official release due to clearance issues regarding usage of Bang Tango's back catalogue of music in the film which is owned by Universal Music.

paragraph: Aside from the inclusion of various members of Bang Tango throughout the band's career up to that point, interviews featured throughout the film include: Howard Benson, Riki Rachtman, Chris DeMakes, Mandy Lion, Andrew Wilkow, Chip Z'Nuff, as well as an opening narration by Twisted Sister's Dee Snider.

paragraph: The film had one free public screening in Fortier's hometown of Chicago, Illinois with Bang Tango in attendance in April 2015.

paragraph: Fortier became a member of Bang Tango days later as the band's second guitarist.

paragraph: Fortier released the film for free on YouTube in early 2016.

paragraph: In June 2018, Fortier released an 11 minute deleted/extended scene from the film, which contained footage from being on the road with the band as well as more insight into how the band operates while on tour. Fortier made note that the footage was initially removed from the film due to its portrayal of the band members featured in the scenes.

paragraph: Section::::Film career.:"Attack of Life: The Bang Tango Movie".:Reception.

paragraph: Reviews of the film were positive. The general consensus is that despite its low budget, the film still manages to get its point across in an unbiased, artistic, and engaging manner while being able to appeal to not only fans of the band or genre, but to anyone not familiar with Bang Tango.

paragraph: Section::::Film career.:"Thanks. And Sorry: The Chuck Mosley Movie".

paragraph: Summer 2017, Fortier was recruited as guitarist for (Ex-Faith No More frontman) Chuck Mosley's solo band. During his time with the band, Fortier and Mosley explored the idea of a potential documentary to where Mosley would be the subject. Prior to his passing in November 2017 Mosley confirmed with Fortier that a documentary about his life should be made. The film is being produced by Mosley's long time manager and percussionist, Douglas Esper.

paragraph: In February 2018 it was announced that "Thanks. And Sorry: The Chuck Mosley Movie" was officially in production with a TBA release date.

paragraph: Section::::Film career.:"Dwellers".

paragraph: In May 2019, it was announced that Fortier will be writing, directing, and starring in the horror film "Dwellers" which is being produced by Megadeth bassist David Ellefson and Thom Hazaert via their newly formed production company Ellefson Films. Along with Fortier, the film will also star James L. Edwards, Douglas Esper, Rick Jermain, and Jeff Hatrix. Ellefson and Hazaert will also be appearing in the film as featured cameos.

paragraph: Section::::Film career.:Other works.

paragraph: As a way to hone his filmmaking skills to aid the process of creating and completing "Attack of Life: The Bang Tango Movie", Fortier experimented with shooting and editing music videos for Bang Tango, which resulted in clips for their songs: "Live Life," "I Like It, Bring on the World," and "Suck It Up" from the "Pistol Whipped in the Bible Belt" album. This led to Fortier, through word of mouth, being hired to produce and edit promotional videos for such acts as: Vince Neil, Slaughter, Queensrÿche, Great White, Kix, Autograph, Lynch Mob, Vixen, Marty Casey, Les Warner, David Ellefson, Mark Slaughter, Jesse Camp, Doll Skin, A Killer's Confession, and more.

paragraph: After completing "Attack of Life: The Bang Tango Movie", Fortier was in talks with Fear Factory for a proposed documentary on the band's career. A treatment for the film was drafted which led to meeting with members of the band to speak further about the idea. It was ultimately decided that due to the band's ongoing litigation with former members, it was not the right time for a film to be made.

paragraph: Section::::Music career.

paragraph: Section::::Music career.:Bang Tango.

paragraph: After completing and screening "Attack of Life: The Bang Tango Movie" in April 2015, Fortier would go on to join the film's subject, Bang Tango, as their second guitarist making his live debut with the band at the 2015 edition of the M3 Festival in Maryland. The decision to bring Fortier into the band was at the suggestion of Rowan Robertson who, as Bang Tango's lead guitarist, felt the band should be represented as having two guitarists to properly perform the material which was originally written and recorded with two guitarists.

paragraph: Despite having Fortier become a member of the band, frontman Joe Leste' showed disdain toward Fortier in the press regarding the way Leste' had been portrayed in the film.

paragraph: Fortier took a year long break performing with the band to work for Megadeth Bassist David Ellefson's EMP Label Group as their Operations Coordinator. Fortier worked closely with Ellefson and the label's Operations Director Thom Hazaert up until he returned to Bang Tango in August 2017.

paragraph: Section::::Music career.:Stephen Shareaux.

paragraph: Mid 2015, Fortier began performing acoustic shows with Kik Tracee vocalist Stephen Shareaux. This would mark the first time Kik Tracee material had been performed live in over 20 years.

paragraph: Notable appearances include a one off full band appearance as support for the debut of Mark Slaughter's solo band in New Jersey as well as performing at Megadeth bassist David Ellefson's "Ellefson Coffee Co." Grand Opening in Jackson, MN for which Fortier also performed an impromptu acoustic mini set of Megadeth songs with Ellefson on bass and Thom Hazaert on vocals.

paragraph: Fortier and Shareaux would go on to form the alternative rock band Zen From Mars.

paragraph: Section::::Music career.:Chuck Mosley.

paragraph: Fortier joined Chuck Mosley's solo band early summer 2017. It was during this time that plans for a documentary on Mosley's life were discussed which would become "Thanks. And Sorry: The Chuck Mosley Movie".

paragraph: Section::::Music career.:Zen From Mars.

paragraph: Summer 2015, Fortier began demoing songs for what was intended to be Bang Tango's next studio album. Due to the songs departure from the typical Bang Tango sound, Fortier decided to put a new band together to finish writing and recording for an album release. Fortier, along with Kik Tracee vocalist Stephen Shareaux, then formed Zen From Mars. The rest of the band featured on the album include: bassist Chip Z'nuff (Enuff Z'Nuff), drummer Mike Heller (Fear Factory, Malignancy, Raven), guitarist Brynn Arens (Flipp), and pianist Kate Catalina.

paragraph: August 2016, the band released a short video titled "Who is ZFM?" which teased the identities of the band members which led to the release of a music video featuring an early demo version of the song "New Leaf" which was mixed by Matt Wallace.

paragraph: September 2016 the band released a clip of a finished song titled "Aflame".

paragraph: Their debut album, "The Ultra Head Frequency", is currently being mixed and mastered by Richard Easterling for a TBA release date.

paragraph: Section::::Music career.:Other works.

paragraph: In 2011, while shooting "Attack of Life: The Bang Tango Movie" and 4 years prior to joining the band, Fortier performed additional guitar and backing vocals on Bang Tango's "Pistol Whipped in the Bible Belt" album. His lead guitar parts can be heard in the choruses of the track "Live Life", and his backing vocals can be heard in the choruses of the song "Boombox Seance".

paragraph: In June 2018, Fortier joined 90's hard rock band Flipp as their guitarist for a one off show in Minnesota.

paragraph: Section::::Acting career.

paragraph: Section::::Acting career.:"Her Name Was Christa".

paragraph: July 2017, Fortier was cast as a lead role in the horror/comedy "Her Name Was Christa". Directed by and starring James L. Edwards, the film is slated for a late 2018 release. Fortier will also be the lead in a forthcoming "as of yet untitled" horror anthology also directed by Edwards.

paragraph: Section::::Writing career.

paragraph: Section::::Writing career.:"Dark, Depressing, and Hilarious".

paragraph: Fortier wrote an autobiography titled "Dark, Depressing, and Hilarious" which covers his career up until 2018. The book features a foreword by Thom Hazaert.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Fortier currently resides in Indianapolis, Indiana with fiancé Tharasa DiMeo, with whom he became engaged to on the set of "Her Name Was Christa" by having her cast as a featured extra sharing a scene with him so he was able to surprise her on camera with a ring and marriage proposal.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:With Bang Tango.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pistol Whipped in the Bible Belt" (2012) - additional guitars and backing vocals

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:With Obszön Geschöpf.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Master Of Giallo" (2018) - guitar on the song "The Death Kiss"

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:With Zen From Mars.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Ultra Head Frequency" (TBA) - release date TBA

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dark, Depressing, and Hilarious: My Bittersweet Journey In and Out of the Music Business

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2018 Hardcover

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2018 Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2018 Paperback (Amazon Edition)

alias:
Andrew Lawrence Fortier
Andrew Fortier

description: American musician, filmmaker, actor, and author

wikidata_label: Drew Fortier

wikipedia_title: Drew Fortier