text: Anglo-Saxon

text: kings of England

text: House of Wessex

text: Æthelred the Unready

text: Emma of Normandy

text: Cnut the Great

text: Harthacnut

text: Harold Godwinson

text: Normans

text: William the Conqueror

text: Battle of Hastings

text: Edgar the Ætheling

text: Battle of Hastings

text: Confessor

text: saint

text: martyrdom

text: Edward the Martyr

text: House of Godwin

text: Frank Barlow

text: Pope Alexander III

text: canonised

text: King Edward III

text: Saint George

text: feast day

text: Church of England

text: Catholic Church

text: England and Wales

text: Æthelred the Unready

text: Emma of Normandy

text: Islip, Oxfordshire

text: Alfred

text: Godgifu

text: Viking

text: Sweyn Forkbeard

text: Normandy

text: Edmund Ironside

text: Eadwig

text: Drogo of Mantes

text: Vexin

text: William of Jumièges

text: Robert I, Duke of Normandy

text: Jersey

text: Robert

text: Norman abbey of Jumièges

text: Denmark

text: Harold Harefoot

text: Godwin, Earl of Wessex

text: Harold Harefoot

text: Southampton

text: Bruges

text: Quadripartitus

text: John Maddicott

text: Ælfwine of Winchester

text: Hurst Spit

text: Isle of Wight

text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

text: the cathedral of Winchester

text: West Saxons

text: Leofric of Mercia

text: Siward of Northumbria

text: Stigand

text: Elmham

text: East Anglia

text: Sweyn

text: Edith

text: Harold

text: Beorn Estrithson

text: his family

text: Southern England

text: Leominster

text: Ralph

text: Magnus I of Norway

text: Sweyn II of Denmark

text: Robert

text: Canterbury

text: Archbishop of Canterbury

text: Eustace II of Boulogne

text: Dover

text: Stigand

text: Earl Ralph

text: Northumbria

text: Tostig

text: Ælfgar

text: Gyrth

text: Leofwine

text: Mercia

text: Scotland

text: Wales

text: Malcolm Canmore

text: Duncan I

text: Macbeth

text: Rhys ap Rhydderch

text: Gruffydd ap Llywelyn

text: Edwin

text: vassalage

text: thegn

text: Morcar

text: Westminster Abbey

text: William of Malmesbury

text: Edward Ætheling

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text: Bishop Ealdred of Worcester

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry III

text: Edgar

text: Ætheling

text: Domesday Book

text: William of Poitiers

text: Westminster Abbey

text: Romanesque

text: Jumièges Abbey

text: Confessor

text: Eadburh of Winchester

text: Edward the Elder

text: Edith of Wilton

text: Edgar the Peaceful

text: Edward the Martyr

text: Spearhafoc

text: Bishop of London

text: Odda of Deerhurst

text: Pershore Abbey

text: Ann Williams

text: Osbert of Clare

text: Vita Ædwardi

text: King Stephen

text: Pope Innocent II

text: disputed election to the papacy

text: Henry II

text: Pope Alexander III

text: King Henry II

text: Pope Alexander III

text: Henry III

text: Matthew Paris

text: eldest son

text: Edmund the Martyr

text: Gregory the Great

text: Order of the Garter

text: Windsor Castle

text: Church of England

text: calendar of saints

text: patron saint

text: holy relic

text: Oliver Cromwell

text: Vita Ædwardi Regis

text: monastery's

text: Encomium Emmae Reginae

text: Vita Ædwardi Regis

text: Játvarðar Saga

text: List of monarchs of Wessex

text: List of Catholic saints

text: St Edward's Crown

text: Burial places of British royalty

text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

text: Aelred of Rievaulx

text: Vita Ædwardi Regis

text: William of Malmesbury

text: BBC History: Edward the Confessor

text: BBC News: Ancient royal tomb is uncovered

categories: English saints,Incorrupt saints,1000s births,1066 deaths,11th-century English monarchs,Norman conquest of England,11th-century Christian saints,House of Wessex,People from Cherwell District,Christian royal saints,Monarchs of England before 1066,Burials at Westminster Abbey,Anglo-Saxon saints,Roman Catholic royal saints

paragraph: Edward the Confessor

paragraph: Edward the Confessor ( ; ; 1003 – 5 January 1066), also known as Saint Edward the Confessor, was among the last Anglo-Saxon kings of England. Usually considered the last king of the House of Wessex, he ruled from 1042 to 1066.

paragraph: Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy. He succeeded Cnut the Great's son – and his own half brother – Harthacnut. He restored the rule of the House of Wessex after the period of Danish rule since Cnut (better known as Canute) conquered England in 1016. When Edward died in 1066, he was succeeded by Harold Godwinson, who was defeated and killed in the same year by the Normans under William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. Edgar the Ætheling, who was of the House of Wessex, was proclaimed king after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, but never ruled and was deposed after about eight weeks.

paragraph: Historians disagree about Edward's fairly long (24-year) reign. His nickname reflects the traditional image of him as unworldly and pious. Confessor reflects his reputation as a saint who did not suffer martyrdom, as opposed to King Edward the Martyr. Some portray Edward the Confessor's reign as leading to the disintegration of royal power in England and the advance in power of the House of Godwin, due to the infighting that began after his heirless death. Biographers Frank Barlow and Peter Rex, on the other hand, portray Edward as a successful king, one who was energetic, resourceful and sometimes ruthless; they argue that the Norman conquest shortly after his death tarnished his image. However, Richard Mortimer argues that the return of the Godwins from exile in 1052 "meant the effective end of his exercise of power", citing Edward's reduced activity as implying "a withdrawal from affairs".

paragraph: About a century later, in 1161, Pope Alexander III canonised the king. Saint Edward was one of England's national saints until King Edward III adopted Saint George as the national patron saint in about 1350. Saint Edward's feast day is 13 October, celebrated by both the Church of England and the Catholic Church in England and Wales.

paragraph: Section::::Early years and exile.

paragraph: Edward was the seventh son of Æthelred the Unready, and the first by his second wife, Emma of Normandy. Edward was born between 1003 and 1005 in Islip, Oxfordshire, and is first recorded as a 'witness' to two charters in 1005. He had one full brother, Alfred, and a sister, Godgifu. In charters he was always listed behind his older half-brothers, showing that he ranked behind them.

paragraph: During his childhood, England was the target of Viking raids and invasions under Sweyn Forkbeard and his son, Cnut. Following Sweyn's seizure of the throne in 1013, Emma fled to Normandy, followed by Edward and Alfred, and then by Æthelred. Sweyn died in February 1014, and leading Englishmen invited Æthelred back on condition that he promised to rule 'more justly' than before. Æthelred agreed, sending Edward back with his ambassadors. Æthelred died in April 1016, and he was succeeded by Edward's older half-brother Edmund Ironside, who carried on the fight against Sweyn's son, Cnut. According to Scandinavian tradition, Edward fought alongside Edmund; as Edward was at most thirteen years old at the time, the story is disputed. Edmund died in November 1016, and Cnut became undisputed king. Edward then again went into exile with his brother and sister; in 1017 his mother married Cnut. In the same year Cnut had Edward's last surviving elder half-brother, Eadwig, executed, leaving Edward as the leading Anglo-Saxon claimant to the throne.

paragraph: Edward spent a quarter of a century in exile, probably mainly in Normandy, although there is no evidence of his location until the early 1030s. He probably received support from his sister Godgifu, who married Drogo of Mantes, count of Vexin in about 1024. In the early 1030s, Edward witnessed four charters in Normandy, signing two of them as king of England. According to the Norman chronicler, William of Jumièges, Robert I, Duke of Normandy attempted an invasion of England to place Edward on the throne in about 1034, but it was blown off course to Jersey. He also received support for his claim to the throne from a number of continental abbots, particularly Robert, abbot of the Norman abbey of Jumièges, who was later to become Edward's Archbishop of Canterbury. Edward was said to have developed an intense personal piety during this period, but modern historians regard this as a product of the later medieval campaign for his canonisation. In Frank Barlow's view "in his lifestyle would seem to have been that of a typical member of the rustic nobility". He appeared to have a slim prospect of acceding to the English throne during this period, and his ambitious mother was more interested in supporting Harthacnut, her son by Cnut.

paragraph: Cnut died in 1035, and Harthacnut succeeded him as king of Denmark. It is unclear whether he intended to keep England as well, but he was too busy defending his position in Denmark to come to England to assert his claim to the throne. It was therefore decided that his elder half-brother Harold Harefoot should act as regent, while Emma held Wessex on Harthacnut's behalf. In 1036 Edward and his brother Alfred separately came to England. Emma later claimed that they came in response to a letter forged by Harold inviting them to visit her, but historians believe that she probably did invite them in an effort to counter Harold's growing popularity. Alfred was captured by Godwin, Earl of Wessex who turned him over to Harold Harefoot. He had Alfred blinded by forcing red-hot pokers into his eyes to make him unsuitable for kingship, and Alfred died soon after as a result of his wounds. The murder is thought to be the source of much of Edward's later hatred for the Earl and one of the primary reasons for Godwin's banishment in autumn 1051. Edward is said to have fought a successful skirmish near Southampton, and then retreated back to Normandy. He thus showed his prudence, but he had some reputation as a soldier in Normandy and Scandinavia.

paragraph: In 1037, Harold was accepted as king, and the following year he expelled Emma, who retreated to Bruges. She then summoned Edward and demanded his help for Harthacnut, but he refused as he had no resources to launch an invasion, and disclaimed any interest for himself in the throne. Harthacnut, his position in Denmark now secure, did plan an invasion, but Harold died in 1040, and Harthacnut was able to cross unopposed, with his mother, to take the English throne.

paragraph: In 1041, Harthacnut invited Edward back to England, probably as heir because he knew he had not long to live. The 12th century Quadripartitus, in an account regarded as convincing by historian John Maddicott, states that he was recalled by the intervention of Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester and Earl Godwin. Edward met "the thegns of all England" at Hursteshever, probably modern Hurst Spit opposite the Isle of Wight. There he was received as king in return for his oath that he would continue the laws of Cnut. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" Edward was sworn in as king alongside Harthacnut, but a diploma issued by Harthacnut in 1042 describes him as the king's brother.

paragraph: Section::::Early reign.

paragraph: Following Harthacnut's death on 8 June 1042, Godwin, the most powerful of the English earls, supported Edward, who succeeded to the throne. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" describes the popularity he enjoyed at his accession – "before he [Harthacnut] was buried, all the people chose Edward as king in London." Edward was crowned at the cathedral of Winchester, the royal seat of the West Saxons, on 3 April 1043.

paragraph: Edward complained that his mother had "done less for him than he wanted before he became king, and also afterwards". In November 1043 he rode to Winchester with his three leading earls, Leofric of Mercia, Godwin and Siward of Northumbria, to deprive her of her property, possibly because she was holding on to treasure which belonged to the king. Her adviser, Stigand, was deprived of his bishopric of Elmham in East Anglia. However, both were soon restored to favour. Emma died in 1052.

paragraph: Edward's position when he came to the throne was weak. Effective rule required keeping on terms with the three leading earls, but loyalty to the ancient house of Wessex had been eroded by the period of Danish rule, and only Leofric was descended from a family which had served Æthelred. Siward was probably Danish, and although Godwin was English, he was one of Cnut's new men, married to Cnut's former sister-in-law. However, in his early years Edward restored the traditional strong monarchy, showing himself, in Frank Barlow's view, "a vigorous and ambitious man, a true son of the impetuous Æthelred and the formidable Emma."

paragraph: In 1043 Godwin's eldest son Sweyn was appointed to an earldom in the south-west midlands, and on 23 January 1045 Edward married Godwin's daughter Edith. Soon afterwards, her brother Harold and her Danish cousin Beorn Estrithson, were also given earldoms in southern England. Godwin and his family now ruled subordinately all of Southern England. However, in 1047 Sweyn was banished for abducting the Abbess of Leominster. In 1049 he returned to try to regain his earldom, but this was said to have been opposed by Harold and Beorn, probably because they had been given Sweyn's land in his absence. Sweyn murdered his cousin Beorn and went again into exile, and Edward's nephew, Ralph was given Beorn's earldom, but the following year Sweyn's father was able to secure his reinstatement.

paragraph: The wealth of Edward's lands exceeded that of the greatest earls, but they were scattered among the southern earldoms. He had no personal powerbase, and he does not seem to have attempted to build one. In 1050–51 he even paid off the fourteen foreign ships which constituted his standing navy and abolished the tax raised to pay for it. However, in ecclesiastical and foreign affairs he was able to follow his own policy. King Magnus I of Norway aspired to the English throne, and in 1045 and 1046, fearing an invasion, Edward took command of the fleet at Sandwich. Beorn's elder brother, Sweyn II of Denmark "submitted himself to Edward as a son", hoping for his help in his battle with Magnus for control of Denmark, but in 1047 Edward rejected Godwin's demand that he send aid to Sweyn, and it was only Magnus's death in October that saved England from attack and allowed Sweyn to take the Danish throne.

paragraph: Modern historians reject the traditional view that Edward mainly employed Norman favourites, but he did have foreigners in his household, including a few Normans, who became unpopular. Chief among them was Robert, abbot of the Norman abbey of Jumièges, who had known Edward from the 1030s and came to England with him in 1041, becoming bishop of London in 1043. According to the "Vita Edwardi", he became "always the most powerful confidential adviser to the king".

paragraph: Section::::Crisis of 1051–52.

paragraph: In ecclesiastical appointments, Edward and his advisers showed a bias against candidates with local connections, and when the clergy and monks of Canterbury elected a relative of Godwin as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1051, Edward rejected him and appointed Robert of Jumièges, who claimed that Godwin was in illegal possession of some archiepiscopal estates. In September Edward was visited by his brother-in-law, Godgifu's second husband, Eustace II of Boulogne. His men caused an affray in Dover, and Edward ordered Godwin as earl of Kent to punish the town's burgesses, but he took their side and refused. Edward seized the chance to bring his over-mighty earl to heel. Archbishop Robert accused Godwin of plotting to kill the king, just as he had killed his brother Alfred in 1036, while Leofric and Siward supported the king and called up their vassals. Sweyn and Harold called up their own vassals, but neither side wanted a fight, and Godwin and Sweyn appear to have each given a son as hostage, who were sent to Normandy. The Godwins' position disintegrated as their men were not willing to fight the king. When Stigand, who was acting as intermediary, conveyed the king's jest that Godwin could have his peace if he could restore Alfred and his companions alive and well, Godwin and his sons fled, going to Flanders and Ireland. Edward repudiated Edith and sent her to a nunnery, perhaps because she was childless, and Archbishop Robert urged her divorce.

paragraph: Sweyn went on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (dying on his way back), but Godwin and his other sons returned with an army following a year later, and received considerable support, while Leofric and Siward failed to support the king. Both sides were concerned that a civil war would leave the country open to foreign invasion. The king was furious, but he was forced to give way and restore Godwin and Harold to their earldoms, while Robert of Jumièges and other Frenchmen fled, fearing Godwin's vengeance. Edith was restored as queen, and Stigand, who had again acted as an intermediary between the two sides in the crisis, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in Robert's place. Stigand retained his existing bishopric of Winchester, and his pluralism was to be a continuing source of dispute with the pope. Edward's nephew, Earl Ralph, who had been one of his chief supporters in the crisis of 1051–52, may have received Sweyn's marcher earldom of Hereford at this time.

paragraph: Section::::Later reign.

paragraph: Until the mid-1050s Edward was able to structure his earldoms so as to prevent the Godwins becoming dominant. Godwin himself died in 1053 and although Harold succeeded to his earldom of Wessex, none of his other brothers were earls at this date. His house was then weaker than it had been since Edward's succession, but a succession of deaths in 1055–57 completely changed the picture. In 1055 Siward died but his son was considered too young to command Northumbria, and Harold's brother, Tostig was appointed. In 1057 Leofric and Ralph died, and Leofric's son Ælfgar succeeded as Earl of Mercia, while Harold's brother Gyrth succeeded Ælfgar as Earl of East Anglia. The fourth surviving Godwin brother, Leofwine, was given an earldom in the south-east carved out of Harold's territory, and Harold received Ralph's territory in compensation. Thus by 1057 the Godwin brothers controlled all of England subordinately apart from Mercia. It is not known whether Edward approved of this transformation or whether he had to accept it, but from this time he seems to have begun to withdraw from active politics, devoting himself to hunting, which he pursued each day after attending church.

paragraph: In the 1050s, Edward pursued an aggressive, and generally successful, policy in dealing with Scotland and Wales. Malcolm Canmore was an exile at Edward's court after his father, Duncan I, was in 1040 killed in battle against men led by Macbeth who seized the Scottish throne. In 1054 Edward sent Siward to invade Scotland. He defeated Macbeth, and Malcolm, who had accompanied the expedition, gained control of southern Scotland. By 1058 Malcolm had killed Macbeth in battle and taken the Scottish throne. In 1059 he visited Edward, but in 1061 he started raiding Northumbria with the aim of adding it to his territory.

paragraph: In 1053 Edward ordered the assassination of the south Welsh prince Rhys ap Rhydderch in reprisal for a raid on England, and Rhys's head was delivered to him. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn established himself as the ruler of all Wales, and allied himself with Ælfgar of Mercia, who had been outlawed for treason. They defeated Earl Ralph at Hereford, and Harold had to collect forces from nearly all of England to drive the invaders back into Wales. Peace was concluded with the reinstatement of Ælfgar, who was able to succeed as Earl of Mercia on his father's death in 1057. Gruffydd swore an oath to be a faithful under-king of Edward. Ælfgar appears to have died in 1062 and his young son Edwin was allowed to succeed as Earl of Mercia, but Harold then launched a surprise attack on Gruffydd. He escaped, but when Harold and Tostig attacked again the following year, he retreated and was killed by Welsh enemies. Edward and Harold were then able to impose vassalage on some Welsh princes.

paragraph: In October 1065 Harold's brother, Tostig, the earl of Northumbria, was hunting with the king when his thegns in Northumbria rebelled against his rule, which they claimed was oppressive, and killed some 200 of his followers. They nominated Morcar, the brother of Edwin of Mercia, as earl, and invited the brothers to join them in marching south. They met Harold at Northampton, and Tostig accused Harold before the king of conspiring with the rebels. Tostig seems to have been a favourite with the king and queen, who demanded that the revolt be suppressed, but neither Harold nor anyone else would fight to support Tostig.

paragraph: Edward was forced to submit to his banishment, and the humiliation may have caused a series of strokes which led to his death. He was too weak to attend the dedication of his new church at Westminster, which was then still incomplete, on 28 December.

paragraph: Edward probably entrusted the kingdom to Harold and Edith shortly before he died on 5 January 1066. On 6 January he was buried in Westminster Abbey, and Harold was crowned on the same day.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: Starting as early as William of Malmesbury in the early 12th century, historians have puzzled over Edward's intentions for the succession. One school of thought supports the Norman case that Edward always intended William the Conqueror to be his heir, accepting the medieval claim that Edward had already decided to be celibate before he married, but most historians believe that he hoped to have an heir by Edith at least until his quarrel with Godwin in 1051. William may have visited Edward during Godwin's exile, and he is thought to have promised William the succession at this time, but historians disagree how seriously he meant the promise, and whether he later changed his mind.

paragraph: Edmund Ironside's son, Edward Ætheling, had the best claim to be considered Edward's heir. He had been taken as a young child to Hungary, and in 1054 Bishop Ealdred of Worcester visited the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III to secure his return, probably with a view to becoming Edward's heir. The exile returned to England in 1057 with his family, but died almost immediately. His son Edgar, who was then about five years old, was brought up at the English court. He was given the designation Ætheling, meaning throneworthy, which may mean that Edward considered making him his heir, and he was briefly declared king after Harold's death in 1066. However, Edgar was absent from witness lists of Edward's diplomas, and there is no evidence in the Domesday Book that he was a substantial landowner, which suggests that he was marginalised at the end of Edward's reign.

paragraph: After the mid-1050s, Edward seems to have withdrawn from affairs as he became increasingly dependent on the Godwins, and may have become reconciled to the idea that one of them would succeed him. The Normans claimed that Edward sent Harold to Normandy in about 1064 to confirm the promise of the succession to William. The strongest evidence comes from a Norman apologist, William of Poitiers. According to his account, shortly before the Battle of Hastings, Harold sent William an envoy who admitted that Edward had promised the throne to William but argued that this was over-ridden by his deathbed promise to Harold. In reply, William did not dispute the deathbed promise, but argued that Edward's prior promise to him took precedence.

paragraph: In Stephen Baxter's view, Edward's "handling of the succession issue was dangerously indecisive, and contributed to one of the greatest catastrophes to which the English have ever succumbed."

paragraph: Section::::Westminster Abbey.

paragraph: Edward's Norman sympathies are most clearly seen in the major building project of his reign, Westminster Abbey, the first Norman Romanesque church in England. This was commenced between 1042 and 1052 as a royal burial church, consecrated on 28 December 1065, completed after his death in about 1090, and demolished in 1245 to make way for Henry III's new building, which still stands. It was very similar to Jumièges Abbey, which was built at the same time. Robert of Jumièges must have been closely involved in both buildings, although it is not clear which is the original and which the copy.

paragraph: Edward does not appear to have been interested in books and associated arts, but his abbey played a vital role in the development of English Romanesque architecture, showing that he was an innovating and generous patron of the church.

paragraph: Section::::Canonisation.

paragraph: Edward the Confessor was the first Anglo-Saxon and the only king of England to be canonised, but he was part of a tradition of (uncanonised) English royal saints, such as Eadburh of Winchester, a daughter of Edward the Elder, Edith of Wilton, a daughter of Edgar the Peaceful, and the boy-king Edward the Martyr. With his proneness to fits of rage and his love of hunting, Edward the Confessor is regarded by most historians as an unlikely saint, and his canonisation as political, although some argue that his cult started so early that it must have had something credible to build on.

paragraph: Edward displayed a worldly attitude in his church appointments. When he appointed Robert of Jumièges as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1051, he chose the leading craftsman Spearhafoc to replace Robert as Bishop of London. Robert refused to consecrate him, saying that the pope had forbidden it, but Spearhafoc occupied the bishopric for several months with Edward's support. After the Godwins fled the country, Edward expelled Spearhafoc, who fled with a large store of gold and gems which he had been given to make Edward a crown. Stigand was the first archbishop of Canterbury not to be a monk in almost a hundred years, and he was said to have been excommunicated by several popes because he held Canterbury and Winchester in plurality. Several bishops sought consecration abroad because of the irregularity of Stigand's position. Edward usually preferred clerks to monks for the most important and richest bishoprics, and he probably accepted gifts from candidates for bishoprics and abbacies. However, his appointments were generally respectable. When Odda of Deerhurst died without heirs in 1056, Edward seized lands which Odda had granted to Pershore Abbey and gave them to his Westminster foundation; the historian Ann Williams observes that "the Confessor did not in the 11th century have the saintly reputation which he later enjoyed, largely through the efforts of the Westminster monks themselves".

paragraph: After 1066 there was a subdued cult of Edward as a saint, possibly discouraged by the early Norman abbots of Westminster, which gradually increased in the early 12th century . Osbert of Clare, the prior of Westminster Abbey, then started to campaign for Edward's canonisation, aiming to increase the wealth and power of the Abbey. By 1138, he had converted the Vita Ædwardi, the life of Edward commissioned by his widow, into a conventional saint's life. He seized on an ambiguous passage which might have meant that their marriage was chaste, perhaps to give the idea that Edith's childlessness was not her fault, to claim that Edward had been celibate. In 1139 Osbert went to Rome to petition for Edward's canonisation with the support of King Stephen, but he lacked the full support of the English hierarchy and Stephen had quarrelled with the church, so Pope Innocent II postponed a decision, declaring that Osbert lacked sufficient testimonials of Edward's holiness.

paragraph: In 1159 there was a disputed election to the papacy, and Henry II's support helped to secure recognition of Pope Alexander III. In 1160 a new abbot of Westminster, Laurence, seized the opportunity to renew Edward's claim. This time, it had the full support of the king and the English hierarchy, and a grateful pope issued the bull of canonisation on 7 February 1161, the result of a conjunction of the interests of Westminster Abbey, King Henry II and Pope Alexander III He was called 'Confessor' as the name for someone who was believed to have lived a saintly life but was not a martyr.

paragraph: In the 1230s King Henry III became attached to the cult of Saint Edward, and he commissioned a new life by Matthew Paris. Henry also constructed a grand new tomb for Edward in a rebuilt Westminster Abbey in 1269. He named his eldest son after him.

paragraph: Until about 1350, Edmund the Martyr, Gregory the Great and Edward the Confessor were regarded as English national saints, but Edward III preferred the more war-like figure of St George, and in 1348 he established the Order of the Garter with St George as its patron. It was located at Windsor Castle, and its chapel of St Edward the Confessor was re-dedicated to St George, who was acclaimed in 1351 as patron of the English race. Edward was never a popular saint, but he was important to the Norman dynasty, which claimed to be the successor of Edward as the last legitimate Anglo-Saxon king.

paragraph: The shrine of Saint Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey remains where it was after the final translation of his body to a chapel east of the sanctuary on 13 October 1269 by Henry III. The day of his translation, 13 October (his first translation had also been on that date in 1163), is regarded as his feast day, and each October the Abbey holds a week of festivities and prayer in his honour. 13 October is an optional feast day in the Catholic Church of England and Wales, and the Church of England's calendar of saints designates it as a Lesser Festival. Edward is also regarded as a patron saint of difficult marriages.

paragraph: For some time the Abbey had claimed that it possessed a set of coronation regalia that Edward had left for use in all future coronations. Following Edward's canonisation, these were regarded as holy relics, and thereafter they were used at all English coronations from the 13th century until the destruction of the regalia by Oliver Cromwell in 1649.

paragraph: Section::::Appearance and character.

paragraph: The "Vita Ædwardi Regis" states "[H]e was a very proper figure of a man—of outstanding height, and distinguished by his milky white hair and beard, full face and rosy cheeks, thin white hands, and long translucent fingers; in all the rest of his body he was an unblemished royal person. Pleasant, but always dignified, he walked with eyes downcast, most graciously affable to one and all. If some cause aroused his temper, he seemed as terrible as a lion, but he never revealed his anger by railing.". This, as the historian Richard Mortimer notes, 'contains obvious elements of the ideal king, expressed in flattering terms – tall and distinguished, affable, dignified and just.'

paragraph: Edward was allegedly not above accepting bribes. According to the Ramsey "Liber Benefactorum", the monastery's abbot decided that it would be dangerous to publicly contest a claim brought by "a certain powerful man", but he claimed he was able to procure a favourable judgment by giving Edward twenty marks in gold and his wife five marks.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Encomium Emmae Reginae", encomium to Edward's mother

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vita Ædwardi Regis", life commissioned by Edward's wife

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Játvarðar Saga", Icelandic saga about the king

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of monarchs of Wessex

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Catholic saints

paragraph: BULLET::::- St Edward's Crown

paragraph: BULLET::::- Burial places of British royalty

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", tr. Michael Swanton, "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles". 2nd ed. London, 2000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aelred of Rievaulx, "Life of St. Edward the Confessor", translated Fr. Jerome Bertram (first English translation) St. Austin Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barlow, Frank, "Edward the Confessor", Oxford University Press, 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mortimer, Richard ed., "Edward the Confessor: The Man and the Legend", The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Brien, Bruce R.: "God's peace and king's peace : the laws of Edward the Confessor," Philadelphia, Pa. : University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life of King Edward who rests at Westminster" ("Vita Ædwardi Regis") ed. and trans. Frank Barlow, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rex, Peter, "King & Saint: The Life of Edward the Confessor", The History Press, Stroud, 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Waltham Chronicle" ed. and trans. Leslie Watkiss and Marjorie Chibnall, Oxford Medieval Texts, OUP, 1994

paragraph: BULLET::::- William of Malmesbury, "The History of the English Kings", i, ed.and trans. R.A.B. Mynors, R.M.Thomson and M.Winterbottom, Oxford Medieval Texts, OUP 1998

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Westminster Abbey: Edward the Confessor and Edith

paragraph: BULLET::::- Steven Muhlberger's 'Edward the Confessor and his earls'

paragraph: BULLET::::- Illustrated biography of Edward the Confessor

paragraph: BULLET::::- BBC History: Edward the Confessor

paragraph: BULLET::::- BBC News: Ancient royal tomb is uncovered

paragraph: BULLET::::- Life of St Edward the Confessor, Cambridge Digital Library

alias: s., re d'Inghilterra Edward the Confessor

alias: the Confessor, King of England, Saint Edward

alias: the Confessor, koning van Engeland Edward

description: Anglo-Saxon king of England

wikidata_label: Edward the Confessor

wikipedia_title: Edward the Confessor


text:
King of Denmark
King of England
Cnut the Great
Denmark
Norway
Emma of Normandy
Magnus I
Harold Harefoot
Edward the Confessor
Scandinavia
Ælfgifu of Northampton
Encomium Emmae Reginae
St Æelfheah
Earl Ulf
Håkon Eiriksson
Ælfgifu
Magnus I of Norway
Olaf
throne of Denmark
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Bruges
Flanders
Alfred Atheling
Sandwich
Midsummer
Godwin
Wessex
wergild
Bishop Lyfing of Worcester
Worcester
Northumbria
Siward
Eadwulf
Bernicia
Ælfwine of Winchester
Ramsey Abbey
tuberculosis
Edward the Confessor
Æthelred the Unready
Normandy
Lambeth
Tovi the Proud
Osgod Clapa
Magnus I of Norway
Heimskringla
Harald Hardrada
Fagrskinna
Danish empire
Holy Trinity
Edith of Wessex
Edmund Ironside
Gunhilda of Denmark
Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Empire
Baltic Sea
Beatrice I, Abbess of Quedlinburg
Henry of Huntingdon
Bon viveur
Ranulf Higden
Ivanhoe
Walter Scott
Knýtlinga saga
Morkinskinna
Anglo-Norman
Brutus of Troy
Henry III
Edward I
Battle of Halidon Hill
Morkinskinna
Magnus I of Norway
etiquette
Ælfgifu of Northampton
drinking horn
Egils saga
Egill Skallagrímsson
Gunnhild, Mother of Kings
Scott, Walter
Ivanhoe

categories: 11th-century Danish people,House of Knýtlinga,Burials at Winchester Cathedral,11th-century English monarchs,Anglo-Norse monarchs,Cnut the Great,1018 births,1042 deaths,Christian monarchs,Monarchs of England before 1066,Viking Age monarchs,Danish monarchs

paragraph: Harthacnut

paragraph: Harthacnut (; "Tough-knot"; c. 1018 – 8 June 1042), sometimes referred to as Canute III, was King of Denmark from 1035 to 1042 and King of England from 1040 to 1042.

paragraph: He was the son of King Cnut the Great (who ruled Denmark, Norway, and England) and Emma of Normandy. When Cnut died in 1035, Harthacnut struggled to retain his father's possessions. Magnus I took control of Norway, but Harthacnut succeeded as King of Denmark and became King of England in 1040 after the death of his half-brother Harold Harefoot.

paragraph: Harthacnut died suddenly in 1042 and was succeeded by Magnus in Denmark and Edward the Confessor in England. Harthacnut was the last Scandinavian to rule England.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Harthacnut was born shortly after the marriage of his parents in July or August 1017. Cnut had put aside his first wife Ælfgifu of Northampton to marry Emma, and according to the "Encomium Emmae Reginae", a book she inspired many years later, Cnut agreed that any sons of their marriage should take precedence over the sons of his first marriage. In 1023, Emma and Harthacnut played a leading role in the translation of the body of the martyr St Æelfheah from London to Canterbury, an occasion seen by Harthacnut's biographer, Ian Howard, as recognition of his position as Cnut's heir in England.

paragraph: In the 1020s Denmark was threatened by Norway and Sweden, and in 1026 Cnut decided to strengthen its defences by bringing over his eight-year-old son to be the future king under a council headed by his brother-in-law, Earl Ulf. However, Ulf alienated Cnut by getting the Danish provinces to acknowledge Harthacnut as king without reference to Cnut's overall authority and by failing to take vigorous measures to meet Norwegian and Swedish invasions, instead waiting for Cnut's assistance. In 1027, Cnut arrived with a fleet. He forgave Harthacnut his insubordination in view of his youth but had Ulf murdered. He drove the invaders out of Denmark and established his authority over Norway, returning to England in 1028 and leaving Denmark to be ruled by King Harthacnut.

paragraph: Cnut had left Norway under the rule of Håkon Eiriksson, but he was drowned in 1029, and Cnut appointed his son Svein to rule Norway with the assistance of Ælfgifu, Cnut's first wife and Svein's mother. However, they made themselves unpopular by heavy taxation and favouring Danish advisers over the Norwegian nobles, and when King Magnus I of Norway, the son of the former King of Norway, Olaf, invaded in 1035, they were forced to flee to Harthacnut's court. Harthacnut was a close ally of Svein, but he did not feel his resources were great enough to launch an invasion of Norway, and the half-brothers looked for help from their father, but instead they received news of his death in November 1035.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Harold and Denmark.

paragraph: In 1035, Harthacnut succeeded his father on the throne of Denmark as Cnut III. He was unable to come to England in view of the situation in Denmark, and it was agreed that Svein's full brother, Harold Harefoot, should act as regent, with Emma holding Wessex on Harthacnut's behalf. In 1037, Harold was generally accepted as king, Harthacnut being, in the words of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "forsaken because he was too long in Denmark", while Emma fled to Bruges, in Flanders. In 1039, Harthacnut sailed with ten ships to meet his mother in Bruges but delayed an invasion as it was clear Harold was sick and would soon die, which he did in March 1040. Envoys soon crossed the channel to offer Harthacnut the throne.

paragraph: While the general outline of events following Cnut's death are clear, the details are obscure, and historians give differing interpretations. M. K. Lawson in his "Dictionary of National Biography" article on Harthacnut states that it is unclear whether Harthacnut was to have England as well as Denmark, but it was probably a reflection of a formal arrangement that mints south of the Thames produced silver pennies in his name, while those to the north were almost all Harold's. There might have been a division of the kingdom if Harthacnut had appeared straight away. He probably stayed in Denmark because of the threat from Magnus of Norway, but they eventually made a treaty by which if either died without an heir, his kingdom would go to the other, and this may have freed Harthacnut to pursue his claim to England.

paragraph: According to Ian Howard, Harthacnut agreed to help Svein recover Norway and planned an invasion in 1036. Svein died shortly before it was to set out, but Harthacnut proceeded anyway. War was avoided by the treaty between Harthacnut and Magnus, which Harthacnut agreed to because he had no plausible candidate to rule Norway after Svein's death, and he was in any case temperamentally inclined to avoid campaigns and wars. Howard dates the treaty to 1036, whereas other historians date it to 1039 and believe it freed Harthacnut to launch an invasion of England.

paragraph: Exiled in Bruges, Emma plotted to gain the English throne for her son. She sponsored the "Encomium Emmae Reginae", which eulogised her and attacked Harold, especially for arranging the murder of Alfred Atheling (the younger of Emma's two sons by Æthelred) in 1036. The work describes Harthacnut's horror at hearing of his half brother's murder, and in Howard's view, was probably influential in finally persuading the cautious Harthacnut to invade England. According to a later edition of the "Encomium", the English took the initiative in communicating with Harthacnut in 1039, possibly when they became aware that Harold had not long to live.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Return to England.

paragraph: Harthacnut travelled to England with his mother. The landing at Sandwich on 17 June 1040, "seven days before Midsummer", was a peaceful one, though he had a fleet of 62 warships. Even though he had been invited to take the throne, he was taking no chances and came as a conqueror with an invasion force. The crews had to be rewarded for their service, and to pay them, he levied a geld of more than 21,000 pounds, a huge sum of money that made him unpopular, although it was only a quarter of the amount his father had raised in similar circumstances in 1017–1018.

paragraph: Harthacnut had been horrified by Harold's murder of Alfred, and his mother demanded vengeance. With the approval of Harold's former councillors, his body was disinterred from its place of honour at Westminster and publicly beheaded. It was disposed of in a sewer, but then retrieved and thrown in the Thames, from which London shipmen rescued it and had it buried in a churchyard. Godwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, had been complicit in the crime as he had handed over Alfred to Harold, and Queen Emma charged him in a trial before Harthacnut and members of his council. The king allowed Godwin to escape punishment by bringing witnesses that he had acted on Harold's orders, but Godwin then gave Harthacnut a ship so richly decorated that it amounted to the wergild that Godwin would have had to pay if he had been found guilty. Bishop Lyfing of Worcester was also charged with complicity in the crime and deprived of his see, but in 1041 he made his peace with Harthacnut and was restored to his position.

paragraph: The English had become used to the king ruling in council, with the advice of his chief men, but Harthacnut had ruled autocratically in Denmark, and he was not willing to change, particularly as he did not fully trust the leading earls. At first he was successful intimidating his subjects, though less so later in his short reign. He doubled the size of the English fleet from sixteen to thirty-two ships, partly so that he had a force capable of dealing with trouble elsewhere in his empire, and to pay for it he severely increased the rate of taxation. The increase coincided with a poor harvest, causing severe hardship. In 1041 two of his tax gatherers were so harsh in dealing with people in and around Worcester that they rioted and killed the tax gatherers. Harthacnut reacted by imposing a then-legal but very unpopular punishment known as 'harrying'. He ordered his earls to burn the town and kill the population. Very few people were killed, however, as they knew what was coming and fled in all directions.

paragraph: The earl of Northumbria was Siward, but Earl Eadwulf of Bernicia ruled the northern part in semi-independence, a situation which did not please the autocratic Harthacnut. In 1041 Earl Eadwulf gave offence to the king for an unknown reason but then sought reconciliation. Harthacnut promised him safe conduct but then colluded in his murder by Siward, who became earl of the whole of Northumbria. The crime was widely condemned, and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" described it as "a betrayal" and the king as an "oath-breaker".

paragraph: Harthacnut was generous to the church. Very few contemporary documents survive, but a royal charter of his transferred land to Bishop Ælfwine of Winchester, and he made several grants to Ramsey Abbey. The 12th-century "Ramsey Chronicle" speaks well of his generosity and of his character.

paragraph: Harthacnut had suffered from bouts of illness even before he became King of England. He may have suffered from tuberculosis, and he probably knew that he had not long to live. In 1041 he invited his half-brother Edward the Confessor (his mother Emma's son by Æthelred the Unready) back from exile in Normandy and probably made him his heir. He may well have been influenced by Emma, who hoped to keep her power by ensuring that one of her sons was succeeded by another. Harthacnut was unmarried and had no known children.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: On 8 June 1042, Harthacnut attended a wedding in Lambeth. The groom was Tovi the Proud, former standard-bearer to Cnut, and the bride was Gytha, daughter of the courtier Osgod Clapa. Harthacnut presumably consumed large quantities of alcohol. As he was drinking to the health of the bride, he ""died as he stood at his drink, and he suddenly fell to the earth with an awful convulsion; and those who were close by took hold of him, and he spoke no word afterwards..."" The likely cause of death was a stroke, ""brought about by an excessive intake of alcohol"".

paragraph: Sten Körner noted that the death of Harthacnut could be part of a plot, but did not further explore the notion, though the implication would be that Edward the Confessor was behind this plot. In "The Death of Kings: A Medical History of the Kings and Queens of England" (2000), Clifford Brewer pointed that Edward benefited from the sudden death of Harthacnut and that while Godwin, Earl of Wessex, was the father-in-law to Edward, he had once led an uprising against his son-in-law. He died suddenly after dining with said son-in-law, again pointing suspicion at Edward as the probable culprit behind both deaths. Katherine Holman was certain that Harthacnut was poisoned but felt that the culprit will never be known with certainty due to ""no shortage of discontented candidates.""

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: The political agreement between Harthacnut and Magnus I of Norway included the appointment of the latter as heir to Harthacnut. At the time, the agreement would have only affected the throne of Denmark. The Heimskringla reports that when Harthacnut died, Magnus extended his claim to England. He reportedly sent a letter to Edward the Confessor, pressing his claim to the English throne and threatening invasion. His own heir, Harald Hardrada, would also press this claim. Both considered themselves legal heirs to Harthacnut. The Fagrskinna contains a scene where Magnus proclaims that ""I will take possession of all the Danish empire or else die in the attempt.""

paragraph: According to the "Encomium", Edward the Confessor already served as co-ruler of England since 1041. There is an emphasis on Harthacnut, Edward, and Emma serving as a trinity of rulers, in emulation of the Holy Trinity. Edward, by surviving his co-ruler, would be king by default. The Heimskringla depicts Edward portraying himself as brother and legal heir to both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, while pointing out that he had already won the support ""of all the people of the country"". Unstated in both is that the marriage of Edward to Edith of Wessex would also support his claim by earning him both the political support of her father Godwin and an additional connection to Cnut. She was a niece to the king. The Fagrskinna has Edward point out that he was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, the brother to Edmund Ironside, the stepson of Cnut, the stepbrother of Harold Harefoot, and the half-brother of Harthacnut. In short, he had a much stronger family claim to the throne than Magnus. All the leaders of England had already acknowledged him as their king, and he was consecrated by an archbishop. England was his own heritage. Whether Magnus managed to defeat him in war or not, ""you can never be called king in England, and you will never be granted any allegiance there before you put an end to my life."" This was supposedly enough to cause Magnus to doubt the strength of his own claim.

paragraph: The marriage agreement between Gunhilda of Denmark (sister of Harthacnut) and Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor would allow descendants of this marriage to claim the throne of Denmark and potentially of England. The marriage, from Henry's perspective, was probably orchestrated to allow the Holy Roman Empire to claim control of Denmark and the western areas of the Baltic Sea. However, Gunhilda had died in 1038 with no known sons. Her only daughter was Beatrice I, Abbess of Quedlinburg, who never married.

paragraph: Section::::Reputation.

paragraph: Apart from the "Ramsey Chronicle", medieval sources are hostile to Harthacnut. According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" he "did nothing worthy of a king as long as he ruled." Modern historians are less dismissive. In the view of M. K. Lawson, he had at least two of the requisites of a successful medieval king, he was "both ruthless and feared"; had he not died young, the Norman Conquest might not have happened. Ian Howard praises Harthacnut for keeping peace throughout his empire, benefiting trade and merchants, and ensuring a peaceful succession by inviting Edward to his court as his heir. Had he lived longer, Howard believes, his character might have enabled him to become a successful king like his father.

paragraph: Henry of Huntingdon (12th century) claimed that Harthacnut ordered for the dining tables of his court to be ""laid four times a day with royal sumptuousness"" which O'Brien says is likely a popular myth. Henry of Huntingdon viewed this detail in the context of the monarch sharing these meals with the members of his household, making Harthacnut more generous than his own contemporaries, who ""through avarice, or as they pretend through disgust, ...set but one meal a day before their dependents"". His account produced the image of Harthacnut as a ""very generous Bon viveur."" Ranulf Higden (14th century) viewed the same detail in a negative light. He claimed that Harthacnut insisted on having two dinners and two suppers per day. His example influenced the English people, who supposedly were to Higden's day gluttonous and extravagant. Higden so claimed that Harthacnut had a lasting effect on the English national character. The association of Harthacnut with gluttony was well-known enough to appear in the novel Ivanhoe (1819) by Walter Scott. The character Cedric comments on his friend Athelstane, whose main character trait is a love for food and drink, that ""The soul of Hardicanute hath taken possession of him, and he hath no pleasure save to fill, to swill, and to call for more.""

paragraph: The "Knýtlinga saga" treats the death of Harthacnut as the end of an ancient line of kings, and notes that he was the last Danish king to rule over England. But otherwise Harthacnut is treated as a mere footnote in the line of monarchs, while there are many observations on Cnut. Morkinskinna covers Harthacnut's death in some detail, but records next to nothing about his life, suggesting a lack of memorable details on him, presumably due to his short reign.

paragraph: The "prose Brut chronicle" was an Anglo-Norman work, covering British and English monarchs from Brut (Brutus of Troy) to the death of Henry III in 1272. It was probably written during the reign of Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), though the oldest surviving manuscript dates to 1338. The text often includes notable errors. The original author remains unknown, but there were a number of continuations by different hands, continuing the story to the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333). The material on Harthacnut is largely positive. The author considered both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut to have been sons of Cnut and Emma of Normandy. He portrays Harold as lacking in chivalry, courtesy, and honour. While Harthacnut was ""...a noble knight and stalwart of body, and he greatly loved knighthood and all virtues."" He praises Harthacnut for his generosity with food and drink, claiming that his table was open ""...for all who wished to come to his court to be richly served with royal dishes"". He concludes by portraying Harthacnut as a loyal son for accepting his mother, Emma, back to court.

paragraph: Section::::Contradictory account of his death.

paragraph: There is a contradictory account of Harthacnut's death featured in the "Morkinskinna" (13th century). According to this account, Magnus I of Norway (reigned 1034–1047) visited the court of Harthacnut in Denmark, received with all official honours. The two monarchs then argued on a matter of etiquette, on whether the host or the guest should drink first, each man offering the honour to the other. The two eventually agreed that the host should drink first. Then Álfífa (Ælfgifu of Northampton) entered the royal hall, welcoming Magnus. She poured a drink for him. But the guest offered the drink to Harthacnut. He drank from the drinking horn and fell dead, poisoned. Álfífa had thus intended to poison Magnus, but accidentally killed Harthacnut instead. She fled to escape punishment.

paragraph: The tale is probably fictional in origin, though consistent with the villainous depiction of Ælfgifu in this work. A nearly identical story appears in the "Egils saga", though the three protagonists are different, with Egill Skallagrímsson as the intended victim, with Bárðr of Atley and Gunnhild, Mother of Kings as the would-be poisoners.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- DeVries, Kelly, "The Norwegian Invasion of England in 1066" (2003). Boydell & Brewer Ltd,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Douglas, David Charles, "William The Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England" (1964). University of California Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Finlay, Alison (tr.). "Fagrskinna: A Catalogue of the Kings of Norway". Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2004. [Based primarily on Einarsson’s 1984 edition]

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fjalldal, Magnus, "Anglo-Saxon England in Icelandic Medieval Texts" (2005). University of Toronto Press,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gillingham, John, "The introduction of chivalry into England". Essay included in "Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt" (1994), pages 31–56. Cambridge University Press,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Given-Wilson, Chris, "Chronicles: The Writing Of History In Medieval England". Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holman, Katherine, "The Northern Conquest: Vikings in Britain and Ireland". Oxford: Signal, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Howard, Ian, "Harthacnut: The Last Danish King of England", The History Press, 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- Howard, Ian, "Harold II: a Throne-Worthy King". Essay included in "King Harold II and the Bayeux Tapestry" (2005), pages 35–52. Boydell Press, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- John, Eric, "Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England" (1996). Manchester University Press ND,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kerr, Julie,"Food, Drink, and Lodging:Hospitality in Twelfth-Century England". Article published in "The Haskins Society Journal: Studies in Medieval History", Volume 18, pages 72–92. Boydell Press, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marvin, Julia, "The Oldest Anglo-Norman Prose Brut Chronicle: An Edition and Translation" (2006). Boydell Press, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Brien, Harriet, "Queen Emma and the Vikings: The Woman Who Shaped the Events of 1066" (2006). Bloomsbury Publishing,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rushton, Alan R., "Royal Maladies: Inherited Diseases in the Royal Houses of Europe" (2008). Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scott, Walter, "Ivanhoe" (1819), Chapter 21, p. 177.

alias: Harthacnut Hardeknud

description: King of Denmark and King of England

wikidata_label: Harthacanute

wikipedia_title: Harthacnut


text:
pianist
Royal Academy of Music
Shanghai
Xiamen
Gulangyu Island
Westonbirt School
Royal Academy of Music
Yvonne Lefébure
Paris Conservatoire
Alfred Cortot
Myra Hess
Artur Schnabel
Royal Academy of Music
Purcell School for Young Musicians
Yehudi Menuhin
Fou Ts'ong

categories: Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music,1940 births,Fellows of the Royal Academy of Music,People educated at Westonbirt School,Conservatoire de Paris alumni,Living people

paragraph: Patsy Toh

paragraph: Patsy Toh (; born 1940) is a Chinese-born pianist living in London, England. She has taught at the Royal Academy of Music since 1975, and became a Fellow in 1995.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Toh was born in Shanghai, China, in 1940 of a family from Xiamen, the family returned to Gulangyu Island shortly after her birth. In 1948 at the age of 8, she won first prize in the Hong Kong Music Competition and in 1952 at the age of 12 went to Westonbirt School, a boarding school in England.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: At 13 she passed 8th Grade and at 16 entered the Royal Academy of Music. While still a student she won the Royal Overseas League Competition in London. Toh was awarded a Scholarship to study with Yvonne Lefébure at the Paris Conservatoire, where she won a Premier Prix. She also studied with Alfred Cortot, Dame Myra Hess and Aube Tzerko (a pupil of Artur Schnabel).

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Toh has performed as a pianist often in Europe, China and the Americas. Toh has served as a professor of piano at the Royal Academy of Music and a member of the Keyboard department at the Purcell School for Young Musicians. Toh is a regular Visiting Professor to music conservatories in Shanghai, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore and has taught at Yehudi Menuhin Schools.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Toh is married to Fou Ts'ong, a pianist. They live in London, England.

description: pianist

wikidata_label: Patsy Toh

wikipedia_title: Patsy Toh


text: CD

text: Czechoslovak

text: Canadian armed forces

text: The Royal Canadian Regiment

text: SkyHawks Parachute Team

text: skydiver

text: fall of the iron curtain

text: breakup of Yugoslavia

text: CBC

text: Ottawa Citizen

text: Washington Inquirer

text: Inter Press Service

text: Šibenik

text: Croatia

text: Serbian

text: military vehicle

text: Zadar, Croatia

text: Prague

text: "The Disarming of Canada" at Amazon.ca

categories: SkyHawks Parachute Team,Canadian people of Czech descent,The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada,Canadian male journalists,1938 births,1994 deaths,Canadian anti-communists,Czechoslovak emigrants to Canada,Czech anti-communists,Czech emigrants to Canada

paragraph: John Hasek

paragraph: John Henry George Hasek, CD (January 28, 1938 – January 1, 1994) was a Czechoslovak-born Canadian soldier, journalist and author. After fleeing post-war communist Czechoslovakia, he and his family emigrated to the United Kingdom, South America and eventually Canada where Hasek joined the Canadian armed forces in 1957.

paragraph: Major Hasek graduated from the University of Ottawa and later the University of New Brunswick with a Master of Arts in Psychology. As a member of the Canadian Forces he studied and worked as an instructor at the Royal Military College in Kingston, Ontario.

paragraph: Hasek served in The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, The Royal Canadian Regiment

paragraph: While with the Canadian Forces, Hasek served in Ghana, Vietnam and Cyprus and as the first commander of the SkyHawks Parachute Team, which is the Demonstration Parachute Team of the Canadian Forces. An accomplished skydiver, Hasek had several thousand descents to his credit, and served as a member of the Parachute Testing Wing/Trials and Evaluations centre of the Airborne Centre in Edmonton, Alberta.

paragraph: After retiring in 1981, he worked as a freelance journalist and published "The Disarming of Canada" (1987). Following the fall of the iron curtain, John founded "Education for Democracy", a non-profit organisation bringing over 1500 volunteer English teachers to Czechoslovakia from Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Australia. Education for Democracy was renamed "John Hasek Society" in 1994 shortly after Hasek's death.

paragraph: Hasek covered the breakup of Yugoslavia as a freelance reporter for the CBC, Ottawa Citizen, Washington Inquirer and Inter Press Service. He was seriously wounded in June 1993 near Šibenik, Croatia. The causes of his accident were unclear, with some speculating that he had hit a mine in his car, or due to a collision with a Serbian military vehicle. After being operated on in a nearly abandoned hospital in Zadar, Croatia he was transferred in a Czech government flight to the Central Military Hospital in Prague on 30 June and died six months later on 1 January 1994.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Disarming of Canada" at Amazon.ca

description: Canadian soldier and journalist

wikidata_label: John Hasek

wikipedia_title: John Hasek


text:
Knights Templar
Milo IV
Count of Bar-sur-Seine
Jean de Brienne
King of Jerusalem
Leo I of Armenia
Bagras
Spain
Moors
pestilence
endemic typhus
Damietta

categories: People from Aube,Year of birth unknown,Christians of the Fifth Crusade,13th-century French people,1218 deaths,Grand Masters of the Knights Templar

paragraph: Guillaume de Chartres

paragraph: Guillaume de Chartres (Guillielmus de Carnoto, Willemus de Carnoto), (c. 1178 – 1219) was a grand master of the Knights Templar from 1210 – 26 August 1218.

paragraph: He was the son of Milo IV, the Count of Bar-sur-Seine.

paragraph: In 1210, Guillaume de Chartres assisted at the coronation of Jean de Brienne as King of Jerusalem. In 1211, he arbitrated between Leo I of Armenia and the Templars, regarding the castle of Bagras. During his rule, the order flourished in Spain, achieving important victories against the Moors. He had contact with the Mongols under Genghis Khan and was accused of treason as a result.

paragraph: Guillaume died in 1219 of pestilence, (possibly endemic typhus), as a consequence of being wounded during the siege of Damietta, in Seborga in the Holy Land.

description: Grand master of the Knights Templar

wikidata_label: Guillaume de Chartres

wikipedia_title: Guillaume de Chartres


text:
Bektashi
Trabzon
Empire of Trebizond
Islam
Boztepe
Hoy, Iran
Azerbaijan
Kayseri
Turkey
Ahi
guild
Mongol
Kırşehir
Greek
Sakir Sevket
Sheykh Haji Hakki Efendi
species
Ahi Evran University
saint
Özhan Öztürk
Black Sea
Ahilik ve Yaran

paragraph: Ahi Evren

paragraph: Ahi Evran (1169–1261), real name Sheykh Nasreddin Abul Hakayik Mahmud bin Ahmed al-Hoyi but popularly known as Pir Ahi Evran-ı Veli, was a Bektashi preacher who came to Trabzon during the Empire of Trebizond and extended Islam in the region. His grave in Boztepe near Trabzon is considered to be sacred and is visited by many people. He was born in Hoy, Iran in December 1169. He grew up in Azerbaijan, moved to Kayseri, Turkey and established the "Ahi" guild. He was killed by Mongols in Kırşehir on 1 April 1261. The grave in Boztepe might belong to someone else, such as a clan leader or a Greek metropolitan who accepted Islam.

paragraph: According to Sakir Sevket, in 1863 the Muslim preacher Sheykh Haji Hakki Efendi was inspired to build a place near Ahi Evren's grave. When he died in 1890, he was buried near this place and the government built a tomb and mosque at the site.

paragraph: A new insect species discovered in Turkey by an assistant professor at the Ahi Evran University was named "Evrani" in honor of the university and the saint.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Özhan Öztürk. Black Sea: Enyclopedic Dictionary (Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük. 2. Cilt. Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul. 2005. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- https://web.archive.org/web/20170426141127/http://www.cemvakfi.org.tr/prof-dr-huseyin-bal/alevi-onderleri/

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.allaboutturkey.com/hacibektas.htm

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/EN,98549/traditional-institutions---dervish-orders.html

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: Ahilik ve Yaran

description: Turkish preacher

wikidata_label: Ahi Evren

wikipedia_title: Ahi Evren


text: British

text: Sir John Wyndham

text: Elizabeth Ilive

text: Royal Navy

text: midshipman

text: HMS "Amelia"

text: Army

text: Cornet

text: 5th Dragoon Guards

text: Lieutenant

text: 3rd Dragoon Guards

text: Captain

text: 72nd Highlanders

text: ADC

text: Sir Eyre Coote

text: DAAG

text: Earl Cathcart

text: Bombardment of Copenhagen

text: 1st Foot Guards

text: Walcheren Expedition

text: Major

text: 78th Regiment

text: 12th Light Dragoons

text: Lieutenant-Colonel

text: 20th Light Dragoons

text: siege of Ciudad Rodrigo

text: 4th Earl of Egremont

text: Petworth House

text: Sussex

text: Henry

text: Percy Scawen Wyndham

text: George Wyndham

text: Robert Nigel Fitzhardinge Kingscote

text: Earl of Egremont

categories: 1787 births,3rd Dragoon Guards officers,12th Royal Lancers officers,Wyndham family,78th Highlanders officers,72nd Highlanders officers,1869 deaths,Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom,Grenadier Guards officers,5th Dragoon Guards officers

paragraph: George Wyndham, 1st Baron Leconfield

paragraph: George Wyndham, 1st Baron Leconfield (5 June 1787 – 18 March 1869), was a British soldier and peer.

paragraph: A direct descendant of Sir John Wyndham, he was the eldest natural son of George O'Brien Wyndham, 3rd Earl of Egremont, and Elizabeth Ilive. His parents were married in 1801 but had no sons after their marriage.

paragraph: George Wyndham entered the Royal Navy in 1799 as a midshipman in HMS "Amelia". In 1802 he transferred to the Army as a Cornet in the 5th Dragoon Guards, promoted in 1803 to Lieutenant in the 3rd Dragoon Guards. In 1805 he was a Captain in the 72nd Highlanders and ADC to Sir Eyre Coote who was Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica. In 1807 he was DAAG to Earl Cathcart at the Bombardment of Copenhagen; in 1809, as Captain in the 1st Foot Guards, he took part in the Walcheren Expedition; in 1811 he was a Major in the 78th Regiment and the 12th Light Dragoons; and in 1812 he was Lieutenant-Colonel commanding the 20th Light Dragoons at the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo.

paragraph: The earldom of Egremont became extinct on the death of the 4th Earl of Egremont in 1845 and this George Wyndham was adopted as the heir to the substantial Egremont estates, including Petworth House in Sussex. In 1859 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Leconfield, of Leconfield in the East Riding of the County of York.

paragraph: During the Great Irish Famine, Col. George Wyndham was often in residence in his County Clare estate near Ennis where he assisted tenants who wanted to emigrate to Canada. This was a continuation of his father's improving policies in Sussex. In late 1849 and early 1850, a series of seven anonymous essays and illustrations concerning the famine appeared in the Illustrated London News under the title "Condition of Ireland: Illustrations of the New Poor Law." Here the narrator (likely the journalist and philanthropist Sidney Godolphin Osborne) writes of Col. Wyndham that "Colonel Windham . . . is not tired of his fellow-creatures, and does not seek to exterminate them. Not a roofless house did I see here." His property was a "little oasis of humanity in the desert of misery."

paragraph: George Wyndham married Mary Fanny Blunt, daughter of Reverend William Blunt, in 1815. He died in March 1869, aged 81, and was succeeded in the barony by his eldest surviving son Henry. His third son, the Hon. Percy Scawen Wyndham, was the father of the politician and man of letters George Wyndham. His daughter, Hon. Caroline Sophia Wyndham (b. 12 Jul 1829, d. 19 Mar 1852) married Colonel Sir Robert Nigel Fitzhardinge Kingscote on 13 March 1851 at Petworth, Sussex. She died giving birth and is buried with her still-born child in the family vault at Bartons Lane Cemetery, Petworth, West Sussex.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Earl of Egremont

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Mosley (ed.), "Burke's Peerage & Baronetage", 106th edition, 1999, entry "Egremont"

description: British Baron

wikidata_label: George Wyndham, 1st Baron Leconfield

wikipedia_title: George Wyndham, 1st Baron Leconfield


text:
Cuba
discus throw
Havana
La Habana
Sports reference biography
Tilastopaja biography
Picture of Yania Ferrales

categories: Competitors at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games,Cuban female discus throwers,Pan American Games competitors for Cuba,Athletes (track and field) at the 2007 Pan American Games,Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics,Pan American Games silver medalists for Cuba,Central American and Caribbean Games gold medalists for Cuba,Pan American Games bronze medalists for Cuba,People from Morón, Cuba,Athletes (track and field) at the 2003 Pan American Games,Olympic athletes of Cuba,Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field),1977 births,Living people,Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics

paragraph: Yania Ferrales

paragraph: Yania Ferrales Monteagudo (born 28 July 1977) is a Cuban discus thrower.

paragraph: Her personal best throw is 66.00 metres, achieved in February 2006 in Havana.

paragraph: Section::::Personal bests.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Discus throw: 66.00 – La Habana, 10 February 2006

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sports reference biography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tilastopaja biography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Picture of Yania Ferrales

description: athletics competitor

wikidata_label: Yania Ferrales

wikipedia_title: Yania Ferrales


text:
King James II
Capetian House of Anjou
Charles II of Naples
Maria of Hungary
Robert I of Naples
Louis of Toulouse
Philip I of Taranto
Emperor of Constantinople
Charles Martel
King of Hungary
Eleanor, Queen of Sicily
Maria, Queen of Majorca
John I, Marquess of Montferrat
Montferrat
Pope Boniface VIII
James II of Aragon
Sardinia
Corsica
Vilabertran
Santes Creus
James
Tarragona
Eleanor of Castile
Alfonso IV of Aragon
Teresa d'Entença
Maria
Infante Peter of Castile
Sancho IV of Castile
Valencia
Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena
Alfonso X of Castile
Isabella
Styria
Frederick I of Austria
John
Zaragoza
Toledo
Tarragona
Alexandria
Pisa
Ribagorça
Gaston I of Foix
Eleanor, Queen of Cyprus
Barcelona
Barcelona
Empúries
Philip I of Taranto
Barcelona
Pedrola

categories: Women of medieval Italy,Aragonese queen consorts,Capetian House of Anjou,Countesses of Barcelona,1310 deaths,14th-century women rulers,1280 births,Royal consorts of Sicily

paragraph: Blanche of Anjou

paragraph: Blanche of Anjou (1280 – 14 October 1310) was Queen of Aragon as the second spouse of King James II. She was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, she is also known as "Blanche of Naples". She served as Regent or "Queen-Lieutenant" of Aragon during the absence of her spouse in 1310.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Blanche was the daughter of Charles II of Naples and Maria of Hungary. Among her siblings were Robert I of Naples, Saint Louis of Toulouse, Philip I of Taranto, titular Emperor of Constantinople, Charles Martel, titular King of Hungary, Eleanor, Queen of Sicily, and Maria, Queen of Majorca. She was originally betrothed in 1290 to John I, Marquess of Montferrat. Her father was helping him defend Montferrat, hoping to make John his vassal. However, the engagement was broken off and John died childless in 1305.

paragraph: The new Pope Boniface VIII, elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King Charles, mediated between the latter and James II of Aragon, and the Treaty of Anagni was signed: James was to marry Blanche and was promised the investiture, by the pope, of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to leave the Angevin a free hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the Sicilians resisted.

paragraph: On 29 October or 1 November 1295 at Vilabertran, Blanche and James were married.

paragraph: Blanche died on the 14 October 1310, during her regency in the absence of James. Her death was probably linked to the birth of her daughter Violante, who was born in October 1310. Blanche was buried at Santes Creus. She was survived by her husband, children and mother.

paragraph: Section::::Issue.

paragraph: BULLET::::- James (b. 29 September 1296 – d. Tarragona, July 1334). James renounced his right to the throne in 1319 to become a monk. He refused to consummate his marriage to Eleanor of Castile, who later become the second wife of his brother Alfonso.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alfonso IV of Aragon (1299 – 24 January 1336). He became the King of Aragon in 1327 and ruled until his death. He married twice: first to Teresa d'Entença and then to Eleanor of Castile after his first wife died.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria (b. 1299 – d. as a nun in Sijena, 1316). She married Infante Peter of Castile, son of Sancho IV of Castile.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constance (b. Valencia, 1 April 1300 – d. Castillo de Garcia Munoz, 19 September 1327). Constance married Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena, nephew of Alfonso X of Castile.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isabella (b. 1302 – d. Styria, 12 July 1330), she married Frederick I of Austria.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John (b. 1304 – d. Pobo, Zaragoza, 19 August 1334). John became the first Archbishop of Toledo and Tarragona in 1318, and Patriarch of Alexandria in 1328.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter (b. 1305 – d. Pisa, 4 November 1381), Count of Ribagorça and Prades. Peter married Jeanne, daughter of Gaston I of Foix. Peter was the father of Eleanor, Queen of Cyprus.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blanche (b. 1307 – d. Barcelona, 1348), Prioress of Sixena.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramon Berenguer (b. August 1308 – d. a priest at Barcelona, 1366), Count of Empúries and Baron of Ejerica.. Ramon married firstly Blanca, daughter of Philip I of Taranto, and secondly Maria, daughter of Jaime of Aragon.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Violante (b. Barcelona, October 1310 – d. Pedrola, 19 July 1353). She first married Philip, Despot of Romania, son of Philip I of Taranto. Her second marriage was to Lope de Luna, Lord of Segorbe.

description: Queen consort of Aragon

wikidata_label: Blanche of Anjou

wikipedia_title: Blanche of Anjou


text:
Polk County, Wisconsin
Minneapolis School of Fine Arts
Robert Henri
Ashcan School
Redlands, California
Glendale, California
Milford, Connecticut
Arnold Franz Brasz in AskART
Library of Congress

categories: 20th-century American painters,Students of Robert Henri,American male painters,Painters from California,Artists from Wisconsin,People from Polk County, Wisconsin,1888 births

paragraph: Arnold Franz Brasz

paragraph: Arnold Franz Brasz (July 19, 1888 – April 1, 1966) was an American painter, sculptor, and printmaker who was born in Polk County, Wisconsin on July 19, 1888. He studied at the Minneapolis School of Fine Arts and also with Robert Henri in New York. By the early 1920s, he was dividing his time between southern California and Wisconsin. He is considered a member of the Ashcan School, and his public commissions include "Fruit Pickers", a 1940 mural in the city hall of Redlands, California showing four Native American farm workers. Brasz died at his home in Glendale, California on April 1, 1966.

paragraph: Section::::Auction record.

paragraph: The auction record for a painting by Arnold Franz Brasz is $31,070. This record was set by "At the Big Top", a 23 by 29.7 inch oil painting on canvas sold May 4, 2006 at Shannon's Fine Art Auctioneers (Milford, Connecticut).

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hughes, Edan, "Artists in California 1786-1940, 2nd ed.", San Francisco, Hughes Publishing, 1989, p. 67.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shannon’s, "Fine American and European Paintings, Drawings and Sculpture", Greenwich Connecticut, May 4, 2006, p. 87.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arnold Franz Brasz in AskART

paragraph: BULLET::::- Library of Congress

description: American artist

wikidata_label: Arnold Franz Brasz

wikipedia_title: Arnold Franz Brasz


text: Minster Lovell Hall

text: Oxfordshire

text: English

text: Robert Keilway

text: Oxford University

text: Inner Temple

text: Court of Wards and Liveries

text: Custos Rotulorum of Berkshire

text: Member of Parliament

text: Bristol

text: Steyning

text: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset

text: Lord Protector

text: serjeant-at-law

text: Hedgerley

text: Buckinghamshire

text: Faringdon

text: Berkshire

text: Sir Edward Unton

categories: English MPs 1559,English MPs 1547–1552,Serjeants-at-law (England),1581 deaths,Alumni of the University of Oxford,People from Oxfordshire,15th-century English people,Members of the Inner Temple,1497 births,English MPs 1545–1547,People of the Tudor period

paragraph: Robert Keilway

paragraph: Robert Keilway ("alias" Kellway, Keylway, Kaylway, Kelloway, etc.) (1497–1581) of Minster Lovell Hall in Oxfordshire, was an English politician and court official.

paragraph: He was the son of Robert Keilway of Salisbury and educated at Oxford University and the Inner Temple.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He was appointed Surveyor of the Court of Wards and Liveries in 1546 and Custos Rotulorum of Berkshire in 1549. He was elected a Member of Parliament for Bristol (1545 and 1547) and for Steyning in 1559. He was legal advisor to Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector of England. and appointed serjeant-at-law in 1552.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage & progeny.

paragraph: He married Cecily Bulstrode, a daughter of Edward Bulstrode of Hedgerley in Buckinghamshire and widow of Sir Alexander Unton of Wadley House in the parish of Faringdon, Berkshire (now Oxfordshire). He was therefore the step-father of Sir Edward Unton. By his wife he had progeny including:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anne Keilway (c. 1554–1620), wife of John Harington, 1st Baron Harington of Exton.

paragraph: Section::::Death & monument.

paragraph: His magnificent monument with effigy, erected by his daughter and son-in-law, survives in Exton Church, inscribed as follows:

description: English politician and court official

wikidata_label: Robert Keilway

wikipedia_title: Robert Keilway


text: Nutwell

text: Woodbury

text: Hartland

text: peer

text: Lord High Treasurer

text: Lord Chancellor of Ireland

text: Edward IV

text: Richard III

text: Henry VII

text: Nutwell

text: Sir John Dinham

text: Joan Arches

text: Richard Arches

text: Member of Parliament

text: Buckinghamshire

text: Eythrope

text: Waddesdon

text: House of York

text: Battle of Ludford Bridge

text: Sandwich, Kent

text: Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers

text: Edward IV

text: High Sheriff of Devon

text: Lord Chancellor of Ireland

text: Privy Council

text: Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon

text: Anglo-French War

text: Cornwall

text: Lieutenant of Calais

text: Hammes

text: John, 7th Lord Zouche

text: Battle of Bosworth

text: Knight of the Garter

text: Exchequer

text: Lambeth

text: Cornish Rebellion of 1497

text: Lambeth

text: Surrey

text: London Greyfriars

text: Elizabeth FitzWalter

text: suo jure

text: 8th Baroness FitzWalter

text: attainted

text: treason

text: William FitzAlan, 18th Earl of Arundel

text: Eythrope

text: Buckinghamshire

text: Joan Chaworth

text: Nutwell

text: Kingskerswell

text: Hartland, Devon

text: Souldern

text: Mohuns Ottery

text: Luppitt

text: purbeck marble

text: chest tomb

text: Westminster Abbey

text: ledger stone

text: Prince

text: Fulk Bourchier, 10th Baron FitzWarin

text: feudal baron of Bampton

text: Thomas Brandon

text: Bampton

text: impaling

text: quarterly

text: Richard Arches

text: Eythrope

text: Lanherne

text: St. Mawgan-in-Pyder

text: John Arundell

text: Lady Margaret Beaufort

text: monumental brass

text: tapestry

text: Metropolitan Museum of Art

text: Garter

text: Hartland Abbey

text: dexter

text: sinister

categories: 1501 deaths,Barons in the Peerage of England,16th-century English nobility,High Sheriffs of Devon,1433 births,Year of birth uncertain,15th-century English people,People from Devon,Lord High Treasurers of England,People of the Tudor period

paragraph: John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham

paragraph: John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham (c. 1433–1501) of Nutwell in the parish of Woodbury and of Hartland, both in Devon, was an English peer and politician. He served as Lord High Treasurer of England and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. He was one of the few men to have served as councillor to Kings Edward IV, Richard III and Henry VII and was trusted by all of them.

paragraph: Section::::Origins.

paragraph: He was born at Nutwell, the eldest son and heir of Sir John Dinham (1406–1458) of Nutwell and Hartland, by his wife Joan Arches (died 1497), sister and heiress of John Arches and daughter of Sir Richard Arches (died 1417), a Member of Parliament for Buckinghamshire in 1402, of Eythrope, Cranwell (both in the parish of Waddesdon) and Little Kimble, Buckinghamshire, whose arms were: "Gules, three arches argent". The Dynhams had been seated at Nutwell since about 1122 and were one of the leading gentry families in Devon. His father died in 1458, but his mother was in occupation of the lands until her own death in 1496/7.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Yorkist.

paragraph: His service to the House of York began in 1459 when the future Edward IV and his Neville relatives, fleeing the disastrous Battle of Ludford Bridge took refuge with his mother, for which Edward later rewarded her; John himself bought the ship on which they fled to Calais. He was attainted by the Coventry Parliament and led two successful raids against the royal forces at Sandwich, Kent. During the first raid he captured Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, thus producing the (in retrospect) comical scene where Rivers was humiliated for his low birth by his future son-in-law, King Edward IV.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Under Edward IV.

paragraph: He was made High Sheriff of Devon and Lord Chancellor of Ireland in 1460. After Edward IV's accession he became a member of the Privy Council and was created Baron Dynham in 1467, although no grant of lands accompanied the title, as was usual. Ross suggests that he did not become a leading figure in government until the death of Humphrey Stafford, Earl of Devon. During the years of crisis from 1469 to 1471 Dynham remained wholly loyal to Edward, and following Edward's return to power became one of the foremost members of the Government; he was Commander-in-Chief of naval forces during the brief Anglo-French War in 1475. On the other hand, the Crown was somewhat grudging with grants of land, his estates being confined to Devon and Cornwall. Nor did he have a powerful network of family alliances: two of his sisters married into the Carew and Arundell families who were of purely local importance; the others married into the Zouche and Fitzwarin families, who were peers but not, until the accession of Richard III, of wide influence.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Under Richard III.

paragraph: After Richard III's accession he continued to flourish, becoming Lieutenant of Calais. In that capacity he recaptured Hammes Castle, which had defected to Henry VII but was criticised for allowing the garrison to depart. His marriage connections now became useful since John, 7th Lord Zouche had married his sister Joan. Zouche was one of the coming men in Richard's reign, but his prospects were ruined by the Battle of Bosworth.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Under Henry VII.

paragraph: After Richard's death he remained at Calais until it became clear that Henry VII bore him no ill-will. In fact Chrimes suggests that Henry was anxious to obtain the services of a man with such a record of service and loyalty to the Crown. While the Zouche connection had been useful, Dynham acquired a new patron in Lord Willoughby de Broke, his second wife's father, who was Steward of the Royal Household. Certainly Dynham flourished under Henry; he was made a Knight of the Garter, and was Lord Treasurer from 1486 until his death: he took his duties at the Exchequer very seriously and spent most of his time at Lambeth for convenience. He received several grants and sat on numerous commissions. He was one of the judges who tried the rebels after the Cornish Rebellion of 1497.

paragraph: His career did not suffer from the execution for treason of his stepson Lord FitzWalter in 1495; nor the attainder of his brother-in-law Lord Zouche; he was given an allowance to support his impoverished sister Lady Zouche, and Zouche after years of disgrace was eventually restored to a measure of favour.

paragraph: He died at his home in Lambeth, Surrey, on 28 January 1501 and was buried in the London Greyfriars. He had no surviving legitimate children, and his three brothers having all predeceased him, the title died with him.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage & progeny.

paragraph: John Dynham married twice:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Firstly to Elizabeth FitzWalter, "suo jure" 8th Baroness FitzWalter (1430–pre.1485), widow of John Radcliffe. Her estates passed on her death to her son from her first marriage, the 9th Baron FitzWalter, (attainted for treason in 1495).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Secondly in about 1485 he married Elizabeth Willoughby (died pre-1510), a daughter of Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke, who survived him and remarried to William FitzAlan, 18th Earl of Arundel. By his second wife he had at least two children who died young:

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Dinham, died young;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippa Dinham, died young.

paragraph: Section::::Mistresses.

paragraph: He also had an illegitimate son, Thomas Dynham (died 1519), who was granted lands in Eythrope, Buckinghamshire, and who married Joan Ormond, eldest daughter of John Ormond (died 1503) and Joan Chaworth.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: As he died without surviving progeny, his estates, which included Nutwell, Kingskerswell and Hartland, Devon, along with Souldern, Oxfordshire (inherited from Arches family), descended to the heirs of his four surviving sisters (a fifth sister, Edith, appears to have predeceased him, leaving no issue):

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margery Dinham (d.13 December 1471), eldest sister, who married Nicholas IV Carew (1424–1470) of Mohuns Ottery in the parish of Luppitt, Devon. His purbeck marble chest tomb survives in the Chapel of St Nicholas in Westminster Abbey, the ledger stone of which bore a Latin inscription, now effaced. The Devonshire biographer Prince (d.1723) wrote concerning this monument ""To whose memory an antient plain tomb of gray marble is there still seen erected with an inscription in brass round the ledg, and some coats of arms on the pedestal"". The inscription and arms were still remaining in 1733, but had disappeared by 1877. The Latin epitaph was recorded by Prince as follows:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elizabeth Dinham (died 19 October 1516), second sister, who married firstly Fulk Bourchier, 10th Baron FitzWarin (died 18 September 1479), feudal baron of Bampton in Devon, and secondly Sir John Sapcotes (died 5 January 1501) of Elton, Huntingdonshire. She married thirdly Sir Thomas Brandon (died 27 January 1510). In a stained-glass window of Bampton Church are visible the arms of Sapcotes (or Shapcott) "Sable, three dovecotes argent" impaling quarterly of four, 1st & 4th: "Gules, four fusils ermine" (Dinham), 2nd & 3rd "Gules, three arches argent" (Arches, for Sir Richard Arches (died 1417) of Eythrope, Cranwell and Little Kimble, Buckinghamshire, whose daughter Joan Arches (died 1497) was the wife of Sir John Dinham (1406–1458), and thus was Elizabeth Dinham's mother.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan Dinham, third sister, wife of John la Zouche, 7th Baron Zouche, 8th Baron St Maur (died 23 June 1526).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Katherine Dinham, fourth sister, who married Sir Thomas Arundell (died 8 February 1485) of Lanherne, St. Mawgan-in-Pyder, Cornwall. She was the mother of Sir John Arundell (1474–1545).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edith Dinham, Gentlewoman to Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII. She predeceased her brother and died without issue, having married Thomas Fowler, Usher of the Chamber to King Edward IV. Her monumental brass survives in Christ's College Chapel, Cambridge, (founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort in 1505) and shows the arms of Dynham quartering Arches.

paragraph: Section::::Heraldic tapestry.

paragraph: A large wool and silk Flemish tapestry dated post-1487 exists in the Cloisters Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York which consists almost entirely of the armorial bearings and heraldic badges of Lord Dynham. It is said to come from the workshop of the Grenier family of Tournai, which is known to have supplied tapestries to King Henry VII in 1486 and 1488. In the latter year the king ordered his then Treasurer, Lord Dynham, to allow these imports to enter England free of duty, and according to Bonnie (1962) Dinham may have ordered one for himself at the same time

paragraph: The central motif is an escutcheon of the jousting tournament form surrounded by a Garter, which order Dinham received in 1487, thus partially dating the tapestry. The supporters are two harts, said to be a form of canting heraldry referring to Hartland Abbey one of the family's oldest possessions. The crest displayed is "on a chapeau gules turned up ermine an ermine statant between two lighted candles proper". In each of the upper corners is a further escutcheon, showing on the dexter side the arms of Dynham of "Gules, four lozenges ermine" and on the sinister side the arms of Dynham impaling Arches: "Gules, three arches argent", both shields surrounded by the Garter. These two shields represent respectively Lord Dynham's father and mother The family Badge of the Dynhams was a stag's head, again in allusion to Hartland Abbey, whilst Lord Dynham's personal badge was a topcastle of a warship, containing five javelins leaning against the railing, above which is a pennant with the Cross of St George. This personal badge is liberally displayed on the tapestry.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chope, R. Pearse, "The Book of Hartland", Torquay, 1940

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chrimes, S.B., "Henry VII" Yale University Press 1999

description: English baron and Lord High Treasurer

wikidata_label: John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham

wikipedia_title: John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham


text: Dunstable

text: Isleworth

text: Syon House

text: Horace Walpole

text: Thomas Holt

text: Gerard Christmas

text: Northumberland House

text: Edwin Beresford Chancellor

text: John Summerson

categories: English male painters,1601 births,17th-century English painters,Year of death unknown,People of the Stuart period,English cartographers

paragraph: Moses Glover

paragraph: Moses Glover (born in Dunstable in 1601, fl. 1620-1640), was an English cartographer. He described himself as "paynter And Architectur", although very little is known about him apart from his maps and the church records. Glover's marriage licence, issued in 1622, described him as "painter-stainer of Isleworth". In 1635 he created a survey map of Isleworth Hundred for Algernon Percy, 10th Earl of Northumberland. It is preserved at the Syon House in London.

paragraph: Horace Walpole considered Glover to be an architect equal to Thomas Holt, Huntingdon Smithson and Rudolph Symonds. According to Walpole, Glover was associate to Gerard Christmas in building the Northumberland House, and was "much employed at Sion House by Henry, Earl of Northumberland". Walpole dated Glover's work at Sion 1604–1615. Edwin Beresford Chancellor questioned Glover's role as an architect ("Another so-called architect of this period, who seems to have added painting to his other accomplishment..."). John Summerson wrote that the opinion of early 19th century authors was merely a "suggestion" influenced by Glover's map and survey.

description: British artist

wikidata_label: Moses Glover

wikipedia_title: Moses Glover