text:
Ceylonese
entrepreneur
Mudaliyar
philanthropy
Moratuwa
Ayurveda
Baba
señor
Muhandiram
Devinuwara Temple
Buddhist monk
Temple
Ayurvedic
Sinhala
Astrology
Maritime
Kandyan
Sinhalese
railway
Ayurvedic
plantation Tamils
Colombo
Kandy
franchising
arrack
Hanguranketa
George Bird
Sri Vikrama Rajasinha
coffee
flower
Kandyan
cinnamon
Dutch
Ratmalana
Katunayake
citronella
Ahangama
coconut
Pettah, Colombo
Nattukkottai Chettiar
infrastructure
Hanguranketa
Haragama
Talatuoya
paddy fields
Polgasowita
Mattegoda
Chilaw
reservoirs
Talatuoya
Kandewela
irrigation
Hanguranketa
landslide
Kadugannawa
Saradiel
Robin Hood
Puran Appu
Matale Rebellion
Chaitya
primary school
Oriental
Library
Gam Sabhas
Legal Aid
Christianity
Emmanuel
James Chapman
Thomas Skinner
Charles Justin MacCarthy
Mount Lavinia Hotel
S. Thomas' College
Emmanuel
Sinhala script
Charles de Soysa
Kandyan convention
Gate Mudaliyar
George William Anderson
native headman
Coffee production in Sri Lanka

categories: Planters of British Ceylon,1860 deaths,Sri Lankan Christians,Sri Lankan planters,Ayurveda,Sri Lankan philanthropists,1797 births,De Soysa family,Sri Lankan educational theorists,People from Colombo,Sri Lankan bankers,Sinhalese physicians,People of British Ceylon,Agriculture in Sri Lanka,Sri Lankan Buddhists,Families from Western Province, Sri Lanka,People from Moratuwa,People from Kandy,Sinhalese businesspeople,Gate Mudaliyars

paragraph: Jeronis de Soysa

paragraph: Gate Mudaliyar Jeronis de Soysa (19 April 1797 – 28 May 1862) was a pioneering Ceylonese entrepreneur and philanthropist. He was a pioneer coffee planter and an industrialist who became the wealthiest Ceylonese of the 19th century by establishing the largest native commercial enterprise of the era. He was instrumental in the establishment of the first Ceylonese bank and is often referred to as a father of private enterprise in British Ceylon. He was the first Mudaliyar to be elevated in recognition of his philanthropy.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Jeronis de Soysa was born on 19 April 1797 at Moratuwa. He was the second son of Warusahennadige Joseph Soysa (Jose Rala), an Ayurveda practitioner and Kurukulasuriya Senadige Francisca Peiris. He had seven brothers and three sisters and was affectionately known as "Babaseñor". Both his father and grandfather Bastian Soysa and earlier ancestors; Don Francisco, Juan and Manual Soysa Muhandiram were salt and grain merchants having interests in the transportation, boat building and the agricultural sectors. Their ancestor was the lay custodian of the Devinuwara Temple, Matara at the time of its destruction by the Portuguese in 1587.

paragraph: De Soysa's parents originally wanted him to become a Buddhist monk and sent him to the Palliyagodella Temple Rawatawatta Moratuwa for studies. He excelled in the Ayurvedic system of medicine, the Sinhala language and Astrology. He became an Ayurvedic practitioner and possessed a charming personality. De Soysa married Francesca Coorey, daughter of Mututantrige Bastian Cooray and Kurukulasuriya Senadige Justina Pieris in 1833. Mututantrige Sebastian Coorey, an ancestor of Francesca had built the Rawatawatte Dutch Chapel in 1675.

paragraph: Section::::Trade and Industry.

paragraph: De Soysa inherited a small fortune from his uncles Daniel Peiris and Hendrick Peiris III, who were ship owners with "Yatra" building yards at Oruwella, Panadura and Grandpass, Colombo. He invested this in expanding the trading network between the Maritime and Kandyan Provinces with the assistance of his brothers. In 1820 he established himself as a general merchant in Kandy, becoming one of the first Sinhalese to do so. He introduced cart transportation between the seaports and the plantations which had till then been carried out on foot and was able to dominate the industry till the building of the railway. Meanwhile, de Soysa also became famous as Babasingha Vedamahatmaya, a sought-after Ayurvedic physician in Kandy and was reputed to have saved the lives of numerous plantation Tamils. De Soysa's business prospered and he received several government supply contracts, including one that involved in the construction of the Colombo-Kandy road. These investments enabled him to accumulate the large capital necessary to rent the franchising for the supply of arrack. Later, he curtailed his investment in the distillery and tavern industry.

paragraph: In 1836 de Soysa bid for the Diyatalawa kanda 'Kings Garden-Rajmal Uyana' in Hanguranketa (against British planters such as George Bird) at the request of the administrative officer of the region that had been appointed by king Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. This was an overgrown coffee (flower) estate previously used by the Kandyan kings as a country retreat. He also purchased many of the cinnamon estates that were previously owned by the Dutch administration in Moratuwa, Ratmalana, Dambuwa and Katunayake, citronella plantations in Ahangama and coconut plantatins throughout the island. His land holdings in Colombo consisted of several estates that stretched between Galle Face and Panadura. The De Soysa and Peiris merchant houses established the first Ceylonese-owned bank, the Bank of Kandy at Dalada weediya and Pettah, Colombo, becoming the largest native commercial enterprise of the era at a time when European owned banks were reluctant to extend credit to the Ceylonese and the high interest rates of the Nattukkottai Chettiars. De Soysa was also reputed for his treatment of employees and had relied to a greater extent on the low country population. He played a significant role in improving agriculture and the infrastructure in the Kandyan province and the coastal districts.

paragraph: Section::::Philanthropy.

paragraph: Section::::Philanthropy.:Agriculture and infrastructure.

paragraph: De Soya's agricultural properties in the up-country were mostly in the Hanguranketa, Haragama and Talatuoya areas which were then thick jungle with no roads. He took the lead and with an improvised measuring stick demarcated the areas to be cleared for road and tank building. He had a network of roads built and supplemented the village infrastructure by building reservoirs for irrigating paddy fields and chena cultivations.

paragraph: The large scale road building projects of de Soysa include the road from Mailapitiya to Hanguranketa and Haragama and the road from Haragama to Kolongaha and Maha Oya in the Central Province. He also had the Polgasowita-Mattegoda-Delgahakanda roads of Salpiti Korale constructed. In 1839 he constructed the road from Galle road to Kospalankissa and several roads in Chilaw district. The roads from Telawela to Katubedda and Mampe, the Angulana road to Kuda-Kalapuwa and the Uyana road were also constructed in the Western Province.

paragraph: De Soysa was also an avid builder of tanks and reservoirs. In 1848 he rebuilt the ancient Malulla tank (Maloluwawe) at Hanguranketa. The Gonagama, Talatuoya, Naranvila, Kandewela and Gonawatte tanks and dams of the Central Province and the Moratuwa-Ratmalana tank in his home town are noteworthy. He also facilitated irrigation works at Kandewela and gifted land to the poor residents of Gonagama and Hanguranketa for cultivation.

paragraph: De Soysa also built the Tibotuwawewatte Ambalama in Haragama and the sprawling rest house and gardens at Moratuwa for public use. As a result of the medical and financial assistance given to the landslide victims of Kadugannawa, de Soysa's caravans were safeguarded by Saradiel, the Robin Hood of Ceylon. De Soysa had also met Puran Appu, a hero of the Matale Rebellion, who had on occasion disguised himself as a carter in spying missions to Kandy.

paragraph: Section::::Philanthropy.:Religious and educational work.

paragraph: On his land stood the ancient temple; Pothgul Viharaya of Hanguranketa, which was in a state of collapse. After rebuilding and renovating the temple he nominated the Ven. Attadassi Thero as its Chief Incumbent and gifted the surrounding lands to the Temple. De Soysa also built a Chaitya in Moratuwa to enshrine the ashes of his teacher Ven. Meddegama Thero.

paragraph: He built and financed a free primary school and facilitated an Oriental Library in Hanguranketa. He empowered the traditional Gam Sabhas, established a Legal Aid Society, a library and an association for social reform (Sadarana Sarana Samagama) in Moratuwa.

paragraph: Towards the end of his life, de Soysa embraced Christianity in appreciation of the blessings and recognition that had been bestowed on him. To commemorate this event the Mudaliyar decided to build the Holy Emmanuel Church. On 27 December 1857, Bishop James Chapman laid the cornerstone of the Church designed by Thomas Skinner. On 27 December 1860, the Holy Emmanuel Church was consecrated by Dr. James Chapman, the first Bishop of Colombo and the event was attended by the Governor Charles Justin MacCarthy. His brother Mudaliyer Susew de Soysa (1809-1881) gifted an estate opposite the Mount Lavinia Hotel for its maintenance and a part of it was later transferred to relocate S. Thomas' College.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Jeronis de Soysa Dharmagunawardane Vipulajayasuriya Karunaratne Dissanayake died at the age of 65 on 28 May 1862. He was buried in the Holy Emmanuel Church, engraved as per his wishes using the Sinhala script.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: De Soysa, often referred to as a father of private enterprise was the pioneer native entrepreneur, philanthropist and social reformer who played the role of a path-finder. He died, leaving Charles de Soysa, aged 26, entrusted with the management of an estate worth millions. His infrastructure and tank building projects were commendable, considering the fact that it came after the abolition of the traditional rajakriya system of free compulsory labour and the devastation caused following the Kandyan convention. In 1853, de Soysa was appointed Gate Mudaliyar by the Governor George William Anderson. He was the first native headman to be appointed for public benefactions as opposed to government service.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coffee production in Sri Lanka

wikidata_label: Jeronis de Soysa

wikipedia_title: Jeronis de Soysa


text:
Roman Catholic
Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau
Germany

categories: 2013 deaths,German prisoners of war in World War II,Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany,People from Bavaria,1925 births,Roman Catholic bishops of Passau

paragraph: Franz Xaver Eder

paragraph: Franz Xaver Eder (November 4, 1925 – June 20, 2013) was a Roman Catholic bishop.

paragraph: Ordained in 1954 for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Passau, Germany, Eder was named auxiliary bishop of the Passau Diocese in 1977. In 1984, Eder was named coadjutor bishop of the Passau and succeeded as bishop in 1984. In 2001, Eder retired.

description: German bishop

wikidata_label: Franz Xaver Eder

wikipedia_title: Franz Xaver Eder


text:
American
glaciologist
topographer
cartographer
hydrographer
geologist
geographer
ethnologist
Grove Karl Gilbert
Lake Bonneville
US Geological Survey
John Wesley Powell
National Geographic Society
Arkansas River
Colorado
California
Sierra Club
John Muir
Sonora
Oklahoma
Utah
Sierra Nevada
glacial geology
US Forest Service
Portland, Oregon
Grand Canyon

categories: American geographers,National Geographic Society founders,1917 deaths,American geologists,1860 births

paragraph: Willard Drake Johnson

paragraph: Willard Drake Johnson (1860-1917) was an American glaciologist, topographer, cartographer, hydrographer, geologist, geographer, and ethnologist. His career began under the tutelage of Grove Karl Gilbert on the Lake Bonneville survey. In 1882 he joined US Geological Survey under John Wesley Powell. From 1882 until 1896 he was in the topographic portion of the survey. In 1888 he co-founded the National Geographic Society. From 1888 until 1890 he surveyed the Arkansas River in Colorado. In 1891 he became the chief of the California, where he co-founded the Sierra Club and became a good friend of John Muir. In 1895 Johnson went on an expedition to Sonora, where he studied the Seri Indians. In 1897 he joined the Water Resources Branch of the US Geological Survey, where he worked in Oklahoma. From 1904 until 1905 he worked in Utah and the Sierra Nevada, where he studied glacial geology. After that he worked for the US Forest Service in Portland, Oregon until 1916. He worked in the Grand Canyon until his death there on February 13, 1917.

description: Explorer of the American West

wikidata_label: Willard Drake Johnson

wikipedia_title: Willard Drake Johnson


text:
Western Chu
Chu–Han Contention
Suqian
Jiangsu
Qin dynasty
King Huai II
Chu state
Battle of Julu
Zhang Han
Shanxi
Henan
Hubei
Hunan
Jiangsu
Xuzhou
Liu Bang
Han dynasty
Chu–Han Contention
Battle of Gaixia
Wu River
family name
given name
courtesy name
Western Chu
Hegemon-King
Chu state
Zhou dynasty
Lu state
Xiang Yan
Qin
Wang Jian
Qin conquered Chu
Warring States period
Xiang Liang
Qin dynasty
Emperor Shun
Duke Wen of Jin
chi
ding
vessel
Xiang Liang
Jiangsu
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Er Shi
Qin dynasty
Kuaiji
Suzhou
Kuaiji
Mi Xin
Chu
Zhang Han
Zhao state
Zhao Xie
Handan
Song Yi
Liu Bang
Guanzhong
Song Yi
Anyang
Xingtai
Hebei
Ying Bu
Zhongli Mo
Zhang Han
Sima Xin
Xianyang
eunuch
Zhao Gao
Yima
Henan
Dong Yi
Battle of Julu
Guanzhong
Qin dynasty
Ziying
Liu Bang
Xianyang
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King Huai II
Fan Zeng
feast at Hong Gate
Xiang Bo
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Qin dynasty
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commanderies
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Hán
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Qi
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Zhao
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Qi
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Henan
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Chu
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He County
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Feast at Hong Gate
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poetry
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poetry
final battle
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Xingyang
Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Four Great Classical Novels
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Sun Ce
conquests
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Three Kingdoms
Water Margin
Zhou Tong
Jin Ping Mei
Ken Liu
Beijing opera
Battle of Gaixia
Chen Kaige
Farewell My Concubine
Shek Sau
The Battlefield
Hu Jun
The Story of Han Dynasty
Kwong Wah
The Conqueror's Story
Tan Kai
The Myth
Peter Ho
King's War
Ming Dao
Beauties of the Emperor
Qin Junjie
The Legend of Qin
Tim Yu
Hero's Dream
Ray Lui
The Great Conqueror's Concubine
Feng Shaofeng
White Vengeance
Daniel Wu
The Last Supper
Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI
Koei
Prince of Qin
Fate/Grand Order
Sima Qian
Records of the Grand Historian
Ban Gu
Book of Han
Sima Guang
Zizhi Tongjian

categories: Chinese military personnel who committed suicide,3rd-century BC rulers,202 BC deaths,232 BC births

paragraph: Xiang Yu

paragraph: Xiang Yu (232–202 BC), born Xiang Ji, was the Ba Wang (霸王) or "Hegemon-King" of Western Chu during the Chu–Han Contention period (206–202 BC) of China. A noble of Xiaxiang (下相; present-day Suqian, Jiangsu), Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin dynasty and became a prominent warlord. He was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公) by King Huai II of the restoring Chu state in 208 BC. The following year, he led the Chu forces to victory at the Battle of Julu against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of Qin, Xiang Yu was enthroned as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled a vast area of land covering parts of present-day Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu, with Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu) as his capital. He engaged Liu Bang, the founding emperor of the Han dynasty, in a long struggle for power, known as the Chu–Han Contention, which concluded with his eventual defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. He committed suicide at the bank of the Wu River.

paragraph: Section::::Names and titles.

paragraph: Xiang Yu's family name was Xiang () while his given name was Ji () and his courtesy name was Yu (). He is best known as Xiang Yu.

paragraph: Xiang Yu is popularly known as "Xi Chu Ba Wang" (), which has been translated as "Overlord of Western Chu", "Hegemon-King of Western Chu", "Conqueror of Western Chu", "King of Kings of Western Chu", and other renditions. This title is sometimes simplified to "Ba Wang" (), without the link to "Western Chu". Since Xiang Yu's death, the term "Ba Wang" has come to be used specifically to refer to him. Xiang Yu's subjects sometimes address him as "Xiang Wang" (), which literally means "King Xiang".

paragraph: Section::::Family background.

paragraph: There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the house of Mi (羋), the royal family of the Chu state in the Zhou dynasty. His ancestors were granted the land of Xiang (項) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served in the Chu military for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather Xiang Yan was a well known general who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin invaders led by Wang Jian, and was killed in action when Qin conquered Chu in 223 BC.

paragraph: Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States period when the Qin state started unifying the other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family in Suqian, Xiang Yu's father was Xiang Chao (項超), Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his elder uncle Xiang Liang because his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and established the Qin dynasty.

paragraph: Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight "chi" (approximately 1.85 metres, about 6' 1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a "ding" (an ancient Chinese vessel resembling a giant cauldron on tripods).

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him. Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat thousands of enemies." Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy and the art of war instead, but Xiang Yu stopped learning after he had grasped the main ideas; Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, so he gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.

paragraph: When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to Wu (吳; present-day southern Jiangsu) to evade the authorities. At the time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the emperor's procession pass by. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him." Xiang Liang was shocked and immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Afterwards, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.

paragraph: Section::::Revolution against the Qin dynasty.

paragraph: In 209 BC, during the reign of Qin Er Shi, peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin dynasty, plunging China into a state of anarchy. , the Administrator of Kuaiji (then centered on present-day Suzhou), wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu personally striking down hundreds of Yin's men. Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang Liang proclaimed himself Administrator of Kuaiji while appointing Xiang Yu as a general. Xiang Liang's revolution force grew in size until it was between 60,000 and 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state. Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent marshal and mighty warrior on the battlefield while participating in the battles against Qin forces.

paragraph: Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed at the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208 BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan by Zhang Han. Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公), and appointed him as a second-in-command to Song Yi, who was ordered to lead an army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to attack Guanzhong, the heartland (capital territory) of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong first will be granted the title "King of Guanzhong".

paragraph: Section::::Revolution against the Qin dynasty.:Battle of Julu.

paragraph: The Chu army led by Song Yi and Xiang Yu reached Anyang, some distance away from Julu (巨鹿; in present-day Xingtai, Hebei), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him on a charge of treason. Song Yi's other subordinates were afraid of Xiang Yu so they let him become the acting commander-in-chief. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.

paragraph: In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the 20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city with no supplies or any hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces, including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valour. When Xiang Yu received them at the gate, the rebel chiefs were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not even dare to look up at him.

paragraph: Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to Xianyang to request for reinforcements and supplies from the Qin imperial court. However, the eunuch Zhao Gao deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin when the latter was returning to Zhang Han's camp, but Sima managed to escape alive. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima, Henan). Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of "King of Sai" and "King of Di".

paragraph: Section::::Revolution against the Qin dynasty.:Feast at Hong Gate.

paragraph: After his victory at the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong, the heartland of the Qin dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu's control. Cao Wushang (曹無傷), a subordinate of Liu Bang, sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that number.

paragraph: As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast at Hong Gate and plotted to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu later listened to his uncle Xiang Bo and decided to spare Liu Bang. Liu Bang escaped during the banquet under the pretext of going to the latrine.

paragraph: Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.

paragraph: Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamourous outfits. Who would notice that?" One of his followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing." Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.

paragraph: Section::::Division of the empire.

paragraph: After the downfall of the Qin dynasty, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu territories, with his capital at Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu). In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the former Qin Empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of Guanzhong to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong area and given the title of "King of Han" (漢王).

paragraph: Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as vassal kings, even though these generals were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote area of Chen County (郴縣; present-day Chenzhou, Hunan), effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the vassal kings in that area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey in 205 BC. The emperor's death was later used by Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.

paragraph: Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng (King of Hán) put to death and seized Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi) took control over the Three Qis (Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao, led an uprising against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King of Zhao.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.:Battle of Pengcheng.

paragraph: In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack Guanzhong. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi and did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of Pengcheng. Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the Battle of Pengcheng, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.:Battle of Xingyang.

paragraph: Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to Xingyang and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's subordinate Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learned that he had been fooled, he became furious and had Ji Xin burned to death. After the fall of Xingyang, Chu and Han forces were divided on two fronts along present-day Henan. However, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well on the battlefront north of the Yellow River, as the Han army led by Han Xin defeated his troops in every single battle. At the same time, Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue led his men to harass Xiang Yu's rear.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.:Treaty of Hong Canal.

paragraph: By 203 BC, the tide had turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu were oath brothers, so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he captured back to Liu Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.:Battle of Guling.

paragraph: Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops and Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his defences, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of vassal kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.

paragraph: Section::::Chu–Han Contention.:Defeat and downfall.

paragraph: In 202 BC, Han armies led by Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Western Chu from three sides and trapped Xiang Yu's army, which was low on supplies, at Gaixia (垓下; in present-day Lingbi County, Anhui). Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing folk songs from the Chu region to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair. Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he composed the "Song of Gaixia". His concubine Consort Yu committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops pursuing them.

paragraph: After crossing the Huai River, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in Yinling (陰陵) and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng (東城), only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle. Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Xiang Yu retreated to the bank of the Wu River (near present-day He County, Chaohu City, Anhui) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on his conquests survived. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse, Zhui (騅), back home.

paragraph: Xiang Yu and his men made a last stand against wave after wave of Han forces until only Xiang himself was left alive. Xiang Yu continued to fight on and slew over 100 enemy soldiers, but he had also sustained several wounds all over his body. Just then, Xiang Yu saw an old friend Lü Matong among the Han soldiers, and he said to Lü, "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) has placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of "Wanhu Marquis" (萬戶侯; lit. "marquis of 10,000 households") on my head. Take it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and five others.

paragraph: After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking the victory of the Han dynasty. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Gucheng (穀城; present-day Jiuxian Township, Dongping County, Taian, Shandong), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong Gate, and they were granted marquis titles.

paragraph: Section::::Depiction of character.

paragraph: Xiang Yu is depicted as a ruthless leader, in sharp contrast to his rival, Liu Bang. He was a mass murderer, ordering the massacres of entire cities even after they surrendered peacefully. This often led to cities putting up strong resistance, as they knew they will be killed even if they surrender. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu, and the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. Conversely, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler who could be brutal at times, but forbade his troops from looting the cities they captured and spared the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people. However, his ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and his death at the early age of around 30.

paragraph: Section::::Song of Gaixia.

paragraph: div align="left"

paragraph: The "Song of Gaixia" (垓下歌), translated as "The Hegemon's Lament" by Burton Watson, was a song composed by Xiang Yu while he was trapped by Liu Bang's forces at Gaixia (垓下; in present-day Lingbi County, Anhui).

paragraph: The lyrics in English as follows are based on Burton Watson's translation:

paragraph: Section::::Evaluation.

paragraph: The historian Sima Qian, who wrote Xiang Yu's biography in the "Records of the Grand Historian", described Xiang as someone who boasted about his achievements and thought highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him. Sima Qian thought that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.

paragraph: Liu Bang's general Han Xin, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement criticising Xiang, "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."

paragraph: The Tang dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems "Ti Wujiang Ting" (題烏江亭): "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?" However, the Song dynasty poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion, as he wrote, "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."

paragraph: Mao Zedong also once mentioned Xiang Yu, "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong Gate and letting Liu leave; adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust); building his capital at Pengcheng (彭城; present-day Xuzhou, Jiangsu).

paragraph: Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possessed great courage but lacked wisdom, and his character is aptly summarised using the Chinese idiom "you yong wu mou" (), meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", "foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders served as cautionary tales for later rulers. Another Chinese idiom, "si mian chu ge" (), was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (有一范增而不能用), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on his advisor Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.

paragraph: Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales, poetry, and novels, and he has been the subject of films, television, plays, Chinese operas, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his concubine Consort Yu and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.:Poetry, folk tales, novels.

paragraph: Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle appears in Chinese folk tales and poetry, e.g., in his final battle. The "Meng Ch'iu", an 8th-century Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang.

paragraph: In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, Sun Ce is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" (小霸王) and is often compared favourably to Xiang Yu by his contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms era. In "Water Margin", another of the Four Great Classical Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang Yu in appearance.

paragraph: In "Jin Ping Mei", (Ci Hua edition) Xiang Yu (项籍) is mentioned as an example of a tragic character in the song at the opening of the first chapter.

paragraph: The character Mata Zyndu in Ken Liu's epic fantasy novel "The Grace of Kings" is based on Xiang Yu.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.:Operas.

paragraph: A famous Beijing opera, "Ba Wang Bie Ji" (), depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's award-winning motion picture "Farewell My Concubine".

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.:Television.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Shek Sau in the 1985 Hong Kong television series "The Battlefield."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Hu Jun in the 2003 Chinese television series "The Story of Han Dynasty."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Kwong Wah in the 2004 Hong Kong television series "The Conqueror's Story."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Tan Kai in the 2010 Chinese television series "The Myth."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2012 Chinese television series "King's War".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Ming Dao in the 2012 Chinese television series "Beauties of the Emperor".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the 2015 Chinese television series "The Legend of Qin".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Tim Yu in the 2018 Chinese television series "Hero's Dream".

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.:Film.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Ray Lui in the 1994 Hong Kong film "The Great Conqueror's Concubine."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Feng Shaofeng in the 2011 Chinese film "White Vengeance."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Daniel Wu in the 2012 Chinese film "The Last Supper."

paragraph: Section::::Cultural references.:Video games.

paragraph: Xiang Yu is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game "Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI" by Koei. He is also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action RPG. "Prince of Qin". Xiang Yu is one of the main 2 characters in a 90s Super Nintendo title "Rise of the Phoenix" historical simulation game by the Koei corporation, the other being Liu Bang.

paragraph: Xiang Yu is a Berserker class Servant from an online mobile RPG game Fate/Grand Order, made obtainable after the release of the new chapter Lost Belt 3 : SIN.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sima Qian. "Records of the Grand Historian", Volume 7.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ban Gu et al. "Book of Han", Volume 31.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sima Guang. "Zizhi Tongjian", volumes 8, 9, 10, 11.

description: Chinese military leader

wikidata_label: Xiang Yu

wikipedia_title: Xiang Yu


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categories: English people of the Wars of Scottish Independence,Lord High Treasurers of England,Lords Privy Seal,Deans of St Paul's,14th-century Roman Catholic bishops,People from the Borough of Stafford,Bishops of Lichfield,Archdeacons of Richmond,13th-century births,1358 deaths

paragraph: Roger Northburgh

paragraph: Roger Northburgh (died 1358) was a cleric, administrator and politician who was Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield from 1321 until his death. His was a stormy career as he was inevitably involved in many of the conflicts of his time: military, dynastic and ecclesiastical.

paragraph: Section::::Origins and education.

paragraph: Northburgh was long supposed to derive his name from Norbury, Staffordshire, which was considered his birthplace. Sometimes his name has even been rendered as Norbury, as in the edition of his episcopal register by Edmund Hobhouse. However, the identification is no longer accepted as certain. Norbury is, in any case, a very common toponym: even within Northburgh's diocese, there were several examples. Nothing definite is known of his background. He seems to have communicated in Norman French, which makes it likely, but still not certain, that he came from the landed class of French descent.

paragraph: Northburgh is often said to have been educated at Cambridge University. His interest in the university around 1321 makes this plausible, but there is no direct evidence to support it. He must have acquired an adequate education in Latin to perform his ecclesiastical functions.

paragraph: Section::::Royal servant.

paragraph: Northburgh appears as early as 1306-7, during the reign of Edward I, already employed in the royal wardrobe. This was the recruiting ground from which senior figures in the royal government were drawn. By 1310, under Edward II he was a wardrobe clerk on a wage of 7½d. per day. However, the wardrobe was coming under great pressure from the powerful baronial opposition, the Lords Ordainers, and its funds reducing as they sought to reduce the independent power of the monarchy. In 1311-12, Northburgh accompanied the king as he led an army to Scotland and then across northern England, while the Ordainers, dominated the south.

paragraph: Section::::Keeper of the Privy Seal.

paragraph: It is unclear at exactly what point Northburgh was given custody of the Privy Seal, although he definitely held the post by 18 September 1312 and continued in office until 1316. He was not given the formal title of Keeper of the Privy Seal until 1315, apparently the first so-called, although the function had existed for some time. His keepership is regarded as decisive in constituting it as a separate office. The administrators who worked under him, although at first numbered among the wardrobe clerks, became titled "clerks of the privy seal," thus constituting a separate staff for the first time.

paragraph: The barons were determined to separate control of the privy seal from the court, which they saw as the source of the nation's ills, and Northburgh seemed ready to work with them. Under the terms imposed on the king by parliament, Northburgh was compelled to work in London with his staff, separately from the rest of the Court, which kept its distance from the barons. He was in London with three clerks during the autumn of 1312 and again, with his staff enlarged to four, for the early part of 1313, and yet again, with two assistants, from February to May. During these absences, John of Reading, a clerk in the royal household forged the privy seal and a major scandal broke, tainting for a time senior members of the royal household whom he tried to implicate in his crime. However, his trial in February 1313 concluded that he was acting alone and he was hanged, despite benefit of clergy. In the summer of 1313 Northburgh was reunited with the king for a time, accompanying him on a journey to France, but was away again in the early part of 1314.

paragraph: Northburgh rejoined the king for the campaign of summer 1314 in Scotland, which was hampered from the outset by lack of resources. He and the two clerks accompanying him were captured at the Battle of Bannockburn in June, along with the seal itself, and his accounts of the administration of the wardrobe were lost. Some of the king's debts were not paid for more than twenty years, as the records were missing. The king was forced to write from Berwick-upon-Tweed to every English sheriff to warn them that the seal was no longer under his control and not to act solely on its authority. The logical problem of validating the letter itself was solved by using the seal of Queen Isabella, and this continued in use until mid-July, when a new privy seal came into use. Northburgh was probably soon at liberty again and acts issued on his initiative recommenced on 22 November. He retained the seal and was with the court intermittently in the first half of 1315, but he was given leave of absence from July to October. He became Keeper of the wardrobe from 1 February 1316, after the previous keeper, William Melton, was elected Archbishop of York. He was to hold the post until 1322.

paragraph: Section::::Ecclesiastical preferment.

paragraph: Near the beginning of his political and ecclesiastical career, Northburgh is found in 1308 as a subdeacon, the lowest of the major orders of the Church, but already a rector in the Diocese of Carlisle, and securing papal permission to take a further benefice, valued at 50 marks This was perhaps the rectory in the Diocese of Exeter that he was holding in 1313, when he next received leave to hold benefices in plurality. The number extra was two, and Kingsford reports three possible candidates, all royal grants, including two in the Diocese of Lincoln.

paragraph: For some years from 1315 the king made persistent efforts to equip his faithful servant Northburgh with further ecclesiastical benefices to provide a steady income in keeping with his status. Initially he tried to place Northburgh in canonries with lucrative prebends at various cathedrals. On 11 June 1315 the king granted him the predend of Wistow in the Archdiocese of York. This was already the subject of a succession battle that had gone on for two years. The king was forced to make the grant again on 10 December, allowing Northburgh to ease out John Nassington, the victor of the earlier struggle, in the following year. On 26 July 1315 the king granted Northburgh the prebend of Farndon-cum-Balderton in the Diocese of Lincoln. This attempt proved unsuccessful as the prebend was already occupied by an absentee Italian cleric. However the grant of the prebend of Stoke, also in Lincoln Diocese, on 1 November 1315 proved more fruitful. The incumbent, possibly the same Italian cleric, proved vulnerable here, as the prebend had been declared vacant during the reign of Edward I, and he was canonically removed by the bishop on 29 July 1316.

paragraph: In March 1316 papal approval was given, at the king's request, for Northburgh to be provided to a canonry at Wells Cathedral and a long list is given of the benefices he already occupies, including two not already noted: a parish church in the Diocese of Bath and Wells and a prebend of Beverley Minster. However, the provision seems never have happened: this was a period of interregnum for the papacy and there is no subsequent mention of Northburgh among the canons of Wells. Also 1316 the king attempted to present Northburgh to the prebend of Blewbury in the Diocese of Salisbury However, the right of presentation was contested here and the subsequent series of legal challenges dragged on for ten years, leaving Northburgh empty handed. Further confusion attended the king's presentation of Northburgh to the prebend of Piona Parva in the Diocese of Hereford in 1317. In this case the king himself unaccountably granted the position to Roger Nassington concurrently. Northburgh emerged victorious but in 1318 exchanged the prebend for that of Yatesbury in the Diocese of Salisbury, which he held until he became a bishop. Northburgh was also successfully inserted into a unidentified prebend of the Diocese of St David's, where he is attested on 14 March 1317.

paragraph: These were relatively small income streams. However, the king also briefly attempted to make Northburgh Dean of St Paul's, with what serious hope of success is unclear. There had already been a three-year wrangle over the position, with the king initially favouring John Sandale, while the pope provided Vitalis de Testa, and Richard Newport was elected. However two contenders dropped out of the race by acquiring bishoprics: Sandale became Bishop of Winchester and Newport Bishop of London. Northburgh was imposed by royal grant at some time in early 1317, as the pope complained in May that he had illegally taken charge and requested the king to protect the interests of Vitalis. Northburgh also briefly acquired the St Paul’s prebend of Newington by royal grant on 1 January 1317. However, Vitalis emerged victorious in 1318 and Northburgh seems to have abandoned hope of an economic or power base in the capital. He settled for being Archdeacon of Richmond, a post to which he was appointed by royal grant of 29 May 1317. On 24 September of that year he made his profession of loyalty to William Melton, whose consecration as ]Archbishop of York had been greatly delayed, and remained in post until he became a bishop. The powerful and wealthy Archdiaconate of Richmond, dominating much of the north-west of England, was able to act in most respects as a diocese in its own right, with its own consistory court and complete control of institutions to benefices.

paragraph: With his promotions, the king tried to ensure that the emoluments of previous occupants of the offices passed to Northburgh. For example, a letter under the privy seal was sent to the Abbess of Wilton ordering her to transfer a pension paid to Ralph de Stoke, previous keeper of the wardrobe, to the new man.

paragraph: Section::::Keeper of the wardrobe.

paragraph: Tout saw Northburgh as part of a "middle party," between the king and his most redoubtable opponent, Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, which formed during 1317-18 and attempted to win the king's trust for the moderate, reforming baronial opposition, centred on Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere and Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke Davies had already expressed a similar view. The idea that there was any such party is now generally rejected, but there was certainly a considerable number of churchmen who sought to mediate the disputes. As keeper of the wardrobe, Northburgh had great responsibilities in the area of royal finances and corresponding opportunities to seek compromise reforms.

paragraph: The parliament of 1318, convened on 20 October at York, came after a reconciliation between the king and Lancaster, who had dominated the political scene since Bannockburn. It was attended by Northburgh, who was claiming an allowance for conducting negotiations with the Scots. It made a serious effort to reform the royal household. An audit of Northburgh's accounts showed that the wardrobe had recovered some of its former financial power by 1318, and an increasing proportion of its resources came from "foreign" sources, i.e. income streams that did not pass through the Exchequer and were not easily subject to outside scrutiny. A reform committee was set up, changes made in personnel, and a reform ordinance, prescribing much greater accountability, and closer definition of the roles of royal officials, drafted by a Northburgh, Badlesmere, Despenser and Gilbert Wigton, the controller of the wardrobe. This was accepted by the king. After this, the wardrobe seems to have run smoothly under Northburgh's administration, with receipts and expenditure rising only in time of war, particularly the abortive expedition to reverse the capture of Berwick.

paragraph: The idea that Northburgh was Chancellor of the University of Cambridge from 1321 to 1326 is now discredited, although it goes back at least as far as Henry Wharton's 1691compilation of episcopal biographies, Anglia Sacra. It seems to stem from his initiation of a scheme for the university to set up halls of residence for theology and philosophy students, financed by an investment in the advowsons of churches. This was given a royal licence on 5 February 1321. Nothing more came of the project.

paragraph: Northburgh was recommended for preferement to the pope by the king in letters from 1318 to 1320. From 1320 to mid-1321 he was also the king's candidate to become a cardinal. John de Stratford also claimed that this was one of the aims of his protracted mission to Avignon, from which he emerged as Bishop of Winchester in 1323. However, when the Diocese of Coventry and Lichfield became vacant late in 1321, Northburgh was not the king's preferred candidate.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield.:Elevation to epicopacy.

paragraph: Walter Langton, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, died on 9 November 1321 and the king issued a licence to elect the new bishop on 22 of the month. However, there was disagreement between the secular clergy of the chapter at Lichfield Cathedral and the Benedictine monks of the chapter at Coventry Cathedral, over whether they were to be equal partners in the election: a position agreed during the time of Bishop Roger Weseham (1245–56), although the dispute stretched back to the tortuous election process following the death of Geoffrey de Muschamp in 1208. The Lichfield canons decided to appeal to Pope John XXII over the issue, initiating a case that was to drag on for twelve years. The king wrote to the Pope requesting that he provide Robert Baldock, then keeper of the privy seal, to the see. The Coventry chapter, however, went ahead with the election, choosing their own prior, Henry, who is identified with Henry of Leicester by "Fasti Ecclesiae".

paragraph: All of these moves proved futile, as the Pope provided Northburgh to the vacant see on 14 December, apparently without reference to the other candidates, and wrote to the king, the Archbishop, the chapters, the clergy and the people of the diocese, informing them of the appointment on 19 January 1322: in May the unfortunate Baldock was promised a canonry and prebend at Salisbury Cathedral. The spring of that year was marked by the revolt of Thomas of Lancaster and the Battle of Boroughbridge on 16 March. Hence, it not surprising that Northburgh had to wait until 12 April to be invested with the temporalities.

paragraph: From this point Northburgh began to take control of the diocese, although he was forced to assemble a team of deputies, as he had not yet set foot in either of the diocesan centres. He appointed Master Ralph Holbeach as his commissary-general, dealing with appointments among other matters. Holbeach was forced to act quickly, responding to recent political events. He installed in the prebend of Gaia Major William of Harlaston, a clerk of the chancery who was trusted to look after both the privy seal and the Great Seal on occasion, as John of Chelmsford, the incumbent, had been deprived for supporting Lancaster's revolt: this was a decision Chelmsford later emerged from prison to contest. Holbeach also had to see that John of Kynardessey, a clerical client of Lancaster, was transferred to the prebend of Flixton, apparently making room for Robert Baldock in that of Eccleshall, although the details are complex and hazy, and were to lead to further disputes later.

paragraph: While at Rothwell, Northamptonshire with the king, Northburgh appointed Gilbert Ó Tigernaig, the Bishop of Annaghdown (rendered in the diocesan register as "Enagdun") as suffragan bishop, to carry out ordinations and other necessary episcopal functions, and Stephen Blound as seneschal. Later, from Bosworth he recommissioned Holbeach, widening his powers, and appointed as his vicar general Geoffrey of Blaston, the experienced Archdeacon of Derby. These were troubled times and there were apparently already disturbances in the diocese. A sentence of excommunication had to be read out at Eccleshall against parishioners suspected of breaking into the bishop's deer parks, although it is unclear whether this concerned Blore, near Eccleshall, or Brewood, further south, or both, as both are mentioned. It later transpired that one of the malefactors was a cleric, Thomas de Stretton, who with his brother William, was later fined for a series of outrages: roaming with an armed gang, carrying out assaults and raiding Brewood Park to carry off game.

paragraph: Northburgh was at last consecrated on 27 June at Halesowen Abbey by Thomas Cobham, the Bishop of Worcester and five other bishops. He decreed a forty-day indulgence to pilgrims who visited the Abbey's most important relic, the head of St Barbara, so long as they also made a gift and said both the Lord's Prayer for the king and queen and the Hail Mary in English. He made his profession of obedience to the Archbishop of Canterbury on 31 August.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield.:Diocesan conflicts.

paragraph: Northburgh was in almost constant conflict with his Lichfield chapter. An underlying problem was that most of the senior diocesan posts, and many of the less important, were filled by papal provision, leading to high rate of absenteeism. Nearly half, 47 out of 98, of the appointments of canons in Northburgh's episcopate were made in this way. Northburgh's treasurers, a key role in the diocese, were both important foreign prelates. Until 1348 the post was occupied by Gaucelin Johannis Deuza of Cahors, who was cardinal priest of Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano: Then came Hugh Pelegrini, a papal nuncio. Both were absentees. The problem became immediately apparent, as Northburgh's first major decision was to conduct a thorough canonical visitation of the diocese, starting with the Archdeaconry of Stafford. The Deanery, another key post in the administration, was occupied by Stephen Segrave, who was absent at the Roman Curia, at that time based in Avignon. Northburgh's proposal to visit the chapter itself led to a protest from Dean Segrave, who claimed exclusive rights to discipline the canons. The canons wrote to Northburgh requesting a delay because the dean was still at Avignon. However, Northburgh visited the Coventry chapter on 27 September and at Michaelmas wrote to Lichfield, rejecting the request for a delay and asserting the importance of the proposed visitation. Northburgh seems to have simply reiterated his original citation, rejected the claim of immunity and proceeded with the visitation.

paragraph: Probably seeing that he would get little practical help from the chapter, Northburgh appointed William Weston as his official, assigned him the prebend of Dasset Parva, and set out on the visitation of Stafford Archdeaconry, which included the areas immediately surrounding Lichfield itself. Problems and resistance were soon encountered. The king's invasion of Scotland had ended in an ignominious retreat and some parishes had to be exempted from visitation because their men had been called away to help resist a Scottish counter-invasion. The parishioners of Abbots Bromley refused to appear at Colton parish church and were excommunicated. At Cheswardine there were more excommunications after the bishop's representative was assaulted. As the military situation worsened, Northburgh was summoned by the king and had to call off the visitation completely.

paragraph: Northburgh's excommunication of the Archdeacon of Chester in 1323 led to a repetition of the earlier protests, as the archdeacon was a member of the cathedral chapter. The Bishop's steward, probably Blound, presumed to test the weights and measures used by the canons and was brought before the chapter, where Segrave abused both him and Northburgh. Segrave had been provided by the pope to become Archbishop of Armagh in 1323 but was allowed to postpone his transfer for a year. He resigned the deanery at last on 29 April 1324, when he was consecrated at Avignon. Northburgh tried to use the vacancy to take over jurisdiction, and the chapter wrote to other cathedrals with chapters of secular clergy for advice. Segrave's replacement, Roger de Covenis, was provided by the Pope and was installed on 24 November. He too was keen to uphold the established order at the cathedral, but his commitment to the post did not last long: he exchanged it with John Garssia in 1328 for a canonry at Lleida. However, the chapter continued to defend itself against the Bishop, paying for legal representation from a common fund. By 1329 there were seven cases pending in the Court of Arches.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield.:Diocesan business.

paragraph: The ODNB entry on Northburgh describes him as apparently "efficient and conscientious" as a bishop. There is evidence that he undertook further visitations in 1331, 1338 and 1378-8. He seems generally to have been supportive to serving clergy and fairly sensitive to the needs of the laity, while often firm with clerical laxity.

paragraph: At St John the Baptist's Church, Chester, a great collegiate church, Northburgh's visitation of 1331 found the usual absenteeism by the chapter, who relied on poorly paid vicars to perform their work. He gave the vicars security of tenure, ordering that they be dismissed only with his own permission, and ordered that they be paid punctually and allowed to use the dwellings of the absentee canons, pending provision of proper common quarters. When he visited in 1348 he found that the vicars were still not being allowed to use the premises of the canons. Moreover, absenteeism and poor management had wasted resources, allowing the fabric of the building and the liturgical vestments to deteriorate alarmingly. This time he cancelled outstanding leases and capped the canons' incomes at 16 marks, earmarking the surplus for necessary work.

paragraph: Language issues seem to have loomed large and Northburgh intervened in various ways to remove barriers to communication. When appointing penitentiaries for the diocese, empowered to hear confessions from all the laity and clergy of their districts, Northburgh took care to ensure that there was one to serve the Welsh language speakers – the Rector of Hanmer, near Wrexham – as well as several to work in English. He also licensed John Gilbert to start an embryonic grammar school at Oswestry. Latin was a barrier even to many clerics and religious. After visiting Farewell Priory, very close to Lichfield, in 1331, Northburgh had a good deal to say about enforcing better discipline and segregation from lay people, but was compelled to have his decrees translated from the customary Latin into Norman French to ensure there was no excuse of incomprehension for the nuns.

paragraph: Northburgh carried out numerous visitations to religious houses, as well as intervening on other occasions to secure improvements in governance. In 1322 William de Bloxham, the Prior of Arbury, offered his resignation as soon as a visitation was announced, explaining that he was "insufficiens ad regimen", not up to the task of leadership, as soon as Northburgh arrived in the diocese and Holbeach was deputed to hold an inquiry. Evidently Holbeach recommended acceptance of the Prior's resignation, as shortly afterwards Northburgh was making enquiries about the competence and character of John de Borebach, the prior-elect. Later still, under 1326, Northburgh's register has a record of the Prior being deprived, but this appears out of place: it cannot refer to Borebach, who survived in office until 1329. Hobhouse, the editor, conjectured it had been added as a model document for such occasions. Another displaced entry makes clear that provision was made for the retirement of the former prior.

paragraph: John of Chetwynd, abbot of Lilleshall seems to have resigned in 1330 with a visitation in the offing. Northburgh's register records the proposals made for his retirement by the Augustinian canons, who described Chetwynd as "much beloved." His allowance was substantial and burdensome to the community: the building where he lived, including several rooms and a chapel, heating, wax for six candles during winter, a corrody equal in value to that of two canons, a servant, two grooms, a canon to act as chaplain, and a palfrey and baggage-horse, with their fodder. Allegedly to cover his clothing, he was also to receive the income from two of the abbey's manors, Blackfordby in Leicestershire and Freasley, near Tamworth and of two of its churches. Finally his guests and family were to receive to receive reasonable hospitality at Lilleshall. An earlier visitation, probably in 1324, had reported that Chetwynd ran the abbey in a wasteful, dictatorial and unaccountable way. In fact Chetwynd had a history of criminality and violence. In 1316 he and John Ipstones, one of Staffordshire's most turbulent landowners, had raised an armed force to rescue a highway robber who had taken a large sum of money belonging to the king and destined for Ireland. Warrants were issued for their arrest but Chetwynd escaped and went into hiding. Old habits continued and, a year after his retirement, Chetwynd fell out with his successor and raided the abbey with a gang of armed men to seize goods, necessitating a royal intervention to restore order.

paragraph: Women's houses brought criticisms, often of a similar kind. Northburgh had to intervene in the case of Elizabeth la Zouche, who, with another canoness, deserted White Ladies Priory, near Brewood, in 1326. Initially the case was simply advertised in churches. She seems not to have returned until 1331, when she had to confess before Northburgh in Brewood parish church, ask for readmission at the priory entrance and undergo penance. When he visited White Ladies in 1338, Northburgh reprimanded the prioress, Alice Harley, for financial mismanagement and extravagance, including her expenditure on clothes. He also demanded that she cease hunting with hounds.

paragraph: However, Polesworth Abbey in Warwickshire seems to have had a special relationship with the Bishops, Northburgh included, through most of the 14th century and enjoyed unusual favour. One of Northburgh's earliest measures after taking up the see was to grant extraordinary pastoral and liturgical powers to Maud, the abbess-elect. In September 1327 the Pope wrote to the Bishop of Hereford asking him to intervene and secure justice between the rector of Eyton in Shropshire and the abbess of Polesworth. Northburgh had forced Thomas, the rector, to swear to pay the abbess two thirds of his income as a pension before allowing him to be inducted. On taking up the post, Thomas found the remaining third of the revenue insufficient to support him. The Pope had already intervened, ordering members of the Lichfield chapter to annul the oath: Richard Bernard, the Archdeacon of Salop, William de Bosco, the Chancellor, and Gilbert de Bruer, prebendary of Wolvey. He had also ordered the abbess to take the matter no further. However, she had got judgement against Thomas in the secular courts, claiming that the pension was a charge on the rectory instituted by Walter Langton, Northburgh's predecessor. Moreover, the Chancellor and Bruer had delegated their powers to Roger le Mareschall, the prebendary of Dernford, and he and Bernard refused to take the matter further. Once Thomas appealed to the Pope, the abbess had deprived him of his rectory and given it to William de Ipstones. Nothing more is reported of the case. When Northburgh visited the abbey in 1352 he found little to remark upon. He had his injunctions delivered in French, as was now the custom with women's houses.

paragraph: Northburgh also attracted papal criticism for refusing to deal with a consanguinity case. In February 1331 he and Stephen Gravesend, the Bishop of London, were ordered by John XXII to summon witnesses to London to investigate the case of John de Bohun, 5th Earl of Hereford, and Margaret Bassett, of a prominent Staffordshire family. The couple had discovered after their marriage that they were related to the fourth degree. They were at that time living apart. However, a papal letter three years later makes clear that Northburgh refused to act. The pope was forced to relaunch the enquiry, nominating canons from London and Lincoln to replace Northburgh on the panel. The reasons for Northburgh's inaction are not made clear. He certainly had no principled objection to giving dispensations for cousin marriage: he had ratified a papal dispensation in exactly the same circumstances in the interim. A political grudge might offer an explanation: John de Bohun's father, Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, had been one of the moderate ordainers but was provoked by personal conflict with Hugh Despenser the Younger into revolt alongside Lancaster, and was killed at Boroughbridge.

paragraph: The Black Death struck in 1348 and must have created enormous spiritual and practical challenges for the diocese. However, Northburgh's register mostly reflects this only indirectly. One definite reference occurs when a recent pestilence is mentioned when dealing with the need to consecrate a chapel yard at Didsbury for burials in 1352.

paragraph: Section::::Later political career.

paragraph: Section::::Later political career.:Régime change.

paragraph: Northburgh remained in favour with Edward II, through the difficulties of his final years. In 1323, he was sent, with others, to sequestrate the property of John de Stratford: Stratford's papal provision to the see of Winchester had displeased the king, who had once again tried to place Baldock in the post. As late as February 1326 Northburgh was ordered to give aid to the commissions of array raising troops in his diocese.

paragraph: However, Northburgh made a smooth transition to the new régime, and on 13 and 20 January 1327 took the Guildhall oaths, pledging support for the privileges of the City of London and for Queen Isabella and the young Edward III. His attitude to the dominance of the Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, the Marcher Lord who effectively ruled in partnership with the queen, is not known. However, he was made Treasurer on 2 March 1328, although he left the post on 20 May of the same year. He was one of several Treasurers who served for only very short periods because they moved to other work. In his case, this was an embassy to France, which set out in May. It is possible that he never actually took over the functions of Treasurer, as his predecessor, Henry Burghersh, was still acting in the post until at least late April, possibly July. Northburgh accompanied Adam Orleton, then Bishop of Worcester, arriving in Paris at the end of May, to press the claims of Edward III to the French throne after the death of his uncle, Charles IV of France. They were too late and Philip of Valois was crowned. This was a prelude to the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War.

paragraph: Northburgh remained politically active after Edward III took control of his own realm in 1330. He attended the Parliament of 1333 and was one of a group of bishops and nobles appointed to discuss royal activities. On 2 March, probably of 1334, he was with the king at York and was a witness to a privy seal writ freeing the merchants of Coventry of the obligation to pay a range of tolls. The City of London's corporation duly noted the document and agreed the Coventry merchants should no longer pay murage, the toll intended to pay for the city's fortifications. Northburgh's prominence among the witnesses may suggest he had been an advocate for the merchants of his own diocese. When the king moved to assert his claim to the French throne in 1337, Northburgh was active in supporting the venture. He attended an assembly at Stamford in May to discuss financing the war, including the imposition of a royal wool monopoly. In August the king sent out writs to sheriffs and bishops ordering that assemblies of clergy and laity be held in each county to hear his case for the war against the king of France. Northburgh's summonses to the assemblies are recorded in his register. The following month he held a great diocesan assembly of clergy and a simultaneous assembly of Staffordshire laity at Stafford. Each archdeaconry appointed a specific monastery and its head to act as collectors for the tax on clergy, while the laity also voted a grant. A later assembly of merchants agreed a levy on wealthy townsmen.

paragraph: Section::::Later political career.:Treasurer.

paragraph: As the war went on, Northburgh was drawn further into government and into a developing constitutional crisis. On 11 June 1340 he was appointed by letters patent as commissioner, with three others, to requisition ships in the Port of London and elsewhere and fit them out for war, in readiness for assembling them as a fleet on the River Orwell. He was again appointed Treasurer on 21 June. His efforts on the king's behalf were handsomely rewarded by a grant of £200 on 6 July. As Treasurer, he was part of an administration dominated, in the absence of the king, by John de Stratford, now Archbishop of Canterbury, and containing several other Stratford family members. Northburgh seems to have been a welcome addition to the administration, a veteran administrator who shared many of Stratford's values and attitudes.

paragraph: However, the king was becoming increasingly irritated by delays and deficiencies in the resources reaching him during his campaigns in Flanders and this came to a head while he was at Ghent in October and November 1340. He detached himself by agreement from his allies, sent a delegation to Pope Benedict II to express his feelings about Stratford, and embarked at Sluys. He arrived by surprise with a coterie of mainly military men, of whom William de Bohun, 1st Earl of Northampton, a brother of the Earl of Hereford, was the most prominent. He then carried out a coup against his own administration, removing and in some cases arresting, judges and officials whom he identified with Stratford's rule. Northburgh was called to the Tower of London on 1 December, together with Robert de Stratford, the Archbishop's brother, Bishop of Chichester and Chancellor of the Exchequer. Both were summarily dismissed, although neither was arrested. John de Stratford escaped to Canterbury Cathedral, from which he continued to preach and to denounce royal intrusions on ecclesiastical privilege. Northburgh and both Stratfords arrived at the parliament convened on 23 April 1341, armed with a safe conduct and determined to take up their seats. They were prevented for a week by two members of the royal household: Ralph de Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, the steward, and John Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy de Knayth, the chamberlain. They persisted and were strongly supported by John de Warenne, 7th Earl of Surrey, and his nephew, Richard FitzAlan, 10th Earl of Arundel. Their opponents finally withdrew and the king allowed all three bishops to attend. There was then a formal reconciliation but this was effectively the end of Northburgh's participation in national politics.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Northburgh died in office on 22 November 1358.

description: Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield; Lord High Treasurer; Lord Privy Seal

wikidata_label: Roger Northburgh

wikipedia_title: Roger Northburgh


text:
Polish
Senegal
veterinarian
Łódź
Anna Maria Jopek
Voo Voo
Zakopower
murzyn
Member of Parliament
John Godson
racial comments
Africa Another Way Foundation website

categories: Polish musicians,Senegalese emigrants to Poland,Polish activists,Polish veterinarians,Living people,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: Mamadou Diouf (musician)

paragraph: Mamadou Diouf is a Polish musician and writer of Senegalese descent.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: Diouf trained as a veterinarian. He first came to Poland in 1983 to study Polish on a language course in Łódź. He then moved to Warsaw. There he was frequently racially abused, including being attacked in the street "in broad daylight".

paragraph: Section::::Musical career.

paragraph: Diouf has released a number of albums and has collaborated with Anna Maria Jopek, Voo Voo and Zakopower.

paragraph: Section::::Writing.

paragraph: In 2011, Diouf published "A Little Book about Racism" ("Mała książka o rasizmie"). He has also frequently spoken out against racism in Poland and the use of the racial term murzyn ("black" or "negro"). He also co-authored with Stephano Sambali "How to talk to Polish children about children from Africa" ("Jak mówić polskim dzieciom o dzieciach z Afryki").

paragraph: Section::::Activism.

paragraph: In 2007, Diouf set up the "Africa Another Way Foundation" to increase "knowledge sharing and communication" regarding African issues in Poland.

paragraph: Diouf has criticised Poland's first black Member of Parliament, John Godson, who has said that the word "murzyn" is not offensive and that he is proud to be called one. In response, Diouf has said that the word has only had "negative connotations" (it is used in many pejorative phrases) and that Godson does not know the etymology of the word.

paragraph: Regarding racial comments said by prominent Polish figures, Diouf has said: "That's the problem in this country. I'm not even talking about racism, but there's no critique when someone says these things."

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Africa Another Way Foundation website

description: musician

wikidata_label: Mamadou Diouf

wikipedia_title: Mamadou Diouf (musician)


text:
House of Griffins
Pomerania-Stettin
Mittelmark
Barnim III
Teilherzogtum
Pomerania-Stettin
Casimir III
Bogislaw VII
Waldemar IV of Denmark
Hanseatic League
Albert II of Mecklenburg
Otto
Chojna
Teilherzogtum
Charles IV
Wartislaw VI
Bogislaw VI
Bogislaw V
Cammin
Pomerania
Treaty of Fürstenwalde
Elisabeth of Pomerania
feud
Teutonic Knights
Otto II
Riga
John of Wallenrode
Battle of Grunwald
Casimir V
Sigismund
enfeoffed
Jobst of Moravia
Margraviate of Brandenburg
Frederick I
Cistercian
Kołbacz
Frederick IV, Burgrave of Nuremberg
Otto II
Casimir V
Ulrich I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard
List of Pomeranian duchies and dukes

categories: 1350s births,1413 deaths,14th-century German people,Year of birth unknown,House of Griffins,Dukes of Pomerania

paragraph: Swantibor III, Duke of Pomerania

paragraph: Swantibor III, Duke of Pomerania, or, according to a different way of counting, Swantibor I. (born: – died: 21 June 1413) was a member of the House of Griffins, a Duke of Pomerania-Stettin and for a while governor of the Mittelmark.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Duke Swantibor III was a son of Barnim III, nicknamed "the church founder" (born: ; died: 1368), who ruled in the Teilherzogtum of Pomerania-Stettin. After Barnim III's death in 1368, his three surviving sons Casimir III, Swantibor III and Bogislaw VII ruled Pomerania-Stettin jointly.

paragraph: At the time of their succession to power, Denmark under King Waldemar IV of Denmark was at war with the Hanseatic League and its allies, in particular Duke Albert II of Mecklenburg. The late Duke Barnim III had sided with Denmark. His sons, however, made peace with Albert on 7 November 1368 and took a neutral stance towards Denmark. This brought them into conflict with Margrave Otto of Brandenburg, who sided with Denmark. This conflict escalated to war. Duke Casimir III died during the siege of Chojna in 1372.

paragraph: After Casimir's death, Swantibor III and Bogislaw VII ruled jointly, with Swantibor III now playing the leading role. He was faced with the challenge to maintain the position of Pomerania, which was splintered into several Teilherzogtumer, against its neighbours, in particular, against Brandenburg. When Emperor Charles IV (1316–1378) tried to win Brandenburg for his relatives, Swantibor initially feared that Charles IV would revive old claims that Brandenburg held suzerainty over Pomerania. On 17 May 1373 all the Pomeranian dukes, that is, Swantibor III and Bogislaw VII from Pomerania-Stettin, Wartislaw VI and Bogislaw VI from Pomerania-Wolgast, Bogislaw V of Pomerania-Stolp and Philip of Rehberg, Bishop of Cammin, joined forces to protect their interests and their common ownership of Pomerania. When Emperor Charles IV had acquired Brandenburg for his family by the Treaty of Fürstenwalde of 15 August 1373, however, Charles initiated a friendly relation with the Pomeranian dukes, contrary to their expectations, perhaps because he had married Bogislaw V's daughter, Elisabeth of Pomerania. Charles IV was particularly friendly with Swantibor, who occasionally participated in imperial affairs, and who served as an imperial judge.

paragraph: The situation in Pomerania remained disorganized. The Dukes had conflicts with the Pomeranian cities and were short of funds due to their ongoing feuds.

paragraph: The relation with the neighbouring Teutonic Knights was inconsistent. In 1388, Swantibor III and Bogislaw VII served the order for a while. In 1403, however, Swantibor tried to make his son Otto II archbishop of Riga, against the will of the Order, who supported John of Wallenrode as their candidate for the position. In the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, a Pomeranian contingent led by Swantibor's son Casimir V, fought on the side of the Order. The Order lost the battle and Casimir was taken prisoner by the victorious Poles. He was, however, released soon afterwards.

paragraph: In 1388, Charles IV's son Sigismund (1368–1437) enfeoffed Jobst of Moravia (1351–1411) with the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Conflicts erupted again between Brandenburg and Pomerania. In 1409, a compromise was reached between Jobst and Swantibor and Jobst enfeoffed Swantibor with the Lordship of Beeskow. Swantibor then fell into disputes with the local nobility in Beeskow, who had previously supported him against Jobst.

paragraph: After Jobst died in 1411, Sigismund enfeoffed Brandenburg to Burgrave Frederick VI of Nuremberg, who later became Elector of Brandenburg as Frederick I. Swantibor initially remained on his post as governor of the Mittelmark. In 1412, however, he retired ane left the business of government to his sons. Swantibor's sons soon fell into military conflicts with Frederick and Dukes Otto II and Casimir V defeated Frederick in the second Battle at the Kremmen Causeway.

paragraph: Swantibor III died on 21 June 1413, while the conflict with Brandenburg was still raging. He was buried in the Cistercian monastery at Kołbacz.

paragraph: The verdict of the historian Martin Wehrmann (1861–1937) was the Duke Swantibor "seems to have been an energetic and capable ruler, who was unfortunately, due to the condition of his country, unable to achieve permanent results.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and issue.

paragraph: In 1374, Swantibor III married Anna, the daughter of the Burgrave Albert the Beautiful of Nuremberg, and granddaughter of Frederick IV, Burgrave of Nuremberg. Two sons and a daughter survived him:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Otto II ( – 1428)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Casimir V (after 1380 – 1434)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret, married Ulrich I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Stargard

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Pomeranian duchies and dukes

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Klaus Conrad: "Herzogliche Schwäche und städtische Macht in der zweiten Hälfte des 14. und im 15. Jahrhundert", in: Werner Buchholz (ed.): "Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas. Pommern", Siedler Verlag, Berlin, 1999, , p. 127-202

paragraph: BULLET::::- Martin Wehrmann: "Geschichte von Pommern." vol. 1, 2nd ed., Verlag Friedrich Andreas Perthes, Gotha, 1919, reprinted: Augsburg, 1992,

description: Duke of Pomerania-Stettin, Governor of the Mittelmark

wikidata_label: Swantibor III, Duke of Pomerania

wikipedia_title: Swantibor III, Duke of Pomerania


text: Paris

text: Neuilly-sur-Seine

text: French

text: Édouard Manet

text: Paul Cézanne

text: margarine

text: General Consul

text: porcelain

text: faience

text: Antoine Vollon

text: Jean Jacques Henner

text: Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot

text: Impressionists

text: Édouard Manet

text: Cézanne

text: Ambroise Vollard

text: francs

text: Bernheim-Jeune

text: Durand-Ruel

text: Paul Cassirer

text: Heinrich Thannhauser

text: Anne Distel

categories: 1853 births,1929 deaths,French art collectors

paragraph: Auguste Pellerin

paragraph: Auguste Pellerin (20 February 1853, Paris - 18 October 1929, Neuilly-sur-Seine) was a French entrepreneur and art collector. He was one of the most important collectors of the works of Édouard Manet and Paul Cézanne at the beginning of the 20th century.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Auguste Pellerin attained his fortune through margarine manufacturing. His successful enterprise included factories in France, England, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. From 1906 until his death in 1929 he also acted as Norwegian General Consul in Paris.

paragraph: At first, Pellerin collected craft objects such as porcelain, faience, and glass. He soon began to collect works by established painters such as Antoine Vollon und Jean Jacques Henner. Paintings by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and the Impressionists followed. At this point he focused on Édouard Manet, buying many major works by that artist. In 1898 he acquired his first Cézanne from Ambroise Vollard. Over the years he accumulated a notable collection of more than 90 works by these artists. Pellerin became personally acquainted with some of these artists, including Cézanne, who sketched his portrait in 1899. Two further portraits were painted by Henri Matisse around 1916-17.

paragraph: On 2 February 1910, 35 of Pellerin's Manets were sold for 1,000,000 francs to a consortium of art dealers that included Bernheim-Jeune, Durand-Ruel, and Paul Cassirer, a move that stirred controversy. Many of these paintings, which through Heinrich Thannhauser were exhibited in the "Moderne Galerie" in Munich, were later sold to German collectors and eventually ended up in German museums. Although Pellerin sold more of his collection during his lifetime, his son Jean-Victor Pellerin and his daughter Mme Réne Lecomte still inherited a substantial number of paintings, drawings, and sculptures. In 1982 his heirs gave 14 of the most important Cézanne paintings in the remaining collection to French state museums.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emil Waldmann: "Édouard Manet in der Sammlung Pellerin" in Kunst und Künstler 8/1909-1910, p. 387-398.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Josef Kern: "Impressionismus im Wilhelinischen Deutschland". Königshausen Neumann, Würzburg 1989, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anne Distel: "Impressionism, The First Collectors". Harry N Abrams, New York 1990, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catherine Krahmer (Ed.): "Kunst ist nicht für Kunstgeschichte da, Briefe und Dokumente". Wallstein, Göttingen 2002, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andreas Hollezcek (Ed.): "Französische Kunst - Deutsche Perspektiven 1870 - 1945, Quellen und Kommentare zur Kunstkritik". Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2004, .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrait of Auguste Pellerin by Henri Matisse, 1917

description: French art collector

wikidata_label: Auguste Pellerin

wikipedia_title: Auguste Pellerin