text: no-till

text: grain

text: Iyo, Ehime

text: Gifu Prefecture

text: microbiologist

text: agricultural scientist

text: plant pathology

text: Yokohama

text: pneumonia

text: agricultural science

text: Shikoku

text: organic

text: citrus

text: World War II

text: Kōchi Prefecture

text: World War II

text: American occupying forces

text: Michio Kushi

text: University of California

text: Berkeley

text: Los Angeles

text: Green Gulch Farm Zen Center

text: Lundberg Family Farms

text: United Nations

text: UNCCD

text: Maurice Strong

text: New York City

text: Boston

text: Amherst College

text: Massachusetts

text: Somalia

text: Ethiopia

text: Washington state

text: San Francisco

text: University of California, Santa Cruz

text: Indian Science Congress

text: Thailand

text: Earth Summit

text: Tanzania

text: baobab

text: Philippines

text: Greece

text: Lake Vegoritida

text: Pella regional unit

text: Mallorca

text: China

text: Navdanya

text: Dehra Dun

text: Uttarakhand

text: Gandhi's Day

text: Albert Howard

text: Afghanistan

text: World Expo

text: Aichi Prefecture

text: Japan

text: NHK

text: natural farming

text: plowing

text: tilling

text: fertilizer

text: pesticide

text: herbicide

text: pruning of fruit trees

text: Clay seed balls

text: humus

text: compost

text: microbial

text: inoculant

text: clay

text: guerilla gardening

text: Visva-Bharati University

text: Ramon Magsaysay Award

text: Rockefeller Brothers Fund

text: organic farming

text: Rudolf Steiner

text: Hans Müller

text: Lady Eve Balfour

text: J.I. Rodale

text: David Mas Masumoto

text: Yoshikazu Kawaguchi

text: permaculture

text: Rosana Tositrakul

text: Kut Chum District

text: Yasothon Province

text: chemical-free

text: Wendell Berry

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: iyokan

text: amanatsu mikan

text: ginkgo

text: shiitake

text: lime

text: grapefruit

text: feijoa

text: avocado

text: mango

text: Jiji Press Co.

text: Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness

text: Conservation agriculture

text: Ecoagriculture

text: Ecosystem restoration

text: Reconciliation ecology

text: Rewilding

text: Spiritual ecology

text: Vandana Shiva

text: Shripad Dabholkar

text: Bill Mollison

text: Arne Næss

text: Mokichi Okada

text: Masanobu Fukuoka and Natural Farming

text: Nature - Nature knows best

categories: Ramon Magsaysay Award winners,2008 deaths,Japanese educators,Japanese conservationists,People from Ehime Prefecture,Japanese environmentalists,Japanese philosophers,Sustainable food system,Religious naturalists,Non-fiction environmental writers,Japanese writers,1913 births,Japanese microbiologists,Sustainability advocates,Japanese farmers

paragraph: Masanobu Fukuoka

paragraph: He was a proponent of no-till, no-herbicide grain cultivation farming methods traditional to many indigenous cultures, from which he created a particular method of farming, commonly referred to as "natural farming" or "do-nothing farming".

paragraph: Fukuoka was the author of several books, scientific papers and other publications, and was featured in television documentaries and interviews from the 1970s onwards. His influences went beyond farming to inspire individuals within the natural food and lifestyle movements. He was an outspoken advocate of the value of observing nature's principles.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Fukuoka was born on 2 February 1913 in Iyo, Ehime, Japan, the second son of Kameichi Fukuoka, an educated and wealthy land owner and local leader. He attended Gifu Prefecture Agricultural College and trained as a microbiologist and agricultural scientist, beginning a career as a research scientist specialising in plant pathology. He worked at the Plant Inspection Division of the Yokohama Customs Bureau in 1934 as an agricultural customs inspector. In 1937 he was hospitalised with pneumonia, and while recovering, he stated that he had a profound spiritual experience that transformed his world view and led him to doubt the practices of modern "Western" agricultural science. He immediately resigned from his post as a research scientist, returning to his family's farm on the island of Shikoku in southern Japan.

paragraph: From 1938, Fukuoka began to practise and experiment with new techniques on organic citrus orchards and used the observations gained to develop the idea of "Natural Farming". Among other practices, he abandoned pruning an area of citrus trees, which caused the trees to become affected by insects and tangled branches. He stated that the experience taught him the difference between nature and non-intervention. His efforts were interrupted by World War II, during which he worked at the Kōchi Prefecture agricultural experiment station on subjects including farming research and food production.

paragraph: In 1940, Fukuoka married his wife Ayako, and they had five children together. After World War II, his father lost most of the family lands due to forced redistribution policies of the American occupying forces and was left with only three-eighths of an acre of rice land and the hillside citrus orchards his son had taken over before the war. Despite these setbacks, in 1947 he took up natural farming again with success, using no-till farming methods to raise rice and barley. He wrote his first book, "Mu 1: The God Revolution", or "Mu 1: Kami no Kakumei" () in Japanese, during the same year, and worked to spread word of the benefits of his methods and philosophy. His later book, "The One-Straw Revolution", was published in 1975 and translated into English in 1978.

paragraph: From 1979, Fukuoka travelled the world extensively, giving lectures, working directly to plant seeds and re-vegetate areas, and receiving a number of awards in various countries in recognition of his work and achievements. By the 1980s, Fukuoka recorded that he and his family shipped some 6,000 crates of citrus to Tokyo each year, totalling about 90 tonnes.

paragraph: During his first journey overseas, Fukuoka was accompanied by his wife Ayako, met macrobiotic diet leaders Michio Kushi and Herman Aihara, and was guided by his leading supporter and translation editor Larry Korn. They sowed seeds in desertified land, visited the University of California in Berkeley and Los Angeles, the Green Gulch Farm Zen Center, the Lundberg Family Farms, and met with United Nations UNCCD representatives including Maurice Strong, who encouraged Fukuoka's practical involvement in the "Plan of Action to Combat Desertification". He also travelled to New York City and surrounding areas such as Boston and Amherst College in Massachusetts.

paragraph: In 1983, he travelled to Europe for 50 days holding workshops, educating farmers and sowing seeds. In 1985, he spent 40 days in Somalia and Ethiopia, sowing seeds to re-vegetate desert areas, including working in remote villages and a refugee camp. The following year he returned to the United States, speaking at three international conferences on natural farming in Washington state, San Francisco and at the Agriculture Department of the University of California, Santa Cruz. Fukuoka also took the opportunity to visit farms, forests and cities giving lectures and meeting people. In 1988, he lectured at the Indian Science Congress, state agricultural universities and other venues.

paragraph: Fukuoka went to Thailand in 1990 and 1991, visiting farms and collecting seeds for re-vegetating deserts in India, which he returned to during November and December that year in an attempt to re-vegetate them. The next year saw him participate in official meetings in Japan associated with the Earth Summit in Rio, Brazil, and in 1996 he returned to Africa, sowing seeds in desert areas of Tanzania, observing baobab trees and jungle country. He taught the making and sowing of clay seed balls in Vietnam during 1995.

paragraph: He travelled to the Philippines in 1998, carrying out Natural Farming research, and visited Greece later that year to assist plans to re-vegetate 10,000 hectares around the Lake Vegoritida area in the Pella regional unit and to produce a film of the major seed ball effort. The next year he returned to Europe, visiting Mallorca.

paragraph: He visited China in 2001, and in 2002 he returned again to India to speak at the "Nature as Teacher" workshop at Navdanya Farm and at Bija Vidyapeeth Earth University in Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand in northern India. On Gandhi's Day, he gave the third annual Albert Howard Memorial Lecture to attendees from all six continents. That autumn he was to visit Afghanistan with Yuko Honma but was unable to attend, shipping eight tons of seed in his stead. In 2005, he gave a brief lecture at the World Expo in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, and in May 2006 he appeared in an hour-long interview on Japanese television network NHK.

paragraph: Masanobu Fukuoka died on 16 August 2008 at the age of 95, after a period of confinement in bed and in a wheelchair.

paragraph: Section::::Natural farming.

paragraph: Fukuoka called his agricultural philosophy , most commonly translated into English as "natural farming". It is also referred to as "the Fukuoka Method", "the natural way of farming" or "Do-Nothing Farming".

paragraph: The system is based on the recognition of the complexity of living organisms that shape an ecosystem and deliberately exploiting it. Fukuoka saw farming not just as a means of producing food but as an aesthetic and spiritual approach to life, the ultimate goal of which was "the cultivation and perfection of human beings".

paragraph: The five principles of natural farming are that:

paragraph: BULLET::::- human cultivation of soil, plowing or tilling are unnecessary, as is the use of powered machines

paragraph: BULLET::::- prepared fertilizers are unnecessary, as is the process of preparing compost

paragraph: BULLET::::- weeding, either by cultivation or by herbicides, is unnecessary; instead, only minimal weed suppression with minimal disturbance should be used

paragraph: BULLET::::- applications of pesticides or herbicides are unnecessary

paragraph: BULLET::::- pruning of fruit trees is unnecessary

paragraph: Section::::Clay seed balls.

paragraph: Fukuoka re-invented and advanced the use of clay seed balls. Clay seed balls were originally an ancient practice in which seeds for the next season's crops are mixed together, sometimes with humus or compost for microbial inoculants, and then are rolled within clay to form into small balls. This method is now commonly used in guerilla gardening to rapidly seed restricted or private areas.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: In 1988, Fukuoka received the Visva-Bharati University's Desikottam Award as well as the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Public Service in the Philippines, often considered "Asia's Nobel Prize".

paragraph: In March 1997, the Earth Summit+5 forum in Rio de Janeiro presented him with the Earth Council Award, received in person at a ceremony in Tokyo on 26 May of that year, honouring him for his contributions to sustainable development.

paragraph: In 1998, Fukuoka received a grant of US$10,000 from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, but the grant was returned because his advanced age prevented him from completing the project.

paragraph: Section::::Influence.

paragraph: In the international development of the organic farming movement, Fukuoka is considered to be amongst the "five giant personalities who inspired the movement" along with Austrian Rudolf Steiner, German-Swiss Hans Müller, Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom and J.I. Rodale in the United States.

paragraph: His books are considered both farming compendiums and guides to a way of life.

paragraph: "The One-Straw Revolution" has been translated into over 20 languages and sold more than one million copies and Fukuoka has been widely influential, inspiring an international movement of individuals discovering and applying his principles to varying degrees, such as Akinori Kimura, David Mas Masumoto and Yoshikazu Kawaguchi, and has significantly influenced alternative movements in the West, such as permaculture.

paragraph: Rosana Tositrakul, a Thai activist and politician, spent a year studying with Fukuoka on his farm. She then organised a visit by Fukuoka to the Kut Chum District of Yasothon Province in northeastern Thailand, which, together with his books, were influential in the rapid and widespread adoption of organic and chemical-free rice farming in the district.

paragraph: Section::::Criticism.

paragraph: In the preface to the US editions of "The One-Straw Revolution", Wendell Berry wrote that Fukuoka's techniques are not "directly applicable to most American farms", but ultimately concludes that it would be "a mistake to assume that the practical passages of this book are worthless..." suggesting that Natural Farming would require farmers to have fresh eyes and the right kind of concern for their land in order to come up with methods relevant to their own farms.

paragraph: Fukuoka's techniques have proven difficult to apply, even on most Japanese farms, and have been described as a sophisticated approach despite their simple appearance. In the initial years of transition from conventional farming there are losses in crop yields. Fukuoka estimated these to be 10% while others, such as Yoshikazu Kawaguchi, have found attempting to strictly follow Fukuoka's techniques lead to crop failures and require many years of adaption to make the principles work.

paragraph: Theodor Friedrich and Josef Kienzle of the Food and Agriculture Organization opined that his rejection of mechanisation is not justifiable for modern agricultural production and that the system cannot interact effectively with conventional agricultural systems.

paragraph: In Japan, where Fukuoka had few followers or associates, his critics argue that the "inner world and the connection between humans and nature does not, however, exhaust reality" and that he did not give sufficient attention to interpersonal relationships or society.

paragraph: Section::::Family farm recent developments.

paragraph: Fukuoka's farm in Shikoku was taken over by his son and daughter-in-law in the late 1980s, as Fukuoka reached an advanced age. His grandson also took up farming. Many of the farm's iyokan and amanatsu mikan trees remain, although some old iyokan were replaced by new varieties of fruit. Woodlands remain along with orchards, including some areas of wild vegetables still growing amongst them. Some areas of straw-mulched cropping continue to produce grains and vegetables. The farm also features an orchard area of ginkgo trees, shiitake mushroom crops growing on tree logs in shady woodland, and plantings of limes, grapefruits, feijoas, avocados and mangoes.

paragraph: The farm is now run using some natural farming techniques: no chemicals, no tillage of the land and no use of composting. Other techniques have been changed; the pattern of irrigation is more conventional to reduce conflicts with neighbours. A do-nothing philosophy has been followed on the hilltop surrounding Fukuoka's hut. Here it has become a natural, fruit-bearing forest with minimal intervention.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.:Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.:Bibliography.:In Japanese.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1947 – , self-published, incorporated into later editions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1958 – , self-published, later incorporated into .

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1969 – , self-published; republished as by , Tokyo, 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1972 – , self-published; republished by Shunjūsha, 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1973 – , self-published; republished by Shunjūsha, 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1974 – , self-published.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1975 – ; republished by Shunjūsha, 1983.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1975 – , Jiji Press Co.. .13-3

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1984 – , Shunjūsha.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1992 – , self-published. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – . Co-authored with . Shunjūsha, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2001 – , self-published; republished by Shunjūsha, 2010.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – , Shunjūsha,

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.:Bibliography.:In English.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1978 1975 Sep. – "The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to Natural Farming", translators Chris Pearce, Tsune Kurosawa and Larry Korn, Rodale Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1985 1975 Dec. – "The Natural Way Of Farming - The Theory and Practice of Green Philosophy", translator Frederic P. Metreaud, published by Japan Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1987 1984 Aug. – "The Road Back to Nature - Regaining the Paradise Lost", translator Frederic P. Metreaud, published by Japan Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1996 1992 Dec. – "The Ultimatum of God Nature "The One-Straw Revolution" A Recapitulation"; English translation, published without ISBN by .

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012 –1996 – "Sowing Seeds in the Desert: Natural Farming, Global Restoration, and Ultimate Food Security", edited by Larry Korn, Chelsea Green.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.:Bibliography.:Bilingual.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 – , Fukuoka. Contains Masanobu's hand-written classical song-verses and drawings. Bilingual Japanese and English. ,

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.:Documentaries.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1982 – "The Close To Nature Garden"; produced by Rodale Press. 24 minutes. In English.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – "Fukuoka Masanobu goes to India"; produced by Salbong. 59/61 minutes. Available in Japanese or dubbed English.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 - "Final Straw: Food, Earth, Happiness"; directed/produced by Patrick M. Lydon and Suhee Kang. 74 minutes. Subtitled in English.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Conservation agriculture

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ecoagriculture

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ecosystem restoration

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reconciliation ecology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rewilding

paragraph: BULLET::::- Spiritual ecology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vandana Shiva

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shripad Dabholkar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bill Mollison

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arne Næss

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mokichi Okada

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Greening The Desert: Applying natural farming techniques in Africa, interview with Masanobu Fukuoka

paragraph: BULLET::::- Masanobu Fukuoka and Natural Farming, Gandhi Foundation

paragraph: BULLET::::- Masanobu Fukuoka: Japanese Organic Farmer, "Mother Earth News" magazine

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nature - Nature knows best, Life Positive

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Farmer philosopher Masanobu Fukuoka", part 1, 2, 3; Japan Economic Forum

description: Japanese farmer and philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Masanobu Fukuoka

wikidata_label: Masanobu Fukuoka

wikipedia_title: Masanobu Fukuoka


text: Latinized

text: Persian

text: polymath

text: physician

text: alchemist

text: philosopher

text: logic

text: astronomy

text: grammar

text: observation

text: experimental medicine

text: Baghdad

text: Ray

text: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: humoral theory

text: smallpox

text: measles

text: alcohol

text: sulfuric acid

text: Edward Granville Browne

text: pediatrics

text: ophthalmology

text: Ray

text: Great Silk Road

text: nisba

text: Persian

text: Alborz

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text: Baghdad

text: bimaristan

text: Mansur ibn Ishaq

text: al-Muʿtaḍid

text: Al-Muktafi

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text: evidence-based

text: glaucoma

text: Ibn Juljul

text: Mansur ibn Ishaq

text: Abulfaraj

text: Casiri

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text: al-Biruni

text: Ibn al-Nadim

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text: Galen

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text: Encyclopædia Britannica

text: fermentation theory

text: smallpox

text: measles

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text: nostrums

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text: Galen

text: urinary

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text: tablets

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text: Demons

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text: transmutation

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text: General Simjur

text: distillation

text: extraction

text: potions

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text: mercury

text: sal ammoniac

text: sulfur

text: arsenic

text: zinc

text: tin

text: stone

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text: magnesia

text: malachite

text: tutty

text: talcum

text: lapis lazuli

text: gypsum

text: vitriol

text: alum

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text: lime

text: urine

text: rock

text: sea salt

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text: atomism

text: falasifa

text: mutakallimun

text: Plato

text: Galen

text: taqlid

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text: al-Biruni

text: Manichaeism

text: Abu Hatim al-Razi

text: Isma'ili

text: Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī

text: al-Shahrastani

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text: freethinker

text: Abu Rayhan Biruni

text: Avicenna

text: risala

text: Manichaeism

text: Hermetical

text: mathematize physics

text: to mathematics

text: Nasr-i-Khosraw

text: Iranshahri

text: Razi Institute

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text: Razi University

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text: List of Iranian scientists

text: Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran

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text: Abdurrahman Badawi

text: Abdurrahman Badawi

text: F. Wüstenfeld

text: Nasr

text: M. M. Sharif

text: Harvard University Press

text: "Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: Al-Razi (c. 865–925)"

text: "al-Razi" on Islamic Philosophy Online

text: Payvand.com

text: "Lives of the Physicians"

categories: 925 deaths,Medieval philosophers,Physicians of medieval Islam,People from Rey, Iran,Samanid scholars,Muslim inventors,10th-century Iranian people,Islamic Golden Age,854 births,Medieval Persian physicians,Persian philosophers,9th-century Iranian people,Inventors of medieval Islam,10th-century physicians,Iranian inventors,Persian chemists,Alchemists of medieval Islam,Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

paragraph: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

paragraph: Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī ( "Abūbakr Mohammad-e Zakariyyā-ye Rāzī", also known by his Latinized name Rhazes () or Rasis; 854–925 CE), was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist, philosopher, and important figure in the history of medicine. He also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar.

paragraph: A comprehensive thinker, Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his observations and discoveries. An early proponent of experimental medicine, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of Baghdad and Ray hospitals. As a teacher of medicine, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor.

paragraph: According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1911), he was among the first to use humoral theory to distinguish one contagious disease from another, and wrote a pioneering book about smallpox and measles providing clinical characterization of the diseases. He also discovered numerous compounds and chemicals including alcohol and sulfuric acid.

paragraph: Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West. Some volumes of his work "Al-Mansuri", namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities. Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as a doctor's doctor, the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of ophthalmology. For example, he was the first to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Razi was born in the city of Ray (modern Rey) situated on the Great Silk Road that for centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. His nisba, "Râzī" (), means "from the city of Ray" in Persian. It is located on the southern slopes of the Alborz mountain range situated near Tehran, Iran.

paragraph: In his youth, Razi moved to Baghdad where he studied and practiced at the local bimaristan (hospital). Later, he was invited back to Rey by Mansur ibn Ishaq, then the governor of Rey, and became a bimaristan's head. He dedicated two books on medicine to Mansur ibn Ishaq, "The Spiritual Physic" and "Al-Mansūrī on Medicine". Because of his newly acquired popularity as physician, Razi was invited to Baghdad where he assumed the responsibilities of a director in a new hospital named after its founder al-Muʿtaḍid (d. 902 CE). Under the reign of Al-Mutadid's son, Al-Muktafi (r. 902-908) Razi was commissioned to build a new hospital, which should be the largest of the Abbasid Caliphate. To pick the future hospital's location, Razi adopted what is nowadays known as an evidence-based approach suggesting having fresh meat hung in various places throughout the city and to build the hospital where meat took longest to rot.

paragraph: He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from glaucoma. His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness. The cause of his blindness is uncertain. One account mentioned by Ibn Juljul attributed the cause to a blow to his head by his patron, Mansur ibn Ishaq, for failing to provide proof for his alchemy theories; while Abulfaraj and Casiri claimed that the cause was a diet of beans only. Allegedly, he was approached by a physician offering an ointment to cure his blindness. Al-Razi then asked him how many layers does the eye contain and when he was unable to receive an answer, he declined the treatment stating "my eyes will not be treated by one who does not know the basics of its anatomy".

paragraph: The lectures of Razi attracted many students. As Ibn al-Nadim relates in "Fihrist", Razi was considered a "shaikh", an honorary title given to one entitled to teach and surrounded by several circles of students. When someone raised a question, it was passed on to students of the 'first circle'; if they did not know the answer, it was passed on to those of the 'second circle', and so on. When all students would fail to answer, Razi himself would consider the query. Razi was a generous person by nature, with a considerate attitude towards his patients. He was charitable to the poor, treated them without payment in any form, and wrote for them a treatise "Man La Yaḥḍuruhu al-Ṭabīb", or "Who Has No Physician to Attend Him", with medical advice. One former pupil from Tabaristan came to look after him, but as al-Biruni wrote, Razi rewarded him for his intentions and sent him back home, proclaiming that his final days were approaching. According to Biruni, Razi died in Rey in 925 sixty years of age. Biruni, who considered Razi as his mentor, among the first penned a short biography of Razi including a bibliography of his numerous works.

paragraph: Ibn al-Nadim recorded an account by Razi of a Chinese student who copied down all of Galen's works in Chinese as Razi read them to him out loud after the student learned fluent Arabic in 5 months and attended Razi's lectures.

paragraph: After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and lived on. In an undated catalog of the library at Peterborough Abbey, most likely from the 14th century, Razi is listed as a part author of ten books on medicine.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Psychology and psychotherapy.

paragraph: Al-Razi was one of the world's first great medical experts. He is considered the father of psychology and psychotherapy.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Smallpox vs. measles.

paragraph: Razi wrote:

paragraph: Smallpox appears when blood "boils" and is infected, resulting in vapours being expelled. Thus juvenile blood (which looks like wet extracts appearing on the skin) is being transformed into richer blood, having the color of mature wine. At this stage, smallpox shows up essentially as "bubbles found in wine" (as blisters)... this disease can also occur at other times (meaning: not only during childhood). The best thing to do during this first stage is to keep away from it, otherwise this disease might turn into an epidemic.

paragraph: This diagnosis is acknowledged by the "Encyclopædia Britannica" (1911), which states: "The most trustworthy statements as to the early existence of the disease are found in an account by the 9th-century Persian physician Rhazes, by whom its symptoms were clearly described, its pathology explained by a humoral or fermentation theory, and directions given for its treatment."

paragraph: Razi's book "al-Judari wa al-Hasbah" ("On Smallpox and Measles") was the first book describing smallpox and measles as distinct diseases. It was translated more than a dozen times into Latin and other European languages. Its lack of dogmatism and its Hippocratic reliance on clinical observation show Razi's medical methods. For example, he wrote:The eruption of smallpox is preceded by a continued fever, pain in the back, itching in the nose and nightmares during sleep. These are the more acute symptoms of its approach together with a noticeable pain in the back accompanied by fever and an itching felt by the patient all over his body. A swelling of the face appears, which comes and goes, and one notices an overall inflammatory color noticeable as a strong redness on both cheeks and around both eyes. One experiences a heaviness of the whole body and great restlessness, which expresses itself as a lot of stretching and yawning. There is a pain in the throat and chest and one finds it difficult to breathe and cough. Additional symptoms are: dryness of breath, thick spittle, hoarseness of the voice, pain and heaviness of the head, restlessness, nausea and anxiety. (Note the difference: restlessness, nausea and anxiety occur more frequently with "measles" than with smallpox. At the other hand, pain in the back is more apparent with smallpox than with measles). Altogether one experiences heat over the whole body, one has an inflamed colon and one shows an overall shining redness, with a very pronounced redness of the gums. (Rhazes, Encyclopaedia of Medicine)

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Meningitis.

paragraph: Razi compared the outcome of patients with meningitis treated with blood-letting with the outcome of those treated without it to see if blood-letting could help.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Pharmacy.

paragraph: Razi contributed in many ways to the early practice of pharmacy by compiling texts, in which he introduces the use of "mercurial ointments" and his development of apparatus such as mortars, flasks, spatulas and phials, which were used in pharmacies until the early twentieth century.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Ethics of medicine.

paragraph: On a professional level, Razi introduced many practical, progressive, medical and psychological ideas. He attacked charlatans and fake doctors who roamed the cities and countryside selling their nostrums and "cures". At the same time, he warned that even highly educated doctors did not have the answers to all medical problems and could not cure all sicknesses or heal every disease, which was humanly speaking impossible. To become more useful in their services and truer to their calling, Razi advised practitioners to keep up with advanced knowledge by continually studying medical books and exposing themselves to new information. He made a distinction between curable and incurable diseases. Pertaining to the latter, he commented that in the case of advanced cases of cancer and leprosy the physician should not be blamed when he could not cure them. To add a humorous note, Razi felt great pity for physicians who took care for the well being of princes, nobility, and women, because they did not obey the doctor's orders to restrict their diet or get medical treatment, thus making it most difficult being their physician.

paragraph: He also wrote the following on medical ethics:

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Books and articles on medicine.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Al-Kitab al Hawi"

paragraph: This 23-volume set medical textbooks contains the foundation of gynecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Virtuous Life" ("al-Hawi" "الحاوي").

paragraph: This monumental medical encyclopedia in nine volumes—known in Europe also as "The Large Comprehensive" or "Continens Liber" ("جامع الكبير") ——contains considerations and criticism on the Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato, and expresses innovative views on many subjects. Because of this book alone, many scholars consider Razi the greatest medical doctor of the Middle Ages.

paragraph: The "al-Hawi" is not a formal medical encyclopedia, but a posthumous compilation of Razi's working notebooks, which included knowledge gathered from other books as well as original observations on diseases and therapies, based on his own clinical experience. It is significant since it contains a celebrated monograph on smallpox, the earliest one known. It was translated into Latin in 1279 by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou, and after which it had a considerable influence in Europe.

paragraph: The "al-Hawi" also criticized the views of Galen, after Razi had observed many clinical cases which did not follow Galen's descriptions of fevers. For example, he stated that Galen's descriptions of urinary ailments were inaccurate as he had only seen three cases, while Razi had studied hundreds of such cases in hospitals of Baghdad and Rey.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "For One Who Has No Physician to Attend Him" ("Man la Yahduruhu Al-Tabib") ("من لا يحضره الطبيب")—A medical adviser for the general public

paragraph: Razi was possibly the first Persian doctor to deliberately write a home medical manual (remedial) directed at the general public. He dedicated it to the poor, the traveler, and the ordinary citizen who could consult it for treatment of common ailments when a doctor was not available. This book is of special interest to the history of pharmacy since similar books were very popular until the 20th century. Razi described in its 36 chapters, diets and drug components that can be found in either an apothecary, a market place, in well-equipped kitchens, or and in military camps. Thus, every intelligent person could follow its instructions and prepare the proper recipes with good results.

paragraph: Some of the illnesses treated were headaches, colds, coughing, melancholy and diseases of the eye, ear, and stomach. For example, he prescribed for a feverish headache: " 2 parts of "duhn" (oily extract) of rose, to be mixed with 1 part of vinegar, in which a piece of linen cloth is dipped and compressed on the forehead". He recommended as a laxative, " 7 drams of dried violet flowers with 20 pears, macerated and well mixed, then strained. Add to this filtrate, 20 drams of sugar for a drink. In cases of melancholy, he invariably recommended prescriptions, which included either poppies or its juice (opium), "Cuscuta epithymum" (clover dodder) or both. For an eye-remedy, he advised myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, 2 drams each, to be mixed with 1 dram of yellow arsenic formed into tablets. Each tablet was to be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of coriander water and used as eye drops.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Doubts About Galen" ("Shukuk 'ala alinusor")

paragraph: In his book "Doubts about Galen", Razi rejects several claims made by the Greek physician, as far as the alleged superiority of the Greek language and many of his cosmological and medical views. He links medicine with philosophy, and states that sound practice demands independent thinking. He reports that Galen's descriptions do not agree with his own clinical observations regarding the run of a fever. And in some cases he finds that his clinical experience exceeds Galen's.

paragraph: He criticized moreover Galen's theory that the body possessed four separate "humors" (liquid substances), whose balance are the key to health and a natural body-temperature. A sure way to upset such a system was to insert a liquid with a different temperature into the body resulting in an increase or decrease of bodily heat, which resembled the temperature of that particular fluid. Razi noted that a warm drink would heat up the body to a degree much higher than its own natural temperature. Thus the drink would trigger a response from the body, rather than transferring only its own warmth or coldness to it. ("Cf." I. E. Goodman)

paragraph: This line of criticism essentially had the potential to completely refute Galen's theory of humors, as well as Aristotle's theory of the four elements, on which it was grounded. Razi's own alchemical experiments suggested other qualities of matter, such as "oiliness" and "sulphurousness", or inflammability and salinity, which were not readily explained by the traditional fire, water, earth, and air division of elements.

paragraph: Razi's challenge to the current fundamentals of medical theory were quite controversial. Many accused him of ignorance and arrogance, even though he repeatedly expressed his praise and gratitude to Galen for his contributions and labors, saying:

paragraph: I prayed to God to direct and lead me to the truth in writing this book. It grieves me to oppose and criticize the man Galen from whose sea of knowledge I have drawn much. Indeed, he is the Master and I am the disciple. Although this reverence and appreciation will and should not prevent me from doubting, as I did, what is erroneous in his theories. I imagine and feel deeply in my heart that Galen has chosen me to undertake this task, and if he were alive, he would have congratulated me on what I am doing. I say this because Galen's aim was to seek and find the truth and bring light out of darkness. I wish indeed he were alive to read what I have published.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Crystallization of ancient knowledge, and the refusal to accept the fact that new data and ideas indicate that present day knowledge ultimately might surpass that of previous generations.

paragraph: Razi believed that contemporary scientists and scholars are by far better equipped, more knowledgeable, and more competent than the ancient ones, due to the accumulated knowledge at their disposal. Razi's attempt to overthrow blind acceptance of the unchallenged authority of ancient sages encouraged and stimulated research and advances in the arts, technology, and sciences.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Diseases of Children"

paragraph: Razi's "The Diseases of Children" was the first monograph to deal with pediatrics as an independent field of medicine.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mental health

paragraph: As many other theorists in his time of exploration of illnesses, he believed that mental illnesses were caused by demons. Demons were believed to enter the body and possess the body.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Books on medicine.

paragraph: This is a partial list of Razi's books and articles in medicine, according to Ibn Abi Usaybi'ah. Some books may have been copied or printed under different names.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to medicine.:Translations.

paragraph: Razi's notable books and articles on medicine (in English) include:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mofid al Khavas", The Book for the Elite.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Book of Experiences"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Cause of the Death of Most Animals because of Poisonous Winds"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Physicians' Experiments"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Person Who Has No Access to Physicians"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Big Pharmacology"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Small Pharmacology"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gout"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Al Shakook ala Jalinoos", The Doubt on Galen

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kidney and Bladder Stones"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ketab tibb ar-Ruhani", "The Spiritual Physik of Rhazes".

paragraph: Section::::Alchemy.

paragraph: Section::::Alchemy.:The transmutation of metals.

paragraph: Razi's interest in alchemy and his strong belief in the possibility of transmutation of lesser metals to silver and gold was attested half a century after his death by Ibn an-Nadim's book ("The Philosophers Stone"-Lapis Philosophorum in Latin). Nadim attributed a series of twelve books to Razi, plus an additional seven, including his refutation to al-Kindi's denial of the validity of alchemy. Al-Kindi (801–873 CE) had been appointed by the Abbasid Caliph Ma'mum founder of Baghdad, to 'the House of Wisdom' in that city, he was a philosopher and an opponent of alchemy. Razi's two best-known alchemical texts, which largely superseded his earlier ones: "al-Asrar" (الاسرار "The Secrets"), and "Sirr al-Asrar" (سر الاسرار "The Secret of Secrets"), which incorporates much of the previous work.

paragraph: Apparently Razi's contemporaries believed that he had obtained the secret of turning iron and copper into gold. Biographer Khosro Moetazed reports in "Mohammad Zakaria Razi" that a certain General Simjur confronted Razi in public, and asked whether that was the underlying reason for his willingness to treat patients without a fee. "It appeared to those present that Razi was reluctant to answer; he looked sideways at the general and replied":I understand alchemy and I have been working on the characteristic properties of metals for an extended time. However, it still has not turned out to be evident to me, how one can transmute gold from copper. Despite the research from the ancient scientists done over the past centuries, there has been no answer. I very much doubt if it is possible...According to one legend he could have been blinded by steaming vapors during an accident in one of his experiments. He managed to escape with no injuries.

paragraph: Section::::Alchemy.:Chemical instruments and substances.

paragraph: Razi developed several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. He is known to have perfected methods of distillation to gain alcohol and extraction.

paragraph: ar-Razi dismissed the idea of potions and dispensed with magic, meaning the reliance on symbols as causes. Although Razi does not reject the idea that miracles exist, in the sense of unexplained phenomena in nature, his alchemical stockroom was enriched with products of Persian mining and manufacturing, even with sal ammoniac, a Chinese discovery. He relied predominantly on the concept of 'dominant' forms or essences, which is the Neoplatonic conception of causality rather than an intellectual approach or a mechanical one. Razi's alchemy brings forward such empiric qualities as salinity and inflammability -the latter associated to 'oiliness' and 'sulphurousness'. These properties are not readily explained by the traditional composition of the elements such as: fire, water, earth and air, as al-óhazali and others after him were quick to note, influenced by critical thoughts such as Razi had.

paragraph: Section::::Alchemy.:Major works on alchemy.

paragraph: Razi's works present the first systematic classification of carefully observed and verified facts regarding chemical substances, reactions and apparatus, described in a language almost entirely free from mysticism and ambiguity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Secret" ("Al-Asrar")

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Four spirits ("AL-ARWAH") : mercury, sal ammoniac, sulfur, and arsenic sulphide (orpiment and realgar).

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Seven bodies "(AL-AJSAD)" : silver, gold, copper, iron, black lead (plumbago), zinc (Kharsind), and tin.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Thirteen stones : ("AL-AHJAR)" Pyrites marcasite ("marqashita"), magnesia, malachite, tutty Zinc oxide "(tutiya)", talcum, lapis lazuli, gypsum, azurite, magnesia, haematite (iron oxide), arsenic oxide, mica and asbestos and glass (then identified as made of sand and alkali of which the transparent crystal Damascene is considered the best),

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Seven vitriols (AL-ZAJAT) : alum "(al-shabb الشب)", and white "(qalqadis القلقديس)", black, red (suri السوري), and yellow "(qulqutar القلقطار)" vitriols (the impure sulfates of iron, copper, etc.), green "(qalqand القلقند)".

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Seven borates : natron, and impure sodium borate.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Eleven salts "(AL-AMLAH)": including brine, common (table) salt, ashes, naphtha, live lime, and urine, rock, and sea salts. Then he separately defines and describes each of these substances, the best forms and colours of each, and the qualities of various adulterations.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Instruments used for the dissolving and melting of metals such as the Blacksmith's hearth, bellows, crucible, thongs (tongue or ladle), macerator, stirring rod, cutter, grinder (pestle), file, shears, descensory and semi-cylindrical iron mould.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Utensils used to carry out the process of transmutation and various parts of the distilling apparatus: the retort, alembic, shallow iron pan, potters kiln and blowers, large oven, cylindrical stove, glass cups, flasks, phials, beakers, glass funnel, crucible, alundel, heating lamps, mortar, cauldron, hair-cloth, sand- and water-bath, sieve, flat stone mortar and chafing-dish.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Secret of Secrets" ("Sirr Al-asrar")

paragraph: Section::::Alchemy.:Books on alchemy.

paragraph: Here is a list of Razi's known books on alchemy, mostly in Persian:

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Metaphysics.

paragraph: The metaphysical doctrine of Razi derives from the theory of the "five eternals", according to which the world is produced out of an interaction between God and four other eternal principles (soul, matter, time, and place). He accepted a pre-socratic type of atomism of the bodies, and for that he differed from both the falasifa and the mutakallimun. While he was influenced by Plato and the medical writers, mainly Galen, he rejected taqlid and thus expressed criticism about some of their views. This is evident from the title of one of his works, "Doubts About Galen".

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Excerpt from "The Philosophical Approach".

paragraph: (...) In short, while I am writing the present book, I have written so far around 200 books and articles on different aspects of science, philosophy, theology, and "hekmat" (wisdom). (...) I never entered the service of any king as a military man or a man of office, and if I ever did have a conversation with a king, it never went beyond my medical responsibility and advice. (...) Those who have seen me know, that I did not into excess with eating, drinking or acting the wrong way. As to my interest in science, people know perfectly well and must have witnessed how I have devoted all my life to science since my youth. My patience and diligence in the pursuit of science has been such that on one special issue specifically I have written 20,000 pages (in small print), moreover I spent fifteen years of my life -night and day- writing the big collection entitled Al Hawi. It was during this time that I lost my eyesight, my hand became paralyzed, with the result that I am now deprived of reading and writing. Nonetheless, I've never given up, but kept on reading and writing with the help of others. I could make concessions with my opponents and admit some shortcomings, but I am most curious what they have to say about my scientific achievement. If they consider my approach incorrect, they could present their views and state their points clearly, so that I may study them, and if I determined their views to be right, I would admit it. However, if I disagreed, I would discuss the matter to prove my standpoint. If this is not the case, and they merely disagree with my approach and way of life, I would appreciate they only use my written knowledge and stop interfering with my behaviour.

paragraph: In the "Philosophical Biography", as seen above, he defended his personal and philosophical life style. In this work he laid out a framework based on the idea that there is life after death full of happiness, not suffering. Rather than being self-indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, utilise his intellect and apply justice in his life.

paragraph: According to Al-Razi: "This is what our merciful Creator wants. The One to whom we pray for reward and whose punishment we fear."

paragraph: In brief, man should be kind, gentle and just. Al-Razi believed that there is a close relationship between spiritual integrity and physical health. He did not implicate that the soul could avoid distress due to his fear of death. He simply states that this psychological state cannot be avoided completely unless the individual is convinced that, after death, the soul will lead a better life. This requires a thorough study of esoteric doctrines and/or religions. He focuses on the opinion of some people who think that the soul perishes when the body dies. Death is inevitable, therefore one should not pre-occupy the mind with it, because any person who continuously thinks about death will become distressed and think as if he is dying when he continuously ponders on that subject. Therefore, he should forget about it in order to avoid upsetting himself. When contemplating his destiny after death, a benevolent and good man who acts according to the ordinances of the Islamic "Shari`ah", has after all nothing to fear because it indicates that he will have comfort and permanent bliss in the Hereafter. The one who doubts the "Shari`ah", may contemplate it, and if he diligently does this, he will not deviate from the right path. If he falls short, Allah will excuse him and forgive his sins because it is not demanded of him to do something which he cannot achieve.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Books on philosophy.

paragraph: This is a partial list of Razi's books on philosophy. Some books may have been copied or published under different titles.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Views on religion.

paragraph: A number of contradictory works and statements about religion have been ascribed to Razi. According to al-Biruni's "Bibliography of Razi" ("Risāla fī Fihrist Kutub al-Rāzī"), Razi wrote two "heretical books": ""Fī al-Nubuwwāt" ("On Prophecies") and ""Fī Ḥiyal al-Mutanabbīn" ("On the Tricks of False Prophets"). According to Biruni, the first "was claimed to be against religions" and the second "was claimed as attacking the necessity of the prophets." In his "Risala", Biruni further criticized and expressed caution about Razi's religious views, noting an influence of Manichaeism. However, Biruni also listed some other works of Razi on religion, including "Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Nakara bi al-Nubuwwat" ("Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Prophet Against Those who Denied Prophecies") and "Fi anna li al-Insan Khaliqan Mutqinan Hakiman" ("That Man has a Wise and Perfect Creator"), listed under his works on the "divine sciences". None of his works on religion are now extant in full.

paragraph: Other views and quotes that are often ascribed to Razi are found in a book written by Abu Hatim al-Razi, called "Aʿlām al-nubuwwa" (Signs of Prophecy), and not in any extant work of Razi himself. Abu Hatim was an Isma'ili missionary who debated Razi, but whether he has faithfully recorded the views of Razi is disputed. According to Abdul Latif al-'Abd, Islamic philosophy professor at Cairo University, Abu Hatim and his student, Ḥamīd al-dīn Karmānī (d. after 411AH/1020CE), were Isma'ili extremists who often misrepresented the views of Razi in their works. This view is also corroborated by early historians like al-Shahrastani who noted "that such accusations should be doubted since they were made by Ismāʿīlīs, who had been severely attacked by Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyā Rāzī". Al-'Abd points out that the views allegedly expressed by Razi contradict what is found in Razi's own works, like the "Spiritual Medicine" ("Fī al-ṭibb al-rūḥānī"). Peter Adamson concurs that Abu Hatim may have "deliberately misdescribed" Razi's position as a rejection of Islam and revealed religions.

paragraph: Some historians, such as Paul Kraus and Sarah Stroumsa, accept that the extracts found in Abu Hatim's book were either said by Razi during a debate or were quoted from a now lost work. They suggest that this lost work is either his famous "al-ʿIlm al-Ilāhī" or another shorter independent work called "Makharīq al-Anbiyāʾ" ("The Prophets' Fraudulent Tricks"). Abu Hatim, however, did not explicitly mention Razi by name in his book, but referred to his interlocutor simply as the "mulḥid" (lit. "heretic"). According to the debate with Abu Hatim, Razi denied the validity of prophecy or other authority figures, and rejected prophetic miracles. He also directed a scathing critique on revealed religions and the miraculous quality of the Quran. Because of being seemingly unrestrained by any religious or philosophical tradition, Razi came to be admired as a freethinker by some.

paragraph: Section::::Criticism.

paragraph: Al-Razi's religious and philosophical views were later criticized by Abu Rayhan Biruni and Avicenna in the early 11th century. Biruni in particular wrote a short treatise ("risala") dealing with al-Razi, criticizing him for his sympathy with Manichaeism, his Hermetical writings, his religious and philosophical views, for refusing to mathematize physics, and his active opposition to mathematics. Avicenna, who was himself a physician and philosopher, also criticized al-Razi. During a debate with Biruni, Avicenna stated:

paragraph: Nasr-i-Khosraw posthumously accused him of having plagiarized Iranshahri, who Khosraw considered as the master of al-Razi.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The modern-day Razi Institute in Karaj and Razi University in Kermanshah were named after him. A "Razi Day" ("Pharmacy Day") is commemorated in Iran every 27 August.

paragraph: In June 2009, Iran donated a "Scholars Pavilion" or Chartagi to the United Nations Office in Vienna, now placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center. The pavilion features the statues of Razi, Avicenna, Abu Rayhan Biruni, and Omar Khayyam.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Quotes about Razi.

paragraph: Rhazes was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages.

paragraph: His writings on smallpox and measles show originality and accuracy, and his essay on infectious diseases was the first scientific treatise on the subject.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Iranian scientists

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Medical Encyclopedia of Islam and Iran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Medical literature

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Primary literature.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Primary literature.:By Razi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- See C. Brockelmann for the manuscript of Razi's extant books in general, see Brockelmann, "Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur", I, pp. 268–71 (second edition), Suppl., Vol. I, pp. 418–21.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paul Kraus, "Abi Bakr Mohammadi Filii Zachariae Raghensis: Opera Philosophica, fragmentaque quae superssunt". Pars Prior. Cairo 1939

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles E. Butterworth, "The Book of the Philosophic Life". "Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy."

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Primary literature.:By others.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Al-Nadim, "Fihrist", (ed. Flugel), pp. 299 et sqq.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sa'id al-Andalusi, "Tabaqat al-Umam", p. 33

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Juljul, "Tabaqat al-Atibba w-al-Hukama", (ed. Fu'ad Sayyid), Cairo, 1355/1936, pp. 77–78

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. Ruska, "Al-Biruni als Quelle fur das Leben und die Schriften al-Razi's, Isis", Vol. V, 1924, pp. 26–50.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Biruni, "Epitre de Beruni, contenant le repertoire des ouvres de Muhammad" ibn "Zakariya ar-Razi", publiee par P. Kraus, Paris, 1936

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Baihaqi, "Tatimmah Siwan al-Hikma", (ed. M. Ghafi), Lahore, 1351/1932

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Qifti,"Tarikh al-Hukama", (ed. Lippert), pp. 27–177

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Abi Usaibi'ah,"Uyun al-Anba fi Tabaqat al-Atibba", Vol. I, pp. 309–21

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Al-Faraj ibn al-'Ibri (Bar-Hebraeus),"Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Duwal", (ed. A. Salhani), p. 291

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Khallikan, "Wafayat al-A'yan", (ed. Muhyi al-Din 'Abd al-Hamid), Cairo, 1948, No. 678, pp. 244–47

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Safadi, "Nakt al-Himyan", pp. 249–50

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn al-'Imad, "Shadharat al-Dhahab", Vol. II, p. 263

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-'Umari, "Masalik al-Absar", Vol. V, Part 2, ff. 301-03 (photostat copy in Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyyah).

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Secondary literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- G. S. A. Ranking, "The Life and Works of Rhazes", in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress of Medicine, London, 1913, pp. 237–68.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Al-Razi als Bahnbrecher einer neuer Chemie, Deutsche Literaturzeitung", 1923, pp. 118–24.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Alchemie al-Razi's der Islam", Vol. XXII, pp. 283–319.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Razi-Forschung", Archivio di stori della scienza, 1924, Vol. V, pp. 335–47

paragraph: BULLET::::- H. H. Shader, ZDMG, 79, pp. 228–35 (see translation into Arabic by Abdurrahman Badawi in "al-Insan al-Kamil", Islamica, Vol. XI, Cairo, 1950, pp. 37–44).

paragraph: BULLET::::- E. O. von Lippmann," Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie", Vol. II, p. 181.

paragraph: BULLET::::- S. Pines, "Die Atomenlehre ar-Razi's in Beitrage zur islamischen Atomenlehre", Berlin, 1936, pp. 34–93.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dr. Mahmud al-Najmabadi, Shah Hal Muhammad ibn Zakariya, (1318/1900)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gamil Bek, "Uqud al-Jauliar", Vol. I, pp. 118–27.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Izmirli Haqqi, "Ilahiyat", Fak. Macm., Vol. I, p. 151; Vol. II, p. 36, Vol. III, pp. 177 et seq.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abdurrahman Badawi, "Min Tarlkh al-Ilhad fi al-Islam Islamica", Vol. II, Cairo, 1945, pp. 198–228.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hirschberg,"Geschichte der Augenheilkunde", p. 101.

paragraph: BULLET::::- E. G.Browne, "Arabian Medicine", Cambridge, 1921, pp. 44–53.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Meyerhof, "Legacy of Islam", pp. 323 et seq.

paragraph: BULLET::::- F. Wüstenfeld, "Geschichte der Arabischen Arzte und Naturforscher", ftn. 98.

paragraph: BULLET::::- L. Leelerc, "Histoire de la medicine arabe", Paris, 1876, Vol. I, pp. 337–54.

paragraph: BULLET::::- H. P. J. Renaud, "A propos du millenaire de Razes", in bulletin de la Societe Irancaise d'Histoire de la medicine, Mars-avril, 1931, pp. 203 et seq.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. Eisen, "Kimiya al-Razi", RAAD, DIB, 62/4.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aldo Mieli, "La science arabe", Leiden, 1938, pp. 8, 16.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nasr, "Science and Civilization in Islam", see. Razes: "The Secret of Secrets", p. 273, also pp. 197–200, and Anawati: "L'Alchemie arabe in Rased."

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walker, P. "The Political Implications of al-Razi's Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.) "The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy", Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 61–94. (1992)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Motazed, K. "Mohammad Zakaria Razi"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Denyse Rockey and Penelope Johnstone, "Medieval Arabic views on speech disorders: Al-Razi (c. 865–925)", in: "Journal of Communication Disorders", 12(3):229-43, June 1979.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Secondary literature.:Encyclopedia.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Encyclopaedie des Islams", s. v. (by Ruska).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "al-Razi" on Islamic Philosophy Online, encyclopedia article about al-Razi by Paul E. Walker.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Payvand.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lives of the Physicians", dating from 1882, features a biography, in Arabic, about Rhazes.

alias: al-Razi Razi Rhazes Rasis

description: Persian polymath, physician, alchemist and chemist, philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi

wikidata_label: Abu Bakr al-Razi

wikipedia_title: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi


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categories: Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football players,1987 births,American football defensive ends,Sportspeople from Selma, Alabama,Cincinnati Bengals players,Players of American football from Alabama,Living people

paragraph: Michael Johnson (defensive end)

paragraph: Michael David Johnson (born February 7, 1987) is an American football defensive end who is currently a free agent. He was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the third round of the 2009 NFL Draft and has also played for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. He played college football at Georgia Tech.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: Johnson played high school football at Dallas County High School in Plantersville, Alabama. Playing tight end, Johnson was the team captain and MVP for coach Richard Bush. As a junior, he had 25 receptions for 300 yards and three touchdowns. He caught 42 passes for 650 yards and six touchdowns as a senior while making 92 tackles and 14 sacks on defense. Johnson was also an outstanding basketball player, who averaged 16 points and 10 rebounds as a junior. Johnson Graduated valedictorian of his class.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: As a senior at Georgia Tech, Johnson, in 2008, ended the regular season with Recorded 46 tackles (28 solos) as he led the team and finished third in the conference with nine sacks and 17.5 stops for losses and two forced fumbles. He was voted as an AFCA coaches First-team All-American with the likes of Brian Orakpo and Terrence Cody. He also garnered first team All-ACC honors as well as numerous other accolades.

paragraph: In 2007, Johnson played in 13 games and started one. He had 21 tackle (11 solo) and six went for losses. He had four sacks and forced three fumbles and recovered one. He also blocked two kicks. The previous season, 2006, he played in and started all 12 games and had 34 tackles (25 solo) and six were for a loss. He recorded five sacks and forced three fumbles and broke up two passes. In 2005, as a true freshman, he played in 11 games and had 5 solo tackles and one assisted for a total of six tackles, one going for a loss. He also recorded one sack and forced one fumble.

paragraph: On May 2, 2015, after six seasons in the NFL, Johnson officially earned his degree from Georgia Tech.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Cincinnati Bengals.

paragraph: Johnson was not selected in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft where many analysts predicted he would go, instead falling into the third round and being picked 70th overall by the Bengals. During an interview, Johnson was mentioned by head coach Marvin Lewis as maybe being "one of the best pass rushers he has ever worked with." Before the 2010 season, the Bengals announced that Johnson would be moved to outside linebacker.

paragraph: In 2012, Johnson accumulated 52 tackles, 35 solo, and 11.5 sacks. He also had one interception and one force fumble.

paragraph: The Bengals placed their non-exclusive franchise tag on Johnson on March 1, 2013.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Tampa Bay Buccaneers.

paragraph: Johnson signed a five-year, $43.98 million contract with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on March 11, 2014. Johnson's debut season for the Buccaneers was marred with injuries consistently the entire year. In the 2014 season, he recorded 27 combined tackles, 4.0 quarterback sacks, and two forced fumbles.

paragraph: On March 11, 2015, exactly one year to the day he signed with the Buccaneers, Johnson was released. The move saved $2 million in cap space despite the loss of $7 million in guaranteed money that the team still had to pay.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Cincinnati Bengals (second stint).

paragraph: On March 15, 2015, Johnson re-joined his former team, signing a four-year, $24 million contract with the Cincinnati Bengals.

paragraph: In Week 5 of the 2018 season, Johnson recorded a 22-yard pick-six in the 27–17 victory over the Miami Dolphins.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cincinnati Bengals bio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets bio

description: American football defensive end in the NFL (2009– )

wikidata_label: Michael Johnson

wikipedia_title: Michael Johnson (defensive end)


text: American football

text: offensive tackle

text: National Football League

text: 2009 NFL draft

text: Jacksonville Jaguars

text: Baltimore Ravens

text: college football

text: Virginia

text: cannabis

text: Plainfield High School

text: Plainfield, New Jersey

text: Donald Jones

text: quarterback sack

text: U.S. Army All-American Bowl

text: Super Prep

text: Parade

text: USA Today All-USA

text: Rivals.com

text: Tom Lemming

text: ESPN

text: Florida State

text: Miami (FL)

text: Nebraska

text: Oklahoma

text: University of Virginia

text: true freshman

text: D'Brickashaw Ferguson

text: kneecap

text: ACC

text: Jacobs Blocking Trophy

text: Jason Smith

text: Walter Jones

text: Sports Illustrated

text: D'Brickashaw Ferguson

text: Branden Albert

text: Jacksonville Jaguars

text: Eben Britton

text: 2009 NFL draft

text: St. Louis Cardinals

text: Baltimore Ravens

text: 2014 NFL Draft

text: Jonathan Ogden

text: arthroscopic

text: concussion

text: John Harbaugh

text: The Players' Tribune

text: chronic traumatic encephalopathy

text: Chris Borland

text: Husain Abdullah

text: A.J. Tarpley

text: cannabis

text: opioid

text: neuroprotective

text: Jim McMahon

text: Jake Plummer

text: Kyle Turley

text: Nate Jackson

text: Eben Britton

text: Leonard Marshall

text: Marvin Washington

text: Derrick Morgan

text: Tennessee Titans

text: Katie Couric

text: Jake Plummer

text: NFL Player's Association

text: pain management

text: open letter

text: Doctors for Cannabis Regulation

text: sociology

text: University of Virginia

text: Ravens bio

text: Jaguars bio

text: Cavaliers bio

text: Draft profile

text: Facebook

text: Twitter

text: Instagram

categories: 1987 births,American cannabis activists,Players of American football from New Jersey,Concussion activists,Jacksonville Jaguars players,Virginia Cavaliers football players,Sportspeople from Plainfield, New Jersey,Baltimore Ravens players,Living people,American football offensive tackles

paragraph: Eugene Monroe

paragraph: Eugene Christopher Monroe (born April 18, 1987) is a former American football offensive tackle who played seven seasons in the National Football League (NFL). Selected eighth overall in the 2009 NFL draft, he spent the early years of his pro career with the Jacksonville Jaguars until a trade sent him to the Baltimore Ravens during the 2013 regular season. Released by the Ravens in June 2016, Monroe announced his retirement from football one month later at the age of 29, citing concerns over head trauma sustained during his career. Monroe played college football at Virginia.

paragraph: Monroe is an outspoken advocate for the medical use of cannabis, and is noted for being the first active NFL player to publicly challenge league policy on the issue.

paragraph: Section::::High school career.

paragraph: Monroe played at Plainfield High School in Plainfield, New Jersey, where he was teammates with Donald Jones. A two-time first-team All-State lineman, Monroe did not allow a quarterback sack in the last three seasons of his high school career. After his senior season, Monroe participated in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl, and was recognized with Super Prep All-American, Parade All-American, and USA Today All-USA honors.

paragraph: Regarded as a five-star recruit by "Rivals.com", Monroe was ranked the top offensive line prospect in 2005 and third overall among all positions. "[Monroe] has everything: great footwork, balance, excels as both a run and pass blocker and is able to dominate in both the run and pass game. The perfect left tackle for some lucky college," said Tom Lemming, "ESPN" recruiting analyst. He chose Virginia over offers from Florida State, Miami (FL), Nebraska, and Oklahoma, among others.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: Monroe played four seasons of college football at the University of Virginia. As a true freshman in 2005 he appeared in all 12 games, serving as a backup to D'Brickashaw Ferguson at left tackle while also spending time at right guard.

paragraph: In 2006, Monroe suffered a dislocated left kneecap during April camp which required surgery. He recovered to play in all 12 games with 7 starts on the year, allowing just four quarterback pressures and no sacks.

paragraph: Monroe started 11 games at left tackle in 2007, missing two games due to a sprained knee. He allowed zero sacks and only one QB pressure while leading the conference with 15 touchdown-resulting blocks, earning him an All-ACC mention from the league's coaches.

paragraph: Monroe started all 12 games at left tackle in 2008, setting school records with 105 knockdowns/key blocks and 16 blocks that resulted in a touchdown. He was the recipient of the Jacobs Blocking Trophy and a unanimous All-ACC selection.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:2009 NFL Draft.

paragraph: Monroe was widely believed to be one of the top two offensive tackles available in the Draft (alongside Jason Smith). Particularly praised for his pass blocking ability, Monroe drew comparisons to Walter Jones. He was selected eighth overall by the Jacksonville Jaguars, a pick that was declared a "steal" by "Sports Illustrated's" Tony Pauline. Monroe was the third offensive lineman from Virginia selected in the top 15 of an NFL draft in four years, following D'Brickashaw Ferguson and Branden Albert.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Jacksonville Jaguars.

paragraph: In an effort to rebuild their offensive line, the Jacksonville Jaguars selected Monroe and Eben Britton with their first two picks in the 2009 NFL draft. The pair became the first two rookie tackles to start together on opening day since the 1982 season of the St. Louis Cardinals. Monroe signed a five-year deal with the Jaguars on August 14, 2009.

paragraph: During his time in Jacksonville, Monroe established himself as a cornerstone of the Jaguars offense, starting 62 of 65 games played and missing only 3 of 68 due to injury. In 2012, he started all 16 games and was one of only two Jaguars to play every snap. Monroe was considered to be one of Jacksonville's best players when he was traded to the Baltimore Ravens four games into the 2013 season.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Baltimore Ravens.

paragraph: Monroe was traded from the Jacksonville Jaguars to the Baltimore Ravens on October 3, 2013, in exchange for Baltimore's fourth- and fifth-round selections in the 2014 NFL Draft. Upon arriving in Baltimore, Monroe switched his uniform number to 60 due to Jonathan Ogden's #75 being unofficially retired by the Ravens. Monroe finished out the final year of his contract in 2013, then signed a new 5-year, $37.5 million deal with the Ravens on March 11, 2014.

paragraph: Over the next two seasons Monroe struggled to remain healthy. He underwent arthroscopic knee surgery in September 2014 which caused him to miss four straight games. He also missed the final regular season game of 2014 and both postseason games due to an ankle injury. In 2015, Monroe played in only six games, of which he finished three. He suffered a concussion on the first offensive drive of the season and missed the next three games. A shoulder injury also caused him to miss week 8 and the last six games of the season. Monroe was place on injured reserve on December 12 and had surgery to repair his left shoulder shortly afterwards.

paragraph: Monroe was released by the Ravens on June 16, 2016. He had the highest base salary on the team and had been plagued by injury problems that caused him to miss 17 of 34 regular season and postseason games the previous two years. Some have speculated, including Monroe himself, that the release may have been motivated by Monroe's vocal campaigning on the subject of league cannabis policy. Coach John Harbaugh denied this was a factor however.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Retirement.

paragraph: Following his release from the Ravens, Monroe fielded interest from several NFL teams before announcing his retirement on July 21, 2016. Explaining his decision in an essay submitted to "The Players' Tribune", Monroe cited the physical toll that football takes on the human body and in particular its effect on the brain, noting that signs of CTE (chronic traumatic encephalopathy) have been detected in 90% of former NFL players examined. Monroe also disclosed that he had recently noticed signs of memory loss and planned to undergo a battery of tests to evaluate his current health status. Monroe's decision followed the recent retirements of NFL players Chris Borland (March 2015), Husain Abdullah (March 2016), and A.J. Tarpley (April 2016), all of whom walked away from the game early due to neurological health concerns.

paragraph: Section::::Medical cannabis advocacy.

paragraph: Monroe is an outspoken advocate for removing cannabis from the list of banned substances in the NFL. Monroe points to the heavy use of addictive opioid drugs in the league and says players should not be punished for choosing a safer alternative that could help them better manage their pain. Monroe also cites the neuroprotective properties of cannabis that could help treat and prevent the serious brain injuries and diseases that are well-documented among NFL players. Monroe has contributed funding to medical cannabis research and started a website to promote his views. He has also penned a personal essay on the subject.

paragraph: Monroe is joined by a growing number of retired NFL players who have attested to the medicinal benefits of cannabis and called on the league to change its stance, including Jim McMahon, Jake Plummer, Kyle Turley, Nate Jackson, Eben Britton, Leonard Marshall, and Marvin Washington. Among active players Monroe is the first to have spoken out, raising the issue for the first time in March 2016. He was later joined by Derrick Morgan of the Tennessee Titans when the two appeared together in a June 2016 interview with Katie Couric.

paragraph: In June 2016, it was reported that two of the NFL's top medical personnel had requested a conference call with researchers conducting medical cannabis studies funded by Monroe. The call was also attended by Monroe himself and Jake Plummer.

paragraph: In November 2016, the NFL Player's Association announced the formation of a committee to study issues of pain management among players, including the use of cannabis as treatment. Monroe was named as a founding member of the committee.

paragraph: Also in November 2016, Monroe was among the signatories of an open letter addressed to the NFL, urging a change in the league's policy towards cannabis. The letter was penned by Doctors for Cannabis Regulation and signed by several other NFL players. Monroe also serves as Athletics Ambassador for DFCR and co-chair of its NFL steering committee.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Monroe is the youngest of 16 children in his family. He has 10 brothers and 5 sisters.

paragraph: Monroe graduated with a degree in sociology from the University of Virginia in 2009. He is married to Nureya Monroe (formerly, Anthony) who he met while attending UVA.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scott Rafferty, "Eugene Monroe on NFL, CTE and How Weed Changed His Life," "Rolling Stone," August 24, 2017.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ravens bio | Jaguars bio | Cavaliers bio | Draft profile

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eugene Monroe on Facebook  | Twitter | Instagram

description: American football offensive tackle

wikidata_label: Eugene Monroe

wikipedia_title: Eugene Monroe


text: Welsh

text: photographer

text: Aberaeron

text: Wales

text: WWII

text: war photographer

text: Royal Air Force

text: India

text: Indonesia

text: Singapore

text: motorcycle combination

text: HTV

text: BBC

text: Western Mail

text: Y Cymro

text: OBE

text: Welsh National Eisteddfod

text: Ron snaps up OBE

text: BBC News

text: Wales Online

categories: 2013 deaths,War photographers,Officers of the Order of the British Empire,1921 births,Welsh photographers

paragraph: Ron Davies (photographer)

paragraph: Ron Davies, (17 December 1921 – 26 October 2013) was a Welsh photographer.

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: Davies was born in Aberaeron, Wales. He developed an interest in photography at the age of 8, while working as an errand boy for a chemist shop in his home town.

paragraph: During WWII, Davies became an official war photographer on the staff of "Air Information" with the South East Asia command of the Royal Air Force, stationed in India, Indonesia and Singapore. In 1950, Davies was injured in an accident on his motorcycle combination, and consequently used a wheelchair for the rest of his life, though this didn't prevent him pursuing his chosen career.

paragraph: He worked as a still and cine press photographer for HTV, the BBC, the "Western Mail," "Y Cymro" and various national newspapers, and produced much private work and mounted many exhibitions. He also took a keen and active interest in teaching photography, and was the driving force behind the first mobile disabled darkroom, operated by Arts Care/Gofal Celf.

paragraph: In 2003, Davies was awarded the OBE for his services to photography, and the year before he was accepted into the Welsh National Eisteddfod's Bardic Circle.

paragraph: Davies died on 26 October 2013, aged 91.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Llun A Chân", 1983,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "24 Awr Bronglais: Bywyd mewn diwrnod", "Bronglais: 24 hours - A life in the day of", 1988, exhibition catalogue

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Delweddau O Gymru/Images Of Wales", 1990,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Seven Wonders of Wales", 1993,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Byd Ron/Ron's World", 2001,

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ron snaps up OBE BBC News, 31 December 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ron's World—a collection of photographs by Ron Davies at Wales Online, 16 April 2002.

description: British photographer

wikidata_label: Ron Davies

wikipedia_title: Ron Davies (photographer)


text: pen name

text: Odessa

text: Ukrainian SSR

text: Soviet Union

text: fantasy

text: Ukraine

text: Russian

text: permanently resides

text: Vilnius

text: Lithuania

text: Odessa State University

text: Moscow

text: Marat Gelman

text: comic fantasy

text: phantasmagoric

text: Vilnius

text: megapolises

text: magic realist

text: Chingizid

text: blog

text: Official website of Max Frei

text: Max Frei in Moscow Library

categories: Ukrainian fantasy writers,Living people,Russian fantasy writers,1965 births

paragraph: Max Frei

paragraph: Max Frei () is the pen name of Svetlana Yuryevna Martynchik (; ) (born 1965 in Odessa, Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union), a fantasy writer from Ukraine. She writes in Russian and mostly publishes in Russia while holding Ukrainian citizenship. She permanently resides in Vilnius, Lithuania. Martynchik has collaborated many years on her books with her spouse, artist Igor Steopin (1967-2018).

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Martynchik studied philology at Odessa State University, but dropped out without graduating. From 1986 she collaborated with artist Igor Steopin, whom she later married. The couple moved to Moscow, Russia, in 1993, to work at Marat Gelman's gallery. There, Svetlana started writing fantasy books.

paragraph: The pen name, Max Frei, was invented by Martynchik and Steopin for their works on comic fantasy series "Labyrinths of Echo" (). The plot follows the eponymous narrator, sir Max, as he leaves our "real" world for phantasmagoric fantasy city of Echo. There, he becomes a member of special service that controls the use of magic. The books are written by Martynchik, while Steopin developed the Echo universe and illustrated the books. Along with her Echo books, Frei also participated in several literary projects. She compiled "Fram", a series of short story anthologies by "Amphora" publishing house.

paragraph: The couple moved to Vilnius, Lithuania, in 2004, out of their dislike of megapolises. There, Max Frei wrote four parts of magic realist "Tales of the Old Vilnius".

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Cycle of books "Labyrinths of Echo".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Чужак (Stranger, 1996)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Волонтёры Вечности (Volunteers of Eternity, 1996)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Простые волшебные вещи (Simple magic things, 1997)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Тёмная сторона (The Dark Side, 1997)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Наваждения (Illusions, 1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Власть несбывшегося (Power of Unfulfilled, 1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Болтливый мертвец (A Talkative Dead, 1999)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Лабиринт Мёнина (Labyrinth of Mönin, 2003)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Cycle of books "My Ragnarok".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Гнёзда химер. Хроники Овёттганы. (Nests of chimeras. Chronicles of Ovёtganna (editorial version) (1997))

paragraph: BULLET::::- Гнёзда химер. Хроники Хугайды (Nests of chimeras. Chronicles of Hugayda (author's version) (1999))

paragraph: BULLET::::- Мой Рагнарёк (My Ragnarok, 1998)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Cycle of books "Chronicles of Echo".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Чуб Земли. История, рассказанная сэром Максом из Ехо (The Earth’s Tuft. The story told by Sir Max from Echo, 2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Туланский детектив. История, рассказанная леди Меламори Блимм (Detective from Tulane. The story told by lady Melamory Blimm, 2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Властелин Морморы. История, рассказанная сэром Джуффином Халли (Lord of the Marmore. The story told by Sir Juffin Hulley, 2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Неуловимый Хабба Хэн. История, рассказанная сэром Максом из Ехо (Elusive Habba Heng. The story told by Sir Max from Echo, 2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ворона на мосту. История, рассказанная сэром Шурфом Лонли-Локли (Crow on the bridge. The story told by Sir Shurf Lonely - Lockley, 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Горе господина Гро. История, рассказанная сэром Кофой Йохом (Mr. Gro’s Sorrow. The story told by Sir Cofa Joch, 2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Обжора - хохотун. История, рассказанная сэром Мелифаро (Laughing Glutton. The story told by Sir Melifaro, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Дар Шаванахолы. История, рассказанная сэром Максом из Ехо (Gift from Shavanahola. The story told by Sir Max from Echo, 2011)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Тубурская игра. История, рассказанная сэром Нумминорихом Кутой (Tubur Game. The story told by Sir Numminorih Kuta, 2013)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Cycle of books "Dreams of Echo".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Мастер ветров и закатов (The Master of Winds and Sundowns, 2014)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Слишком много кошмаров (Too Many Nightmares, 2015)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Вся правда о нас (All Truth About Us, 2015)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Я иду искать (Coming, ready or not, 2016)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Сундук мертвеца (Dead Man's Chest, 2017)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Отдай моё сердце (Give Me My Heart, 2017)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Мёртвый ноль (Dead Zero, 2018)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Other.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Энциклопедия Мифов (Encyclopedia of Myths)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Жалобная книга (A Petition Book, 2003)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Книга для таких, как я (Book for the Likes of Me, 2002)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Идеальный роман (An Ideal Novel, 1999)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Книга одиночеств (Book of Loneliness, 2004) —— with Linor Goralik.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Сказки и истории (Tales and Stories, 2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ключ из жёлтого металла (Yellow Metal Key, 2009)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Большая телега (A Big Carriage, 2009)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Одна и та же книга (The Very Same Book, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Первая линия (First line, 2012)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Вторая линия (Second Line, 2012)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Сказки старого Вильнюса (Tales of the Old Vilnius, 2012)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chingizid—Svetlana Martynchik's blog (in Russian)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Polly Gannon, English language translator of Max Frei and others at GoodReads

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official website of Max Frei

paragraph: BULLET::::- Max Frei in Moscow Library—some texts by Max Frei

description: Ukrainian writer

wikidata_label: Svetlana Martynchik

wikipedia_title: Max Frei


text:
ONB
Canadian
Canadian Senator
Baie Verte, New Brunswick
Mount Allison University
University of Toronto
Toronto General Hospital
Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick
Tantramar
General Election
cabinet
28th
Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick
Governor General
Adrienne Clarkson
Prime Minister
Jean Chrétien
Liberal
Biography for the Senate of Canada

categories: 20th-century Canadian politicians,Officers of the Order of Canada,Liberal Party of Canada senators,New Brunswick Liberal Association MLAs,Women government ministers of Canada,Canadian women viceroys,Women MLAs in New Brunswick,Lieutenant Governors of New Brunswick,Members of the Executive Council of New Brunswick,University of Toronto alumni,Canadian senators from New Brunswick,Canadian general practitioners,Living people,Mount Allison University alumni,21st-century Canadian women politicians,1933 births,Members of the Order of New Brunswick,21st-century Canadian politicians,Women members of the Senate of Canada

paragraph: Marilyn Trenholme Counsell

paragraph: Marilyn Trenholme Counsell, MD, ONB, OC, (born October 22, 1933) is a Canadian lecturer, doctor and politician. Counsell was a Canadian Senator and Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick from 1997 to 2003.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: She was born in Baie Verte, New Brunswick, the daughter of Harry Frederick and Mildred (née Baxter) Trenholme. She married Kenneth Walter Counsell in 1972; they had two children, Giles Baxter Counsell and Lorna Joy Counsell. Kenneth Counsell died in 1981.

paragraph: She has a BSc from Mount Allison University, MA in nutrition from University of Toronto and a MD from the University of Toronto. She worked first as a nutritionist for the Governments of New Brunswick and Ontario, and following her MD as a family physician at the Toronto General Hospital, and in Sackville and Port Elgin, New Brunswick.

paragraph: She was elected member of the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick for Tantramar in the 1987 General Election, reelected in 1991 and 1995. During this time, from 1994 to 1997, she also served in the cabinet as Minister of State for the Family and Minister of State for Family and Community Services.

paragraph: She served as the 28th Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick from 1997-2003. During her tenure, she reopened Old Government House, as "The People's House", and focused on early childhood literacy.

paragraph: Section::::Senator.

paragraph: She was appointed to the Senate in 2003 by Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, on the advice of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, and sat as a member of the Liberal caucus. As a Senator, she was an advocate for literacy, health and early childhood development. She reached the mandatory retirement age on October 22, 2008.

paragraph: As the Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick, she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of St. John (DStJ). She was named to the Order of New Brunswick (ONB) in 2008 In June 2012, she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada (OC). She holds honorary degrees from l'universite de Moncton, Mount Allison and University of New Brunswick and has been honoured with the Sir Charles Tupper Award for Political Action (CMA) and the Champion of Public Education Award (TLP). In 1994 on behalf of the Province of New Brunswick she received a UN Year of the Family award. Since 2008, she has lectured on Political Leadership in Canada at Mount Allison.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography for the Senate of Canada

description: Canadian politician

wikidata_label: Marilyn Trenholme Counsell

wikipedia_title: Marilyn Trenholme Counsell