text: American philosopher

text: University of Chicago

text: Yale University

text: history of philosophy

text: analytic philosophy

text: Princeton University

text: Princeton University

text: Kenan

text: University of Virginia

text: Comparative Literature

text: Stanford University

text: Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature

text: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity

text: western philosophy

text: American pragmatism

text: neopragmatism

text: contingent

text: vocabularies

text: representationalist

text: ironism

text: Bernstein

text: postphilosophical

text: naturalism

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text: Social Gospel

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text: Wilfrid Sellars

text: Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature

text: Pragmatists

text: later

text: Wittgenstein

text: philosophy of language

text: meaning

text: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity

text: continental philosophical tradition

text: Friederich Nietzsche

text: Martin Heidegger

text: Michel Foucault

text: Jean-François Lyotard

text: Jacques Derrida

text: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity

text: apodictic

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text: pancreatic cancer

text: epistemology

text: foundationalist epistemology

text: critique

text: Kuhnian

text: normal

text: Wilfrid Sellars

text: Myth of the Given

text: Willard Van Orman Quine

text: analytic–synthetic distinction

text: semantic one

text: Donald Davidson

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text: Marcel Proust

text: Vladimir Nabokov

text: public philosophy

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text: ironism

text: Paul de Man

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text: grounded

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text: Robert Brandom

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text: Left

text: ironist

text: nominalism

text: historicist

text: Gianni Vattimo

text: Hermeneutic Communism: from Heidegger to Marx

text: utopian

text: romantic

text: Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature

text: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity

text: Philosophy as Cultural Politics: Philosophical Papers IV

text: Mind, Language, and Metaphilosophy

text: Achieving Our Country

text: Philosophy and Social Hope

text: Gianni Vattimo

text: J. B. Schneewind

text: Quentin Skinner

text: Instrumentalism

text: List of American philosophers

text: List of liberal theorists

text: List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction

text: Ulf Schulenberg

text: Marianne Janack

text: What We Mean By Experience

text: Marianne Janack

text: Feminist Interpretations of Richard Rorty

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text: "The Inspiring Power of the Shy Thinker: Richard Rorty"

text: TELOS

text: Richard Rorty at Princeton: Personal Recollections

text: Raymond Geuss

text: Arion

text: Rereading Rorty

text: Albrecht Wellmer

text: Krisis

categories: Irony theorists,20th-century American philosophers,Wittgensteinian philosophers,Wellesley College faculty,21st-century American non-fiction writers,1931 births,Heidegger scholars,American people of German descent,American social democrats,20th-century American writers,Critical theorists,University of Chicago alumni,Guggenheim Fellows,Princeton University faculty,2007 deaths,Philosophers of mind,Philosophers of language,Philosophers of science,Pragmatists,MacArthur Fellows,Deaths from pancreatic cancer,21st-century American philosophers

paragraph: Richard Rorty

paragraph: Richard McKay Rorty (October 4, 1931 – June 8, 2007) was an American philosopher.

paragraph: Educated at the University of Chicago and Yale University, he had strong interests and training in both the history of philosophy and contemporary analytic philosophy, the latter of which came to comprise the main focus of his work at Princeton University in the 1960s. He subsequently came to reject the tradition of philosophy according to which knowledge involves correct representation (a "mirror of nature") of a world whose existence remains wholly independent of that representation.

paragraph: Rorty had a long and diverse academic career, including positions as Stuart Professor of Philosophy at Princeton University, Kenan Professor of Humanities at the University of Virginia, and Professor of Comparative Literature at Stanford University. Among his most influential books are "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature" (1979), "Consequences of Pragmatism" (1982), and "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity" (1989).

paragraph: Rorty saw the idea of knowledge as a "mirror of nature" as pervasive throughout the history of western philosophy. Against this approach, Rorty advocated for a novel form of American pragmatism (sometimes called neopragmatism) in which scientific and philosophical methods form merely a set of contingent "vocabularies" which people abandon or adopt over time according to social conventions and usefulness. Rorty believed abandoning representationalist accounts of knowledge and language would lead to a state of mind he referred to as "ironism", in which people become completely aware of the contingency of their placement in history and of their philosophical vocabulary. Rorty tied this brand of philosophy to the notion of "social hope"; he believed that without the representationalist accounts, and without metaphors between the mind and the world, human society would behave more peacefully. He also emphasized the reasons why the interpretation of culture as conversation (Bernstein 1971), constitutes the crucial concept of a "postphilosophical" culture determined to abandon representationalist accounts of traditional epistemology, incorporating American pragmatism with Darwinian naturalism.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Richard Rorty was born on October 4, 1931, in New York City. His parents, James and Winifred Rorty, were activists, writers and social democrats. His maternal grandfather, Walter Rauschenbusch, was a central figure in the Social Gospel movement of the early 20th century.

paragraph: His father experienced two nervous breakdowns in his later life. The second breakdown, which he had in the early 1960s, was more serious and "included claims to divine prescience." Consequently, Richard Rorty fell into depression as a teenager and in 1962 began a six-year psychiatric analysis for obsessional neurosis. Rorty wrote about the beauty of rural New Jersey orchids in his short autobiography, "Trotsky and the Wild Orchids." His colleague Jürgen Habermas's obituary for Rorty points out that Rorty's contrasting childhood experiences, such as beautiful orchids versus reading a book in his parents' house that defended Leon Trotsky against Stalin, created an early interest in philosophy. He describes Rorty as an ironist:

paragraph: Nothing is sacred to Rorty the ironist. Asked at the end of his life about the 'holy', the strict atheist answered with words reminiscent of the young Hegel: 'My sense of the holy is bound up with the hope that some day my remote descendants will live in a global civilization in which love is pretty much the only law.'

paragraph: Rorty enrolled at the University of Chicago shortly before turning 15, where he received a bachelor's and a master's degree in philosophy (studying under Richard McKeon), continuing at Yale University for a PhD in philosophy (1952–1956). He married another academic, Amélie Oksenberg (Harvard University professor), with whom he had a son, Jay, in 1954. After two years in the United States Army, he taught at Wellesley College for three years until 1961. Rorty divorced his wife and then married Stanford University bioethicist Mary Varney in 1972. They had two children, Kevin and Patricia. While Richard Rorty was a "strict atheist" (Habermas), Mary Varney Rorty was a practicing Mormon.

paragraph: Rorty was a professor of philosophy at Princeton University for 21 years. In 1981, he was a recipient of a MacArthur Fellowship, commonly known as the "Genius Award", in its first year of awarding, and in 1982 he became Kenan Professor of the Humanities at the University Of Virginia. In 1997 Rorty became professor of comparative literature (and philosophy, by courtesy), at Stanford University, where he spent the remainder of his academic career. During this period he was especially popular, and once quipped that he had been assigned to the position of "transitory professor of trendy studies."

paragraph: Rorty's doctoral dissertation, "The Concept of Potentiality" was an historical study of the concept, completed under the supervision of Paul Weiss, but his first book (as editor), "The Linguistic Turn" (1967), was firmly in the prevailing analytic mode, collecting classic essays on the linguistic turn in analytic philosophy. However, he gradually became acquainted with the American philosophical movement known as pragmatism, particularly the writings of John Dewey. The noteworthy work being done by analytic philosophers such as Willard Van Orman Quine and Wilfrid Sellars caused significant shifts in his thinking, which were reflected in his next book, "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature" (1979).

paragraph: Pragmatists generally hold that the meaning of a proposition is determined by its use in linguistic practice. Rorty combined pragmatism about truth and other matters with a later Wittgensteinian philosophy of language which declares that meaning is a social-linguistic product, and sentences do not 'link up' with the world in a correspondence relation. Rorty wrote in his "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity" (1989):

paragraph: Truth cannot be out there—cannot exist independently of the human mind—because sentences cannot so exist, or be out there. The world is out there, but descriptions of the world are not. Only descriptions of the world can be true or false. The world on its own unaided by the describing activities of humans cannot."(5)

paragraph: Views like this led Rorty to question many of philosophy's most basic assumptions—and have also led to him being apprehended as a postmodern/deconstructionist philosopher. Indeed, from the late 1980s through the 1990s, Rorty focused on the continental philosophical tradition, examining the works of Friederich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard and Jacques Derrida. His work from this period included: "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity" (1989); "Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers" (1991); and "Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers" (1998). The latter two works attempt to bridge the dichotomy between analytic and continental philosophy by claiming that the two traditions complement rather than oppose each other.

paragraph: According to Rorty, analytic philosophy may not have lived up to its pretensions and may not have solved the puzzles it thought it had. Yet such philosophy, in the process of finding reasons for putting those pretensions and puzzles aside, helped earn itself an important place in the history of ideas. By giving up on the quest for apodicticity and finality that Edmund Husserl shared with Rudolf Carnap and Bertrand Russell, and by finding new reasons for thinking that such quest will never succeed, analytic philosophy cleared a path that leads past scientism, just as the German idealists cleared a path that led around empiricism.

paragraph: In the last fifteen years of his life, Rorty continued to publish his writings, including four volumes of his archived philosophical papers, "Achieving Our Country" (1998), a political manifesto partly based on readings of Dewey and Walt Whitman in which he defended the idea of a progressive, pragmatic left against what he feels are defeatist, anti-liberal, anti-humanist positions espoused by the critical left and continental school. Rorty felt these anti-humanist positions were personified by figures like Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Foucault. Such theorists were also guilty of an "inverted Platonism" in which they attempted to craft overarching, metaphysical, "sublime" philosophies—which in fact contradicted their core claims to be ironist and contingent. Rorty's last works, after his move to Stanford University, focused on the place of religion in contemporary life, liberal communities, comparative literature and philosophy as "cultural politics."

paragraph: Shortly before his death, he wrote a piece called "The Fire of Life," (published in the November 2007 issue of "Poetry" magazine), in which he meditates on his diagnosis and the comfort of poetry. He concludes, "I now wish that I had spent somewhat more of my life with verse. This is not because I fear having missed out on truths that are incapable of statement in prose. There are no such truths; there is nothing about death that Swinburne and Landor knew but Epicurus and Heidegger failed to grasp. Rather, it is because I would have lived more fully if I had been able to rattle off more old chestnuts—just as I would have if I had made more close friends. Cultures with richer vocabularies are more fully human—farther removed from the beasts—than those with poorer ones; individual men and women are more fully human when their memories are amply stocked with verses."

paragraph: On June 8, 2007, Rorty died in his home from pancreatic cancer.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.:"Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature".

paragraph: In "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature" (1979), Rorty argues that the central problems of modern epistemology depend upon a picture of the mind as trying to faithfully represent (or "mirror") a mind-independent, external reality. If we give up this metaphor, then the entire enterprise of foundationalist epistemology is misguided. A foundationalist believes that in order to avoid the regress inherent in claiming that all beliefs are justified by other beliefs, some beliefs must be self-justifying and form the foundations to all knowledge.

paragraph: There were two senses of "foundationalism" criticized in "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature". In the epistemological sense, Rorty criticized the attempt to justify knowledge claims by tracing them to a set of foundations (e.g., self-evident premises or noninferential sensations); more broadly, he criticized the claim of philosophy to function foundationally within a culture. The former argument draws on Sellars's critique of the idea that there is a "given" in sensory perception, in combination with Quine's critique of the distinction between analytic sentences (sentences which are true solely in virtue of what they mean) and synthetic sentences (sentences made true by the world). Each critique, taken alone, provides a problem for a conception of how philosophy ought to proceed, yet leaves enough of the tradition intact to proceed with its former aspirations. Combined, Rorty claimed, the two critiques are devastating. With no privileged insight into the structure of belief and no privileged realm of truths of meaning, we have, instead, knowledge as those beliefs that pay their way. The only worthwhile description of the actual process of inquiry, Rorty claimed, was a Kuhnian account of the standard phases of the progress of disciplines, oscillating through normal and abnormal periods, between routine problem-solving and intellectual crises.

paragraph: After rejecting foundationalism, Rorty argues that one of the few roles left for a philosopher is to act as an intellectual gadfly, attempting to induce a revolutionary break with previous practice, a role that Rorty was happy to take on himself. Rorty suggests that each generation tries to subject all disciplines to the model that the most successful discipline of the day employs. In Rorty's view, the success of modern science has led academics in philosophy and the humanities to mistakenly imitate scientific methods. "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature" popularized and extended ideas of Wilfrid Sellars (the critique of the Myth of the Given) and Willard Van Orman Quine (the critique of the analytic–synthetic distinction) and others who advocate the Wittgensteinian doctrine of "dissolving" rather than solving philosophical problems.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.:"Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity".

paragraph: In "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity" (1989), Rorty abandons specifically analytic modes of explication in favor of narrative pastiche in order to develop an alternative conceptual vocabulary to that of the "Platonists" he rejects. This schema is based on the belief that there is no worthwhile theory of truth, aside from a non-epistemic semantic one (as Donald Davidson developed out of the work of Alfred Tarski). Rorty suggests that the task of philosophy should be distinguished along public and private lines. Private philosophers, who provide one with greater abilities to (re)create oneself, a view adapted from Nietzsche and which Rorty also identifies with the novels of Marcel Proust and Vladimir Nabokov, should not be expected to help with public problems. For a public philosophy, one might turn to Rawls or Habermas.

paragraph: This book also marks his first attempt to specifically articulate a political vision consistent with his philosophy, the vision of a diverse community bound together by opposition to cruelty, and not by abstract ideas such as 'justice' or 'common humanity,' policed by the separation of the public and private realms of life.

paragraph: In this book, Rorty introduces the terminology of ironism, which he uses to describe his mindset and his philosophy.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.:"Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth".

paragraph: Amongst the essays in "Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth: Philosophical Papers, Volume 1" (1990), is "The Priority of Democracy to Philosophy," in which Rorty defends Rawls against communitarian critics. Rorty argues that liberalism can "get along without philosophical presuppositions," while at the same time conceding to communitarians that "a conception of the self that makes the community constitutive of the self does comport well with liberal democracy." For Rorty, social institutions ought to be thought of as "experiments in cooperation rather than as attempts to embody a universal and ahistorical order."

paragraph: Section::::Major works.:"Essays on Heidegger and Others".

paragraph: In this text, Rorty focuses primarily on the continental philosophers Heidegger and Derrida. He argues that these European "post-Nietzscheans" share much with American pragmatists, in that they critique metaphysics and reject the correspondence theory of truth. When discussing Derrida, Rorty claims that Derrida is most useful when viewed as a funny writer who attempted to circumvent the Western philosophical tradition, rather than the inventor of a philosophical (or literary) "method." In this vein, Rorty criticizes Derrida's followers like Paul de Man for taking deconstructive literary theory too seriously.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.:"Achieving Our Country".

paragraph: In "Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America" (1997), Rorty differentiates between what he sees as the two sides of the Left, a cultural Left and a progressive Left. He criticizes the cultural Left, which is exemplified by post-structuralists such as Foucault and postmodernists such as Lyotard, for offering critiques of society, but no alternatives (or alternatives that are so vague and general as to be abdications). Although these intellectuals make insightful claims about the ills of society, Rorty suggests that they provide no alternatives and even occasionally deny the possibility of progress. On the other hand, the progressive Left, exemplified for Rorty by the pragmatist Dewey, Whitman and James Baldwin, makes hope for a better future its priority. Without hope, Rorty argues, change is spiritually inconceivable and the cultural Left has begun to breed cynicism. Rorty sees the progressive Left as acting in the philosophical spirit of pragmatism.

paragraph: Section::::On human rights.

paragraph: Rorty's notion of human rights is grounded on the notion of sentimentality. He contended that throughout history humans have devised various means of construing certain groups of individuals as inhuman or subhuman. Thinking in rationalist (foundationalist) terms will not solve this problem, he claimed. Rorty advocated the creation of a culture of global human rights in order to stop violations from happening through a sentimental education. He argued that we should create a sense of empathy or teach empathy to others so as to understand others' suffering.

paragraph: Section::::Reception and criticism.

paragraph: Rorty is among the most widely discussed and controversial contemporary philosophers, and his works have provoked thoughtful responses from many other well-respected figures in the field. In Robert Brandom's anthology, entitled "Rorty and His Critics", for example, Rorty's philosophy is discussed by Donald Davidson, Jürgen Habermas, Hilary Putnam, John McDowell, Jacques Bouveresse, and Daniel Dennett, among others. In 2007, Roger Scruton wrote, "Rorty was paramount among those thinkers who advance their own opinion as immune to criticism, by pretending that it is not truth but consensus that counts, while defining the consensus in terms of people like themselves." Ralph Marvin Tumaob concludes that Rorty was really influenced by the notion of Jean-François Lyotard's Metanarratives, and by this he further added that "postmodernism was influenced further by the works of Rorty".

paragraph: John McDowell is strongly influenced by Rorty, particularly by Rorty's "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature" (1979). In continental philosophy, authors such as Jürgen Habermas, Gianni Vattimo, Jacques Derrida, Albrecht Wellmer, Hans Joas, Chantal Mouffe, Simon Critchley, Esa Saarinen, and Mike Sandbothe are influenced in different ways by Rorty's thinking. American novelist David Foster Wallace titled a short story in his collection "" "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature", and critics have attributed some of Wallace's writings on Irony to Rorty.

paragraph: Susan Haack has been a fierce critic of Rorty's neopragmatism. Haack criticises Rorty's claim to be a pragmatist at all and wrote a short play called "We Pragmatists", where Rorty and Charles Sanders Peirce have a fictional conversation using only accurate quotes from their own writing. For Haack, the only link between Rorty's neopragmatism and the pragmatism of Peirce is the name. Haack believes Rorty's neopragmatism is both anti-philosophical and anti-intellectual, and exposes people further to rhetorical manipulation.

paragraph: Although Rorty was an avowed liberal, his political and moral philosophies have been attacked by commentators from the Left, some of whom believe them to be insufficient frameworks for social justice. Rorty was also criticized by others for his rejection of the idea that science can depict the world. One criticism, especially of "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity" is that Rorty's philosophical 'hero', the ironist, is an elitist figure. Rorty claims that the majority of people would be "commonsensically nominalist and historicist" but not ironist. These people would combine an ongoing attention to the particular as opposed to the transcendent (nominalism), with an awareness of their place in a continuum of contingent lived experience alongside other individuals (historicist), without necessarily having continual doubts about the resulting worldview as the ironist does. An ironist is someone who: 1) "has radical and continuing doubts about their final vocabulary"; 2) "realizes that argument phrased in their vocabulary can neither underwrite nor dissolve these doubts"; and 3) "does not think their vocabulary is closer to reality than others" (all 73, "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity"). On the other hand, the Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo alongside the Spanish philosopher Santiago Zabala in their 2011 book "Hermeneutic Communism: from Heidegger to Marx" affirm that "together with Richard Rorty we also consider it a flaw that 'the main thing contemporary academic Marxists inherit from Marx and Engels is the conviction that the quest for the cooperative commonwealth should be scientific rather than utopian, knowing rather than romantic.' As we will show hermeneutics contains all the utopian and romantic features that Rorty refers to because, contrary to the knowledge of science, it does not claim modern universality but rather postmodern particularism."

paragraph: Rorty often draws on a broad range of other philosophers to support his views, and his interpretation of their works has been contested. Since Rorty is working from a tradition of re-interpretation, he remains uninterested in 'accurately' portraying other thinkers, but rather in utilizing their work in the same way a literary critic might use a novel. His essay "The Historiography of Philosophy: Four Genres" is a thorough description of how he treats the greats in the history of philosophy. In "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity", Rorty attempts to disarm those who criticize his writings by arguing that their philosophical criticisms are made using axioms that are explicitly rejected within Rorty's own philosophy. For instance, Rorty defines allegations of irrationality as affirmations of vernacular "otherness", and so—Rorty claims—accusations of irrationality can be expected during "any" argument and must simply be brushed aside.

paragraph: Section::::Select bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- As author

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Consequences of Pragmatism". Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophical Papers" vols. I–IV:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Objectivity, Relativism and Truth: Philosophical Papers I". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Essays on Heidegger and Others: Philosophical Papers II". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Truth and Progress: Philosophical Papers III". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophy as Cultural Politics: Philosophical Papers IV". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mind, Language, and Metaphilosophy: Early Philosophical Papers" Eds. S. Leach and J. Tartaglia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth Century America". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophy and Social Hope". New York: Penguin, 2000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Against Bosses, Against Oligarchies: A Conversation with Richard Rorty". Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Future of Religion" with Gianni Vattimo Ed. Santiago Zabala. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An Ethics for Today: Finding Common Ground Between Philosophy and Religion". New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- As editor

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Linguistic Turn, Essays in Philosophical Method", (1967), ed. by Richard M. Rorty, University of Chicago press, 1992, (an introduction and two retrospective essays)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophy in History". ed. by R. Rorty, J. B. Schneewind and Quentin Skinner, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985 (an essay by R. Rorty, "Historiography of philosophy", pp. 29–76)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Instrumentalism

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of American philosophers

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of liberal theorists

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of thinkers influenced by deconstruction

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ulf Schulenberg, "Romanticism and Pragmatism: Richard Rorty and the Idea of a Poeticized Culture", 2015

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marianne Janack, "What We Mean By Experience", 2012

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marianne Janack, editor, "Feminist Interpretations of Richard Rorty", 2010

paragraph: BULLET::::- James Tartaglia, "Richard Rorty: Critical Assessments", 4 vols., 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- Neil Gross, "Richard Rorty: The Making of an American Philosopher", 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty's Politics of Redescription" / Gideon Calder, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty and the Mirror of Nature" / James Tartaglia, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty: Pragmatism and Political Liberalism" / Michael Bacon, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty: politics and vision" / Christopher Voparil, 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty: his philosophy under discussion" / Andreas Vieth, 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty" / Charles B Guignon., 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty" / Gideon Calder, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty's American faith" / Taub, Gad Shmuel, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The ethical ironist: Kierkegaard, Rorty, and the educational quest" / Rohrer, Patricia Jean, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Doing philosophy as a way to individuation: Reading Rorty and Cavell" / Kwak, Duck-Joo, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty" / Alan R Malachowski, 2002

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty: critical dialogues" / Matthew Festenstein, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty: education, philosophy, and politics" / Michael Peters, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty and his critics" / Robert Brandom, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On Rorty" / Richard Rumana, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophy and freedom : Derrida, Rorty, Habermas, Foucault" / John McCumber, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A pragmatist's progress?: Richard Rorty and American intellectual history" / John Pettegrew, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Problems of the modern self: Reflections on Rorty, Taylor, Nietzsche, and Foucault" / Dudrick, David Francis, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The last conceptual revolution: a critique of Richard Rorty's political philosophy" / Eric Gander, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty's politics: liberalism at the end of the American century" / Markar Melkonian, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The work of friendship : Rorty, his critics, and the project of solidarity" / Dianne Rothleder, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- "For the love of perfection : Richard Rorty and liberal education" / René Vincente Arcilla, 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty & pragmatism: the philosopher responds to his critics" / Herman J Saatkamp, 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Richard Rorty : prophet and poet of the new pragmatism" / David L Hall, 1994

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Reading Rorty: critical responses to Philosophy and the mirror of nature (and beyond)" / Alan R Malachowski, 1990

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rorty's humanistic pragmatism: philosophy democratized" / Konstantin Kolenda, 1990

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- UCIspace @ the Libraries digital collection: Richard Rorty born digital files, 1988–2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty audio, "Dewey and Posner on Pragmatism and Moral Progress," University of Chicago Law School, April 14, 2006.

paragraph: BULLET::::- PhilWeb's entry for Richard Rorty An exhaustive compilation of on-line links and off-line sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty essays published in Dissent (magazine)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty audio, informative interview by Prof. Robert P. Harrison, Nov. 22, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty interview, "Against Bosses, Against Oligarchies," conducted by Derek Nystrom & Kent Puckett, Prickly Paradigm Press, Sept. 1998.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty interview, "The Atlantic Monthly", April 23, 1998.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty Memorial Lecture by Jürgen Habermas, Stanford University, Nov. 2, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rorty eulogized by Richard Posner, Brian Eno, Mark Edmundson, Jürgen Habermas, Daniel Dennett, Stanley Fish, David Bromwich, Simon Blackburn, Morris Dickstein & others, "Slate Magazine", June 18, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Inspiring Power of the Shy Thinker: Richard Rorty" by Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, TELOS, June 13, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard Rorty at Princeton: Personal Recollections by Raymond Geuss in Arion, Winter 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rereading Rorty by Albrecht Wellmer in Krisis, 2008.

description: American philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Richard Rorty

wikidata_label: Richard Rorty

wikipedia_title: Richard Rorty


text: Charleston, South Carolina

text: Columbia, South Carolina

text: film

text: theatre

text: actress

text: silent film

text: Broadway-theatre

text: comedy play

text: Omar, the Tentmaker

text: New York City

text: New York

text: Staff writer

text: Evening Ledger-Philadelphia

text: Library of Congress

text: photo

categories: Actresses from New York City,1947 deaths,20th-century American actresses,1878 births,American feminists,Actors from Charleston, South Carolina,American stage actresses,American silent film actresses

paragraph: Margaret Vale

paragraph: Margaret Vale (born Margaret Smyth Flinn, later Margaret Howe; March 30, 1878 in Charleston, South Carolina – November 29, 1947 in Columbia, South Carolina) was a film and theatre actress and a feminist.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Filmography.

paragraph: She appeared in two silent films.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Stage work.

paragraph: Vale appeared in one Broadway-theatre production, the comedy play "Omar, the Tentmaker" (1914), in New York City, New York.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: She was married to George Howe.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Staff writer (October 20, 1914). "President's Niece, Insulted in Street, Has Man Arrested — Then Pleads in Court for Leniency for Flirt, But Dr. E.C. White Is Sent to Workhouse for Ten Days". "Evening Ledger-Philadelphia" (archive hosted at the Library of Congress website).

paragraph: BULLET::::- photo (1913)

description: American actress

wikidata_label: Margaret Vale

wikipedia_title: Margaret Vale


text:
tyrant
Syracuse
Sicily
Hipparinus
Dionysius I of Syracuse
Plato
Platonism
Dionysius II
Hipparinus
Dionysius I
Doris of Locris
Dionysius II
Arete
Carthage
Tarentum
Athenian
Aegina
acropolis
trireme
Philistus
Heracleides
sacrifice
Athens
Calippus of Syracuse
Eleusian Mysteries
Speusippus
Athenian Academy
Sparta
Thebes
Arete
Zacynthus
Pachynus
Heraclea Minoa
Caulonia
Agrigento
Gela
Camarina
Acrae
Lentini
Campania
Heracleides
Apollocrates
Leontini
Campanian
Plutarch
Diodorus
heroic
Calippus
Persephone
Mary Renault's
The Mask of Apollo
Dionysius I of Syracuse
Dionysius II of Syracuse
Apollocrates
Philistus
Syracuse
Calippus of Syracuse
Plato
Speusippus
Plutarch
Cornelius Nepos
Diod. Sic.
Dionysius the Younger

categories: Greek historical hero cult,354 BC deaths,408 BC births,Sicilian tyrants,4th-century BC Syracusans,5th-century BC Syracusans

paragraph: Dion of Syracuse

paragraph: Dion (; ; 408–354 BC), tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily, was the son of Hipparinus, and brother-in-law of Dionysius I of Syracuse. A disciple of Plato, he became Dionysius I's most trusted minister and adviser. However, his great wealth, his belief in Platonism and his ambition aroused the suspicions of Dionysius I's son and successor, Dionysius II. An indiscreet letter from Dion to the Carthaginians led to his banishment. Settling in Athens, he lived a prosperous life until Dionysius II dispossessed him of his estates and income. Landing in Sicily in 357 BC, he was successful in conquering Syracuse (other than the citadel). However, Dion soon quarrelled with the radical leader Heraclides and was forced into exile. Recalled in 355 BC, he became master of the whole city but his imperious behaviour and financial demands on the people of Syracuse soon alienated the population. His supporters abandoned him and he was assassinated. His attempts to liberate Sicily only brought political and social chaos to the island which would last for nearly 20 years.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Dion was the son of the Syracusan statesman Hipparinus, who had served with Dionysius I in the Syracusan army. Hipparinus' other children were Megacles and Aristomache. Aristomache married Dionysius I, who also married Doris of Locris at the same time. Although Dion's sister was popular with her fellow Syracusans, it was Doris who gave birth to Dionysius I's heir Dionysius II.

paragraph: Aristomache had four children. Of these children, Sophrosyne married Dionysius II and Arete married Dion (with their son being called Hipparinus).

paragraph: Section::::Advisor to Dionysius I.

paragraph: As a trusted advisor to Dionysius I, Dion was given the most important diplomatic assignments. Dion excelled in managing the embassies that dealt with Carthage. Dionysius I was so satisfied with Dion's role as advisor that eventually Dion was authorized to withdraw money from the Syracusan treasury. The tyrant demanded, however, to be informed daily when he did so. Despite this requirement, Dion became extremely rich and his residence was magnificently furnished. Nonetheless, Dion occasionally criticized Dionysius I.

paragraph: Since his youth, Dion had excelled in intellectual activities, particularly philosophy. Plato and Dion first met in 387 BC when the philosopher, on a visit to Tarentum in southern Italy, accepted an invitation from Dionysius I to visit Syracuse. It was Dion who instigated this invitation. Dion joined Plato's philosophical school, with Dion excelling amongst Plato's disciples.

paragraph: Dion used every effort to inculcate Plato's maxims into the thoughts of Dionysius I. At one time, Dion invited the despot to a meeting with Plato. However, Dionysius I was offended by the philosopher when Plato spoke out against tyrannical leaders. This led to a quarrel, after which Dionysius I ordered the assassination of the philosopher (who managed to escape this fate, although he ended up being sold as an Athenian slave in Aegina). Despite this disagreement over Plato, Dion and Dionysius I's' close relationship continued as before.

paragraph: Dionysius I was on his deathbed when Dion attempted to discuss the succession with him. Dion hoped that Dionysius I would hand over the rule of Syracuse to him or to his family. However, his attempt to influence Dionysius I was stopped by Dionysius I's doctors who supported the younger Dionysius II. On hearing of Dion's plans, Dionysius II then deliberately poisoned his father, who was unable to utter another word before passing away.

paragraph: Section::::Dion and Dionysius II.

paragraph: Dionysius I had dreaded that anyone might depose him treacherously. He had, therefore, cloistered his son Dionysius II inside the Syracusan acropolis so, as he grew up, he lacked the knowledge, capabilities, political skills or personal strength expected of a future leader of men. When Dionysius I died in 367 BC, he was succeeded by Dionysius II. (References to Dionysius in this article hereafter refer to Dionysius II unless otherwise specified.) As an adult Dionysius was given to libertine practices. Cornelius Nepos was of the view that Dionysius lacked his father’s strength of character and he paid too much attention to unscrupulous advisers who wished to discredit Dion.

paragraph: When he succeeded as tyrant of Syracuse, his entire court was composed of by licentious youngsters, who were completely disengaged from their political duties. The Syracusan institutions thus began to collapse. With his extensive political experience, Dion effectively ruled the city state. Soon, the people of Syracuse formed the view that Dion was the only one who might save the city.

paragraph: In Dionysius' court, Dion proposed a response to the continuing Carthaginian threat. Dion offered either to travel to Carthage (to seek a diplomatic solution) or to furnish Syracuse with 50 new triremes with his own money to fight the Carthaginians. Although Dionysius was delighted by these suggestions, his courtiers resented Dion's interventions. They suggested to Dionysus that Dion was trying to oust him in favour of the line of his sister Aristomache.

paragraph: Dion concluded that educating Dionysius would be the key to resolving Syracuse's problems. With his philosophical training, Dion began teaching him about philosophical principles and the importance of good governance with the aim of making him a philosopher king. Such lessons sparked Dionysius' interest, so Plato was invited again to Syracuse. The experiment, in spite of a promising beginning, failed, with Dion's opponents gaining influence over Dionysius, leading to the philosopher Philistus being recalled (after he had been banished by the elder Dionysius) and then leading the opposition to Dion.

paragraph: Facing increasing opposition to his plans, Dion began developing a plot, with generals Heracleides and Theodotes, to overthrow Dionysius. They agreed that they would wait in the hope of political reform, although they would oust Dionysius if this did not happen. Eventually Dion agreed with Heracleides to install a full democracy, by his wealthy patrician birth, he disliked this form of government.

paragraph: Nonetheless, Plato arrived and was welcomed with much enthusiasm. Plato's conversations with Dionysius were said to have led to significant changes in Dionysius' views and behaviour, who, became sober and attentive, whereas his court continued its libertine practices. Then, during a traditional sacrifice, Dionysius openly stated that he did not wish to be a tyrant any longer.

paragraph: Section::::Banishment.

paragraph: When Dionysius expressed the view that he no longer wished to rule as a tyrant, this alarmed Philistus and his supporters and they campaigned intensively against Dion. They insisted to Dionysius that Dion was the greatest of deceivers, who was intending to seize the realm for his own nephews. Dionysius believed their arguments so he adopted a hostile attitude towards Dion.

paragraph: The situation reached a crisis point when Dionysius and Philistus intercepted a letter which had been sent by Dion to the Carthaginians. In that letter, Dion recommended that the Carthaginians should consult him regarding a peace agreement, because he would provide all of Syracuse's demands to them. Fearing a plot between Carthage and Dion and his supporters, Dionysius feigned a renewed friendship with Dion. They walked to the seashore where the despot showed the incriminating letter to Dion and, without giving Dion the opportunity to defend himself, immediately forced Dion into exile. Dion eventually made his way to Athens.

paragraph: Plato was confined inside the acropolis and received excellent treatment as an important guest, so he would not follow Dion. Later, when war with Carthage restarted, Dionysius allowed the philosopher to depart Syracuse, promising Plato that he would allow Dion to return to Syracuse during the next summer.

paragraph: Thanks to these events, there was growing speculation in Syracuse that Aristomache, who was popular with her fellow citizens, would attempt to seize the power. Dionysius became aware of these sentiments and he attempted to address the situation. Publicly, he explained that Dion was temporarily in Athens so that he wouldn't provoke some violent backlash against Dionysius. Dion was allowed to hold onto his Syracusan estate so he was still receiving his usual revenues. Furthermore, Dionysius handed two ships to Dion's relatives so they could send his possessions after him to Athens.

paragraph: Thus, Dion lived amongst the Athenian high society, dwelling with the patrician Athenian Calippus of Syracuse with whom he had become acquainted during the celebrations of the Eleusian Mysteries. Additionally, Dion purchased a rural residence for his leisure. His closest friend was Speusippus.

paragraph: Dionysius delayed Dion's return until the end of the war with Carthage. Dionysius recommended to Plato that Dion should not publicly criticise the Syracusan regime. Dion obeyed, staying within the Athenian Academy and studying philosophy.

paragraph: Later Dion did begin travelling throughout Greece meeting many local statesmen. Dion was regarded as a celebrity and many Greek cities welcomed him. For instance, the Spartans endowed him with citizenship, although the city state was at war with Thebes and was allied with Dionysius.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.

paragraph: Eventually, Dionysius decided to seize all of Dion's properties in Syracuse and stopped him receiving revenue from his estates. Dionysius tried to mend his image by forcing Plato to visit him in Syracuse through public threats against Dion. The celebrated philosopher returned to Syracuse, but soon he and Dionysius began arguing bitterly about Dion's fate. The philosopher was jailed until an Athenian embassy arranged for his release. In his anger, Dionysus sold Dion's estate (keeping the proceeds) and compelled Dion's wife (and niece) Arete to marry the tyrant's close adviser, Timocrates.

paragraph: In response, Dion sought to start a revolt in Syracuse against Dionysius and his supporters. Dion's closest friends advised him that in Syracuse, the population could be expected to enthusiastically join Dion's revolt, if only he could get to the city. They told him that Dion did not need to bring either weapons or soldiers.

paragraph: Nevertheless, Dion managed to gather from his Greek supporters 800 soldiers who gathered on the Greek island of Zacynthus. Dion assured the leaders of the mercenaries that they would be made commanders once they defeated Dionysius.

paragraph: In 357 BC, Dion's fleet sailed for Sicily. As his coming was expected, the Admiral Philistus had a fleet in Italian coastal waters ready to waylay him. So Dion sailed straight across the open sea. After 13 days, Dion's fleet reached Sicily at Pachynus. However, despite his own helmsman's advice, Dion sailed further along the southern coast of Sicily where the fleet was hit by a storm and nearly smashed into pieces against the rocks near Cercina, in northern Africa. The fleet had to wait for five days until a favourable southerly wind brought it back to Sicily. Dion was then able to land in Carthaginian territory. As he was a personal friend of the governor Synalus of Heraclea Minoa, the Carthaginians offered lodging and plentiful supplies to Dion's expedition.

paragraph: Having learnt that Dionysius had sailed to Caulonia on the Italian peninsula with 80 ships, Dion's soldiers insisted on action. So Dion led his troops towards Syracuse. On the road through Agrigento, Gela, Camarina and the region surrounding Syracuse, they were joined by 5,000 Sicilians who wished to join the revolt. Near Acrae, Dion spread rumours that he would be attacking both Lentini and Campania. Dionysius' soldiers from these areas deserted Timocrates' forces to defend their respective towns. Then, during the night, Dion ordered the expedition to advance, and at daybreak, Dion launched his attack.

paragraph: With the news of the arrival of Dion, the people of Syracuse slew the tyrant's supporters and Timocrates had to flee. Dion led his army into Syracuse. He wore brilliant armour and a garland crowned his head. Dion was accompanied by Megacles and Callipus. The local community leaders greeted them. Dion proclaimed that Dionysius was now deposed.

paragraph: A week later, Dionysius returned to Syracuse and, protected by his loyal fleet, managed to gain entry into the Syracusan island acropolis which had not been captured as it was guarded by a large garrison loyal to the tyrant. Dionysus attempted negotiating with Dion but Dion responded by saying that the now free Syracusans should decide.

paragraph: Dionysius' proposals were spurned by the people and Dion suggested his surrender. Dionysus accepted this suggestion and he invited a local embassy to come to his palace to discuss the details. However, it was a deception on Dionysius' part and Dion and his representatives were immediately confined after entering into the palace.

paragraph: The next day, Dionysius' army surprised and overwhelmed the many besieging Syracusans who retreated in utter disorder. Because of the confusion, Dion was unable to issue orders more generally, so he and his men charged against Dionysius' troops. Dion was injured and ended on the ground but he was rescued by his men. Dion mounted a horse and was reunited with supporters. Dion's foreign mercenaries had superior fighting skills and forced Dionysius' men to retreat back into the acropolis.

paragraph: Section::::Leadership of Syracuse.

paragraph: Following Dion's defeat of Dionysius' forces, Dion was elected to lead Syracuse (with his brother). Dionysius and his supporters were confined to the citadel.

paragraph: With his long connection with the former tyranny, it soon became clear to the people of Syracuse that Dion's political views were conservative and he did not favour the introduction of the democratic reforms sought by many of Syracuse's citizens. Dion was not a man who could hold the affections of the people, for he repelled men with his haughtiness. He was also seen as too keen to direct the Syracusans on how they were to use their freedom. As a result, the Syracusans started to distrust Dion's intentions.

paragraph: Dion soon fell out with Heracleides who formed his own political party. Heracleides was appointed admiral by the Syracuse assembly which increased his influence in the city. However, Dion undid this act on the grounds that his own consent was needed and then came forward himself to propose Heraclides for the role of admiral.

paragraph: Heracleides kept arguing in favour of democratic reform. Later, when Philistus returned from Italy with his squadron, Heracleides led a Syracusan fleet in a battle in which Philistus' fleet was defeated and Philistus was executed. The rivalry peaked after Heracleides failed to prevent Dionysius' subsequent escape from Syracuse, with Dionysius' son Apollocrates being left to command the citadel.

paragraph: Heracleides then proposed to the popular assembly that:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Syracusan land should be equally redistributed amongst the citizens

paragraph: BULLET::::- the foreign officers should lose their salary

paragraph: BULLET::::- new commanders should be appointed

paragraph: Dion opposed such plans but the Syracusans reacted decisively against what they saw as his oppressive government (which relied to a great extent on unpopular foreign mercenaries). The Syracusans deposed him from the post of general and appointed 25 new generals, among them Heracleides. They also refused to pay the Greek mercenaries who had come with Dion to Syracuse. While Dion and his mercenaries could have turned against the Syracusans, Dion decided to abandon Syracuse and with his 3000 foreign mercenaries moved to Leontini.

paragraph: At Leontini, Dion was well received and his foreign mercenaries were made local citizens. There, the Sicilian congress held a meeting, denouncing Syracuse, but the Syracusans responded that they preferred their actual liberties instead of a continuation of tyranny.

paragraph: Section::::Regaining power in Syracuse.

paragraph: With the departure of Dion and his mercenaries, the Syracusans decided to lay siege to the island fortress where Dionysius' son, Apollocrates, and his garrison of mercenaries resided. However, just as they were about to attack, reinforcements arrived led by a Campanian from Naples, Nypsius, who sailed his fleet into Syracuse's Great Harbour.

paragraph: At first the Syracusans seem to be winning after Heracleides put out to sea and won a sea fight against the fleet supporting Nypsius. On the news of this victory, the people of Syracusan went wild with joy and spent the night drinking. The next day, while all in Syracuse were asleep, Nypsius and his troops issued from the gates of the island citadel and took control of key parts of the city and pillaged the city at will.

paragraph: The Syracusans were unable to offer effective resistance, so they sent an embassy to Leontini to meet with Dion. In response, Dion announced that his soldiers should prepare to march towards Syracuse on that same night.

paragraph: When he learnt about Dion's imminent arrival, Nypsius ordered to his men to burn the city. During that night, the city of Syracuse burned while many of its citizens were slain. The next day, Dion led his troops through the city cheered by the local people. However, Nypsius' troops had hidden behind the destroyed palisade of the acropolis and the liberating soldiers were unable to reach them. The Syracusans spontaneously decided to charge the enemy, which ended when Nypsius and his men retreated back into the citadel where many of Nypsius' soldiers were then captured. Nypsius somehow managed to escape from the city. Not long after, Dionysius' son Apollocrates, weary of the long siege, surrendered the island citadel to Dion and Dion's sister Aristomache, his wife Arete and the young Hipparinus were freed.

paragraph: The Syracusan assembly 'supplicated Dion as a god with prayers' when he returned to Syracuse (Plutarch, Life of Dion 29.2). However, Diodorus (16.20.6) described these honours as heroic.

paragraph: During the next days, most of the opponents of Dion fled. Amongst the few who remained was Heracleides who sought Dion's pardon. Dion's foreign mercenaries suggested that he should be executed. However, Dion pardoned him and agreed to the arrangement where Dion would be general with full power on land while Heracleides would remain admiral by sea.

paragraph: The Syracusans began insisting, once again, about redistributing land and restoring democracy. However, according to Bury, Dion thought democracy was as bad a form of government as tyranny. Instead he hoped to create a Platonic state and establish an aristocracy with some democratic limitations and with a king and a senate made up of aristocrats. Also, the people of Syracuse wished to see the citadel of the tyrant demolished, but Dion allowed it to remain. Dion seemed to have no intention of allowing the Syracusans to manage their own affairs. His authority was now only limited by his joint command with Heracleides.

paragraph: Heracleides refused joining the aristocratic senate even after an invitation of Dion and, again, the populist leader began conspiring. He protested because Dion had not destroyed the acropolis and because he had brought in foreign politicians. At last, Dion was persuaded to consent to having Heracleides assassinated at his own home.

paragraph: Although Dion led the funeral for the popular leader, the assassination was quite resented by the people of Syracuse.

paragraph: Section::::Assassination.

paragraph: Among those who had come with Dion from Greece to help liberate Syracuse was a pupil of Plato named Calippus.

paragraph: From his exile, Dionysius had offered a bribe to Calippus to kill Dion and Calippus had accepted the offer. Calippus used the money from Dionysius to bribe some of Dion’s troops to defect to him. He then won Dion’s trust by betraying some of these soldiers to Dion, who then enlisted Calippus as a secret agent to discover further plotters. So whenever Dion was told that Calippus was undermining him, Dion simply thought that Calippus was acting in his role as a spy.

paragraph: Shortly afterwards, Dion’s only son fell from a window and died. Dion’s wife, Arete, and sister, Aristomache, discovered Calippus’ plot against Dion, but Dion was still paralysed with remorse from his son’s death, and refused to take action.

paragraph: Arete and Aristomache continued their enquiries into Calippus' plot against Dion, and when Calippus discovered their inquisitiveness, he approached them and told them that he was loyal and that he would prove his loyalty. They told him to take the Great Oath, involving a ceremony in Persephone’s temple, which he took. Following the ceremony, Calippus broke his vow and planned to kill Dion on the day celebrating the god Persephone.

paragraph: On that date, Dion was celebrating at home with his friends. The assassins were Zacynthians, who wore light garments and who were unarmed. They walked into the house while other accomplices began shutting all doors and windows. The mercenaries attacked Dion choking him and then with a short Spartan sword he was stabbed to death.

paragraph: Following Dion's assassination, Calippus seized power himself and ruled as tyrant of Syracuse for about a year before Syracuse successfully revolted against his rule and he was exiled from the city.

paragraph: Section::::Assassination.:In popular culture.

paragraph: Dion appears as a character in Mary Renault's novel The Mask of Apollo.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dionysius I of Syracuse

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dionysius II of Syracuse

paragraph: BULLET::::- Apollocrates

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philistus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Syracuse

paragraph: BULLET::::- Calippus of Syracuse

paragraph: BULLET::::- Plato

paragraph: BULLET::::- Speusippus

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lives" by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 6-20)

paragraph: |width=25% align=center|Preceded by:Dionysius the Younger

description: Sicilian Tyrant

wikidata_label: Dion of Syracuse

wikipedia_title: Dion of Syracuse


text:
professional baseball
Major League Baseball
pitcher
left-hander
Cleveland Indians
1960 season
Washington Senators
1961

wikipedia_title:
Professional baseball
Major League Baseball
Pitcher
Handedness
Cleveland Indians
1960 Cleveland Indians season
Texas Rangers (baseball)
1961 Washington Senators season

categories: Cleveland Indians players,Washington Senators (1961–1971) players,People from Berks County, Pennsylvania,Baseball players from Pennsylvania,1936 births,Major League Baseball pitchers,Living people

paragraph: Carl Mathias

paragraph: Carl Lynwood Mathias (born June 13, 1936) is an American former professional baseball player, a former Major League Baseball pitcher who played for two seasons. The left-hander pitched for the Cleveland Indians in seven games during the 1960 season and in four games for the Washington Senators during 1961.

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: Carl Mathias

wikipedia_title: Carl Mathias


text:
Würzburg
Germany
Würzburg
Germany
Bamberg
Thirty years war
Prussians
Austro-Prussian War
Main River
Ludwig II
Bavaria
Biography of Georg Zürn

categories: 1834 births,People from Würzburg,1884 deaths

paragraph: Georg Zürn

paragraph: Dr. Georg von Zürn (17 August 1834 – 10 May 1884) was the mayor () of Würzburg, Germany from 1865 to 1884.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: George Zürn was born in 1834 in Würzburg, Germany and was the eldest son of a bookbinder. He studied law and political science, and then worked as a lawyer in nearby Bamberg. In 1865 incumbent mayor Jacob Hopfenstätter died, offering Zürn a chance to return to his hometown. Against qualified competition, on 7 December 1865 Zürn was unanimously elected to the position of mayor at the age of 31.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: During his long tenure he promoted housing and road building, reformed the school system, and created the Ring Park around the old town.

paragraph: The preceding Thirty years war had continuously devoured Würzburg's finances and resulted in an expansive system of fortifications that blocked the spatial growth of the city. Traffic was impeded and building restrictions restricted industrial and commercial life. The subsequent shelling of the city by the Prussians in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 clearly showed that the old fortifications offered no military protection. Zürn then spearheaded difficult negotiations to remove the fortifications on the right of the Main River. He also managed to buy the entire old railway station on the site of today's Louis Street, which was conceived as upper-class residential road. He leveled the city gates obstructing traffic, broke through the walls to create new radial roads, and created the main ring road. A new park design, including a new city office of dedicated gardener, resulted in an advanced park system for its time.

paragraph: These changes resulted in tremendous growth of the city. Of 33,414 persons in 1867, the population increased to 54,457 in 1890. As a visible expression of his services, Zürn received two orders from the Ludwig II of Bavaria. Typical of his modesty, he refused an offer for admission to Bavarian nobility. In 1870 he was awarded honorary citizenship of the town.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography of Georg Zürn

description: Mayor of Würzburg

wikidata_label: Georg Zürn

wikipedia_title: Georg Zürn


text:
meteorologist
National Hurricane Center
Chicago, Illinois
Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Houston, Texas
Katy
Purdue University
Atmospheric Science
master's degree
Ph.D.
Florida State University
NHC
Central Pacific Hurricane Center
Hawaii
The Weather Channel
tropical weather
National Hurricane Center
Bill Read

categories: American meteorologists,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration personnel,National Weather Service people,Living people,Florida State University alumni

paragraph: Richard Knabb

paragraph: Richard 'Rick' Knabb is an American meteorologist who served as the 11th Director of the National Hurricane Center from June 4, 2012 to May 12, 2017. On March 21, 2017, Knabb announced his return to The Weather Channel as the tropical weather expert which was the position he held from 2010 to 2012. As a result, he left the position of Director of the NHC.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Knabb was born in Chicago, Illinois and was raised in suburban Fort Lauderdale, Florida and in the Houston, Texas suburb of Katy. He attended Purdue University earned a bachelor's degree in Atmospheric Science before earning a master's degree and Ph.D. in meteorology from Florida State University.

paragraph: Section::::Meteorology career.

paragraph: Knabb started working for the NHC in 2001. He served as a Senior Hurricane Specialist from 2005 to 2008. He left the NHC to become deputy director of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center in Hawaii where he stayed until joining The Weather Channel in May 2010 replacing Steve Lyons as tropical weather expert.

paragraph: He was announced as Director of the National Hurricane Center starting June 4, 2012 replacing Bill Read.

description: American meteorologist

wikidata_label: Richard Knabb

wikipedia_title: Richard Knabb


text:
footballer
Valletta
goalkeeper
Sliema Wanderers
Vittoriosa Stars
Hibernians
Valletta
Birkirkara
Rowen Muscat
Malta
Liechtenstein
Faroe Islands
UEFA Euro 2020 qualifier

categories: Valletta F.C. players,1988 births,Living people,Maltese Premier League players,Maltese footballers,Birkirkara F.C. players,Malta international footballers,Hibernians F.C. players,Sliema Wanderers F.C. players,Vittoriosa Stars F.C. players,Association football goalkeepers

paragraph: Henry Bonello

paragraph: Henry Bonello (born 13 October 1988) is a Maltese international footballer who plays for Valletta, as a goalkeeper.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.

paragraph: Bonello has played club football for Sliema Wanderers, Vittoriosa Stars, Hibernians and Valletta. In a match for Sliema Wanderers on 29 January 2012, Bonello was described as a "hero" for his performance. He signed for Birkirkara in January 2017, with Rowen Muscat making the move in the opposite direction.

paragraph: Section::::International career.

paragraph: He made his senior international debut for Malta on 29 February 2012, in the 2–1 win over Liechtenstein. On 23 March 2019, he saved a penalty in the 2–1 win over Faroe Islands in a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifier, as Malta won their first competitive home match in 13 years.

description: Maltese footballer

wikidata_label: Henry Bonello

wikipedia_title: Henry Bonello


text: Litunga

text: Barotseland

text: Africa

text: Mulambwa Santulu

text: Mwanawina I

text: Lozi people

text: god

text: Nyambe

text: king

text: Mubukwanu

paragraph: Silumelume

paragraph: "Mulena Yomuhulu Mbumu wa Litunga" Selumelume Muimui (or Silumelume) was a Chief of Barotseland in Africa.

paragraph: Section::::Family and life.

paragraph: Silumelume was a son of the King Mulambwa Santulu and thus grandson of King Mwanawina I.

paragraph: Lozi people believed that he was a descendant of god Nyambe.

paragraph: He became a king in 1835 after his father died, but his brother Mubukwanu was not pleased with that.

paragraph: Section::::Family and life.:Death.

paragraph: Silumelume was in fact chosen by the nation's council, but he was soon assassinated, perhaps on the instructions of his brother, who thereupon succeeded him.

paragraph: He was killed by Mwene Siengale during a session of the Khotla and was buried at Namaweshi.

paragraph: Section::::Family and life.:Children.

paragraph: His wife is unknown, but his children were Maselokwa and Kutauka (gender unknown).

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Makololo interregnum and the legacy of David Livingstone (PDF)

description: barotseland chief

wikidata_label: Silumelume

wikipedia_title: Silumelume


text:
Leiden
Gouda
Peace Palace
Hendrik Petrus Berlage
Jacobus Oud
Willem Marinus Dudok
Jan Wils
Peace Palace
Sparta Stadion Het Kasteel
List of Dutch ceramists

paragraph: Willem Coenraad Brouwer

paragraph: Willem Coenraad Brouwer (Leiden, 19 October 1877 - Zoeterwoude, 23 May 1933) was a Dutch ceramist and sculptor.

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: Brouwer was a son of Nicholas Brouwer, head of a primary school in Leiden, and Antonia Coert. He studied at the Tekenschool ('Drawing school') in his hometown. From 1894 to 1898 he worked in the studio designing book ornamentation and letter cutting for his brother-in-law J.A. Loebèr. He then went to Gouda, where he became potter at the Goedewaagen ceramic factory. Around 1900 He joined the artists group 't Binnenhuis (the Interior). In 1901, Brouwer founded his own ceramic business in Leiderdorp under the name of Brouwer's Pottery Factory.

paragraph: In 1906 he also made construction pottery and garden ceramics, for example he made the ceramics for the construction of the Peace Palace in The Hague. He is considered an innovator in this field. He collaborated with architects like Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Jacobus Oud, Willem Marinus Dudok and Jan Wils. He was a member of the Dutch Society of Sculptors.

paragraph: In 1927 he published his autobiography which he started with the words:

paragraph: If the following sentences will attempt to construct an image of the things experienced by me, it is almost without saying that this image will be incomplete. Indeed... the "experience" will undergo without pretense, later to serve as "source" for a historical accounting. Would we had known then, that "our time" would have had a very significant impact to... what we now call modern art, we had perhaps made more notes to help write pure history. However we will have to do with a story gleaned from memory."

paragraph: Section::::Works, a selection.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sculpture (1909-1913) at the Peace Palace, The Hague.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ceramic sculpture (1912-1913) at the Kennemer Garage, Alkmaar.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ornaments (1914) for the church of Scharsterbrug.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Van Karnebeekbron monument (1915), The Hague.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Two monkeys with football with lace (1916), façade Sparta Stadion Het Kasteel, Rotterdam.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ornaments (1917) for building Leiden newspaper

paragraph: BULLET::::- Caryatids (1917) for the Long House, Alkmaar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gijselaar Bank (1920), Rapenburg, Leiden

paragraph: BULLET::::- Four fried stone ornaments (1923), depicting the Kasper my mind, up in the facade of the former headquarters Maurits mine, Geleen

paragraph: BULLET::::- Facade Statues Hermes and Neptune (1928-1930) for Atlantic House, Rotterdam

paragraph: BULLET::::- Five terracotta facade ornaments (1930) for the Wilhelmina Hospital, Assen

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Dutch ceramists

alias:
Willem C. Brouwer
W. C. Brouwer

description: Dutch sculptor

wikidata_label: Willem Coenraad Brouwer

wikipedia_title: Willem Coenraad Brouwer


text:
Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel
Henk Trumpie
Gouda
Zuidwolde, Drenthe
Raku method
List of Dutch ceramists
Website Han van Hagen and Lia van Rhijn

categories: 1953 births,Dutch sculptors,Living people,Dutch ceramists

paragraph: Lia van Rhijn

paragraph: Lia van Rhijn (born 1953 in Nieuwerkerk aan den IJssel) is a Dutch ceramist and sculptor, who makes sculptures of human – and animal figures and architectural forms.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Lia van Rhijn studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Amersfoort and the Free Academy in The Hague. It was Ernst Beijer who awoke her interest for special architectural lines, and she received glaze lessons from Henk Trumpie.

paragraph: For her early work she received the Art Encouragement Prize from the city of Gouda in 1980. Travelling to Mexico, Ireland, Spain and imaginary tours to Cappadocia made her aware of the ethnic and geographic influence on art forms. In these experiences she found the themes and inspiration for all her work. In addition, she is not led by conventional currents, but follows her own ideas.

paragraph: The studio of Lia van Rhijn is part of the Arts Centre Hofstede Duet in Zuidwolde, Drenthe in which her life partner, the etcher Han van Hagen, participates. In that context, they offers courses and workshops.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: The raw material for Lia van Rhijn's work is clay, which produced both turned work and hand sculpture; Also, the clay mold press is used. The baking and glazing of the images is carried out according to various techniques and in various ovens, including the Raku method. Her images include human – and animal figures, with attention to moods and attitudes. Part of her portraits are inspired by examples from the Renaissance.

paragraph: Architectural forms, as well as draperies find a place in her oeuvre. Combinations of themes occur. Her pots and bowls are purely artistic, but could also be partly named artistic formed using ceramic or ceramic applied.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Dutch ceramists

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Website Han van Hagen and Lia van Rhijn

description: Dutch  artist

wikidata_label: Lia van Rhijn

wikipedia_title: Lia van Rhijn


text:
deep house
Nice
Rodriguez
Mylène Farmer
Désobéissance
Facebook

categories: Year of birth missing (living people),Living people,People from Nice,French DJs

paragraph: Feder (DJ)

paragraph: Hadrien Federiconi, better known by the stage name Feder, is a French deep house DJ originating from Nice, south of France. Moving to Paris, he gained fame in 2014 through "Sixto", his remix of Rodriguez' song "Can't Get Away". He signed to Atlantic Records (Warner Music) and he gained international chart success through his own track "Goodbye" featuring vocals of Lyse (Anne-Lyse Blanc). The song "Goodbye" reached number one in sales in France and Switzerland, as well as number one on iTunes charts for France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, Russia, Hungary, Turkey, Czech Republic and Top 10 on iTunes in Germany, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Netherlands, Austria and South Africa. Feder won 'Best New French DJ' at the 2015 NRJ DJ Awards.

paragraph: In 2018, he produced and co-composed the album of the French singer Mylène Farmer titled Désobéissance.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Facebook

description: French DJ

wikidata_label: Feder

wikipedia_title: Feder (DJ)


text:
artistic gymnast
2002 World Championships
Georgia Gym Dogs

categories: 1986 births,Medalists at the World Artistic Gymnastics Championships,American female artistic gymnasts,Sportspeople from Cincinnati,Living people

paragraph: Samantha Sheehan

paragraph: Samantha Sheehan (born May 20, 1986) is an American artistic gymnast. She won the bronze medal on floor exercise at the 2002 World Championships. Following her elite career she competed collegiately for the Georgia Gym Dogs.

description: artistic gymnast

wikidata_label: Samantha Sheehan

wikipedia_title: Samantha Sheehan


text:
speed skater
two events
2006 Winter Olympics

categories: Speed skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics,German female speed skaters,Sportspeople from Berlin,Olympic speed skaters of Germany,1977 births,Living people

paragraph: Pamela Zöllner

paragraph: Pamela Zöllner (born 15 January 1977) is a German speed skater. She competed in two events at the 2006 Winter Olympics.

description: German speed skater

wikidata_label: Pamela Zoellner

wikipedia_title: Pamela Zöllner


text:
condottiero
Rocca dei Rossi
Berceto
Pier Maria I de' Rossi
Guido Torelli
Filippo Maria Visconti
duke of Milan
Republic of Venice
Francesco Sforza
Piacenza
Casalmaggiore
Pope Sixtus IV
triumvirate
Gian Galeazzo Sforza
Ludovico Sforza
Sanvitale
Pallavicino
Da Correggio
Gian Giacomo Trivulzio
San Secondo
Castle of Torrechiara

categories: 1413 births,1482 deaths,San Secondo Parmense,Condottieri,Rossi family (Parma),People from the Province of Parma

paragraph: Pier Maria II de' Rossi

paragraph: Pier Maria Rossi or Pier Maria II de' Rossi (25 March 1413 - 1 September 1482) was an Italian condottiero and count of , whose properties included the castle of Rocca dei Rossi. He was known as "the Magnificent".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He was born at Berceto, the son of Pier Maria I de' Rossi and Maria Giovanna Cavalcabò. Aged 15, he married Antonia, daughter of Guido Torelli. At the service of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, he fought five times against the Republic of Venice. He succeeded as titular of the family's fiefs in 1438.

paragraph: When Visconti died, in 1447, Pier Maria sided with Francesco Sforza, moving the lands of Parma and Piacenza under the Milanese suzerainty. In 1448 he defeated the Venetians in a fluvial battle on the Po at Casalmaggiore. In 1471 he was sent by Sforza as ambassador at the court of Pope Sixtus IV. After the duke's death, Pier Maria was part of the triumvirate actually governing the duchy in lieu of the then underage Gian Galeazzo Sforza. However, when the latter was ousted by his uncle, Ludovico Sforza, the fortunes of the Rossi family started to crumble. In 1482 an alliance of Milanese troops with those of the rival Sanvitale, Pallavicino and Da Correggio families, led by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, besieged the Rocca dei Rossi at San Secondo. Pier Maria resisted gallantly but, after the Milanese started to storm all his other fortresses, surrendered and retired to the Castle of Torrechiara, where he died in 1482.

description: Italian condottiero

wikidata_label: Pier Maria II de' Rossi

wikipedia_title: Pier Maria II de' Rossi


text: medieval

text: bog

text: Varberg Municipality

text: Sweden

text: Varberg County Museum

text: Via Regia

text: bog

text: harrow

text: peat

text: sackcloth

text: Lennart von Post

text: Swedish Museum of National Antiquities

text: Agnes Geijer

text: wool

text: gugel

text: liripipe

text: sheath

text: saltire

text: St George's Cross

text: Union Jack

text: oak

text: beech

text: hypothesis

text: radiocarbon dated

text: forensic

text: odontologist

text: Osteologist

text: Sahlgrenska University Hospital

text: computed tomography

text: dean

text: Diocese of Linköping

text: Catherine of Vadstena

text: Hemming Gadh

text: Himle

text: Faurås

text: hundred

text: Rolfstorp

text: Sibbarp

text: Köinge

text: Svartrå

text: hundreds

categories: 1936 in Sweden,Historical people who were forensically reconstructed,Archaeological discoveries in Sweden,1936 archaeological discoveries,Deaths by beating,Bog bodies

paragraph: Bocksten Man

paragraph: The Bocksten Man () is the remains of a medieval man's body found in a bog in Varberg Municipality, Sweden. It is one of the best-preserved finds in Europe from that era and is exhibited at the Varberg County Museum. The man had been killed and impaled to the bottom of a lake which later became a bog. The bog where the body was found lies in Rolfstorp about east of Varberg on the west coast of Sweden, close to the most important medieval road in the area: the Via Regia. He was recently reconstructed to show what he may have looked like when he was alive.

paragraph: Section::::The discovery.

paragraph: In the 1880s a farm called "Bocksten" was established near a bog. The bog was then regularly drained, and a harrow used to gather peat. Albert Johansson had previously found a leather shoe in the wetland and gave it to the Varberg museum. A shoe sole was found in the bog in summer of 1934, but the curator of the local museum, Albert Sandklef, did not recognize its importance.

paragraph: The body was found while gathering peat on 22June 1936 by Johansson. His harrow apparently caught on sackcloth. On examination Johansson saw parts of a skeleton. The next day, Johansson and his father contacted the local police and a doctor. On investigation, they realized it was too old to be of criminal interest.

paragraph: Sandklef was contacted again. He took charge, inviting others — among them the well-known geologist Lennart von Post. The group visited on 24June. They measured and photographed the find before excavating it. The upper parts of the man had passed through the harrow and were badly damaged while the lower parts were intact.

paragraph: The Swedish Museum of National Antiquities was consulted after the midsummer weekend to assist with conservation. Curator Gillis Olson and their textile expert Agnes Geijer took part in the conservation and evaluation. They came to Varberg on 9July, assisting Sandkelf in the documentation and giving conservation advice.

paragraph: The Bocksten Man has been part of the museum's exhibition since 1937.

paragraph: Section::::Description.

paragraph: The man was tall and of slender build. There is an injury covering about on the right side of the cranium. Of the inner organs, parts of the lungs, liver and brain as well as cartilage are preserved.

paragraph: The tunic is among the best-preserved medieval tunics in Europe, and made of woollen fabric. He was wearing a gugel hood with a long and wide liripipe ("tail"). On his upper body he wore a shirt and a cloak, while his legs were covered by hosiery.

paragraph: Apart from the clothing he had a fabric bag, foot coverings, leather shoes, a belt, a leather sheath and two knives.

paragraph: The leather sheath was wide and long, composed of three layers with a combined saltire and St George's Cross (thus giving a pattern similar to Union Jack) carved on the outer layer. On the inner layer a similar pattern was carved, though this time a pole was added to the symbol.

paragraph: The man had been impaled to the lake bed with two poles; one of oak that hit his heart and one of beech which went through his back.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.

paragraph: Several people have evaluated the finding, among them Albert Sandklef, Margareta Nockert and Owe Wennerholm.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Date.

paragraph: The find is generally dated to the 14th century. The dating is based on the clothing, especially the type of hood he wore. Albert Sandklef specified the date of the find to the 1360s, while Margareta Nockert suggests the 1330s. Owe Wennerholm argues that the hood he wore was used over a much larger time frame and only limits the date of the find to between 1250 and 1520. He does however put forward the hypothesis that the man might be Simon Gudmundi, a 15th-century priest, known to have died in 1491.

paragraph: A bit of the cloth was radiocarbon dated in the late 1980s. It gave as result a 68 percent likelihood of a date between 1290 and 1410 and a 95 percent likelihood of a date between 1290 and 1430. Some uncertainties do however arise as the conservation process might have affected the result. The fact that the find came from a bog is also of concern, as bog finds are known to be hard to date.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Age.

paragraph: Based on the teeth, forensic odontologist Gunnar Johansson has concluded that the man was between 25 and 35 years old when he died. Osteologist Nils-Gustaf Gevall has, based on the skeleton, come up with an age of between 35 and 40 years, though the man might have been up to 60 years old.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Social group.

paragraph: Depending on the interpretation of the clothing, and in particular the hood, different conclusions can be made about the man's social background.

paragraph: The hood he wore was usually worn by the more prosperous classes and it has therefore been suggested that he was a tax collector or a soldier recruiter.

paragraph: The type of hood was also used within the church. Based on this and a symbol on a shield-shaped pendant, it has been suggested by Owe Wennerholm that the man belonged to the Ordo Sanctus Spiritus.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Local legend.

paragraph: Some days after the find was revealed a local farmer ("Karl Andersson") told Albert Sandklef of a legend he had heard as a child. Two old people from Åkulla had told his father about a man who was recruiting soldiers in the area. He had been killed by the peasants and buried in a bog. He would start haunting late at night, and in order to stop this, poles were struck through his body, whereafter the haunting stopped. As far as the farmer could remember they mentioned "Store Mosse", a bog about 10 miles from the find, close to Nackhälle village, though he acknowledged that his memory might fail him as he had grown up in the vicinity of that bog.

paragraph: The farmer and Albert Sandklef went to Nackhälle and questioned several older people in the area. However, nobody recognized the legend.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Cause of death.

paragraph: It has been a matter of some discussion what actually caused the death of the man. In January 2006 a professor and a doctor at Sahlgrenska University Hospital performed an "operation" on a plastic model of the body, based on computed tomography of the body. As a result, they concluded that he had first been hit at the lower jaw, then at the right ear and finally a lethal hit further towards the back of his head.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Identity.

paragraph: A hypothesis has been presented that the person was Simon Gudmundi, the dean of the Diocese of Linköping who died on 12 May 1491.

paragraph: In his 1998 book, "Vem var Bockstensmannen?" ("Who was the Bocksten Man?"), Owe Wennerholm reasoned that Gudmundi's name fit with what might be initials found on what might be a micro shield. It is also likely that Gudmundi visited the area. He worked with a group which tried to get Catherine of Vadstena canonized. One of her reputed miracles had taken place in the neighboring village. Speculation was that he was killed by order of Hemming Gadh so that Gadh could assume the post of dean of the Diocese of Linköping.

paragraph: Section::::Interpretations.:Location.

paragraph: The bog in which the man was found is close to the border between Himle and Faurås hundreds. It is also close to the border between Rolfstorp, Sibbarp, Köinge and Svartrå parishes. The hundreds were responsible for the handling of murders, which meant that in this case there might be some confusion over the correct hundred to handle the case, to the advantage of the killer(s). It has therefore been assumed that the killer(s) had good local knowledge.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bockstensmannen at Hallands kulturhistoriska museum (Swedish)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Swedish bog man murdered - 700 years ago. The Local. 24 January 2006.

description: Medieval bog body found in Sweden

wikidata_label: Bocksten Man

wikipedia_title: Bocksten Man


text:
Peerage of Ireland
Lord Justice of Ireland
James Butler, 1st Earl of Ormond
Lady Eleanor de Bohun
Kilkenny
Maurice FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Desmond
Edward I of England
Mac Murrough
Teigstaffen
County Kilkenny
Lord Deputy of Ireland
Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence
Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare
Irish House of Commons
Richard II of England
Dublin Castle
Knocktopher
Carmelite
St. Canice's Cathedral
Kilkenny
Elizabeth Darcy
Sir John Darcy, Knight of Knaith
de Burgh
James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond
Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond
O'Carroll
Éile
Butler dynasty
googlebooks
Butler family

categories: Earls of Ormond (Ireland),Butler dynasty,1382 deaths,14th-century Irish people,1331 births

paragraph: James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond

paragraph: James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond (October 4, 1331October 18, 1382) was a noble in the Peerage of Ireland. He was Lord Justice of Ireland in 1359, 1364, and 1376, and a dominant political leader in Ireland in the 1360s and 1370s.

paragraph: The son of James Butler, 1st Earl of Ormond and Lady Eleanor de Bohun, James was born at Kilkenny Castle and given in ward, September 1, 1344, to Maurice FitzGerald, 1st Earl of Desmond for the fine of 2,306 marks; and afterward to Sir John Darcy who married him to his daughter Elizabeth. He was usually called The Noble Earl, being a great-grandson, through his mother, of King Edward I of England.

paragraph: He died at Knocktopher Castle in Kilkenny, Leinster, Ireland.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: In 1362, he slew 600 of Mac Murrough's followers at Teigstaffen (County Kilkenny). On 22 April 1364, was appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland to Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence: Clarence, from his first arrival in Ireland, placed great trust in him, and for a few years it seems that as Deputy he was almost all-powerful. In the 1360s he clashed with Maurice FitzGerald, 4th Earl of Kildare. In 1364 the Irish House of Commons sent a delegation to England, headed by Kildare, to complain of misgovernment, and to ask for the removal of "corrupt" officials, some of whom had links to Ormond. A number of these officials were removed, but Ormond's position was not seriously threatened.

paragraph: He was Lord Justice by 24 July 1376, with a salary of £500 a year, in which office he was continued by King Richard II of England. On 2 April 1372, he was made constable of Dublin Castle, with the fee of £18 5s. a year. He was summoned to the Parliaments held by Richard II.

paragraph: He died 18 October 1382 in his castle of Knocktopher (near which he had, in 1356, founded a Friary for Carmelite friars). He was buried in St. Canice's Cathedral, Kilkenny.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and Children.

paragraph: On May 15, 1346, he married Elizabeth Darcy, daughter of Sir John Darcy, Knight of Knaith (another Lord Justice of Ireland) and Joan de Burgh. They had five children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- James Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormond (1362–1405).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas Butler, Justice of Cork 1359–1396

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eleanor Butler 1350–1392, married Gerald FitzGerald, 3rd Earl of Desmond

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan Butler 1360–1393 (plague) married Teige O'Carroll, Prince of Éile

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ralph Butler 1356–1367

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: Butler dynasty

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richardson, Douglas, and Kimball G. Everingham. "Magna Carta Ancestry A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families." Royal ancestry series. Baltimore, Md: Genealogical Pub. Co, 2005. googlebooks Accessed November 9, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Butler family Accessed November 9, 2007

description: Irish nobleman and Lord Justice

wikidata_label: James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond

wikipedia_title: James Butler, 2nd Earl of Ormond


text:
Paris
France
St. Louis
Missouri
Paris
Antoine Fourcroy
Mathurin Jacques Brisson
Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent
New Orleans
Benjamin Franklin
Ohio River
French Revolution
Gallipolis, Ohio
Meriwether Lewis
Thomas Jefferson
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Mississippi River
St.Louis
Phul
Anna Maria von Phul
Frank (Francis) von Phul
Liberty ship
United States National Park Service
Priddy, Bob
Missouri
Independence Press
Saugrain Family Papers

categories: 1820 deaths,Physicians from Missouri,French chemists,1763 births,Scientists from St. Louis

paragraph: Antoine Saugrain

paragraph: Dr. Antoine François Pierre Saugrain (Paris, 17/02/1763 France – St. Louis, Missouri, 05/03/1820) was a French-born physician and chemist.

paragraph: Born in Versailles, Saugrain was educated in Paris as a physician and chemist by Antoine Fourcroy and Mathurin Jacques Brisson; Saugrain was brother-in-law to Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, who had married Louise Saugrain, Antoine's sister. In 1783 he traveled to North America to serve as a mineralogist for Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent at New Orleans, where he was admitted to the practice of surgery. He also collaborated with his brother-in-law on the development of vaccines. In 1787 Dr. Saugrain traveled to the United States bearing a letter of introduction from Benjamin Franklin. He became part of a scientific expedition to explore the Ohio River led by the botanist Picque in 1788. However, Saugrain was injured during an Indian raid and returned to France. Dr. Saugrain was soon forced to flee France because of his royalist beliefs at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789 (Saugrain's family line had held the position of royal librarian for over 250 years by the time of the Revolution).

paragraph: He returned to the United States and helped found a French émigré community at Gallipolis, Ohio. It was there that he married Genevieve Rosalie Michau on 20/03/1793.

paragraph: In 1799 the Saugrains moved to St. Louis. Dr. Saugrain was the city's only physician until the United States took possession of St. Louis following the Louisiana Purchase.

paragraph: Saugrain prepared specimens for Meriwether Lewis to send to President Thomas Jefferson in early 1804. He also provided the Lewis and Clark Expedition with medical supplies.

paragraph: Dr. Saugrain was the first physician west of the Mississippi River to use the Jenner cowpox vaccine to prevent smallpox, beginning in 1809. From a public health perspective, his willingness to vaccinate anyone, regardless of ability to pay is especially noteworthy. The Missouri State Historical Society has a copy of an advertisement of Dr. Saugrain’s offering vaccine to all persons of indigent circumstances as well as to doctors who lived outside his practice area.

paragraph: Outside medicine Dr. Saugrain also had interests in mineralogy, physics and chemistry.

paragraph: Saugrain experimented with early versions of phosphorus matches and manufactured thermometers and barometers at Gallipolis.

paragraph: His daughter Rosalie Saugrain (1797–1787) was married to the St.Louis pioneer businessmen Henry Von Phul (1784–1874), brother of the American artist Anna Maria von Phul. He was the grandfather of Frank (Francis) von Phul (1835–1922).

paragraph: In 1944 Liberty ship was named in his honor.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- United States National Park Service

paragraph: BULLET::::- Priddy, Bob. "Across Our Wide Missouri", Independence Press, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saugrain Family Papers Missouri History Museum Archives

description: French chemist

wikidata_label: Antoine Saugrain

wikipedia_title: Antoine Saugrain


text: neoclassicist

text: tapestries

text: Spanish monarchy

text: patron

text: Count of Floridablanca

text: Count of Aranda

text: King Carlos III

text: Ramón Bayeu

text: Carlos IV

categories: 1737 births,Spanish male painters,1793 deaths,18th-century Spanish painters

paragraph: José del Castillo

paragraph: José del Castillo (14 October 1737 – 5 October 1793) was a Spanish painter and a leader of the Spanish neoclassicist artistic movement. Many of his paintings were done on tapestries.

paragraph: Castillo made many attempts to become Royal Painter for the Spanish monarchy, but he was never successful. This was not due to a lack of talent, but rather because Castillo allied himself with the wrong nobleman. His patron, the Count of Floridablanca, feuded bitterly with the Count of Aranda. The Count of Aranda was favored by King Carlos III, and as a result, Ramón Bayeu (Aranda's favorite painter) became Royal Painter.

paragraph: After Carlos III died, Castillo tried again to become Royal Painter. However, the new monarch, Carlos IV, decided to leave the position of Royal Painter vacant.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Painter's Studio" by Jose del Castillo

alias:
Jose del Castillo
José Del Castillo
Jose Del Castillo
Josef del Castillo

description: Spanish painter and engraver

wikidata_label: José del Castillo

wikipedia_title: José del Castillo