text:
Abbot of Cluny
Truce of God
Auvergne
Autun
Brioude
coadjutor
Pope John XIX
Benedict IX
pilgrimage route to Santiago
Pope Gregory V
Council of Chalcedon
Henry II
Pavia
Holy Roman Emperor Henry II
Conrad II
Henry III
Robert II of France
Dunstan
Æthelwold of Winchester
Oswald of Worcester
Fulbert of Chartres
Truce of God
Rogation days
Pentecost
All Souls' Day
Pope Benedict VIII
Souvigny Priory
Empress St. Adelaide
hymn
Souvigny Priory
Peter Damien
canonization
French revolutionaries

categories: Medieval French saints,1040s deaths,French abbots,11th-century Christian saints,Cluniacs,962 births,Burials at Souvigny Priory

paragraph: Odilo of Cluny

paragraph: Saint Odilo of Cluny (c. 962 – 1 January 1049) was the fifth Benedictine Abbot of Cluny, holding the post for around 54 years. During his tenure Cluny became the most important monastery in western Europe. Odilo actively worked to reform the monastic practices not only at Cluny, but at other Benedictine houses. He also promoted the Truce of God whereby military hostilities were temporarily suspended at certain times for ostensibly religious reasons. Odilo encouraged the formal practice of personal consecration to Mary. He established All Souls' Day (on 2 November) in Cluny and its monasteries as the annual commemoration to pray for all the faithful departed. The practice was soon adopted throughout the whole Western church.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Odilo was descended from an illustrious noble family of Auvergne (central France). The son of Berald de Mercoeur and Gerberga, his widowed mother became a nun at the convent of St. John in Autun after his father's death. Odilo had eight brothers and two sisters. One of his sisters married and the other became an abbess.

paragraph: When he was a child, he was partially paralyzed and had to be carried by the family servants on a stretcher. One day while the family was travelling, they came to a church and Odilo was left with the luggage at the church door. The door was open, and little Odilo felt God was calling him to crawl to the altar. He got to the altar and tried to stand up, but failed. He tried again and finally succeeded: he was able to walk around the altar. It was believed that he had been cured of the unnamed malady by the intervention of Our Lady.

paragraph: As a child, he developed a great devotion to the Virgin Mary. While still quite young, he entered the seminary of St. Julien in Brioude, where he became a

paragraph: specialist in canon law. William of Dijon persuaded him to enter the monastery of Cluny. In 991, at the age of twenty-nine, he entered Cluny and before the end of his year of probation was made coadjutor to Abbot Mayeul, and shortly before the latter's death (994) was made abbot and received Holy orders.

paragraph: Section::::Odilo’s abbacy.

paragraph: His fifty years as Abbot were distinguished for the exceeding gentleness of his rule. It was usual with him to say, that of two extremes he chose rather to offend by tenderness, than a too rigid severity. He was known for showing mercy indiscriminately even to those who people said did not deserve it. He would say in response, ‘I would rather be mercifully judged for having shown mercy, than be cruelly damned for having shown cruelty."

paragraph: Of small stature and insignificant appearance, Odilo was a man of immense force of character. He was a man of prayer and penance, with a great devotion to the Incarnation and to the Blessed Mother. Odilo encouraged the formal practice of personal consecration to Mary. He also encouraged learning in his monasteries, and had the monk Radolphus Glaber write a history of the time. He erected a magnificent monastery building, and furthered the reform of the Benedictine monasteries. It was during his abbacy that Cluny became the most important monastery in western Europe. During a great famine in 1006, his liberality to the poor was by many censured as profuse; for he melted down the sacred vessels and ornaments to raise funds.

paragraph: Pope John XIX offered Odilo the archbishopric of Lyons, but Odilo refused and the pope then chided Odilo for disobedience. John XIX died shortly after and his successor (Benedict IX) did not press the matter any further.

paragraph: He is also said to have influenced the course of the famous pilgrimage route to Santiago, which runs near the monasteries.

paragraph: Section::::Odilo’s abbacy.:Monastic autonomy.

paragraph: During this period it was very common for secular lords and local rulers to try to either take control of monasteries or to seize their property. Not only this, but local bishops often also tried to impose their own authority on monasteries or to seize monastery property. It was precisely for this reason that from the earliest days of Cluny's history, Cluny did not affiliate itself with the authority of any diocese except Rome and received its charter directly from the Pope. Several Popes decreed an automatic excommunication to any bishop or secular ruler who tried to interfere or seize Cluniac property (including both the monastery and all the monasteries and properties that were owned by Cluny).

paragraph: However, many times the monks needed this order of excommunication renewed and repeated by the Popes because each new generation would bring a new round of figures who would go after Cluniac property. All of the abbots of Cluny in this period had to deal with this problem, and Odilo was no exception.

paragraph: He attended the Synod of Ansa in 994 for this reason and successfully got the bishops present at the synod to make a statement excommunicating anyone who attacked Cluniac property. In 997 he went to Rome to make secure the status of Cluny. In 998 he obtained from Pope Gregory V. Cluny complete freedom by the diocesan Bishop and 1024 the extension of this privilege on all dependent Cluny abbeys and priories.

paragraph: In 1025 Gauzlin, bishop of Mâcon, claimed that the archbishop of Vienne needed his approval to give ordination to monks in Cluny. In answer to this Odilo produced the papal documents granting Cluny freedom from local diocesan control.

paragraph: A council at Ansa in southern Gaul nevertheless condemned Odilo's position because it claimed that the Council of Chalcedon (in 451) had decreed that the ordination of monks had to occur with diocesan consent. In answer to this, the Pope then wrote letters to various parties involved with the dispute and condemned Gauzlin's position. The Pope further decreed that any bishop who tried to enter a Cluniac monastery to even celebrate a mass would suffer automatic excommunication, unless he had been invited by the abbot. The dispute when on for years.

paragraph: In Germany the Cluny policy had no permanent success, as the monks there were more inclined to individualism. Odilo visited Henry II on several occasions and because of his closeness to him, he was able to intercede on several occasions for people who had disputes with him. When Henry II was crowned King of Italy in 1004, Odilo attended the ceremony. The following day there was a revolt against Henry in Pavia which was quickly crushed and the defeated party went to find Odilo so that he could ask Henry on their behalf for mercy. Odilo agreed and was able to persuade Henry, who respected his holiness so greatly, to hold back his hand and give mercy to the rebels.

paragraph: When Henry was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 1014, Odilo also was present. He arrived in Rome before Christmas and spent several months together with Henry up to his coronation in February 1014. The Pope presented Henry with the gift of a golden apple ('orb') with a cross on it, representing his empire. Henry later sent this gift to Cluny. When Henry died in 1024, Cluny's houses said many prayers and masses for him. During the famine of 1006, Odilo sold the gold crown the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II had presented to the abbey, in order to relieve the hunger, thereby saving thousands from starvation.

paragraph: He also attended the coronation of Conrad II who succeeded Henry and had a similarly good relationship with him, and thus got the Emperor to give favour to Cluny. When there was a failed revolt against Conrad in Pavia in 1026, Odilo again interceded for mercy from the Emperor for the defeated rebels. In 1046 Odilo was present at the coronation of Henry III in Rome.

paragraph: Section::::Odilo’s abbacy.:Reform.

paragraph: The rule of St. Benedict was substituted in Cluny for the domestic rule of Isidore. Under Odilo's rule not only Cluny made rapid progress but Benedictine monasteries in general were reformed and many new foundations made. Odilo threw the full Cluniac influence into the fight against simony, concubinage and the uncanonical marriage of the laity. The abbots of Cluny were constantly called to reform other monasteries; however, many reformed communities soon slipped back into their old ways. Odilo sought to prevent this by making them subject to Cluny: he appointed every prior of every Cluniac house, and the profession of every monk in the remotest monastery was made in his name and subject to his sanction. During his tenure thirty abbeys accepted Cluny as their mother house, and its practices were adopted by many more which did not affiliate. King Robert II of France allied himself with the Reform party. and the Cluniac reform spread through Burgundy, Provence, Auvergne, Poitou, and much of Italy and Spain. The English monastic reform undertaken by saints Dunstan, Æthelwold of Winchester and Oswald of Worcester under Cluniac influence is a conspicuous instance of Cluny's success by example. On account of his services in the reform Odilo was called by Fulbert of Chartres the "Archangel of the Monks".

paragraph: Section::::Odilo’s abbacy.:Truce of God.

paragraph: The Truce of God arose in the eleventh century amid the anarchy of feudalism as a remedy for the powerlessness of lay authorities to enforce respect for the public peace. There was then an epidemic of private wars, which made Europe a battlefield bristling with fortified castles and overrun by armed bands who respected nothing, not even sanctuaries, clergy, or consecrated days. Massacres and plunders were common in that age, by the right which every petty lord pretended of revenging his own injuries and quarrels by private wars. Odilo actively promoted the Truce of God whereby military hostilities were suspended at certain times for ostensibly religious reasons. The Truce had great economic importance as it allowed commerce to continue so that people could survive; it also guaranteed sanctuary to those who sought refuge in a church. The penalty for violating the ban was excommunication.

paragraph: While the Truce of God was a temporary suspension of hostilities, its jurisdiction was broader that the Peace of God. It confirmed permanent peace for all churches and their grounds, the monks, clerks and chattels; all women, pilgrims, merchants and their servants, cattle and horses; and men at work in the fields. For all others peace was required throughout Advent, the season of Lent, and from the beginning of the Rogation days until eight days after Pentecost. This prohibition was subsequently extended to specific days of the week, viz., Thursday, in memory of the Ascension, Friday, the day of the Passion, and Saturday, the day of the Resurrection (council 1041). By the middle of the twelfth century the number of proscribed days was extended until there was left some eighty days for fighting.

paragraph: Section::::All Souls’ Day.

paragraph: According to one tale, a pilgrim was thrown during a storm on an island. There he had a vision of the souls in purgatory enduring the purification pain of flames as punishment for their sins. At home he went to Father Odilo of Cluny to ask whether there is not one day in the year in a special way prayer could be for the souls of the deceased.

paragraph: Odilo instituted the annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed by the members of his community with alms, prayers, and sacrifices, for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make a monetary offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.

paragraph: He established All Souls' Day (on 2 November) in Cluny and its monasteries (probably not in 998 but after 1030, and it was soon adopted in the whole Western church.

paragraph: Section::::Miracles and anecdotes.

paragraph: Many miracles were attributed to him by the tradition, such as increases in food or wine, empty bottles of wine filled up again, a fish that he divided to feed more than it could normally feed; he walked on water and ordered his servants to follow him, which they did without falling in. He, finally, healed the sick with touch and making the sign of the cross.

paragraph: Pope Benedict VIII, whom had been a close friend of Cluny, supposedly some time after dying appeared to John, bishop of Porto, along with two of his friends. The Pope claimed that he remained in purgatory, and asked that Odilo be informed so that he could pray for him. A message was given to Odilo, who then proceeded to call on all Cluniac houses to offer up prayers, masses and alms for the soul of the dead Pope. Not long after this, there was said to be a figure of light followed by a host of others in white garments that entered the cloister and knelt to Odilo; the figure informed him that he was the Pope and that he had now been freed from purgatory.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Many times in his life he visited Rome. In his last visit around the time of a papal election and an imperial coronation, he spent all of his time praying in different churches and in giving alms to the poor. He wished he could die there in Rome, but he then started on his journey back to Cluny. Along the way back, and not far from Rome, he had an accident with his horse that injured him. He had to be taken back to the city where so much grief was poured out for his sake that masses were offered for his recovery and the Pope visited his bedside. He stayed in the city until Easter and then left again to go back to Cluny.

paragraph: He continued to do his fasts and ascetic practices despite his old age and weakness. He decided to visit all the houses that Cluny had reformed, but when he visited Souvigny Priory he had to stop and remain there.

paragraph: At Christmas he had become so weak that he needed to be carried around the monastery. He was in St Mary's chapel when he died; he was praying for the souls in purgatory when he died.

paragraph: He died during the night of the New Year 1049, at the age of eighty-seven. After his death, miracles were also reported from his tomb, including healings.

paragraph: On the night of Odilo's funeral, a monk named Gregorinius saw him. This monk had come a long distance to come to Odilo's funeral. When the monk saw the dead abbot's spirit, he said to him, ‘how goes it with thee, master?‘ to which the spirit of Odilo replied, ‘Very well, oh brother, Christ Himself deigned to come and meet His servant. In the hour of my death He pointed out to me a fierce and terrible figure which, standing in a corner, would have terrified me by its huge monstrosity had not its malignancy been annulled by His presence.’

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: Of his writings we have but a few short and unimportant ones:

paragraph: BULLET::::- a life of the holy Empress St. Adelaide to whom he was closely related

paragraph: BULLET::::- a short biography of his predecessor, abbot Mayeul

paragraph: BULLET::::- sermons on feasts of the ecclesiastical year

paragraph: BULLET::::- some hymns and prayers

paragraph: BULLET::::- a few letters from his extensive correspondence.

paragraph: Section::::Veneration.

paragraph: He was buried in Souvigny Priory, where he died, and was soon venerated as a saint.

paragraph: In 1063 Peter Damien undertook the process of his canonization, and wrote a short life, an abstract from the work of Jotsald, one of Odilo's monks who accompanied him on his travels.

paragraph: In 1793, his relics, together with those of the previous Abbot Mayeul, were burned by French revolutionaries "on the altar of the fatherland".

paragraph: The feast of St. Odilo was formerly 2 January, in Cluny, now it is celebrated on 19 January, and in Switzerland on 6 February. Elsewhere it is on 11 May.

paragraph: Odilo is patron of the souls in purgatory. The parish of Saint Odilo in Berwyn, Illinois is officially designated as "The National Shrine of the Souls in Purgatory".

description: Benedictine Abbot of Cluny

wikidata_label: Odilo of Cluny

wikipedia_title: Odilo of Cluny


text:
Mahuva
Gujarat
Charan
Hinduism
Sodavadari
Artist
Saurashtra
Vinoba Bhave
Ramayana
Mahabharata
Gandhian philosophy
Bhoodan movement
Mahatma Gandhi
Padma Shri
Ahmedabad
INR

categories: 20th-century Indian musicians,1977 deaths,20th-century Indian poets,Indian male singer-songwriters,Poets from Gujarat,20th-century singers,20th-century male singers,1902 births,Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education,20th-century Indian male writers

paragraph: Dula Bhaya Kag

paragraph: Dula Bhaya Kag (25 November 1902 – 2 February 1977) was an Indian poet, songwriter, writer and artist born in 1902 in Sodvadri village, a village in the Saurashtra Region, near Mahuva in the Indian state of Gujarat. He was of the Charan caste and is mainly known for his work on spiritual poetry relating to Hinduism.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: He was born in Sodavadari a village of his Maternal Parents."He was very shy in his childhood" told by Meran Gadhavi, a famous Artist and His Relative. Kag received a 5th-grade education before leaving to tend his family's cattle and farm. Eventually, he became involved in a nationalist movement and prohibition after the formation of Saurashtra State, causing him to donate his land to Vinoba Bhave’s Bhoodan Movement.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Kag is known for publishing "Kagvani", an eight-volume work consisting of devotional songs (episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), as well as songs based on Gandhian philosophy and the Bhoodan movement. He wrote eulogies for Mahatma Gandhi and Bhave. As a result of his literary and political contributions to India, the country awarded him the Padma Shri award in 1962.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Kag died on 2 February 1977, at the age of 74. Despite his limited education, his poems are used from primary education to master's programs. On 25 November 2004, the Department of Posts released a commemorative stamp from Ahmedabad in denominations of INR 5.0 to mark his 102nd anniversary.

alias:
Dula Kag
Kag
Dula Bhagat

description: poet, social reformer and freedom fighter of Gujarat, India

wikidata_label: Dula Bhaya Kag

wikipedia_title: Dula Bhaya Kag


text: Union Army

text: American Civil War

text: Medal of Honor

text: Battle of the Wilderness

text: Republican

text: U.S. House of Representatives

text: Pennsylvania

text: Philadelphia

text: Pennsylvania

text: Jefferson College

text: Canonsburg, Pennsylvania

text: Phi Kappa Psi

text: Washington and Jefferson College

text: Washington, Pennsylvania

text: first lieutenant

categories: Union Army generals,Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania,Politicians from Philadelphia,1841 births,People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War,Pennsylvania Republicans,Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia),Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives,United States Army Medal of Honor recipients,American postmasters,Washington & Jefferson College alumni,1912 deaths,American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor

paragraph: Henry H. Bingham

paragraph: Henry Harrison Bingham (December 4, 1841 – March 22, 1912) was a Union Army officer in the American Civil War, who received the United States Military's highest award for valor, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of the Wilderness.

paragraph: After graduating from college Bingham accepted a commission as a first lieutenant for service in the American Civil War. While participating in the war he fought in several battles and served as Judge advocate.

paragraph: After the Civil War ended he was postmaster of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from 1867 to 1872, a court clerk from 1872 to 1879, and a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania from 1879 to 1912.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Henry H. Bingham was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on December 4, 1841. He graduated from Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1862, where he became a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. He later graduated from the law department of Washington and Jefferson College in Washington, Pennsylvania.

paragraph: Section::::American Civil War service.

paragraph: Bingham enlisted in the Union Army and received a commission as a first lieutenant in the 140th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry on August 22, 1862.

paragraph: During the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] on July 1–3, 1863, he was serving as [[Captain (United States)|Captain]] and Judge-Advocate on the staff of [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Winfield Scott Hancock]]'s [[II Corps (ACW)|II Corps]]. During the battle he witnessed [[Pickett's Charge]], and was near the "Angle" where the [[Confederate States Army|Confederates]] reached the [[High Water Mark of the Confederacy|"High Water Mark"]]. He received the personal effects from the mortally wounded [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]] [[Lewis Addison Armistead|Lewis A. Armistead]] and carried the news to General Hancock, Armistead's friend from before the war. Bingham was a [[Freemasonry|Mason]] (Chartiers Lodge #297, Canonsburg, PA), and the story of how he provided assistance to the dying fellow Mason, General Armistead, was used in Masonic literature, and commemorated with the [[Friend to Friend Masonic Memorial]] at [[Gettysburg National Cemetery]]. On the other hand, recent scholarship in 2010 by Michael Halleran shows that while Armistead and Bingham were both Masons, Bingham's encounter with Armistead occurred while the mortally wounded Armistead was being carried from the field by several men and happened purely by chance not because of any appeal of Masonic significance. Bingham never claimed otherwise. Bingham did take Armistead's personal effects and forwarded them to Major General [[Winfield S. Hancock]] as Armistead had requested because Hancock was a pre-war friend. Bingham also was wounded on July 3, 1863 at the Battle of Gettysburg.

paragraph: In 1864, Bingham became aide-de-camp to Major General [[Gouverneur K. Warren]]. During the [[Battle of the Wilderness]] during the [[Virginia]] [[Overland Campaign]], on May 6, 1864, as captain of Company G, 140th Pennsylvania Infantry, he "rallied and led into action a portion of the troops who had given way under fierce assaults of the enemy." He was awarded a [[Medal of Honor]] on August 26, 1893, for these actions.

paragraph: Bingham was wounded again at the [[Battle of Spotsylvania]], May 12, 1864. Bingham was captured at Dabney's Mill, Virginia on October 27, 1864 during the [[Battle of Fair Oaks & Darbytown Road]] but escaped the same day.

paragraph: Bingham was mustered out of the service on July 2, 1866 and returned home to Philadelphia. On December 3, 1867, [[President of the United States|President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] nominated Bingham for appointment to the [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] grade of brigadier general of volunteers, to rank from April 9, 1865, and the [[U.S. Senate]] confirmed the appointment on February 14, 1868.

paragraph: Section::::Postbellum.

paragraph: Henry Bingham was appointed [[postmaster]] of Philadelphia by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] in March 1867 and served until December 1872, when he resigned to accept the clerkship of the courts of [[oyer and terminer]] and [[quarter sessions]] of the peace in Philadelphia. He was a delegate to the [[Republican National Conventions]] of [[1872 Republican National Convention|1872]] though [[1900 Republican National Convention|1900]]. He was elected to Congress as a Republican in [[United States House election, 1878|1878]], and served until his death. In Congress, he served as Chairman of the [[United States House Committee on Post Office and Civil Service|Committee on the Post Office and Post Roads]], and on the [[United States House Committee on Expenditures in the Post Office Department|Committee on Expenditures in the Post Office Department]].

paragraph: He died in Pennsylvania March 22, 1912 and is buried in [[Laurel Hill Cemetery]] Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His grave can be found in section Y, lot 107.

paragraph: Section::::Honors and awards.

paragraph: Section::::Honors and awards.:Medal of Honor citation.

paragraph: Rank and organization: Captain, Company G, 140th Pennsylvania Infantry. Place and date: At Wilderness, Va., May 6, 1864. Entered service at: Cannonsburg, Pa. Born: December 4, 1841, Philadelphia, Pa. Date of issue: August 31, 1893.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: Rallied and led into action a portion of the troops who had given way under the fierce assaults of the enemy.

paragraph: Section::::Honors and awards.:Other honors.

paragraph: [[Bingham County, Idaho]] was named in his honor.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- [[List of Medal of Honor recipients]]

paragraph: BULLET::::- [[List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F#B|List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F]]

paragraph: BULLET::::- [[List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)]]

paragraph: BULLET::::- [[List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)]]

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eicher, John H., and [[David J. Eicher]], "Civil War High Commands." Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Halleran, Michael A. "The Better Angels of Our Nature: Freemasonry in the American Civil War". Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2010. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry H. Bingham, late a representative from Pennsylvania, Memorial addresses delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1913

paragraph: [[Category:1841 births]]

paragraph: [[Category:1912 deaths]]

paragraph: [[Category:Politicians from Philadelphia]]

paragraph: [[Category:Union Army generals]]

paragraph: [[Category:People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War]]

paragraph: [[Category:Pennsylvania Republicans]]

paragraph: [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania]]

paragraph: [[Category:United States Army Medal of Honor recipients]]

paragraph: [[Category:Washington & Jefferson College alumni]]

paragraph: [[Category:American postmasters]]

paragraph: [[Category:American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor]]

paragraph: [[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]

paragraph: [[Category:Burials at Laurel Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)]]

paragraph: [[Category:19th-century American politicians]]

description: Union Army General and Medal of Honor recipient

wikidata_label: Henry H. Bingham

wikipedia_title: Henry H. Bingham


text:
Greek
Old Iranian
Middle Persian
frataraka
"Keeper of the Fire"
Seleucids
Istakhr
Achaemenid
Persis
Fars
Alexander the Great
Greco-Macedonian
pomegranate
Seleucus I
Macedon
Frataraka
Persis
Seleucids
Fārs
Vahbarz
Vādfradād
Oborzos
Alexander
Molon
battle of Magnesia
Amyzon
Caria
Attic standard
tetradrachm
Frataraka
Kings of Persis

categories: 3rd-century BC Iranian people,Hellenistic Caria,Seleucid satraps

paragraph: Bagadates I

paragraph: Bagadates I (Greek; from the Old Iranian "Baga-dāta", "Given by [the] god"), also Bagdates or Baydad (Middle Persian), was a "frataraka" or "Keeper of the Fire", and a governor or sub-dynast for the Seleucids during the 3rd century BCE, ruling as a priest-king at Istakhr in the former Achaemenid heartland, the territory of Persis (Fars), after Alexander the Great's conquests. He was the first indigenous Persian satrap to be appointed - or at least tolerated - by the Seleucids, who held the higher administrative posts tightly within the Greco-Macedonian circle that was headed by the "Companions" and their heirs.

paragraph: Section::::Rule.

paragraph: On the reverse of his coins, Bagadates is depicted standing in front of a Zoroastrian fire-altar, or seated in majesty holding a staff of authority and possibly a pomegranate in his left hand ("illustration, left"). Bagadates seems to have asserted some level of independence about 280 BCE, exploiting the turmoil after the death of Seleucus I. "That the first oriental reaction to Macedonian rule should come from Persis, the homeland of the Achaemenids, is hardly surprising," Otto Mørkholm remarks.

paragraph: Traditionally, the Fratarakas used to be considered as independent, anti-Seleucid rulers of Persis in the 3rd century BC. It seems however that they were rather representatives of the Seleucids in the region of Fārs. They ruled from the end of the 3rd century BC to the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and Vahbarz or Vādfradād obtained independence circa 150 BC, when Seleucid power waned in the areas of southwestern Persia and the Persian Gulf region.

paragraph: The position was continued by Bagadates' son, Oborzos, who emphasized the continuity by repeating the coinage type established by his father. However, some time during the 3rd century BCE the Seleucids terminated the pseudo-independence of Persis; during the 220s BCE, the satrap there was a Greek named Alexander, a brother of Molon. Persis finally drifted away from Seleucid control after the battle of Magnesia in 190 BCE.

paragraph: In a surviving inscription at Amyzon in Caria, another Bagadates was appointed "neokoros" of the Temple of Artemis there in 321; it is surmised that his family had been potent landowners in the region before the conquests of Alexander. The son of this Bagadates, Ariaramnēs, succeeded him as "neokoros" at Amyzon.

paragraph: Section::::Coinage.

paragraph: In his coinage, Bagadates has his portrait on the obverse, wearing the satrapal headdress and the Hellenistic diadem. On the reverse, he is either shown enthroned, or making his devotions to a fire temple. The weight standard of the coins is the Attic standard, and the tetradrachm is the usual coin size, as was the usual case in the Seleucid empire. The coins are inscribed in Aramaic with the name of the ruler.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frataraka

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kings of Persis

alias: Bagdates Baydad

description: Persian governor under Seleucid rule

wikidata_label: Bagadates I

wikipedia_title: Baydad

wikipedia_title: Bagadates I


text:
Hasidic
Rebbe
Poland
Nowe Miasto Lubawskie
Dov Ber of Mezeritch
Elimelech of Lizhensk
Shmelke of Nikolsburg
Naftali Zvi of Ropshitz
Tzvi Elimelech Spira of Dinov
asceticism
Napoleon
Messiah
Rimanov
Fristik
segulah
sustenance
Hamonn
Shnayim Mikrah v'Echod Targum
Tuesday
Beshalach

paragraph: Menachem Mendel of Rimanov

paragraph: Rabbi Menachem Mendel Torem of Rimanov (1745–May 29, 1815) was a famous Hasidic Rebbe one of the first four distributors of the Hasidic movement in Poland.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born in Neustadt (Nowe Miasto Lubawskie), he was introduced to Hasidut at the age of 11 when he met Dov Ber of Mezeritch. He was taught by Elimelech of Lizhensk and Shmelke of Nikolsburg, and was the teacher of Naftali Zvi of Ropshitz and Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech Spira of Dinov.

paragraph: Section::::Activity.

paragraph: As one of the five principal disciples of Elimelech of Lizhensk, he was an important Hasidic leader in Poland. He is known for his asceticism and for his mystical support for Napoleon, whose wars he attempted to use to bring the Messiah.

paragraph: Although based in Rimanov, Menachem Mendel's court, which attracted many scholars, had previously been in Fristik. His writings and sermons were posthumously published, notably "Sifrei haRahak Rabbi Menachem Mendel me-Rymanów". Others included the works "Divrei Menachem", "Menachem Tzion", and "Be'erot HaMayin".

paragraph: His colleagues included the Chozeh (seer) of Lublin, The Maggid of Koshnitz, Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel of Opatow and the Maor Vashemesh (Rav Kalonymus Kalman Halevi Epstein of Cracow).

paragraph: He is popularly believed to have introduced the segulah for parnassah (sustenance), of reciting Parashas Hamonn in form of Shnayim Mikrah v'Echod Targum, annually on the Tuesday of Parashas Beshalach but this attribution is uncertain. Another popular Hasidic Segulah is to light candles in his honor.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Meorei Galicia: Encyclopedia of Galician Sages by rabbi Meir Wunder

description: rabbi

wikidata_label: Menachem Mendel of Rimanov

wikipedia_title: Menachem Mendel of Rimanov


text:
Bronson's
teaching assistant
Abba
semi-autobiographical novel
scarlet fever
Western United States
Cincinnati
journal
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Henry David Thoreau
Franklin Benjamin Sanborn
pallbearer
Sleepy Hollow Cemetery

categories: Quincy family,1835 births,People from Concord, Massachusetts,Alcott family,Deaths from streptococcus infection,1858 deaths,Sewall family

paragraph: Elizabeth Sewall Alcott

paragraph: Elizabeth Sewall "Lizzie" Alcott (June 24, 1835 – March 14, 1858) was one of the two younger sisters of Louisa May Alcott. She was born in 1835 and died at the age of 22.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: She was originally named Elizabeth "Peabody" Alcott in honor of her father Bronson's teaching assistant at the Temple School and close friend of her mother, Abba. By age three, however, after a falling out between Bronson and Elizabeth Peabody, her name was changed to Elizabeth "Sewall" Alcott, after her mother's mother, Dorothy Sewall May.

paragraph: In her semi-autobiographical novel, "Little Women" (1868), Louisa May Alcott represented her sister as Elizabeth. She wrote:

paragraph: In 1856, Lizzie contracted scarlet fever while helping a poor German family. Although she recovered, she was permanently weakened. Her father Bronson was on a tour of the Western United States and had reached as far as Cincinnati when he heard that Lizzie, known to be ill, had taken a turn for the worse. By February 1858, she refused to take medicine and told her father, "I can best be spared of the four." As time went by, she had grown weaker and thinner. On March 14, 1858, Lizzie Alcott had died in her sleep. She was only 22 years old, about three months short of her 23rd birthday. On the same day, Louisa wrote in her journal:

paragraph: At the moment of her death, Louisa, her mother, and the doctor saw a ghost-like mist rising from Lizzie's body. Her funeral was a small affair, with Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau and Franklin Benjamin Sanborn serving as pallbearers. Lizzie was interred at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: LaPlante, Eve. "Marmee & Louisa: The Untold Story of Louisa May Alcott and Her Mother". New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012: 81.

description: third daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott and Abigail May Alcott; sister of Louisa May Alcott

wikidata_label: Elizabeth Sewall Alcott

wikipedia_title: Elizabeth Sewall Alcott


text:
Athens
Greek
Member of the European Parliament
New Democracy
European People's Party
defense minister of Greece
Hellenic Parliament
Terms of office

categories: Greek MPs 1985–1989,Greek MPs 1990–1993,Ministers of National Defence of Greece,Greek MPs 1981–1985,1933 births,Living people,MEPs for Greece 2004–2009,Greek MPs 1989–1990,People from Athens,Greek MPs 1996–2000,Greek MPs 1974–1977,New Democracy (Greece) MEPs,Greek MPs 1989 (June–November),Justice ministers of Greece,Greek MPs 2000–2004,Greek MPs 1977–1981,Greek MPs 1993–1996

paragraph: Ioannis Varvitsiotis

paragraph: Ioannis Varvitsiotis () (b. 2 August 1933 in Athens) is a Greek politician and a former government minister of Greece. He was a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for New Democracy from 2004–2009, part of the European People's Party. He was defense minister of Greece from 2 July 1989 till 7 October 1989 and from 11 April 1990 till 13 October 1993. He was member of the Hellenic Parliament from 1974 until 2004.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Terms of office after 1974 in the Hellenic Parliament

description: Greek politician

wikidata_label: Ioannis Varvitsiotis

wikipedia_title: Ioannis Varvitsiotis


text:
Swedish
Bishop of Uppsala
Filipstad
Värmland County
Sweden
Bachelor of Theology
Uppsala University
Uppsala University
Antje Jackelén

categories: People from Filipstad,21st-century Lutheran bishops,1970 births,Swedish Lutheran bishops,Female Lutheran bishops,Living people

paragraph: Karin Johannesson

paragraph: Karin Maria Elisabet Johannesson (born 8 December 1970) is a Swedish prelate who is the current Bishop of Uppsala.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Johannesson was born in Filipstad, Värmland County, Sweden on December 8, 1970 and was educated at the public school in Filipstad. She graduated with a Bachelor of Theology in 1994, and a Bachelor's degree in 1996 from Uppsala University. She earned her PhD in theology and obtained a doctorate there in 2002. She was ordained priest in 2010 in the Diocese of Karlstad by Bishop Esbjörn Hagberg. Johannesson was accepted as an associate professor of religious philosophy at Uppsala University in 2015. On March 3, 2019 she was consecrated as Bishop of Uppsala by Antje Jackelén, Archbishop of Uppsala and Primate.

description: Swedish bishop

wikidata_label: Karin Johannesson

wikipedia_title: Karin Johannesson


href: Khan%20%28title%29 Uzbekistan Khanate%20of%20Bukhara Shaybanid%20Dynasty Safavid%20dynasty Akbar Kabul%20Province Abdul%20Karim%20Khan%20%28Yarkand%29 Kashgar Xinjiang Samarkand%20Province Abdulaziz Samarkand Tashkent Balkh Sufi Navoiy%20Region Balkh Kazakhs Turkestan Tashkent Turkestan Andijan Ottoman%20Empire Russian%20Empire Russian%20ties Jalairs Katagans Naimans Manghud Argyn Karluks Kungrat tuvas Bukhara madrassah khanqah caravanserai madrassas%20Modari%20Khan Shaybanids mausoleum Bukhara Emirate%20of%20Bukhara Russian%20Turkestan Turkestan

text:
Khan
Uzbek
Khanate of Bukhara
Shaybanid Dynasty
Persia
Akbar
Kabul
Abdul Karim Khan
Kashgaria
Xinjiang
Samarkand Province
Abdulaziz
Samarkand
Tashkent
Balkh
Sufi
Kermine
Balkh
Kazakh
Turkestan
Tashkent
Turkestan
Andijan
Ottoman Empire
Russian Empire
Russian ties
Jalairs
Katagans
Naimans
Manghud
Argun
Karluks
Kungrat
tuvas
Bukhara
madrassah
khanqah
caravanserai
madrassas Modari Khan
Shaybanids dynasty
mausoleum
Bukhara
Emirate of Bukhara
Russian Turkestan
Turkestan

categories: 1533 births,Ethnic Uzbek people,Khanate of Bukhara,1598 deaths

paragraph: Abdullah Khan II

paragraph: Abdullah Khan (Abdollah Khan Ozbeg) (1533/4–1598), known as "The old Khan", was an Uzbek ruler of the Khanate of Bukhara (1500–1785). He was the last Shaybanid Dynasty Khan of Bukhara, from 1583 until his death.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan initiated a war with Persia which lasted from 1587 to 1598. He was able to focus on this thanks to a non-aggression pact with the Mughal emperor, Akbar, through which Abdullah Khan recognized Akbar's right to rule in the territory of Kabul.

paragraph: During the reign of Abdullah Khan, Abdul Karim Khan was the ruler of Kashgaria, to the east in present-day Xinjiang. However, diplomatic relations were not good between the two khans.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan was born in 1533 or 1534, in the town of Afarinkent, Samarkand Province.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The ascent to the throne.

paragraph: After the death of Abdulaziz Shaybanid was a struggle for the throne. Khan Abdullatif, who ruled the Samarkand, sought to ruler Bukhara through his two grandchildren: Shaibani Khan Yar Muhammad Sultan and Burhan-Sultan.

paragraph: However, after the death of Abdullatif Khan in 1551, Barak Khan, who ruled Tashkent, took Samarkand and established himself as ruler there under the name of Newroz Ahmed Khan. He was declared the supreme khan of the Uzbeks. Shaybanidov Abdullah Sultan, who was then governor of Kermine, led the resistance against Newroz Ahmed Khan. He was assisted by his uncle, the governor of Balkh, Pirmuhammed Khan. In 1556 Newroz Ahmad died. With his death, Pirmuhammed Khan was proclaimed the supreme ruler of the Uzbeks.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The struggle for the unification of the state.

paragraph: In 1557, Abdullah Sultan captured Bukhara with the support of Sufi sheikhs and became its ruler. In 1561, he was bold enough to proclaim his father Iskander as supreme khan of the Uzbeks. He had previously ruled Kermine and Miankal. Abdullah's father was more interested in religious rites, so he entrusted the conduct of state affairs to his son Abdullah Sultan.

paragraph: Abdullah set out to combine all four of the Sheibanids: Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent and Balkh in one single state. This took many years and it was only in 1582 that he was able to create a single state out of the four Sheibanids.

paragraph: To achieve unification, he had to fight a long war to take possession of Tashkent. He then took control of Fergana and in 1573 after a long siege took Balkh.

paragraph: In 1574, his possessions were attached Karshi, Karshi and Hisar. In 1576, he fought off the enemies of Samarkand and Tashkent took.

paragraph: In the service of the vassal Abdullah Khan were some Kazakh sultans: Sheehan and his son Tauekel.

paragraph: In 1582, Abdullah Khan made a trip to Dasht-i-Kipchak, Bobo Khan killed and captured his fortress Shohruhiya Sairam and Ahangeran. In 1583, his son Abd al-Mumin captured and plundered Mashhad. In the same 1583, after the death of his father, Abdullah Khan was declared the Uzbeks and his state was called Bukhara khanate.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Abdullah Khan's monetary reform.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan II, in several stages, held a monetary reform. To redress the lack of silver metal and silver coins he is still with his father organized a regular production of gold coins and controlled their stamp in Bukhara, paying particular attention to maintaining a high standard. Reform of Abdullah Khan was primarily aimed at changing the course of silver coins in accordance with the rise in prices of silver. At a time when the formal head of the dynasty was still Iskandar Khan (1560-1583), minted silver coins remained decentralized. However, with the name of Iskandar bind silver thong issued in Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Tashkent, Andijan, and Ahsi Yasse (Turkestan).

paragraph: In 1583, Abdullah Khan spent another part of the monetary reform: it is largely centralized in Bukhara, its capital, minted silver thong. For everyday urban trade of consumer goods, Abdullah Khan forged copper coins minted several advantages.

paragraph: Monetary reform Abdullah Khan II was successful, it eliminated the monetary crisis, suspended mass leakage outside the state. This reform was part of domestic politics, Abdullah Khan II, aimed to create the most favorable conditions for all types of trade: transit, intercity, intercity.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Expanding the boundaries of the state.

paragraph: Combining Shaybanid state has opened up new opportunities to expand its territorial boundaries. In 1584, Abdullah Khan seized Badakhshan and Khorasan in 1588.

paragraph: In the later period of his reign Abdullah waged war for the conquest of Khorezm. In the years 1593-1594 the country was finally conquered by the troops without a fight Abdullah came to Khiva. Khiva sultans were caught and executed.

paragraph: Soon soured relations with the Kazakh khans, who learned about the uprising against Abdulmumin Abdullah Khan, in 1598 made a trip to Tashkent. Abdullah Khan, who was forced to go to war with his own son Abdulmumin, prepared a new army, but died before the collision with the Kazakh Chingized who, taking advantage of the situation, took Turkestan, Tashkent, Samarkand and Andijan, but have not been able to take Bukhara.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Foreign policy.

paragraph: During the reign of Abdullah Khan khanate maintained close diplomatic relations with Akbar in India, the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. In a letter dated 1577 Akbar informed Abdullah Khan Uzbek about his intention to expel the Portuguese from India.

paragraph: Recovered A.Dzhenkinsona-Russian ties soured Bukhara in the early 1580s in connection with the support of Abdullah Khan, his cousin Shaybanids - Siberian Khan Kuchum.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Tribal composition of troops.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan's army consisted of a detachment of soldiers from various Uzbek tribes: Shirins, Utarchs, Bishyuzs, Jalairs, Keralas, Katagans, Tan-Yaruks, Alchins, Hitays, Bahrin, Naimans, Manghud, Kushchis, Arguns, Mings, Karluks, Kungrats, Tubais (tuvas), etc.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Cultural policies.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan was not only a talented warrior, but also an outstanding statesman. He cared about strengthening trade ties broad Bukhara (especially with Russia and India), paid great attention to the construction of monumental buildings - madrassahs and khanqahs, shopping malls and caravanserais, reservoirs and bridges.

paragraph: During the reign of Abdullah Khan II (1557-1598) the architectural ensemble of the Kosh-Madrasah was erected in Bukhara. It consists of two opposing madrassas. First - madrassas Modari Khan, built around 1567 in honor of his mother, Abdullah Khan, the second is the name of Abdullah Khan and was built in 1588–1590 years.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan is also the patron of education and philanthropist, has surrounded himself with scholars, writers and chroniclers. Court poets and historians have praised him. Among the poets first place belonged Mushfiki - author laudatory odes, lyric poems and epigrams, he was also able diplomat. On behalf of Abdullah Khan Mushfiki was grandiloquent labels for buildings. Court historian Hafiz Tanysh was a rich chronicle of facts "Abdullah-name". Literature continued to develop in Persian, Turkish and part in Arabic. According to the observation of Academician VV Bartold "historical literature when Uzbeks in quality and quantity was even higher than in the previous century."

paragraph: Abdullah Khan II himself wrote poems and left his legacy under the pseudonym "'Avaz Gazi".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: After the death of Abdullah in 1598 the throne passed to his son Abd al-Mumin, but soon began to confuse and he was killed by the rebels, with the death of Abd al-Mumin ended Shaybanids dynasty.

paragraph: Abdullah Khan was buried at the mausoleum of Bahauddin Naqshbandi near Bukhara.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emirate of Bukhara

paragraph: BULLET::::- Russian Turkestan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Turkestan

description: Khan of the Khanate of Bukhara

wikidata_label: Abdullah Khan II

wikipedia_title: Abdullah Khan II


text: Pilgrim Fathers

text: Mayflower

text: Separatist

text: Robert Browne

text: Congregational Church

text: Sturton-Le-Steeple

text: Leiden

text: Corpus Christi College

text: University of Cambridge

text: Fellow

text: priest

text: Church of England

text: Master of Arts

text: Puritan

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Elizabeth I

text: James I

text: St. Mary's Church

text: yeoman

text: St. Andrew's Church

text: Norwich

text: Holland

text: Flanders

text: Great Hospital

text: Scrooby

text: Scrooby Congregation

text: William Brewster

text: postmaster

text: bailiff

text: Richard Clyfton

text: William Bradford

text: Leiden

text: Amsterdam

text: Boston

text: Boston Guildhall

text: University of Leiden

text: Pieterskerk

text: Leiden University

text: Simon Episcopius

text: Johannes Polyander

text: tun

text: Arminian

text: Calvinist

text: free will

text: predestination

text: Dutch Reformed Church

text: William Bradford

text: Rev. Robert Parker

text: Synod of Dort

text: John Carver

text: Robert Cushman

text: London Company

text: Delfshaven

text: Southampton

text: Massachusetts

text: Dutch Reformed Church

text: notary

text: Society of Mayflower Descendants

text: Gainsborough

text: Thomas F. Bayard

text: US Ambassador

text: United Reformed Church

categories: 17th-century English clergy,People educated at Queen Elizabeth's High School,1625 deaths,English Christian religious leaders,1576 births,16th-century English clergy,Leiden University alumni,English essayists,17th-century Christian clergy,English separatists,People of the Stuart period,Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,People from Scrooby,Burials at Pieterskerk, Leiden,People of the Tudor period

paragraph: John Robinson (pastor)

paragraph: John Robinson (1576–1625) was the pastor of the "Pilgrim Fathers" before they left on the "Mayflower". He became one of the early leaders of the English Separatists and is regarded (along with Robert Browne) as one of the founders of the Congregational Church.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Robinson was born at Sturton-Le-Steeple in Nottinghamshire, England, between March and September 1576, this range of dates deduced by comparing two records at Leiden (Leyden), Netherlands, that give his age at the time of the event. He entered Corpus Christi College at the University of Cambridge in April 1592. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1596. In May 1598 he was admitted a Fellow of his college and ordained a priest of the Church of England. This was followed one year later in 1599 by his Master of Arts degree. Following the attainment of his Master's degree, he obtained two positions at Corpus: "Praelector Graecus", a lectureship in Greek, and "Decanus", a post involving student oversight.

paragraph: Section::::Dissent.

paragraph: Cambridge was a centre of Puritanism. During his years there, Robinson gradually accepted its principles. The leaders of this movement strongly criticised the English Church because they believed its beliefs and rituals were too much like those of the Roman Catholic Church. The reforms they advocated would "purify" the established church from within; for this reason they became known as "Puritans".

paragraph: Some Puritans, who despaired getting the changes they favoured in the established Church, decided to leave to form Separatist churches.

paragraph: Section::::Measures against dissent.

paragraph: The monarch, then as now, was the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Elizabeth I followed a largely tolerant policy toward the Puritans and Separatists. When James I succeeded her in 1603, however, he instituted a policy designed to enforce religious conformity. The Puritans would, he warned, adhere or he would "harry them out of the land". It was the King's belief that his throne depended on the Church hierarchy: "No Bishop, no King".

paragraph: James I vigorously enforced "The Act Against Puritans" (1593), 35 Elizabeth, Cap. 1, making it illegal for separatists to hold their own services. Anyone who did not attend the services of the Church of England for forty days, and who attended private services

paragraph: Section::::St Andrew's Church.

paragraph: College fellows were prohibited from marrying so Robinson resigned his fellowship to wed Bridget White, on 15 February 1604 at St. Mary's Church, Greasley in western Nottinghamshire. Bridget was the daughter of Alexander and Eleanor (Smith) White, formerly prosperous yeoman farmers at Sturton-Le-Steeple, who were deceased at the time of the wedding. At her marriage, Bridget was residing near Greasley on land held under a 99-year lease by her older brother Charles, who had inherited the lease by their father's will.

paragraph: In August 1603, Robinson became associate pastor of St. Andrew's Church in the commercial centre of Norwich. This city had contacts on the continent with Holland and Flanders and had a considerable number of foreign workers and refugees. In addition, the most influential political leaders and merchants in Norwich were Puritans.

paragraph: Soon after he assumed his duties in St. Andrew's, James I issued a proclamation requiring that all ministers conform to a new book of canons. The deadline to conform was set for the end of November. Robinson left the church but remained a resident of Norwich, where he was unsuccessful in gaining the mastership of the Great Hospital. He subsequently preached privately at various locations in northern Nottinghamshire, including in the Spring of 1605 at his home village of Sturton-Le-Steeple.

paragraph: Section::::Leaving the established church.

paragraph: Though vigorously persecuted, Separatist congregations had been active, especially in London, for a number of years. Later that year, a group of Puritans at the village of Scrooby in northwest Nottinghamshire formed a Separatist congregation that came to number about one hundred members. In circa 1607 Robinson became associated with the Scrooby Separatists. The Scrooby Congregation met at the home of William Brewster, Scrooby Manor. Brewster was the local postmaster and bailiff, and he was instrumental in the formation of the group. He was an old friend of Robinson as well as a Cambridge alumnus.

paragraph: Richard Clyfton served as their minister, and John Robinson became the assistant pastor. Other leaders included William Bradford, latter who gave them the name by which they are known in history when Bradford described himself and Robinson's followers at Leiden as "pilgrims and strangers upon the earth.”

paragraph: Section::::Attempts to leave England.

paragraph: In the autumn of 1607, the Scrooby congregation decided to emigrate to the Netherlands. English Separatists had been settled at Amsterdam since the late 1500s and were able to worship as they chose. The Separatists secretly packed their belongings, and set out on foot for the sixty mile journey to the port town of Boston in Lincolnshire. Awaiting them was a sea captain, who had agreed to smuggle them out of the country.

paragraph: But, before the congregation arrived at Boston, the captain betrayed them to the authorities. The Separatists were searched, their money taken, and their belongings ransacked. They were put on display for the crowds and confined in cells on the first floor of the Boston Guildhall. During the month of their imprisonment, the magistrates treated them well. Richard Clyfton, William Brewster, and John Robinson were the last to be released.

paragraph: The second attempt to flee to the Netherlands was successful. Robinson was not among the main group that first left the country as he, Clifton, Brewster, and other leaders stayed behind until the following year to help weaker members. Clifton arrived at Amsterdam in August 1608 and subsequently became the Amsterdam congregation's "teacher.”

paragraph: Section::::Period in The Netherlands.

paragraph: The congregation initially settled at Amsterdam. The local congregation of Separatists, called the "Ancient Church," soon became strife-ridden, and in February 1609 Robinson and about 100 followers petitioned the City of Leiden for permission to resettle there by 1 May 1609, the latter date being the Dutch "moving day."

paragraph: Leiden was a bustling city in 1609. It contained a number of imposing buildings, and was one of Europe's most important centres of learning. Some of the most important scholars of the day were on the faculty of the University of Leiden, and it attracted students from all over western Europe as well as England.

paragraph: Soon after the congregation resettled at Leiden, John Robinson became the Leiden Separatist's sole pastor with William Brewster as ruling elder. Under the leadership of Robinson and Brewster, the congregation grew steadily, and in time the congregation came to number several hundred.

paragraph: In January 1611, Robinson, William Jepson, Henry Wood, and Robinson's sister-in-law Jane White, signed a contract to purchase for 8,000 guilders property called the "Groene Poort" or Green Gate near the Pieterskerk (St. Peter's Church) and within short walking distance of the University of Leiden. The purchase was completed on 12 May 1611 with a 2,000 guilder downpayment and mortgage for the balance to be paid annually at the rate of 500 guilders, the first payment due in May 1612. In the meantime, in April 1611 at Leiden, Jane White married Randulph (i.e., Ralph) Thickens, with Thickens replacing wife Jane as the fourth named party to the purchase mortgage. Unlike other non-Dutch Reformed Church congregations at Leiden whose religious facilities were owned, funded and their ministers compensated by the Dutch state, no church structure or funding was ever requested or provided to the Leiden Separatists. Thus, the property that Robinson and his associates purchased served both as the Robinson home and a church. Over the next several years, twenty-one apartments were constructed in the rear garden for less affluent members of the congregation.

paragraph: Section::::At the University of Leiden.

paragraph: On 5 September 1615, John Robinson entered Leiden University as a student of theology. He attended the lectures of the noted theologians, Simon Episcopius and Johannes Polyander. His entry into the university "freed him from control of the magistrates" and entitled him to other privileges of the university's intellectuals. Every month he was eligible to receive a half tun (126 gallons) of beer, and ten gallons of wine every three months free of all taxes. In addition, no troops could be quartered in his home except during military emergencies. He also became exempt from standing night watch, and making contributions to public works and fortifications.

paragraph: During his time at the university, Robinson was an active participant in the Arminian controversy, siding with the Calvinists. The Arminians believed in free will, rejected predestination, and advocated the possibility of salvation for all. Calvinists, on the other hand, which was the basis of the state's Dutch Reformed Church, maintained that God is sovereign in the areas of redemption and regeneration. They believed that God saves and damns whom he will, when he will, and how he will.

paragraph: Robinson was urged by Polyander and other professors of the university to defend Calvinism in public debates with Episcopius, a member of the university's faculty. He began attending the professor's lectures to become well versed in the Arminian views. The debate lasted for three days. William Bradford, who was present, wrote later that the Lord helped Robinson "to defend the truth and fail his adversary, as he put him [Episcopius] to an apparent non-plus in this great and public audience.”

paragraph: Robinson was also a prolific writer. During various periods, he wrote sixty-two essays, which include his adamant "A Justification of Separation from the Church of England" (1610), "Of Religious Communion, Private and Public" (1614), edited and had published "The Ecclesiastical Polity of Christ and the opposed Hierarchical Polity" written by the Rev. Robert Parker (1616), "Apologia Brownistarum" (1619), "A Defence of the Doctrine propounded by the Synod of Dort" (1624), "Observations Divine and Morall" (1625), and his more tolerant "A Treatise on the Lawfulness of Hearing Ministers in the Church of England" (1624; published after his death in 1634). Several pamphlets were also written defending Separatist doctrine and withdrawal from the Church of England. His Works, with a memoir by Robert Ashton, were reprinted in three volumes in 1851.

paragraph: Section::::A minority travel to America.

paragraph: The years spent in Holland were a time of poverty and hardship for a great majority of the Separatist congregation. The culture and language were difficult for the Separatists to learn, and as the years passed it was observed that their children were becoming more Dutch than English. The congregation came to believe that they faced eventual extinction if they remained at Leiden. Moreover, a war was brewing between the Dutch and Spanish. If Spain overtook Holland, there was a possibility that the Separatists would then lose their freedom.

paragraph: Finally a decision was made to emigrate again, this time to America. The decision was finally made in early 1619, when Deacon John Carver and Robert Cushman, who had business experience, were sent to London to negotiate with the London Company. They carried with them articles of belief, written by Robinson and Brewster, as evidence of their loyalty and orthodoxy.

paragraph: Only a minority of the Leiden congregation would sail to America. Along with the hiring of the "Mayflower" at London, the "Speedwell" was engaged to transport the would-be Pilgrims from the Port of Delfshaven in the Netherlands to London to join with the Mayflower for the journey to America. Of the minority group that emigrated, Robinson's brother-in-law, John Carver, was appointed governor and William Brewster, as ruling elder. Unfortunately, the "Speedwell" proved unseaworthy after arriving at England and all those capable of transferring and crowding onto the "Mayflower" did so. But, it is unknown how many of the Pilgrims decided not to sail on the "Mayflower" either returning to Leiden or remaining in England. Only thirty-five members of Robinson's congregation actually sailed on the "Mayflower" joined by sixty-six people from Southampton and London who had little religious motivation for joining the Pilgrims. Before Carver and his group left Leiden, a solemn service was held, at which Robinson chose Ezra 8:21 as his text:

paragraph: “Then I proclaimed a fast there, at the river of Ahava, that we

paragraph: might afflict ourselves before our God, to seek of him a right

paragraph: way for us, and for our little ones, and for all our substance.”

paragraph: At the sailing of the "Speedwell" from Delfshaven, part of Robinson's Farewell speech read:

paragraph: "I Charge you before God and his blessed angels that you follow me no further than you have seen me follow Christ. If God reveal anything to you by any other instrument of His, be as ready to receive it as you were to receive any truth from my ministry, for I am verily persuaded the Lord hath more truth and light yet to break forth from His holy word.

paragraph: "The Lutherans cannot be drawn to go beyond what Luther saw. Whatever part of His will our God has revealed to Calvin, they (Lutherans) will rather die than embrace it; and the Calvinists, you see, stick fast where they were left by that great man of God, who yet saw not all things. This is a misery much to be lamented."

paragraph: The "Mayflower" reached the coast of what is now Massachusetts on 21 November 1620. For the next several years, the Pilgrims awaited the arrival of Robinson and the rest of the congregation.

paragraph: The departure for most of the rest of the congregation was delayed for several years. Robinson became ill on 22 February 1625 but recovered enough to preach twice the next day, which was Sunday. By the next Sunday, Reverend John Robinson was dead. He died on 1 March and was interred on 4 March at the Pieterskerk.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous events.

paragraph: After Robinson died, the remnant congregation at Leiden began a period of gradual decline. In time, there were only a few members left as several had between 1629 and 1633 sporadically relocated to the Plymouth Colony. This included Robinson's son Isaac who arrived in 1631 and joined the Pilgrims at the Plymouth Colony. In 1658 Professor John Hoornbeek of the University of Leiden claimed that Bridget and her children who were still residing at Leiden eventually joined the Dutch Reformed Church.

paragraph: John Robinson and Bridget White were the parents of upwards of seven children. One unnamed child was buried in infancy in Leiden at the Pieterskerk in 1621 with six having a known first name. While five of the children lived beyond early adolescence only four (John, Bridget, Isaac and Fear) have known marriages. There was no daughter named Ann born at Norwich in 1605 as this purported child was misidentified by Burgess, Dexter and Sumner in both England and in Leiden. There also was no daughter named Mary, who was baptized 11 November 1604 in St. Stephen parish in Norwich where Rev. John Robinson did not reside. She was the third of five children of a John Robinson identified as a brewer in the baptism records, with Mary's father buried in St. Stephen parish on 26 March 1612:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. John, born in Norwich, England and baptised there on 24 March 1606 [N.S.] in St. Peter Hungate parish church; matriculated at the University of Leiden, first on 17 April 1622 as a student of Fine Arts and again on 5 April 1633 as a student of Theology; in-between the latter two dates he graduated in May 1630 from the University of Caen in Normandy, France with a degree in Medicine; was married with children and in 1658 was living in Norwich, England.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Bridget, born in Norwich, England and baptised there on 25 January 1607 [N.S.] in St. Peter Hungate parish church; married (1) John Greenwood in Leiden in 1629, who studied theology at the University of Leiden; 2) William Lee of Amsterdam in 1637; she was living in Leiden in 1680 and had two daughters living there in 1680.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Isaac, born in Leiden in 1610 and died circa 1704 likely in Barnstable, Massachusetts; arrived in Boston aboard the "Lion" on 15 February 1631 [N.S.]; married (1) Margaret Hanford; (2) an unnamed wife (not Mary Faunce as often claimed); (3) Mary, whose maiden name is unknown, but was living in July 1686 as Isaac's wife in Tisbury, Massachusetts. Children by all three wives. Isaac is the only child of his parents who emigrated to America.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Mercy, born in Leiden in circa 1614; was buried in 1623 in Leiden at the Pieterskerk.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Fear, born in Leiden circa 1616, died testate in Leiden before 31 May 1670; married in Leiden, John Jennings, Jr. in 1648, who died in Leiden in 1664 leaving three daughters.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. James, whose name appears by the Latin form as Jacobus, born in Leiden circa 1620–21; at age 12 he matriculated in May 1633 at Leiden University as a student of Literature; never married and was buried on 26 May 1638 in Leiden at the Pieterskerk.

paragraph: After her husband's death, the widow Bridget Robinson continued to live at Leiden. Her inclusion in 1629 as an intended passenger of the so-called "Mayflower II" to New England is a fabrication. On 6 April 1640 at Leiden she witnessed the marriage of George Materce to the widow Elizabeth (Jepson) Loder. On 3 July 1641 at Leiden, Bridget is named as then living, aged about 66, in the affidavit of Rose (Lisle) Jennings, widow of John Jennings, regarding Bridget's former financial support of Mary Jennings, who died at Leiden in November 1640.

paragraph: On 28 October 1643, the Will of Bridget Robinson was drawn at Leiden by notary J. F. van Merwen on the Breestraat. At the time she had four living children: John, a doctor of medicine, who was married and living in England; Isaac, who was married and living in New England; Bridget, who had married William Lee as her 2nd husband; and Fear, who later married John Jennings, Jr. The date of her death and place of interment is not of known record.

paragraph: In 1865, a marble marker was placed on the building occupying the former site of Robinson's home. It is inscribed:

paragraph: “On this spot, lived, taught, and died John Robinson, 1611–1625.”

paragraph: On 24 July 1891 under auspices of the National Council of the Congregational Churches of the United States, a bronze marker in his memory was placed on the wall of the Pieterskerk. Present were delegates from the United States (including his descendant Rev. William Robinson of Vermont, who was a member of the committee responsible for the marker's erection) and England, the city and University of Leiden, and the city's clergy. On this marker was inscribed:

paragraph: The General Society of Mayflower Descendants erected a tablet on the wall of Pieterskerk in 1928. It is inscribed:

paragraph: The John Robinson Memorial Church in Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, was dedicated in 1897; the cornerstone had been laid by Thomas F. Bayard, US Ambassador.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- United Reformed Church (2004) "A Gift Box". .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Our Pilgrim Heritage by Rev. Dr. Robert Merrill Bartlett, MSMD. At "Discover History." Undated. Retrieved 28 September 2008.

description: pastor and English Separatist

wikidata_label: John Robinson

wikipedia_title: John Robinson (pastor)


text: Darda

text: Osijek

text: Brünn

text: Ruma

text: Izidor Kršnjavi

text: Adolf Waldinger

text: Slavonia

text: Zagreb

categories: Landscape painters,1807 births,1869 deaths,19th-century Croatian painters

paragraph: Hugo Conrad von Hötzendorf

paragraph: Hugo Conrad von Hötzendorf (c.1807, Darda (?) - 28 February 1869, Osijek) was a Croatian painter and art instructor of German ancestry

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: His father came to Osijek from Brünn in 1806 to be a teacher and, later, Director of the local art school. From 1827 to 1835, Hugo and his brother Otto were teachers at a school in Ruma

paragraph: . In 1836, he went to study in Vienna, where he supported himself (and found inspiration) working for a landscaper. He remained there until 1840, when his father's illness forced him to return home. After his father died, Hugo took over his position at the art school and remained there the rest of his life. Among his most prominent students were Izidor Kršnjavi and Adolf Waldinger.

paragraph: In addition to the school, he maintained his own private art studio where he specialized in landscapes with peasants, soldiers and animals. In 1864, forty-two of his pencil drawings, depicting the ancient ruins and forests of Slavonia, were displayed at a major exhibition in Zagreb.

paragraph: A street in Osijek is named in his honor and is marked with a memorial bust.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ivo Šibalić: "Poznati Osječani" (Famous People from Osijek) in "Osječki Dom", VI, 649, 6 - Osijek, 27-28. I. 2005.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kulturna Baština: Gallery of works by Hotzendorf

description: Croatian artist

wikidata_label: Hugo Conrad von Hötzendorf

wikipedia_title: Hugo Conrad von Hötzendorf


text: Perge

text: Hieromartyr

text: Bishop

text: Magydos

text: Pamphylia

text: Turkey

text: Roman

text: magistrate

text: Decius

text: death

text: governor

text: Lycia

text: feast day

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Orthodox Church

text: Index of Roman Catholic Saints

text: "St. Nestor"

text: icon

text: synaxarion

categories: Saints from Roman Anatolia,Year of birth unknown,3rd-century Christian saints,3rd-century deaths

paragraph: Nestor of Magydos

paragraph: Little is known about Saint Nestor, also known as Saint Nestor of Perge or Hieromartyr Nestor of Magydos, other than that he was Bishop of Magydos in Pamphylia, in what is now modern Turkey. His courage and authority were so noteworthy that a Roman magistrate uttered these words: ""Until we have got the better of the bishop, we shall be powerless against the Christians."" He was arrested under Emperor Decius, and sentenced to death by the local Roman governor, Pollio or Epolius of Lycia, after refusing to sacrifice to the pagan gods of the state. His feast day is February 25 in the Roman Catholic Church and February 28 in the Orthodox Church.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Index of Roman Catholic Saints

paragraph: BULLET::::- "St. Nestor"

paragraph: BULLET::::- St. Patrick's Church, Washington, D.C.: "St. Nestor of Perge"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hieromartyr Nestor the Bishop of Magydos in Pamphylia Orthodox icon and synaxarion

description: Greek bishop and saint

wikidata_label: Nestor of Magydos

wikipedia_title: Nestor of Magydos


text:
siege of the Ishiyama Honganji
Mōri clan
Akechi Mitsuhide
chanoyu
Sen no Rikyū
tessen
fusuma
Iwasa Matabei

categories: Japanese tea masters,Samurai,People from Ibaraki, Osaka,Year of birth unknown,Year of death unknown,People from Itami, Hyōgo,16th-century Japanese people

paragraph: Araki Murashige

paragraph: He commanded part of Nobunaga's army in the ten-year siege of the Ishiyama Honganji, but was accused in 1578 of sympathies to the Mōri clan, one of Nobunaga's enemies, by Akechi Mitsuhide. He retreated to Itami and held out there against a one-year siege by the forces of Oda before the castle fell in 1579; Araki escaped, and lived the rest of his life as a "chanoyu" disciple of Sen no Rikyū.

paragraph: There is a semi-legendary tale told about Araki's creative use of a "tessen", or iron fan, in saving his own life. After being accused of treason by Akechi Mitsuhide, Araki was called before his lord, Oda Nobunaga. As was customary, he bowed low over the threshold before entering the room. But he sensed somehow Nobunaga's plan to have his guards slam the "fusuma" sliding doors on him, breaking his neck. Araki placed his fan in the doors' groove, preventing the doors from closing. Nobunaga's plan revealed, Araki's life was spared, with much reconciliation.

paragraph: His son, raised under his mother's name, was the artist Iwasa Matabei.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ratti, Oscar and Adele Westbrook (1973). "Secrets of the Samurai". Edison, NJ: Castle Books.

description: daimyō

wikidata_label: Araki Murashige

wikipedia_title: Araki Murashige


href: physician fever rash Human%20feces

text: physician fever rash stool

categories: 1747 deaths,Qing dynasty science writers,18th-century Chinese physicians,1667 births,Writers from Suzhou

paragraph: Ye Tianshi

paragraph: Ye Tianshi (1667–1747) was a Chinese medical scholar who was the major proponent of the "school of warm diseases". His major work, "Wen-re Lun" (Discussion of Warm Diseases) published in 1746, divided the manifestations of diseases into four stages: "wei" (defensive phase), "qi" ("qi"-phase), "ying" (nutrient-phase), and "xue" (blood-phase).

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Ye Tianshi was born in 1666. His father as well as his grandfather, Ye Shi, were also physicians. He learned medicine from his father and, following his father's death, from his father's pupil of the surname Zhu.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Ye Tianshi wrote little and most works attributed to him were compiled by his followers after his death. He is best known for proposing that feverish diseases progressed along four stages, a theory he laid out in his book "Discussion of Warm Diseases". Those stages are "wei" (defensive phase), "qi" ("qi"-phase or active "qian" phase), "ying" (nutrient-phase), and "xue" (blood-phase). The characteristics of "wei" are fever, sensitivity to cold, headache, and rapid pulse. Next "qi" is the phase of most active disease, characterized by high fever, sweating, dry mouth, and rapid pulse. "Ying" is characterized by rising fever at night, agitation, confusion, and weak pulse. Finally, "xue" consists of agitation, rash, and in some cases vomiting of blood or blood in the stool or urine. In his treatments for feverish diseases, Ye recommended cooling substances.

description: Chinese medical scholar

wikidata_label: Ye Tianshi

wikipedia_title: Ye Tianshi


text:
Asantehene
Ashanti
Ashanti Confederacy
Ghana
Akyem
Bono

categories: 1700 births,1750 deaths,18th-century monarchs in Africa,Ashanti monarchs

paragraph: Opoku Ware I

paragraph: Opoku Ware I (1700–1750) was the Asantehene - the ruler of the Ashanti - from the Oyoko clan of the now-disbanded Ashanti Confederacy which occupied parts of what is now Ghana. He is credited with being the "empire builder" of the Ashante empire.

paragraph: He married and had two children named Adusei Atwenewa and Adusei Kra.

paragraph: During his rule as king, which lasted from 1720 (some sources cite 1718, while leading the army against the Akan state of the Akyem) to his death in 1750, he fought against the Bono, another Akan state, and defeated them by 1723. Between 1741 and 1744, King Opoku fought and won a number of wars.

description: King of the Ashanti people

wikidata_label: Opoku Ware I

wikipedia_title: Opoku Ware I


text:
French
Jean-Léon Gérôme
Goupil & Cie
lithograph
Classical Realism
Vincent van Gogh
Malden, Massachusetts
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Parrish, Graydon
Artencyclopedia.com page on Bargue
Dahesh Museum of Art
: exhibition

categories: 19th-century French painters,1883 deaths,Art educators,French male painters,1820s births,French lithographers,Academic art,Orientalism

paragraph: Charles Bargue

paragraph: Charles Bargue (c. 1826/1827 – April 6, 1883) was a French painter and lithographer noted for devising an influential drawing course.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: He is mostly remembered for his "Cours de dessin", one of the most influential classical drawing courses conceived in collaboration with Jean-Léon Gérôme. The course, published between 1866 and 1871 by Goupil & Cie, comprised 197 lithographs printed as individual sheets, was to guide students from plaster casts to the study of great master drawings and finally to drawing from the living model. The Charles Bargue Drawing Course is used by many academies and ateliers which focus of Classical Realism. Among the artists whose work is based on the study of Bargue's plate work are Pablo Picasso and Vincent van Gogh, who copied the complete set in 1880/1881, and (at least a part of it) again in 1890.

paragraph: Bargue was a student of Jean-Léon Gérôme. Bargue worked closely with Gérôme and was influenced by his style, which included Orientalist scenes and historical genre. Bargue's last painting was completed by Gérôme and is now conserved in the Malden Public Library, Malden, Massachusetts, USA. He travelled extensively through North Africa, and the Balkans, during which time he executed many portraits of local people with meticulous detail.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Publication

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Bargue with the collaboration of Jean-Léon Gérôme, "Charles Bargue Drawing Course," 1866

paragraph: Paintings

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Orientalist artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orientalism

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ackerman, Gerald M., (ed.) & Parrish, Graydon: "Charles Bargue avec le concours de Jean-Léon Gérôme: Cours de dessin", French edition, 2003.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Artencyclopedia.com page on Bargue

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The art of drawing": Dahesh Museum of Art : exhibition

paragraph: BULLET::::- Goupil Museum

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Bargue Drawing Course

alias:
ch. bargue
Bargue

description: French painter

wikidata_label: Charles Bargue

wikipedia_title: Charles Bargue


text:
Haiti
Saint-Domingue
Haitian Revolution
Henri Christophe
Alexandre Pétion
Battle of Siebert
Port-au-Prince
mulatto
Jean-Pierre Boyer
Jean-Louis Pierrot
President of Haïti
Artibonite
Constitution
Faustin I

categories: 1847 deaths,1780 births,People from Nord (Haitian department),People of the Haitian Revolution,Presidents of Haiti,People of Saint-Domingue

paragraph: Jean-Baptiste Riché

paragraph: Jean-Baptiste Riché (1780 – February 27, 1847) was a career officer and general in the Haitian Army. He was made President of Haiti on March 1, 1846.

paragraph: Riché was born free, the son of a prominent free black man of the same name in the North Province of Saint-Domingue (the French colony that later became Haiti). His father was a sergeant in the colonial militia and probably served in the rebel forces. Riché himself joined the Haitian Revolutionaries probably some time in 1801. After Haiti gained independence at the end of the revolution in 1803, Riché joined the forces of Henri Christophe, who in 1807 promoted him to the rank of general and deputy commander of his army. During the civil war that followed between Alexandre Pétion and Christophe, Riché was instrumental in Christophe's victory at the Battle of Siebert on January 1, 1807. During the siege of Port-au-Prince in 1811, Riché commanded the left wing of Christophe's army. A loyal officer, Riché quickly became one of Christophe's most trusted commanders, and as a consequence he was placed in command of Haïti's Northern Province, where he was effective in subduing the mulatto population.

paragraph: After Christophe's downfall in 1820, Riché supported the new government and was therefore able to retain his post during the subsequent administration of Jean-Pierre Boyer, and those that followed. This continued until Jean-Louis Pierrot became President of Haïti in 1845. Pierrot attempted to reform the Haitian government, causing the Boyerist hierarchy of Haiti to sponsor a rebellion in the provinces of Port-au-Prince and Artibonite in 1846. The rebel army under mulatto control proclaimed Riché president of Haiti on March 1, 1846. After much of the Haitian army sided with the rebels, President Pierrot relinquished his office on March 24, 1846. After gaining the presidency of Haiti, one of Riché's first acts was to restore the Constitution of 1816.

paragraph: As president, Riché was considered a failure by his Boyerist backers. Originally intended to be a figurehead, Riché quickly began to take an active role. He soon proposed reforms similar to those espoused by former President Pierrot. Probably as a result of these proposals he died on February 27, 1847, possibly from being poisoned, although this has never been established. Riché's presidency, considered ineffective by historians, opened the way for considerable changes in the political landscape of Haiti during the succeeding administrations. As a result, his presidency can be considered a turning point in the history of Haitian politics.

paragraph: After Riché's death in 1847, he was replaced by Faustin-Élie Soulouque, who was anticipated to be similar to Riché. Soulouque later appointed himself Emperor Faustin I.

description: President of Haiti

wikidata_label: Jean-Baptiste Riché

wikipedia_title: Jean-Baptiste Riché


text:
American
Brooklyn, New York
Jimmy Henchman
Bryce Wilson
Czar Entertainment
Mario Winans
Foxy Brown
Black Rob
El Debarge
Notorious B.I.G.
Def Jam Records
Jim Jones
Papoose
Just Blaze
Akon
David Banner
Rikers Island
MTV
BET
Grand Hustle Records

wikipedia_title:
United States
Brooklyn
James Rosemond
Bryce Wilson
James Rosemond
Mario Winans
Foxy Brown (rapper)
Black Rob
El DeBarge
The Notorious B.I.G.
Def Jam Recordings
Jim Jones (rapper)
Papoose (rapper)
Just Blaze
Akon
David Banner
Rikers Island
MTV
BET
Grand Hustle Records

categories: Musicians from Brooklyn,1987 births,21st-century American rappers,African-American male rappers,Rappers from New York City,Living people

paragraph: Spot (rapper)

paragraph: Spot is an American rapper.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: The eldest son of Jamaican and Guyanese parents, SPOT initially lived in many different parts of the United States. As a child Hargett and his family relocated to Coney Island, a neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York. His childhood was spent between Brooklyn, Harlem, New York and Atlanta, GA. A talented yet troublesome child, Spot traveled the country playing basketball with top AAU clubs during his preteen years.

paragraph: Spot has described growing up in the projects as "vicious."

paragraph: Section::::Music.

paragraph: Spot first came into the public view in 2004, when he teamed with Jimmy Henchman and Bryce Wilson to kick-start newly formed music company Czar Entertainment. With Czar signing a distribution deal with Sony Music Group, Spot seemed primed to release an album, although he had just begun rapping and producing. A fast learner in the studio, Spot began working with major label artist of various genres, including Mario Winans, Miri Bin-Ari, Foxy Brown, Swizz Beatz, Black Rob, and El Debarge, and working on a posthumous Notorious B.I.G. album.

paragraph: He then released the mixtape "The Good Son". Alongside former DJ and Def Jam Records exec Sickamore, "The Good Son" featured collaborations with Jim Jones, Papoose and production from Just Blaze, the SupaSonics and SPOT himself. Moving over 25,000 copies, this mixtape established Spot as one of top newcomers on the indie circuit.

paragraph: After touring the country with the likes of Akon and David Banner and performing at various infamous NY prisons including Rikers Island and Arthur Kills Maximum Penitentiary, Spot made history becoming the first rapper to promote a mixtape on MTV when he appeared on Sucka Free (formerly Direct Effects) to promote his second foray into the mixtape game, "A Dollar & A Dream".

paragraph: Packaged as a street album, "A Dollar & A Dream" was a success worldwide, even garnering the best album ratings of the year by one French publication. Spot has produced the score for a platinum DVD series (The Infamous Times) and a syndicated television show ("Hip Hop Hold 'Em") and contributed music to both MTV, BET and VH1 (various programming).

paragraph: SPOT is managed by Grand Hustle/Rubicon Brand Management (Grand Hustle Records) and released a Gangsta Grillz mixtape with DJ Drama titled "The Price Iz Right". Spot was named one of AOL Music's 10 Rising Rappers.

description: American rapper

wikidata_label: Spot

wikipedia_title: Spot (rapper)


text:
Sultan of Rum
Kaykhusraw I
Battle of Alaşehir
Kayqubad I
Leo I
Cilician Armenia
Erzurum
Antalya
Malatya
Kayseri
Konya
Ankara
Kastamonu
Theodore Laskaris
Nicaea
Empire of Nicaea
Antalya
Fifth Crusade
Ayyubids
Black Sea
Sinop
Alexios
Empire of Trebizond
Mediterranean
Antalya
Empire of Nicaea
Kayqubad I
Constantinople
Kaykhusraw I
Kaykaus II
Masud II
Şifaiye Medrese
Sivas
mausoleum
eyvan

wikipedia_title:
Sultanate of Rum
Kaykhusraw I
Battle of Antioch on the Meander
Kayqubad I
Leo I, King of Armenia
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
Erzurum
Antalya
Malatya
Kayseri
Konya
Ankara
Kastamonu
Theodore I Laskaris
İznik
Empire of Nicaea
Antalya
Fifth Crusade
Ayyubid dynasty
Black Sea
Sinop, Turkey
Alexios I of Trebizond
Empire of Trebizond
Mediterranean Sea
Antalya
Empire of Nicaea
Kayqubad I
Constantinople
Kaykhusraw I
Kaykaus II
Mesud II
Şifaiye Medrese
Sivas
Mausoleum
Iwan

categories: 1220 deaths,Muslims of the Fifth Crusade,Year of birth unknown,Sultans of Rum,Seljuq dynasty

paragraph: Kaykaus I

paragraph: Kaykaus I or Kayka'us I or Keykavus I (, "ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwūs ibn Kaykhusraw") was the Sultan of Rum from 1211 until his death in 1220. He was the eldest son of Kaykhusraw I.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: Upon the death of Kaykhusraw I at the Battle of Alaşehir in 1211, Kaykaus’ two younger brothers, Kayferidun Ibrahim and the future Kayqubad I, challenged his succession. Kayqubad initially garnered some support among the neighbors of the sultanate, Leo I, the king of Cilician Armenia, and Tughrilshah, his uncle and the independent ruler of Erzurum. At the same time, Kayferidun imperiled the recently acquired port of Antalya by seeking aid from the Cypriot Franks. Most of the emirs, as the powerful landed aristocracy of the sultanate, supported Kaykaus. From his base in Malatya, Kaykaus seized Kayseri and then Konya, inducing Leo to change sides. Kayqubad was forced to flee to the fortress at Ankara, where he sought aid from the Turkman tribes of Kastamonu. Kaykaus soon apprehended both of his brothers and secured the throne for himself.

paragraph: During this time of considerable danger, Kaykaus negotiated a peace settlement with Theodore Laskaris, the Byzantine Emperor of Nicaea. This treaty marked the end of hostilities between the Seljuq state and the Empire of Nicaea, though Turkmen nomads continued occasionally to trouble the border.

paragraph: Section::::The Eastern Frontier and Fifth Crusade.

paragraph: With Antalya secure and the western marches at peace, Kaykaus turned his attentions to the east. During the Fifth Crusade, the crusaders allied with Kaykaus and forced the Ayyubids to undertake a two-front conflict.

paragraph: Section::::Conquest of Sinop.

paragraph: Kaykaus’ most significant contribution to the Seljuq state was the acquisition the Black Sea port of Sinop. In 1214 Turkmen tribesmen captured Alexios, Grand Komnenos of the Empire of Trebizond, on a hunting trip outside of the city. The hostage was turned over to the sultan and negotiated his freedom in exchange for Sinop and the vassalage of Trapezuntine territory to the east. The Seljuqs gained an outlet on the Black Sea to match their Mediterranean port at Antalya, and a wedge was driven between the Empire of Trebizond and the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea. The transfer was affected on Sunday 1 November with both the sultan and the Grand Komnenos present. Alexios was entertained for several days and then politely asked to return to Trebizond.

paragraph: After the transfer, European and Byzantine trade continued in the city. Kaykaus named an Armenian, Rais Hetoum, to govern the mixed Greek and Turkish population. Churches in the city of Sinop were converted to mosques, on Kaykaus's command. Between April and September 1215 the walls were reconstructed under the supervision of the Greek architect, Sebastos. Fifteen Seljuq emirs contributed to the cost. The work is commemorated by a bilingual Greek and Arabic inscription on a tower near the western gate.

paragraph: Section::::Identity.

paragraph: According to Rustam Shukurov, it is very probably that Kaykaus I and his brother Kayqubad I, who both spent considerable time in Constantinople with their father, had the same dual confessional (Christian and Muslim) and dual ethnic (Turkic/Persian and Greek) identity as Kaykhusraw I, Kaykaus II, and Masud II.

paragraph: Section::::Monuments.

paragraph: In 1212 Kaykaus built a madrasa in Ankara and in 1217 the Şifaiye Medresesi in Sivas. The latter was designed as a hospital and medical school. The sultan’s mausoleum is in the south eyvan of the building under a conical dome. The façade includes a poem by the sultan in blue faience tiles.

alias:
Kayka'us I
Keykavus I

description: Sultan of Rum

wikidata_label: Kaykaus I

wikipedia_title: Kaykaus I


text:
ancient Egypt
Akhenaten
Akhet-Aten
Amarna rock tombs
Norman de Garis Davies
Maya
Tutankhamen
Bouriant
Barsanti
Daressy
Mutbenret
Akhenaten
Atef
Nefertiti

categories: Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century BC,Amarna tombs

paragraph: May (noble)

paragraph: May was an ancient Egyptian official during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten. He was Royal chancellor and fan-bearer at Akhet-Aten, the pharaoh's new capital. He was buried in Tomb EA14 in the southern group of the Amarna rock tombs. Norman de Garis Davies originally published details of the Tomb in 1908 in the "Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part V – Smaller Tombs and Boundary Stelae". The tomb dates back to the 18th Egyptian Dynasty .

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: May declares that the King was the one who raised him up from humble beginnings.

paragraph: May held a variety of titles. He held the title of rpat (prince), and he was a royal chancellor, a sole companion, scribe of the King and the Overseer of all the works of the King. His military titles include Overseer of the soldiery of the Lord of the Two lands and scribe of recruits. He was also the Overseer of the house of Sehetep-Aten. This title also appears on ostrich found in Amarna and may refer to a royal person or a temple. May was also the Overseer of the House of Waenra in On, and the Overseer of the cattle of the temple of Ra in On. These positions would have made him responsible for some of the aspects of temple life in Heliopolis.

paragraph: May may be the same person as the treasurer named Maya who served Tutankhamen. May shares some of the titles with Maya, but he was not a treasurer.

paragraph: Section::::Tomb.

paragraph: This large tomb was filled with sand and initially not excavated by Bouriant in 1883. The tomb was later excavated by Barsanti and the texts were published by Daressy.

paragraph: The entrance of the tomb leads to a pillared hall. Only the pillars in the center have been completed. The space is much damaged by both bats and a possible fire. The entrance of the tomb provides a scene where Akhenaten and Nefertiti are presenting a censer and libations to the Aten. The royal coupe are followed by three of their daughters and the Queen's sister Mutbenret. The latter is accompanied by two dwarfs who are named Para and Re-neheh. In other scenes May is shown praying. Davies mentions that May's name has been excised and his image destroyed.

paragraph: The west wall of the hall contains an interesting scene. It was started in ink and not finished, but appears to show the reward of May at the balcony of the palace. The scene includes a building and what appears to be a Window of Appearance. Below that we see vegetation and the river's edge. Men are shown working with oars and fisher nets. Landings are depicted with at one landing the barge of the King, and at the other the barge of the Queen. These barges are distinguished by both their size and the heads of the royals. The Barge of Akhenaten show his head wearing an Atef crow on top of the steering paddle. The barge of Nefertiti is decorated with her head wearing the double plumes.

description: Royal chancellor and fan-bearer of Akhet-Aten

wikidata_label: May

wikipedia_title: May (noble)


text:
Romantic
Instituto Nacional
international exhibition in Santiago
Francisco Pradilla
Naturalistic
still-life
en plein aire
Holy Land
River Jordan
Mount Carmel
José Tomás Errázuriz
Alberto Valenzuela Llanos
Impressionism
Juan Francisco González
Grupo Montparnasse
Generación del 13

categories: People from Melipilla Province,19th-century Chilean painters,Chilean still life painters,1849 births,Instituto Nacional General José Miguel Carrera alumni,Landscape painters,1940 deaths

paragraph: Onofre Jarpa

paragraph: Onofre Jarpa Labra (12 June, 1849 – 15 February, 1940) was a Chilean landscape painter in the Romantic style, and an essayist on various artistic topics.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: His education began at the Instituto Nacional, a prestigious school that has produced many of Chile's presidents. He continued his studies at the Academia de Bellas Artes, directed by the conservative Italian painter , who resigned in 1869 and was replaced by the German painter, , who took a progressive approach that was more amenable to Jarpa's temperament.

paragraph: In 1875, he won second prize at an international exhibition in Santiago and, six years later, received a government grant to study in Europe, where he visited Spain, Rome and Paris. In Spain, he worked with Francisco Pradilla, who had a major influence on his style. His most important period, however, came during his stay in Venice, where his style became more Naturalistic and he began producing still-lifes. He also became devoted to painting en plein aire. After his European tour, he visited the Holy Land, where he painted scenes from the River Jordan and Mount Carmel.

paragraph: Upon returning to Chile, he became a teacher. Among his best-known students were José Tomás Errázuriz, Alberto Valenzuela Llanos and the caricaturist . He resisted the trends toward French Impressionism, represented by his former classmate, Juan Francisco González, although he was on good terms with the Grupo Montparnasse and the Generación del 13.

paragraph: In addition to his landscapes and still lifes, he painted several portraits of notable public figures. A quiet, deeply religious man, he continued to paint almost until the day of his death. Most of his works are now in private collections.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anna Francisca Allamand, "Onofre Jarpa: la naturaleza, fuente inagotable de inspiración", (Nature: an inexhaustible source of inspiration, Volume 5 of "Pintura chilena del siglo XIX"), Origo Ediciones, 2008

description: Chilean painter (1849-1940)

wikidata_label: Onofre Jarpa

wikipedia_title: Onofre Jarpa