text: T.O.S.F.

text: Anglicised

text: Latin

text: mathematician

text: polymath

text: philosopher

text: logician

text: Franciscan tertiary

text: Kingdom of Majorca

text: Catalan literature

text: his work

text: elections theory

text: computation theory

text: Leibniz

text: Philip II

text: monasterio del Escorial

text: Spanish Inquisition

text: Franciscan Order

text: martyr

text: beatified

text: Pope Pius IX

text: feast day

text: Palma

text: Kingdom of Majorca

text: James I of Aragon

text: Balearic Islands

text: Spain

text: Crown of Aragon

text: Catalonia

text: Almohad

text: troubadour

text: James II of Aragon

text: Seneschal

text: King James II of Majorca

text: epiphany

text: visions

text: die in the service of God

text: Third Order of Saint Francis

text: Francis of Assisi

text: Al-Ghazali

text: Puig de Randa

text: Council of Vienne

text: Hebrew

text: Arabic

text: Aramaic

text: Bologna

text: Oxford

text: Salamanca

text: Duns Scotus

text: Mallorca

text: Tunis

text: Blanquerna

text: zairja

text: trees

text: esoteric

text: Giordano Bruno

text: Gottfried Leibniz

text: computer

text: system of logic

text: information science

text: Blanquerna

text: "L'arbre de ciència"

text: Llibre de meravelles

text: Chivalry

text: Hermeticists

text: Gnostics

text: Esoterics

text: alchemy

text: Nicholas Eymerich

text: Pope Gregory XI

text: Pope Paul IV

text: Pope Martin V

text: Pope Gregory XI

text: University of Barcelona

text: University of Valencia

text: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas

text: Ramon Llull University

text: Borda count

text: Condorcet criterion

text: Jean-Charles de Borda

text: Nicolas de Condorcet

text: Llull winner

text: voting systems

text: Condorcet method

text: Gottfried Leibniz

text: Studio Weil

text: Port d'Andratx

text: Paul Auster

text: The Invention of Solitude

text: The Box of Delights

text: John Masefield

text: Roberto Bolaño

text: Leopoldo Marechal

text: Adán Buenosayres

text: William Gaddis

text: The Recognitions

text: Neil Gaiman

text: DC

text: Vertigo

text: The Sandman

text: The Commodore

text: Patrick O'Brian

text: Aubrey–Maturin series

text: Harry Harrison

text: Deathworld 2

text: W. B. Yeats

text: Nicolas Flamel

text: Gordon R. Dickson

text: expulsionist policy

text: Shlomo ben Aderet

text: Apologetics

text: Catalan literature

text: List of pioneers in computer science

text: Volvelle

text: Ramon Llull as a Vernacular Writer

text: "Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions"

text: Martin Gardner

text: Frances Yates

text: Samuel Marinus Zwemer

text: "Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems"

text: Open Library

text: Who was Ramon Llull?

text: Universitat de Barcelona

text: Raymund Lull: First Missionary to the Muslims

text: Othmer MS 4 Ars brevis; Ars abbreviata praedicanda at OPenn

text: Ramon Llull at the AELC

text: Ramon Llull in Lletra, Catalan Literature Online

text: Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona

text: "Catholic Encyclopedia" article of 1911

text: Blessed Raymond Lull

text: Esteve Jaulent: The Theory of Knowledge and the Unity of Man according to Ramon Llull

text: Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries

text: Selected images from "Practica compendiosa"

categories: People from Palma, Majorca,13th-century astrologers,14th-century Spanish writers,Medieval Spanish astrologers,13th-century mathematicians,13th-century Spanish writers,13th-century people from the Kingdom of Aragon,14th-century Latin writers,13th-century Roman Catholic theologians,Medieval writers,13th-century Latin writers,14th-century Christian mystics,Scholastic philosophers,1315 deaths,Catholic philosophers,Medieval Spanish mathematicians,People executed by stoning,Exophonic writers,13th-century philosophers,Medieval Catalan-language writers,Graph drawing people,Members of the Third Order of Saint Francis,Catalan language,Franciscan mystics,14th-century astrologers,Christian philosophers,13th-century Christian mystics,Franciscan beatified people,14th-century Roman Catholic theologians,14th-century mathematicians,1230s births,Arabic-language writers,14th-century philosophers

paragraph: Ramon Llull

paragraph: Ramon Llull, T.O.S.F. (; c. 1232 – c. 1315; Anglicised "Raymond Lully", "Raymond Lull"; in Latin "Raimundus" or "Raymundus Lullus" or "Lullius") was a mathematician, polymath, philosopher, logician, Franciscan tertiary and writer from the Kingdom of Majorca. He is credited with writing the first major work of Catalan literature. Recently surfaced manuscripts show his work to have predated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is also considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Leibniz.

paragraph: Section::::Saint or heretic.

paragraph: Since Llull's first writings, there has been confusion in the church regarding whether he was a saint or a heretic. Llull has had a canonization process open in the Vatican since the times of Philip II. King Philip was one of the promoters of this process. The Spanish king was extremely fond of his work and used parts of it in the creation of the monasterio del Escorial. Prior to that, Llull was considered a heretic by most, and the debate regarding both King Philip II and him continued in Rome long afterwards. Llull's works were prohibited by the Spanish Inquisition under the same king Philip, for he considered that "non-initiates could not understand them". Copies of the works were safely stored in the Library of El Escorial and were consulted by Spanish Scholars, mostly sympathetic to Llull's views.

paragraph: Within the Franciscan Order Llull is honoured as a martyr. He was beatified in 1847 by Pope Pius IX. His feast day was assigned to 30 June and is celebrated by the Third Order of St. Francis.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life and family.

paragraph: Llull was born into a wealthy family in Palma, the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Majorca. James I of Aragon founded Majorca to integrate the recently conquered territories of the Balearic Islands (now part of Spain) into the Crown of Aragon. Llull's parents had come from Catalonia as part of the effort to colonize the formerly Almohad ruled island. As the island had been conquered militarily, the Muslim population who had not been able to flee the conquering Christians had been enslaved, even though they still constituted a significant portion of the island's population.

paragraph: In 1257 Llull married Blanca Picany, with whom he had two children, Domènec and Magdalena. Although he formed a family, he lived what he would later call the licentious and wasteful life of a troubadour.

paragraph: Llull served as tutor to James II of Aragon, and later became Seneschal (the administrative head of the royal household) to the future King James II of Majorca, a relative of his wife.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Religious calling.

paragraph: In 1263 Llull experienced a religious epiphany in the form of a series of visions. He narrates the event in his autobiography "Vita coaetanea" ("Daily Life"):

paragraph: The vision came to Llull five times in all, leading him to leave his family, position, and belongings in order to pursue a life in the service of God. Specifically, he realized three intentions: to die in the service of God while converting Muslims to Christianity, to see to the founding of religious institutions that would teach foreign languages, and to write a book on how to overcome someone's objections to being converted.

paragraph: Following his epiphany Llull became a Franciscan tertiary (a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis), taking inspiration from Saint Francis of Assisi. After a short pilgrimage he returned to Majorca, where he purchased a Muslim slave from whom he wanted to learn Arabic. For the next nine years, until 1274, he engaged in study and contemplation in relative solitude. He read extensively in both Latin and Arabic, learning both Christian and Muslim theological and philosophical thought.

paragraph: Between 1271 and 1274 Llull wrote his first works, a compendium of the Muslim thinker Al-Ghazali's logic and the "Llibre de contemplació en Déu" ("Book on the Contemplation of God"), a lengthy guide to finding truth through contemplation.

paragraph: In 1274, while staying at a hermitage on Puig de Randa, the form of the great book Llull was to write was finally given to him through divine revelation: a complex system that he named his "Art", which would become the motivation behind most of his life's efforts.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Missionary work and education.

paragraph: Llull urged the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Europe, along with most of his works, to convert Muslims and schismatic Christians. He travelled through Europe to meet with popes, kings, and princes, trying to establish special colleges to prepare future missionaries. In 1276 a language school for Franciscan missionaries was founded at Miramar, funded by the King of Majorca.

paragraph: About 1291 he went to Tunis, preached to the Saracens, disputed with them in philosophy, and after another brief sojourn in Paris, returned to the East as a missionary. Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.

paragraph: He returned in 1308, reporting that the conversion of Muslims should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. He finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean (Aramaic) at the universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris, and Salamanca as well as at the Papal Court.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Llull and the Immaculate Conception.

paragraph: Following the favourable attitude of some Franciscan theologians, Llull's position on this subject was of great importance because it paved the way for the doctrine of Duns Scotus, whom he met in 1297, after which he was given the nickname "Doctor Illuminatus", even if it seems that he had no direct influence on him. Llull is the first author to use the expression "Immaculate Conception" to designate the Virgin's exemption from original sin. He appears to have been the first to teach this doctrine publicly at the University of Paris.

paragraph: To explain this Marian privilege, Llull resorts to three arguments:

paragraph: 1. The Son of God could not become incarnate in a mother who was stained by sin in any way:

paragraph: 2. There had to be a certain likeness between the Son's generation without sin and the generation of his Mother:

paragraph: 3. The second creation, that is the Redemption, which began with Christ and Mary, had to happen under the sign of the most total purity, as was the case with the first creation:

paragraph: In a sermon entitled "The Fruit of Mary's Womb", Llull states that,

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: In 1314, at the age of 82, Llull traveled again to North Africa where he was stoned by an angry crowd of Muslims in Tunis. Genoese merchants took him back to Mallorca, where he died at home in Palma the following year. Though the traditional date of his death has been 29 June 1315, his last documents, which date from December 1315, and recent research point to the first quarter of 1316 as the most probable death date.

paragraph: It can be documented that Llull was buried at the Church of Saint Francis in Mallorca.

paragraph: Riber states that the circumstances of his death remain a mystery. Zwemer, a Protestant missionary and academic, accepted the story of martyrdom, as did William Turner, writing in the "Catholic Encyclopedia". Bonner gives as a reason for Llull's journey to Tunis the information that its ruler was interested in Christianity—false information given to the Kings of Sicily and Aragon and relayed to Llull.

paragraph: Section::::Literature and other works.

paragraph: Llull was extremely prolific, writing a total of more than 250 works in Catalan, Latin, and Arabic, and often translating from one language to the others. While almost all of his writings after the revelation on Mt. Randa connect to his "Art" in some way, he wrote on diverse subjects in a variety of styles and genres.

paragraph: The romantic novel "Blanquerna" is widely considered the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and possibly the first European novel.

paragraph: Section::::Literature and other works.:Llull's "Art" ("Ars Magna").

paragraph: Llull's first elucidation of the "Art" was in "Art Abreujada d'Atrobar Veritat" ("The Abbreviated Art of Finding Truth"), in 1290.

paragraph: After spending some time teaching in France and being disappointed by the poor reception of his "Art" among students, Llull decided to revise it. It is this revised version that he became known for. It is most clearly presented in his "Ars generalis ultima" or "Ars magna" ("The Ultimate General Art" or "The Great Art", published in 1305).

paragraph: The "Art" operated by combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llull's inspiration for the "Ars magna" came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja.

paragraph: The "Art" was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theosophic reference by which a reader could enter any argument or question (necessarily reduced to Christian beliefs, which Llull identified as being held in common with other monotheistic religions). The reader then used visual aids and a book of charts to combine various ideas, generating statements which came together to form an answer.

paragraph: Section::::Literature and other works.:Llull's "Art" ("Ars Magna").:Mechanical aspect.

paragraph: One of the most significant changes between the original and the second version of the "Art" was in the visuals used. The early version used 16 figures presented as complex, complementary trees, while the system of the "Ars Magna" featured only four, including one which combined the other three. This figure, a "Lullian Circle," took the form of a paper machine operated by rotating concentrically arranged circles to combine his symbolic alphabet, which was repeated on each level. These combinations were said to show all possible truth about the subject of inquiry. Llull based this notion on the idea that there were a limited number of basic, undeniable truths in all fields of knowledge, and that everything about these fields of knowledge could be understood by studying combinations of these elemental truths.

paragraph: The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, the most essential table listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions—whether Jews, Muslims or Christians—would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue.

paragraph: The idea was developed further for more esoteric purposes by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and in the 17th century by the "Great Rationalist" Gottfried Leibniz, who wrote his dissertation about Llull's "Art" and integrated it into his metaphysics and philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ""ars combinatoria"", by which it is now often known.

paragraph: Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.

paragraph: Section::::Literature and other works.:Other works.

paragraph: Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Book of the Lover and the Beloved"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Blanquerna" (a novel; 1283)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Desconhort" (on the superiority of reason)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "L'arbre de ciència", "Arbor scientiae" ("Tree of Science") (1295)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tractatus novus de astronomia"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ars Magna" ("The Great Art") (1305) or "Ars Generalis Ultima" ("The Ultimate General Art")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ars Brevis" ("The Short Art"; an abbreviated version of the "Ars Magna")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Llibre de meravelles"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Practica compendiosa"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Liber de Lumine" ("The Book of Light")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ars Infusa" ("The Inspired Art")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Book of Propositions"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Liber Chaos" ("The Book of Chaos")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Book of the Seven Planets"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Liber Proverbiorum" ("Book of Proverbs")

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Book on the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ars electionis" (on voting)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Artifitium electionis personarum" (on voting)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ars notatoria"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Introductoria Artis demonstrativae"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Llibre qui es de l'ordre de cavalleria" ("The Book of the Order of Chivalry" written between 1279 and 1283)

paragraph: Section::::Literature and other works.:Misattributions.

paragraph: A considerable body of work on esoteric subjects was misattributed to Llull in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The oeuvre of the pseudo-Llull (and, by extension, that of the actual Llull) was influential among Hermeticists, Gnostics, and other Esoterics. Llull himself explicitly condemned many of the subjects, such as alchemy, that he is purported to have written about.

paragraph: Section::::Reputation and posthumous reception.

paragraph: The Roman Catholic inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich condemned 100 theories or ideas of Llull as errors in 1376. Pope Gregory XI also formally condemned 20 of his books in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV, although Pope Martin V reversed the condemnation of Pope Gregory XI in 1416. Despite these condemnations, Llull himself remained in good standing with the Church.

paragraph: Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were established at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as "la llengua de Llull", as other languages might be referred to as "Shakespeare's language" (English), "la langue de Molière" (French), "la lengua de Cervantes" (Spanish) or "die Sprache Goethes" (German).

paragraph: The logo of the Spanish "Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas" ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named after the philosopher.

paragraph: Section::::Reputation and posthumous reception.:Mathematics, statistics, and classification.

paragraph: With the discovery in 2001 of his lost manuscripts, "Ars notandi", "Ars eleccionis", and "Alia ars eleccionis", Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Nicolas de Condorcet independently proposed centuries later. The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull, who devised the earliest known Condorcet method in 1299. Also, Llull is recognized as a pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz. Llull's systems of organizing concepts using devices such as trees, ladders, and wheels, have been analyzed as classification systems.

paragraph: Section::::Reputation and posthumous reception.:Art and architecture.

paragraph: The inspiration of Llull's mnemonic graphic cartwheels, reaching into contemporary art and culture, is demonstrated by Daniel Libeskind's architectural construction of the 2003 completed Studio Weil in Port d'Andratx, Majorca. "Studio Weil, a development of the virtuality of these mnemonic wheels which ever center and de-center the universal and the personal, is built to open these circular islands which float like all artwork in the oceans of memory."

paragraph: Section::::Reputation and posthumous reception.:Modern fiction.

paragraph: Paul Auster refers to Llull (as Raymond Lull) in his memoir "The Invention of Solitude" in the second part, "The Book of Memory". Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal, is a major character in "The Box of Delights", the celebrated children's novel by poet John Masefield. He is also a major influence on the fictional character Zermano in Thomas Salazar's "The Day of the Bees", and his name, philosophies, and quotes from his writings appear throughout the novel. In Roberto Bolaño's novel "2666", Amalfitano, a Chilean professor, thinks about "Ramon Llull and his fantastic machine. Fantastic in its uselessness." Adán, Leopoldo Marechal's protagonist of the novel "Adán Buenosayres" (1948), mentions Ramon Lulio when he walks past a "curtiembre" (a leather-tanning shop): He says: "Ramon Lulio, que aconsejaba no rehuir del olor de las letrinas a fin de recordar a menudo lo que da el cuerpo de si mismo en su tan frecuentemente olvidada miseria" (Edición Crítica, Colección Archivos, 1997. Page 312) (""Ramon Llull advised not to shy away from the smell of outhouses, in order not to forget that which the body gives out in its often forgotten misery."") In William Gaddis' first novel, "The Recognitions", the final paragraph of Chapter II alludes to "Raymond Lully", as a "scholar, a poet, a missionary, a mystic, and one of the foremost figures in the history of alchemy." Llull is also mentioned in passing in Neil Gaiman's comic-book "Calliope," an issue of the DC/Vertigo series "The Sandman." In "The Commodore", the 17th book in Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, Stephen Maturin remarks that his daughter "...will learn Spanish, too, Castellano. I am sorry it will not be Catalan, a much finer, older, purer, more mellifluous language, with far greater writers — think of En Ramon Llull — but as Captain Aubrey often says, 'You cannot both have a stitch in time and eat it.'"

paragraph: Harry Harrison, in "Deathworld 2", has his protagonist, Jason dinAlt, use the Book of the Order of Chivalry, along with others, to disable the engines of the spaceship on which he is being held. As the ship starts to blow up, he remarks "I should not have thrown in the Lull book, it is more than even the ship could stomach." This comes at the end of an argument with his kidnapper, in which dinAlt attacks the idea that there are universal laws which apply to all human beings for all time.

paragraph: W. B. Yeats refers to Llull twice in "Rosa Alchemica", first published in 1897 ("I turned to my last purchase, a set of alchemical apparatus which, the dealer in the Rue le Peletier had assured me, once belonged to Raymond Lully"; and "There were the works [...] of Lully, who transformed himself into the likeness of a red cock"). His "first eight poems in "The Green Helmet and Other Poems" were published under the general title 'Raymond Lully and his wife Pernella'; an erratum-slip corrected this: 'AN ERROR By a slip of the pen when I was writing out the heading for the first group of poems, I put Raymond Lully's name in the room of the later Alchemist, Nicolas Flamel'".

paragraph: Gordon R. Dickson has the protagonist, Hal Mayne, in the book "The Final Encyclopedia", (1984) refer to Lull and his combination-of-wheels device, which Hal states is ″nothing less than a sort of primitive computer.″

paragraph: Section::::Reputation and posthumous reception.:Disposition toward Judaism.

paragraph: Llull's mission to convert the Jews of Europe was zealous; his goal was to utterly relieve Christendom of any Jews or Jewish religious influence. Some scholars regard Llull's as the first comprehensive articulation, in the Christian West, of an expulsionist policy regarding Jews who refused conversion. To acquire converts, he worked for amicable public debate to foster an intellectual appreciation of a rational Christianity among the Jews of his time. His rabbinic opponents included Rabbi Shlomo ben Aderet of Barcelona and Moshe ben Shlomo of Salerno.

paragraph: Section::::Translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ramon Llull's New Rhetoric", text and translation of Llull's 'Rethorica Nova', edited and translated by Mark D. Johnston, Davis, California: Hermagoras Press, 1994

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Selected Works of Ramon Llull (1232‑1316)", edited and translated by Anthony Bonner, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1985, two volumes XXXI + 1330 pp. (Contents: vol. 1: "The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men", pp. 93–305; "Ars Demonstrativa", pp. 317–567; "Ars Brevis", pp. 579–646; vol. 2: "Felix: or the Book of Wonders", pp. 659–1107; "Principles of Medicine" pp. 1119–1215; "Flowers of Love and Flowers of Intelligence", pp. 1223–1256)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Doctor Illuminatus: A Ramon Llull Reader", edited and translated by Anthony Bonner, with a new translation of "The Book of the Lover and the Beloved" by Eve Bonner, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1994

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Apologetics

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catalan literature

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of pioneers in computer science

paragraph: BULLET::::- Volvelle

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lola Badia, Joan Santanach and Albert Soler, "Ramon Llull as a Vernacular Writer", London: Tamesis, 2016.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Theodore Aquila Barber, "Raymond Lull, the illuminated doctor : a study in mediaeval missions", London: C.H. Kelly, 1903.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anthony Bonner (ed.), "Doctor Illuminatus. A Ramon Llull Reader" (Princeton University 1985), includes "The Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men", "The Book of the Lover and the Beloved", "The Book of the Beasts", and "Ars brevis"; as well as Bonner's "Historical Background and Life" at 1–44, "Llull's Thought" at 45–56, "Llull's Influence: The History of Lullism" at 57–71.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anthony Bonner, "The Art and Logic of Ramon Llull: A User's Guide", Leiden: Brill, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander Fidora and Josep E. Rubio, "Raimundus Lullus, An Introduction to His Life, Works and Thought", Turnhout: Brepols, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Martin Gardner has written extensively about Llull. His analyses can be found in "Logic Machines and Diagrams" and "Science – Good, Bad and Bogus".

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. N. Hillgarth, "Ramon Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France" (Oxford University 1971).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mark D. Johnston, "The Spiritual Logic of Ramón Llull", Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1987.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Antonio Monserat Quintana, "La Visión Lulliana del Mundo Derecho" (Palma de Mallorca: Institut d'Estudis Baleàrics 1987).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pereira Michela, "The Alchemical Corpus attributed to Raymond Lull", London: The Warburg Institute, 1989.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lorenzo Riber, "Raimundo Lulio" (Barcelona: Editorial Labor 1935, 1949).

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Thomas Walsh, "Characters of the Inquisition", Tan Books and Publishers, Inc (1940).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frances Yates includes a brief chapter on Lull in "The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age" (London, Ark Paperbacks 1979).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frances Yates, "Lull and Bruno" (1982), in "Collected Essays: Lull & Bruno", vol. I, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Samuel Marinus Zwemer, "Raymund Lull, first missionary to the Moslems", New York and London : Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902; reprinted by Diggory Press, 2006,

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Works by Llull () at the Open Library

paragraph: BULLET::::- Who was Ramon Llull? Centre de Documentació Ramon Llull, Universitat de Barcelona

paragraph: BULLET::::- Samuel M. Zwemer "Raymund Lull: First Missionary to the Muslims"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Othmer MS 4 Ars brevis; Ars abbreviata praedicanda at OPenn

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramon Llull at the AELC (Association of Writers in Catalan Language). Webpage in Catalan, English and Spanish.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramon Llull in Lletra, Catalan Literature Online (Open University of Catalonia)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramon Llull Database, University of Barcelona

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Catholic Encyclopedia" article of 1911

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blessed Raymond Lull

paragraph: BULLET::::- Esteve Jaulent: The Theory of Knowledge and the Unity of Man according to Ramon Llull

paragraph: BULLET::::- Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution portrait of Ramon Llull in .jpg and .tiff format.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Selected images from "Practica compendiosa" From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library

alias:
Ramón Llull
Raimundo Lulio
Raymond Lull
Raymond Lulle
Raimondo Lullo
Raimundus Lullus
Raymondus Lullus
Raymond Lully
Raymundus Lullius

description: Majorcan writer and philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Ramon Llull

wikidata_label: Ramon Llull

wikipedia_title: Ramon Llull


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text: Joseph Alsop

text: White House Press Secretary

text: George Reedy

text: Attorney General

text: Ramsey Clark

text: Vietnam

text: Austin

text: Certified Public Accountant

text: management consultant

text: stroke

text: HBO

text: docudrama

text: All the Way

text: Kennedy assassination

text: 1964 election

text: Michael Beschloss

text: Robert Dallek

text: Rowland Evans

text: Robert Novak

text: Rick Perlstein

text: Theodore H. White

text: Mark K. Updegrove

categories: American LGBT military personnel,People from Clay County, Texas,Military personnel from Texas,Converts to Roman Catholicism,United States presidential advisors,1918 births,1985 deaths,American military personnel of World War II,Texas Democrats,People from Wichita Falls, Texas

paragraph: Walter Jenkins

paragraph: Walter Wilson Jenkins (March 23, 1918 – November 23, 1985) was an American political figure and longtime top aide to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson. Jenkins' career ended after was he was arrested and charged with disorderly conduct with another man in a public restroom in Washington, D.C. It happened weeks before the 1964 presidential election, in an era when homosexual behavior was widely condemned.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Jenkins was born in Jolly, Texas, and spent his childhood in Wichita Falls, Texas. There he attended Hardin Junior College and then spent two years at the University of Texas, though he did not earn a degree. In 1945, following his discharge from the Army, he converted to Roman Catholicism and married Helen Marjorie Whitehill.

paragraph: Jenkins and his wife had six children, four boys and two girls. They separated in the early 1970s but never divorced. She died in 1987.

paragraph: Section::::Government career.

paragraph: Jenkins began working for Lyndon B. Johnson in 1939 when Johnson was serving in the U.S. House of Representatives as the member from Texas's 10th congressional district. For most of the next 25 years, Jenkins served as Johnson's top administrative assistant, following Johnson as he rose to become a Senator, Vice President under John F. Kennedy, and President.

paragraph: From 1941 until 1945, Jenkins served in the United States Army during World War II. In 1951, he returned to Wichita Falls to run for the House of Representatives. Jenkins lost to Frank N. Ikard in a race marked by attacks on Jenkins because of his Roman Catholic faith.

paragraph: Johnson's former aides credit Jenkins for his ability and temperament. In 1975, journalist Bill Moyers, a former Johnson aide and press secretary, wrote in "Newsweek": "When they come to canonize political aides, [Jenkins] will be the first summoned, for no man ever negotiated the shark-infested waters of the Potomac with more decency or charity or came out on the other side with his integrity less shaken. If Lyndon Johnson owed everything to one human being other than Lady Bird, he owed it to Walter Jenkins." Joseph Califano wrote, "Jenkins was the nicest White House aide I ever met in any administration. He was never overbearing. It was quite remarkable."

paragraph: By the 1960s, Jenkins was more Johnson's friend than employee, close to Lady Bird Johnson and involved in their family finances as well. The Johnsons celebrated Lady Bird's fifty-first birthday at a party at Jenkins' home in December 1963.

paragraph: Section::::Scandal and resignation.

paragraph: Section::::Scandal and resignation.:Arrest.

paragraph: A month before the 1964 presidential election, on October 7, District of Columbia Police arrested Jenkins in a YMCA restroom. He and another man were booked on a disorderly conduct charge, an incident described as "perhaps the most famous tearoom arrest in America." He paid a $50 fine. Rumors of the incident circulated for several days and Republican Party operatives helped to promote it to the press. Some newspapers, including the "Chicago Tribune" and the "Cincinnati Enquirer", refused to run the story. Journalists quickly learned that Jenkins had been arrested on a similar charge in 1959, which made it much harder to explain away as the result of overwork or, as one journalist wrote, "combat fatigue."

paragraph: Finally, on October 14, a "Washington Star" editor called the White House for Jenkins' comment on a story it was preparing. Jenkins turned to White House lawyers Abe Fortas, the President's personal lawyer, and Clark Clifford, who unofficially was filling the role of White House Counsel. They immediately lobbied the editors of Washington's three newspapers not to run the story, which only confirmed its significance. Within hours Clifford detailed the evidence to the President and press secretary George Reedy, who "openly weeping," confirmed the story to reporters. Probably forewarned, Johnson told Fortas that Jenkins needed to resign.

paragraph: Anticipating the charge that Jenkins might have been blackmailed, Johnson immediately ordered an FBI investigation. He knew that J. Edgar Hoover would have to clear the administration of any security problem because the FBI itself would otherwise be at fault for failing to investigate Jenkins properly years before. Hoover reported on October 22 that security had not been compromised. Johnson later said: "I couldn't have been more shocked about Walter Jenkins if I'd heard that Lady Bird had tried to kill the Pope." He also fed conspiracy theories that Jenkins had been framed. He claimed that before his arrest Jenkins had attended a cocktail party where the waiters came from the Republican National Committee, though the party was hosted by "Newsweek" to celebrate the opening of its new offices. The "Star" printed the story and UPI transmitted its version on October 14. Jenkins resigned the same day. Johnson immediately ordered a poll to determine the public's reaction to the affair and learned the next day that its effect on the voters was negligible.

paragraph: The President announced that only he would contact the press about the incident, but his wife, Lady Bird Johnson, issued her own statement of support for Jenkins.

paragraph: Section::::Scandal and resignation.:Political reactions.

paragraph: The incident embarrassed the administration but had little impact on the campaign in which Johnson led his opponent by large margins. One columnist wrote on October 15, "Walter Jenkins has revived and dramatized all the harsh feelings about morals, and political cliques, and the Texas gang in Washington." Yet the incident disappeared so quickly from the political scene that Theodore H. White, surveying the 1964 election campaign, assessed its impact this way: "Perhaps the most amazing of all events of the campaign of 1964 is that the nation faced the fact fully—and shrugged its shoulders." Jenkins' arrest was quickly overshadowed by international affairs: Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev was deposed on October 14, the British electorate voted Labour into power on October 15, and China successfully tested a nuclear weapon on October 16.

paragraph: Johnson's Republican opponent in the 1964 presidential election, Barry Goldwater, knew Jenkins from the Senate and from serving as commanding officer of his Air Force Reserve unit, but initially denied knowing him. He did not comment on the incident while campaigning, though it fit well with the charges he had been making of a lack of morality in Johnson's administration, though he was referring to Bobby Baker and Billie Sol Estes. Instead, since FBI agents had just questioned him about Jenkins, he publicly asked Hoover to explain why Jenkins had not undergone a rigorous security check before joining the White House staff.

paragraph: Goldwater's campaign offices distributed bumper stickers and buttons bearing slogans such as, "LBJLIGHT BULB JENKINS: NO WONDER HE TURNED THE LIGHTS OUT" and "ALL THE WAY WITH LBJ, BUT DON'T GO NEAR THE YMCA". During the remainder of the campaign Goldwater occasionally alluded to the scandal. In speeches he referred to Johnson's "curious crew who would run the country" to the knowing amusement of his audience. At the time, observers noted the difference between the way Goldwater alluded to the scandal and the way the Republican National Committee and Goldwater's running mate, William E. Miller, used it to exploit "popular fears." Goldwater later said he chose not to make the incident a campaign issue. "It was a sad time for Jenkins' wife and children, and I was not about to add to their private sorrow," he wrote in his autobiography. "Winning isn't everything. Some things, like loyalty to friends or lasting principle, are more important."

paragraph: Johnson mentioned the affair in general terms while campaigning. In Pittsburgh on October 27, he told a crowd that in government "unfortunate things" happen and people "disappoint" you. Some "make mistakes" and need to resign and there need to be impartial investigations.

paragraph: Members of Congress called for an FBI investigation of the case, citing concerns that the FBI had been unaware of Jenkins' previous offense in the same Washington men's room in January 1959.

paragraph: Section::::Scandal and resignation.:Supportive reactions.

paragraph: On October 15, James Reston gave some support to Johnson by confirming that "President Eisenhower was embarrassed by a comparable morals charge against one of his first appointees of his first Administration." On October 19, Drew Pearson in his "Washington Merry-go-round" column recounted the 1952 events with greater detail and named Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr. as the Eisenhower appointee who "had homosexuality problems and could not pass a security test.". Campaigning in San Diego on October 28, Johnson replied to a reporter's question about "sex deviates" in his administration that every administration had its scandals and mentioned that Eisenhower had faced a similar problem with his appointments secretary, thus confirming Pearson's outing of Vandenberg, whose departure from the Eisenhower administration had been blamed on his health.

paragraph: On October 29, 1964, leading clergymen, including Dean Francis B. Sayre, Jr. of Washington National Cathedral, United Presbyterian Church Leader Eugene Carson Blake, Methodist Bishop John Wesley Lord, American Hebrew Congregations President Maurice Eisendrauth, and theologians Paul Tillich and Reinhold Niebuhr, issued a letter commenting on the Jenkins affair: ""We see the Jenkins episode as a case of human weakness. If there is a security factor involved, let that be dealt with on its own terms and let it not serve chiefly as an excuse for dwelling on this one episode to cater to the prurient curiosity or to the self-righteousness of part of the public."

paragraph: After the election, the American Mental Health Foundation wrote a letter to President Johnson protesting the "hysteria" surrounding the case:

paragraph: On November 17, Lady Bird visited Walter Jenkins and his wife Marjorie, who were preparing to move home to Texas. She reported in her diary that he had received "a barrage of mail" from acquaintances and the public that "seems so understanding." Washington columnist Joseph Alsop, like Jenkins a closeted homosexual, wrote publicly in support of Jenkins and sent him a letter of support as well.

paragraph: Section::::Scandal and resignation.:Effect on the Johnson Administration.

paragraph: Johnson did not replace Jenkins, but instead divided his responsibilities among several staff members. Johnson's White House Press Secretary George Reedy told an interviewer: "A great deal of the president's difficulties can be traced to the fact that Walter had to leave. ... All of history might have been different if it hadn't been for that episode." Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark said that Jenkins' resignation "deprived the president of the single most effective and trusted aide that he had. The results would be enormous when the president came into his hard times. Walter's counsel on Vietnam might have been extremely helpful."

paragraph: Section::::Later years and legacy.

paragraph: Jenkins resigned from the Air Force Reserve in February 1965.

paragraph: After leaving Washington, Jenkins returned to Texas and lived the rest of his life in Austin, where he worked as a Certified Public Accountant and management consultant and ran a construction company. He died in 1985, at the age of 67, a few months after suffering a stroke.

paragraph: A made-for-television film, "Vanished", loosely based on the Jenkins resignation, aired in 1971.

paragraph: The Tony-award winning play and HBO docudrama, "All the Way", that aired on May 21, 2016, about President Lyndon Johnson's first year in office from the Kennedy assassination on November 22, 1963, through the 1964 election on November 3, depicts the 1964 scandal involving Jenkins.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Beschloss, ed., "Reaching for Glory: Lyndon Johnson's Secret White House Tapes, 1964–1965" (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Robert Dallek, "Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Lyndon B. Johnson: The Exercise of Power" (New York: New American Library, 1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rick Perlstein, "Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus" (New York: Hill & Wang, 2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodore H. White, "The Making of the President 1964" (New York: Atheneum, 1965)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mark K. Updegrove, "Indomitable Will" (New York: Random House, 2012)

paragraph: Section::::Additional material.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lyndon B. Johnson: The Presidential Recordings", 6 vols. (New York: Norton, 2005)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- cnn.com "New tapes show LBJ struggled with aide's sex scandal"

description: American political aide

wikidata_label: Walter Jenkins

wikipedia_title: Walter Jenkins


text:
Sheffield Art College
Philip Oakey
The Human League
Martyn Ware
Ian Craig Marsh
Heaven 17
Don't You Want Me
The Things That Dreams Are Made Of
Dare
Crash
Minneapolis
Chelsea, London
BRIT Awards

categories: English songwriters,1956 births,Musicians from Wakefield,English new wave musicians,English keyboardists,The Human League members,Living people

paragraph: Philip Adrian Wright

paragraph: Philip Adrian Wright (born 30 June 1956) is an English musician, also known as Adrian Wright.

paragraph: Wright had studied film making at Sheffield Art College and was a friend of Philip Oakey. In 1978, he was invited to join the new avant-garde electronic band The Human League which composed of Oakey, Martyn Ware and Ian Craig Marsh. Then a non-musician, Wright was appointed as 'Director of Visuals' whose job was to provide lighting and slideshows to accompany the Human League’s live concerts.

paragraph: When the Human League split in October 1980, Wright sided with Oakey, while Ware and Marsh left to form Heaven 17. Necessity forced him to become a musician and he quickly learned keyboards. He and Oakey co-wrote some of the new Human League's songs including the number one hit "Don't You Want Me", plus tracks such as "Darkness", "I Am the Law" and "The Things That Dreams Are Made Of" for the album "Dare". Wright is also credited with the iconic album sleeve design for "Dare".

paragraph: He remained a key member of the Human League during the early 1980s both as a composer and keyboard player. He left the band in 1986 after becoming disillusioned with the musical direction Oakey was taking and feeling marginalized by their new producers during the recording of the album "Crash" in Minneapolis.

paragraph: After The Human League, he worked in film before moving into design.

paragraph: In 1999, he participated in the BBC documentary on The Human League, part of the "Young Guns Go For It" series.

paragraph: Section::::Present day.

paragraph: Wright has worked with his wife, fashion-turned-furniture designer Tracey Boyd. The couple live in Chelsea, London.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1982 BRIT Awards (as member of The Human League) - 'Best British Breakthrough Act'

description: English musician

wikidata_label: Philip Adrian Wright

wikipedia_title: Philip Adrian Wright


text:
baseball
National League
Baltimore Orioles
Brooklyn Grooms
Louisville Colonels
home run
runs batted in

categories: Bloomington Reds players,Denver Grizzlies (baseball) players,Syracuse Stars (minor league baseball) players,Butte Miners players,Minneapolis Millers (baseball) players,Grand Rapids Bob-o-links players,19th-century baseball players,Major League Baseball outfielders,Seattle Clamdiggers players,People from Greenup County, Kentucky,Baseball players from Kentucky,Denver Mountaineers players,Portland Browns players,Baltimore Orioles (NL) players,Davenport Onion Weeders players,1866 births,Los Angeles Seraphs players,St. Paul Apostles players,Seattle Chinooks players,Brooklyn Grooms players,Louisville Colonels players,Tacoma Tigers players,1928 deaths

paragraph: George Treadway

paragraph: George B. Treadway (November 11, 1866 – November 5, 1928) was an American baseball player in the National League from 1893 to 1896. He played for the Baltimore Orioles for one season, the Brooklyn Grooms for two seasons, and finished off his career with two games for the Louisville Colonels. He was a lifetime .285 hitter, with 13 home runs and 227 runs batted in. He did have a solid year in 1894 with Baltimore, batting .330, hitting 26 triples, and driving in 102 runs.

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: George Treadway

wikipedia_title: George Treadway


text: neurophysiologist

text: gender biases

text: New Kensington, Pennsylvania

text: Goucher College

text: Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania

text: Leon Eisenberg

text: House Un-American Activities Committee

text: Joseph McCarthy

text: University of Wisconsin-Madison

text: Elizabeth Karlin

categories: People from New Kensington, Pennsylvania,LGBT people from Pennsylvania,LGBT scientists from the United States,Goucher College alumni,People from Baltimore,American women's rights activists,1988 deaths,1923 births,University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty,Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania alumni

paragraph: Ruth Bleier

paragraph: Ruth Harriet Bleier (1923–1988) was a neurophysiologist who is also one of the first feminist scholars to explore how gender biases have shaped biology. Her career consisted of combining her academic interests with her commitment to social justice for women and the lower-class.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Bleier was born in New Kensington, Pennsylvania on November 17, 1923. She was also the daughter of Russian immigrants and was raised in Pennsylvania. She received her B.A. in 1945 from Goucher College, and subsequently received her M.D. from Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1949. She interned at the Sinai Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland and then practiced general medicine in the inner city of Baltimore for ten years. She married Leon Eisenberg, and together they raised 2 children and ran a medical clinic for the impoverished population of Baltimore.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Bleier advocated for civil rights with the Maryland Committee for Peace in the early 1950s; She also advocated for the end of the Korean War; this work lead to a subpoena from the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAAC), which was run by Senator Joseph McCarthy at the time period. Due to her lack of cooperation, she was placed on the HUAAC blacklist; this resulted in Bleier losing her hospital privileges. Since she lost her legal ability to practice medicine, Bleier went to Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1957 to study neuroanatomy with Professor Jerzy Rose, completing her post-doctoral fellowship in 1961. Bleier gave up her medical practice in order to teach psychiatry and physiology at the Adolph Meyer Laboratory of Neuroanatomy. She then joined the University of Wisconsin-Madison department of Neurophysiology in 1967; at the same time Bleier was also working with Weisman Center of Mental Retardation and the Wisconsin Regional Primate Center. Bleier is a known authority on the animal hypothalamus: she has published three works on the subject.

paragraph: In the 1970s, Bleier began to see how the biological sciences were affected by sexism and other cultural biases, and thus devoted herself to the application of feminist analyses and viewpoint to the practices and theories of science. She also began to focus on improving women’s access and station in higher education. Bleier argued against the idea of sociobiology as an explanation of conventional gender roles. In her work she demonstrated how gender, sexuality, and science, rather than being static and judgment-free, are constantly changing in response to social values and ideas

paragraph: Her books regarding biology and feminism, Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women (1984) and Feminist Approaches to Science (1986), have become prominent readings for women's studies to explore the biological differences of sexes and the origins of gender differences.

paragraph: Sticking to her activist routes, Bleier became a founding member of the Association of Faculty Women at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The Association challenged the administration to reassess the status and salaries of female instructors campus-wide and to rectify inequalities. The Association succeeded in equaling pay for men and women university workers, and also succeeded in integrating gymnasiums by having the women faculty have a group shower in the men's locker room. Bleier also helped establish the Woman's Studies Program in 1975, and even served as chair from 1982 to 1886.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Bleier came out as a lesbian after her marriage to her husband ended in divorce and began her work to create lesbian rights within the women's movement. She created a lesbian-friendly restaurant, called “Lysistrata.” She also organized lesbian social events, a feminist bookstore. Additionally, Bleier advocated for abortion rights with her partner, Elizabeth Karlin.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Bleier died at home in Wisconsin on January 4, 1988 from cancer at sixty-four years old. The University of Wisconsin annually awards the Ruth Bleier scholarships in order to encourage young women to go into careers studying the natural sciences, medicine, or engineering, and the University of Wisconsin's Department of History of Medicine has an endowed chair in her honor.

description: American neurophysiologist and activist

wikidata_label: Ruth Bleier

wikipedia_title: Ruth Bleier


text:
Ariwara no Yukihira
Ariwara no Narihira
Kokin Wakashū
imperial anthologies
Fujiwara no Teika
Ogura Hyakunin Isshu

categories: 9th-century Japanese poets,10th-century Japanese poets,Japanese male poets,10th-century Japanese people,Hyakunin Isshu poets,9th century in Japan,Ōe clan

paragraph: Ōe no Chisato

paragraph: He was a son of and a nephew of Ariwara no Yukihira and Ariwara no Narihira. Ten of his poems were included in the "Kokin Wakashū" and fifteen in later imperial anthologies.

paragraph: The following poem by him was included as No. 23 in Fujiwara no Teika's "Ogura Hyakunin Isshu":

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- McMillan, Peter. 2010 (1st ed. 2008). "One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each". New York: Columbia University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suzuki Hideo, Yamaguchi Shin'ichi, Yoda Yasushi. 2009 (1st ed. 1997). "Genshoku: Ogura Hyakunin Isshu". Tokyo: Bun'eidō.

description: Japanese poet

wikidata_label: Ōe no Chisato

wikipedia_title: Ōe no Chisato


text:
Tango Province
imperial anthologies
Fujiwara no Teika
Ogura Hyakunin Isshu

categories: Hyakunin Isshu poets,10th-century Japanese poets,10th-century Japanese people

paragraph: Sone no Yoshitada

paragraph: Because he was a of Tango Province he is occasionally known by the nicknames and . He was known as an eccentric individual with numerous anecdotes told about him. He was not well regarded in his own time but later was recognized as a highly innovative poet, with roughly 90 of his poems appearing in imperial anthologies.

paragraph: The following poem by him was No. 46 in Fujiwara no Teika's "Ogura Hyakunin Isshu":

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

description: Japanese poet and writer

wikidata_label: Sone no Yoshitada

wikipedia_title: Sone no Yoshitada


text:
regnal name
Abbasid
caliph
Islamic calendar
Bedouin
Hejaz
Baghdad
Byzantine Empire
Mauropotamos
al-Mu'tasim
Byzantine Greek
umm walad
Mecca
Harun al-Rashid
al-Mutawakkil
pilgrimage
al-Hirah
Kufa
Baghdad
Samarra
al-Tabari
al-Afshin
Babak Khorramdin
Amorion campaign
Itakh
Wasif
Ashinas
vizier
Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat
qādī
Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad
al-Tabari
Barmakids
Harun al-Rashid
Medina
Banu Sulaym
Banu Kinanah
Bahila
Medina
Muhammad ibn Salih ibn al-Abbas
Ansar
Quraysh
Mecca
Bugha al-Kabir
Shakiriyyah
Magharibah
Banu Hilal
Banu Fazara
Banu Murra
al-Balqa
Banu Kilab
Mu'tazilite
Alids
Ahmad ibn Nasr ibn Malik al-Khuza'i
Abbasid Revolution
Mus'abid
Muhammad ibn Ibrahim
Ishaq
createdness of the Quran
pre-Islamic period
Bugha al-Sharabi
Sima al-Dimashqi
gibbet
Babak
Samarra
dirham
dinars
ṣāḥib al-shurṭa
Yazid al-Huwani
Banu Numayr
al-Yamamah
Byzantine Empire
Sack of Amorium
Cape Chelidonia
Theoktistos
Emirate of Crete
Qaliqala
Tarsus
Malatya
Umar al-Aqta
Asia Minor
Bosporus
Battle of Mauropotamos
prisoner exchange
Khaqan al-Khadim
dropsy
years
al-Mutawakkil
Abbasid caliphs
Hugh Kennedy
Encyclopaedia of Islam
Mukhariq
al-Dahhak al-Bahili
Barrier
Dhu'l-Qarnayn
Kirghiz Turks
Central Asia
Sallam al-Tarjman
Ibn Khordadbeh
al-Khwarizmi
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus

categories: Mu'tazilism,816 births,Arab people of Greek descent,9th-century Abbasid caliphs,847 deaths

paragraph: Al-Wathiq

paragraph: Abū Jaʿfar Hārūn ibn Muḥammad (; 18 April 812 – 10 August 847), better known by his regnal name al-Wāthiq Bi’llāh (, "He who trusts in God"), was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 842 until 847 AD (227–232 AH in the Islamic calendar). Al-Wathiq is relatively obscure both as a ruler and as a person, and his reign is largely considered a continuation of his father's. The chief events of his reign were the suppression of a Bedouin rebellion in the Hejaz in 845 and an abortive uprising in Baghdad in 846. The conflict with the Byzantine Empire continued, and the Abbasids even scored a significant victory at Mauropotamos, but after a truce in 845, warfare ceased for several years.

paragraph: Section::::Origin and early life.

paragraph: Al-Wathiq was the son of al-Mu'tasim by a Byzantine Greek slave ("umm walad"), Qaratis. He was born on 17 April 812 (various sources give slightly earlier or later dates in 811–813), on the road to Mecca. He was named Harun after his grandfather, Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809). Qaratis accompanied al-Wathiq's brother Jafar (the future caliph al-Mutawakkil) on the pilgrimage in 842, but she died on the way at al-Hirah, on August 16, 842. She was buried in Kufa.

paragraph: His early life is obscure, all the more since his father was initially a junior prince without prospects of succession. When al-Mu'tasim became caliph, he took care for his son and heir to acquire experience in governance. Thus al-Wathiq was left in charge of the capital Baghdad in 835, when al-Mu'tasim moved north to found Samarra. He is then mentioned in the account of al-Tabari as being sent to ceremonially welcome the general al-Afshin during his victorious return from the suppression of the revolt of Babak Khorramdin in 838. He is then mentioned in 841 as bringing a bowl of fruit to al-Afshin, now disgraced and imprisoned. Fearing that the fruit was poisoned, al-Afshin refused to accept it, and asked for someone else to convey a message to the caliph. In Samarra, his residence was immediately adjacent to his father's palace, and he was a fixed presence at court. As historian John Turner remarks, these events show al-Wathiq in the "role of a trusted agent of his father, which positioned him well to take over the reins of power". On the other hand, al-Wathiq was never given a military command and did not even participate in the Amorion campaign of 838, in a departure from previous Abbasid practice.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: When al-Mu'tasim died on 5 January 842, al-Wathiq succeeded him without opposition. His reign was brief and unremarkable, being essentially a continuation of al-Mu'tasim's own, as the government continued to be led by the men al-Mu'tasim had raised to power: the Turkish military commanders Itakh, Wasif, and Ashinas, the vizier Muhammad ibn al-Zayyat, and the chief "qādī", Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad.

paragraph: In 843/4, the Caliph—allegedly at the instigation of the vizier Ibn al-Zayyat, or, according to a story reported by al-Tabari, inspired by the downfall of the Barmakids under Harun al-Rashid—arrested, tortured, and imposed heavy fines on several of the secretaries in the central government, in an effort to raise money to pay the Turkish troops, and at the same time reduce the power of the leading Turkish commanders, such as Itakh and Ashinas, since most of the secretaries arrested and forced to pay were in their service.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Bedouin rebellion.

paragraph: In spring 845, a tribal rebellion broke out around Medina. A local tribe, the Banu Sulaym, had become embroiled in a conflict with the tribes of Banu Kinanah and Bahilah around Medina, resulting in clashes that left some dead (February/March 845). The local governor, Muhammad ibn Salih ibn al-Abbas, sent Hammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari against them with a mixed force, comprising regular troops as well as inhabitants of Medina, from the Ansar families and the Quraysh. Although the Banu Sulaym, not more than around 650 strong, were reluctant to fight, Hammad attacked them, only to be defeated and killed with almost his entire force. The Banu Sulaym now looted the environs of Mecca and Medina, and in May al-Wathiq charged one of his Turkish generals, Bugha al-Kabir, to handle the affair. Accompanied by troops from the "Shakiriyyah", Turkish, and the "Magharibah" guard regiments, Bugha defeated part of the Sulaym at the town of al-Suwariqiyyah, and forced most of the tribe to surrender. He imprisoned about a 1,000 of the tribe at Medina, and let the rest free. After going to Medina and Mecca in August, he also forced the Banu Hilal to submit on the same terms. After a few months, the prisoners, some 1,300 in total, tried to escape, but were thwarted by the Medinese, who proceeded to lay siege on the palace used as a prison. The prisoners were all killed in the ensuing clashes, and many tribesmen who happened to be in Medina suffered the same fate. In the meantime, Bugha used the opportunity to intimidate the Bedouin tribes of the region, and marched to confront the Banu Fazara and the Banu Murra. The tribes fled before his advance, with many submitting, and others fleeing to al-Balqa. Bugha then subdued the Banu Kilab, taking some 1,300 of them as prisoners back to Medina in May 846.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Mu'tazilism and the abortive coup of Ahmad ibn Nasr.

paragraph: Like his father, al-Wathiq was an ardent Mu'tazilite, but also maintained good relations with the Alids. In 846, a well-respected notable, Ahmad ibn Nasr ibn Malik al-Khuza'i, a descendant of one of the original missionaries of the Abbasid Revolution, launched a plot in Baghdad to overthrow al-Wathiq, his Turkish commanders, and the Mu'tazilite doctrines. The uprising was scheduled for the night of 4 April 846. However, those who were supposed to sound a drum as the signal to rise did so a day early, and there was no response. The Mus'abid deputy governor of the city, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim—the governor, his brother Ishaq, was absent—inquired on the event, and the conspiracy was revealed. Ahmad ibn Nasr and his followers were arrested and brought before al-Wathiq. The caliph interrogated him publicly, though more on the thorny issue of the createdness of the Quran rather than on the rebellion. Ahmad's answers enraged al-Wathiq so much, that the Caliph took al-Samsamah, a famous sword of the pre-Islamic period, and personally joined in the execution of Ahmad, along with the Turks Bugha al-Sharabi and Sima al-Dimashqi. Ahmad's corpse was publicly displayed at the gibbet of Babak in Baghdad, while twenty of his followers were thrown into prison.

paragraph: The same year there was a break in at the public treasury ("bayt al-mal") in Samarra. Thieves made off with 42,000 silver "dirhams" and a small amount of gold "dinars". The "ṣāḥib al-shurṭa", Yazid al-Huwani, a deputy of Itakh, pursued and caught them.

paragraph: In A.H. 232 (846–847) al-Wathiq sent Bugha al-Kabir to stop the depredations of the Banu Numayr. In al-Yamamah on February 4, 847 he fought a major engagement against them. At first he was hard pressed. Then some troops he had out raiding returned, fell upon the forces attacking Bugha and completely routed them.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:The Byzantine front.

paragraph: In 838 al-Mu'tasim had scored a major victory against the Abbasid Caliphate's perennial foe, the Byzantine Empire, with the celebrated Sack of Amorium. He did not follow up this success, however, and warfare reverted to the usual raids and counter-raids along the border. At the time of his death in 842, al-Mu'tasim was preparing yet another large-scale invasion, but the great fleet he had prepared to assault Constantinople perished in a storm off Cape Chelidonia a few months later. Following al-Mu'tasim's death, the Byzantine regent Theoktistos attempted to reconquer the Emirate of Crete, an Abbasid vassal, but the campaign ended in disaster. In 844, an army from the border emirates of Qaliqala and Tarsus, led by Abu Sa'id, and possibly the emir of Malatya Umar al-Aqta, raided deep into Byzantine Asia Minor and reached as far as the shore of the Bosporus. The Muslims then defeated Theoktistos at the Battle of Mauropotamos, aided by the defection of senior Byzantine officers.

paragraph: In 845, a Byzantine embassy arrived at the caliphal court to negotiate about a prisoner exchange. It was held in September of the same year under the auspices of Khaqan al-Khadim, and 4,362 Muslims were set free. A winter raid by the Abbasid governor of Tarsus shortly after failed disastrously, after which the Arab-Byzantine frontier remained quiet for six years.

paragraph: Al-Wathiq died as the result of being treated for dropsy by being seated in an oven, on 10 August 847. His age is variously given as 32, 34, or 36 years at the time. He was succeeded by his half-brother, al-Mutawakkil.

paragraph: Section::::Assessment.

paragraph: Al-Tabari records that al-Wathiq was of medium height, handsome and well-built. He was fair with a ruddy complexion. His left eye was paralyzed.

paragraph: Al-Wathiq is one of the more obscure Abbasid caliphs. According to the historian Hugh Kennedy, "no other caliph of the period has left so little trace of the history of his times, and it is impossible to form any clear impression of his personality", while the "Encyclopaedia of Islam" writes that "he had not the gifts of a great ruler, and his brief reign was not distinguished by remarkable events". He is reported as having been generous to the poor of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, but he did not enjoy any great popularity. What is known of his character shows him being given to indolence and the pleasures of court life: himself active as a composer, al-Wathiq was a patron of poets, singers and musicians. He is known for the favour he showed to the singer Mukhariq, and confirmed al-Dahhak al-Bahili, known as "al-Khalīʿ", "the debauched one", as court poet. The sources also relate some episodes that show al-Wathiq's "intellectual curiosity": he reportedly dreamed that the "Barrier of Dhu'l-Qarnayn" had been breached—probably resulting from news of the movements of the Kirghiz Turks at the time that caused large population shifts among the Turkic nomads of Central Asia—and sent Sallam al-Tarjman to journey to the region and investigate. Likewise, according to Ibn Khordadbeh the Caliph sent the astronomer al-Khwarizmi to the Byzantines to investigate the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.

description: the ninth Abbasid Caliph

wikidata_label: Al-Wathiq

wikipedia_title: Al-Wathiq


text:
King of Denmark
Olaf I Hunger
Sweyn II
Boedil Thurgotsdatter
Slangerup
Zealand
Canute IV
St Albans priory
Scania
Olaf I Hunger
landsting
Saxo Grammaticus
"ting"
Pope
Rome
canonization
archbishopric
Lund
Scania
Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen
Asser
Archbishop of Lund
the Holy Land
Harald Kesja
Bishop Asser
Russia
Constantinople
Paphos
Cyprus
Jerusalem
First Crusade
Mount of Olives
Valley of Josaphat
Canute Lavard
Eric II the Memorable
Eric III Lamb
Magnus the Strong
King Niels
Valdemar I the Great
Danish monarchs
Sigurd the Crusader

categories: 1070s births,11th-century Danish people,12th-century monarchs in Europe,Burials in Cyprus,Roman Catholic monarchs,11th-century monarchs in Europe,Illegitimate children of Danish monarchs,House of Estridsen,1103 deaths,Danish monarchs

paragraph: Eric I of Denmark

paragraph: Eric I ( – 10 July 1103), also known as Eric the Good (), was King of Denmark following his brother Olaf I Hunger in 1095. He was a son of Sweyn II. His mother's identity is unknown. He married Boedil Thurgotsdatter.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Eric was born in the town of Slangerup in North Zealand. During the rule of his half-brother Canute IV he was an eager supporter of the king, but he was spared during the rebellion against Canute IV. Eric remained at the royal farm instead of accompanying Canute IV to St Albans priory in Odense where Canute IV was killed. Eric talked his way off the farm and fled to Zealand then fled to Scania which was part of Denmark at the time. Olaf I Hunger was elected King of Denmark, but his reign was short. At last Eric was elected as a king at the several "landsting" assemblies in 1095. Eric was well liked by the people and the famines that had plagued Denmark during Olaf Hunger's reign ceased. For many it seemed a sign from God that Eric was the right king for Denmark.

paragraph: Medieval chroniclers, such as Saxo Grammaticus, and myths portrayed Eric a “strapping fellow” appealing to the common people. He could keep his place when four men tried their best to move him. Eric was a good speaker, people went out of their way to hear him. After a "ting" assembly concluded, he went about the neighborhood greeting men, women and children at their homesteads. He had a reputation as a loud man who liked parties and who led a rather dissipated private life. Though a presumed supporter of a strong centralized royal power, he seems to have behaved like a diplomat avoiding any clash with the magnates. He had a reputation for being ruthless to robbers and pirates.

paragraph: On a visit to the Pope in Rome he obtained canonization for his late brother, Canute IV, and an archbishopric for Denmark (now Lund in Scania), instead of being under the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. Bishop Asser then became the first Archbishop of Lund.

paragraph: King Eric announced at the Viborg assembly that he had decided to go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The cause, according to "Danmarks Riges Krønike", was while drunk at a feast in his own hall. Despite the pleadings of his subjects, he would not be deterred. Eric appointed his son, Harald Kesja, and Bishop Asser as regents.

paragraph: Eric and Boedil and a large company traveled through Russia to Constantinople where he was a guest of the emperor. While there, he became ill, but took ship for Cyprus anyway. He died at Paphos, Cyprus in July 1103. The queen had him buried there. He was the first king to go on pilgrimage after Jerusalem was conquered during the First Crusade. Queen Boedil also became ill, but made it to Jerusalem where she died. She was buried at the foot of the Mount of Olives in the Valley of Josaphat.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Eric and Boedil had one legitimate son, Canute Lavard. Harald Kesja was Canute's half-brother. Eric had two sons outside marriage Eric II the Memorable and Benedict, and the daughter Ragnhilde (mother of the future king Eric III Lamb).

paragraph: Canute Lavard was king Eric's eldest son, and he was a chivalrous and popular Danish prince. Canute was murdered 7 January 1131 by Eric's nephew Magnus the Strong, the son of King Niels, who viewed Canute as a likely competitor for the throne. Canute's death occurred days before the birth of his child, Valdemar I the Great, who would become King of Denmark from 1157 to 1182. Eric Ejegod is the ancestor of later Danish monarchs.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sigurd the Crusader a Norwegian king, who went on crusade in 1107

description: Danish monarch

wikidata_label: Eric I of Denmark

wikipedia_title: Eric I of Denmark


text: Denmark

text: Eric V of Denmark

text: Agnes of Brandenburg

text: Nyborg

text: Whitsun

text: Stig Andersen Hvide

text: Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland

text: swear

text: Erik Arup

text: miscarriage of justice

text: Valdemar, Duke of South Jutland

text: Norway

text: Eirik Magnusson

text: Haakon V

text: Eric IV of Denmark

text: Stubbekøbing

text: Falster

text: Jens Grand

text: Boniface VIII

text: Martin (Morten Mogensen) of Dacia

text: Rostock

text: Mecklenburg

text: Hanseatic

text: Brandenburg

text: Sweden

text: Viborg

text: Randers

text: Bygholm

text: Horsens

text: Kalø

text: Aarhus

text: Viborg

text: Struer

text: Funen

text: John II, Count of Holstein-Kiel

text: Skåne

text: Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg

text: Rostock

text: Christopher

text: Danish

text: romantic

text: literature

text: Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden

text: Magnus III of Sweden

text: Birger, King of Sweden

text: live born

text: Roskilde

text: Erik Sjællandsfar

text: Zealand

text: Roskilde Cathedral

text: Valdemar IV of Denmark

categories: Medieval child rulers,People temporarily excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church,Roman Catholic monarchs,14th-century Danish people,13th-century monarchs in Europe,1319 deaths,1274 births,House of Estridsen,13th-century Danish people,Burials at St. Bendt's Church,Danish monarchs

paragraph: Eric VI of Denmark

paragraph: Eric VI "Menved" (1274 – 13 November 1319) was King of Denmark (1286–1319). A son of Eric V of Denmark and Agnes of Brandenburg, he became king in 1286 at age 12, when his father was murdered on 22 November by unknown assailants. On account of his age, his mother ruled for him until 1294.

paragraph: Section::::Regency.

paragraph: Eric Menved’s rule was a central period during the “Age of Decay" in Denmark 1241–1340. His early reign – during which he was led by his mother and her German relatives – was affected by the unrest and wars that followed the murder of his father.

paragraph: The first act of the new government was to settle the case of the former king’s murder at a court convened at Nyborg at Whitsun 1287. 27 honorable men were appointed to decide the case. Chief among the accused were Marshal Stig Andersen Hvide and Jacob Nielsen, Count of Halland and seven others were accused. After a one-day trial, the jury found all the accused guilty. The properties and incomes of the condemned were declared forfeit and they were exiled from Denmark on pain of death. Even the pope became involved when he excommunicated those who had been judged guilty.

paragraph: The verdict was questionable on several counts. None of the accused could be proven to be in the immediate vicinity when the king was stabbed to death. The accused were not allowed to swear their innocence before the court or have other honorable men swear as to their innocence, a right granted to them by law. Despite the unclear circumstances surrounding Eric V’s death, the jury only took one day to arrive at a guilty verdict. The accused had all belonged to Erik V's inner circle; it is uncertain what they were supposed to gain by the king’s death.

paragraph: For these reasons historians Erik Arup (1876–1951) and Hugo Yrwing (1908-2002) labelled the verdict as a miscarriage of justice. They consider the murder a result of a power struggle between two noble factions, one led by Marsk Stig and one led by Valdemar, Duke of South Jutland. Duke Valdemar had fallen from grace in 1283, but quickly rose in influence after 1288. They suggest that Valdemar and his allies conspired to kill the king and then to successfully cast suspicion on their rivals at court. Another historian, Kai Hørby (1935-1993) pointed out that the murder might well have its origin in the dynastic struggle for the throne of Denmark. There were others who thought they had equal or better claim to the throne than Eric V, such as Norway's king, Eirik Magnusson and his brother and successor Haakon V who were grandsons of Eric IV of Denmark.

paragraph: Andersen and the others fled to Norway where they were welcomed by King Eirik who gladly supported enemies of the Danish king. He gave Andersen the fortress of Kongshelle near the border with Denmark. Andersen became a pirate who harried the coast of Denmark for years. The exiles managed to build forts on Samsø, Hjelm, Sprogø, and Helgenæs. No ship was safe and no coastal town immune from Stig Andersen Hvide. The high point of his depredations occurred in 1289 when he landed with a small Norwegian army at Stubbekøbing on Falster. Wizlau II of Rűgen, Denmark's regent, used his Wendish fleet to drive Andersen back to Norway. Andersen's activities sparked four decades of conflict and warfare between the Nordic kingdoms.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: At the same time an ecclesiastical conflict appeared because of the ambitious new Archbishop of Lund Jens Grand who supported the outlaws, his kinsmen, despite his oath to support the king. Once his selection was confirmed by the pope, Bishop Jens reneged on his oath of allegiance. "It doesn't matter to me whether Duke Valdemar, a Jew, a Turk, a pagan, or the devil himself is King of Denmark so long as it is neither Erik nor his brother Christopher," he said. " Bishop Jens went further, he gave a piece of church land at Hundehals to the exiles to build a fortress and entertained them at his table in public. The king could not tolerate this and ordered Bishop Jens' arrest in 1294. The archbishop was sent to Duke Christopher in chains to be close confined in Søborg's "dark tower". After some months in terrible conditions, the king sent a messenger to Bishop Jens to see if he would swear allegiance again and promise to seek no revenge for his captivity. "Rather than bend to his will, I would rather that the king sliced me apart joint by joint than submit to his commands," the bishop replied. After two years in awful conditions, Bishop Jens managed to escape with the help of a kitchen servant. Bishop Jens fled directly to Rome to lay his case before the Holy See. The pope immediately excommunicated the king and put all of Denmark under interdict until the kingdom paid Archbishop Jens Grand 49,000 silver marks. Denmark could not or would not raise such a sum and languished under interdict for four years. In 1302 King Erik wrote to the pope asking for mercy for himself and the kingdom which had been without any of the sacraments for years. Promising to do whatever the pope said, King Erik humbled himself in public. Pope Boniface VIII – negotiated by Martin (Morten Mogensen) of Dacia – agreed to reduce the fine by 80%, interdict and excommunication were lifted and Archbishop Jens accepted another papal assignment which kept him out of King Erik's hair.

paragraph: Erik had a great love of tournaments, and money poured out of the treasury for his entertainments. At one knightly tournament at Rostock, wine, mead, and beer "flowed" for an entire month for any who wished to drink. The king paid for the upkeep of all the horses and livestock at the tournament including a mountain of oats for any and all. He crafted new and unusual taxes to squeeze peasants and nobles alike. When the tax money didn't cover his expenses, the king borrowed money heavily from various German nobles, going so far as to mortgage pieces of Denmark to them. Erik sent several expeditions to Germany to win new territories in an attempt to recover Denmark's position as a Scandinavian great power. Through alliances with German princes, among them the Duke of Mecklenburg he managed to become the formal lord of several Hanseatic cities which meant fighting Brandenburg and some other minor states. He also intervened in Sweden in order to support his brother-in-law against the opposition in 1305 and again in 1307–1309 while fighting in Germany at the same time, hiring German troops to turn the tide in his favor.

paragraph: In 1312 famine struck Denmark and when the king demanded the same taxes as before, the peasants on Zealand rebelled. Erik put down the rebellion fiercely, hanging hundreds of peasants outside Copenhagen. The very next year at the Viborg Assembly (Danish: "") the peasant and nobles declared open rebellion against the king. Those who refused to aid the rebels were hanged from their own house beams. Erik put down the rebellion with mercenary troops from Germany, ravaging as far north as Randers. The king began a round of fortress building with peasant slavery labor, one of the penalties imposed for rebellion. The nobles involved were exiled or executed and their property taken by the crown. Four such strongholds were constructed; Bygholm in Horsens, Kalø north of Aarhus, Borgvold in Viborg and Ulstrup east of Struer. Niels Brok was executed for hiding Rane Jonsen (1254-1294) who had aided those who murdered Erik's father at Finderup.

paragraph: In 1313 King Erik surrendered all crown property in southern Jutland to the Duke for cash. From 1315 to 1317 the crops failed yet again. There was nothing left to tax. The treasury was empty. In 1317 Erik mortgaged all of the island of Funen to Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg and John II, Count of Holstein-Kiel for 200 mounted knights. Before he died, Erik also mortgaged Skåne to German nobles for money to continue his extravagances. As a last blow to Danish pride, Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg captured the Danish fortress at Rostock.

paragraph: When Erik died in 1319 having survived all his 14 children. Denmark was bankrupt. He was succeeded by his younger brother Christopher (1276–1332) who ruled Denmark as King Christopher II between 1320–1326.

paragraph: Section::::Judgements.

paragraph: Traditionally the rule of Eric VI has been regarded one of the few bright spots of the period because of his attempt to recover Denmark's far-flung empire. He has been hailed in Danish romantic literature. Viewed today, however, his policies began the dissolution of the Danish empire in the Baltic and northern Europe that followed during the next generation.

paragraph: The nickname of King Eric has been much discussed. A popular explanation is that it is an abbreviation of his alleged favourite oath (“"ved" alle hellige "mænd"” – Eng.: "by" all holy "men"). Another explanation is that it derives from the elder Danish “"menvett"” (Eng.: bird of ill omen).

paragraph: Section::::Children and family.

paragraph: Married in June 1296 to Ingeborg Magnusdotter of Sweden. She was the daughter of King Magnus III of Sweden and sister of King Birger, King of Sweden. The couple had eight sons who died as children, as well as six miscarriages, although the sources differ between eight and fourteen children: her many pregnancies led to miscarriages, or the birth of children who died soon after.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Valdemar (d. 1302)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eric

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnus

paragraph: BULLET::::- An unnamed son (b. & d. 1318); according to tradition, Queen Ingeborg was so happy to finally have a live born child, she took the boy out for a carriage ride to show him off, holding him out the window, where she lost her grip on him, and he fell and broke his neck. Queen Ingeborg subsequently entered the Convent of St. Clare in  Roskilde where she died the following year.

paragraph: Evidence also indicate Eric VI may have had an illegitimate son, Erik Sjællandsfar (ca. 1300-1364) at on Zealand, buried in Roskilde Cathedral with a crown. However, other evidence indicate that he was a son of King Valdemar IV of Denmark.

paragraph: Section::::Other sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arup, Erik (1951) "Danmarks historie" (Copenhagen: Hagerup)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fagerland, Tor Einar (2006) "Krigføring og politisk kultur i nordisk middelalder", (NTNU)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hørby, Kai (1989) "Gyldendals og Politikens -danmarkshistorie. 1250-1400" (Copenhagen: Gyldendal)

description: King of Denmark

wikidata_label: Eric VI of Denmark

wikipedia_title: Eric VI of Denmark


text:
Denmark
Eric V
Eric VI
Duke of Estonia
Jens Grand
magnate
håndfæstning
coronation charter
mortgaged
Valdemar Sejr
Gerhard III
John I, Count of Holstein-Kiel
Adolf IV of Holstein
Duke Valdemar
Southern Jutland
Knud Porse
Johan the mild
Gerhard II, Count of Holstein-Plön
Henry of Mecklenburg
Vordingborg
Skåne
Magnus IV of Sweden
Jutland
Funen
Zealand
Dannevirke
Sakskøbing
Lolland
Ålholm Castle
Euphemia of Pomerania
Louis V, Duke of Bavaria
Eric
Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg
Gerhard III
John II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg
Otto
Duke of Lolland
Estonia
Valdemar
Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein
House of Hohenzollern
Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein
House of Hohenzollern

categories: 1332 deaths,14th-century Danish people,Roman Catholic monarchs,House of Estridsen,Burials at Sorø Abbey,1276 births,Danish monarchs

paragraph: Christopher II of Denmark

paragraph: Christopher II (; 29 September 1276 – 2 August 1332) was king of Denmark from 1320 to 1326 and again from 1329 until his death. He was a younger son of Eric V. His name is connected with national disaster, as his rule ended in an almost total dissolution of the Danish state.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Being the brother of King Eric VI who served as king of Denmark from 1286 til 1319, Christopher was a possible heir to the throne. As a young man with the title of Duke of Estonia, he supported the politics of his brother. Among other things he arrested Archbishop Jens Grand in 1294. But later on he joined the opposition and went into exile at the death of Eric in 1319.

paragraph: The magnates wanted a weak royal power, and Christopher was elected as king in January 1320; in return he signed a contractual håndfæstning, the first time this kind of document was used as a coronation charter. He received a "bankrupt estate" in which entire regions of the kingdom were mortgaged to German and Danish magnates. The conditions of the charter were very hard, because they limited his ability to assess taxes, as well as demanded payments on the mortgages. Christopher could make no decision regarding the realm without the consent of the nobility and the bishops. The privileges of the nobility and the church were included in the charter and new ones were included. No bishop could be imprisoned, exiled, or fined without the pope's approval, no secular court could try any churchman, no church land or property could be taxed, the nobles could raise fees or rents on peasants, no noble could be forced to fight abroad or forced to pay to outfit soldiers to fight abroad, the king was required to ransom captured noblemen within a year, all taxes imposed since the reign of Valdemar Sejr on nobles or church were to be lifted, but the kingdom's debts were to be paid. This shift of power away from the king would last until 1660.

paragraph: Despite signing the charter, King Christopher ruled as if it did not exist. Since he could not tax the church or Danish nobles he levied disastrous taxes on the German territories and peasants. During the next years Christopher tried to strengthen his position by reviving Erik’s policy of warfare against the duchies, counties, and cities of northern Germany. This resulted in new mortgages and taxes, and very soon he was in conflict with both the church and the magnates.

paragraph: During a rebellion in 1326 he was overthrown by an alliance between Danish magnates and Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg and John I, Count of Holstein-Kiel, son of Adolf IV of Holstein). Christopher was forced into abdication and exile, while the 12-year-old Duke Valdemar of Southern Jutland was made king of Denmark, with Count Gerhard as regent. They forced Valdemar in his coronation charter to separate southern Jutland from Denmark so that never again would the King of Denmark rule there. Danish nobleman Knud Porse took Halland for himself for his services to Count Gerhard and Count Johann. The squabbling over who got which pieces of Denmark broke down the alliances which had forced Christopher out of the country.

paragraph: Until 1329 Christopher lived in exile, but a growing chaos in the "magnates’ republic" of Denmark gave him another chance. Frictions developed between Gerhard and his cousin Johan the mild, Count of Schauenburg and Holstein-Plön and Holstein-Kiel who was also Christopher’s half-brother through his widowed mother's marriage to Gerhard II, Count of Holstein-Plön.

paragraph: Suddenly, with the help of Henry of Mecklenburg, Christopher stood poised at Vordingborg with 2000 mounted German knights. Unfortunately for Christopher they allowed themselves to be surrounded and were forced to surrender. After a peasant uprising in Jutland which was crushed ruthlessly by Count Gerhard, the peasants in Skåne begged King Magnus IV of Sweden to rule them. He readily accepted and Denmark ceased to exist as a united kingdom.

paragraph: Christopher was restored as Danish king in 1329–1330 with the co-operation of Count Johan, but this time he was reduced to the position of a puppet from the start. Most of his country was mortgaged, and he had no chance of holding real royal power. Jutland for example was mortgaged for 100,000 silver marks which had to be "laid on the table all at once" or the mortgage was not redeemed. It was an enormous mortgage and impossible to pay. Count Gerhard took all of Jutland as his personal property. Count Johan did the same on Funen and Zealand. In 1331 Christopher attempted to exploit a conflict between Counts Gerhard and Johan by joining the latter, but it ended in a clear military defeat at Dannevirke. Under the terms of the settlement between the counts, Christopher was allowed to retain the title of king, but in reality had no power whatsoever. He was given a simple house at Sakskøbing on Lolland, but even that was burned by German mercenaries. Christopher was imprisoned at Ålholm Castle on Lolland where he died a ruined and broken man the next year.

paragraph: Upon his death Denmark ceased being a formal kingdom, and for the next eight years it was subdued by various mortgagees to German military rule.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: History's judgment of Christopher has been extremely hard, and he has often been regarded as a weak, unreliable and incapable tyrant— "the king who mortgaged Denmark to the Germans". He in many ways simply carried on the policy of his predecessor. The policy of mortgaging parts of Denmark was common practice by nobles and kings alike to raise money. It would be incorrect to call him a passive ruler; the power of the Danish and German high nobility and their co-operation with church establishment undermined his freedom of action.

paragraph: Section::::Issue.

paragraph: With his wife, Euphemia of Pomerania, whom he wed in 1300;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret (1305–1340); married Louis V, Duke of Bavaria

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eric (1307–1331); married Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg, sister of Count Gerhard III and widow of John II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- Otto, Duke of Lolland and Estonia (1310-aft. 1347)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Agnes (d. 1312); died young

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heilwig (born c. 1315)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Valdemar (1320–1375)

paragraph: Illegitimate with ? Lunge:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Regitze Christofferdatter Løvenbalk, married Peder Stigsen (Krognos) of Krapperup had issue. From this daughter descends the modern day line of the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein and the former Prussian House of Hohenzollern.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Erik Christoffersen Løvenbalk, had issue. From this son descends the modern day line of the Dukes of Schleswig-Holstein and the former Prussian House of Hohenzollern.

description: King of Denmark

wikidata_label: Christopher II of Denmark

wikipedia_title: Christopher II of Denmark