text:
African-American
baseball
Shortstop
Second baseman
Negro leagues
Leland Giants
Lincoln Giants
Brooklyn Royal Giants
Pittsburgh Courier

categories: Baseball players from Virginia,Leland Giants players,Place of death missing,1882 births,Year of death missing

paragraph: George Martin Wright

paragraph: George Martin "Jess" Wright (Born August 1, 1882) was an African-American baseball Shortstop and Second baseman in the pre-Negro leagues.

paragraph: Wright began his baseball career in Norfolk, Virginia playing for the Red Stockings in 1904.

paragraph: He moved to the Brooklyn Royal Giants and played shortstop there in 1905 and 1906, moving to the Philadelphia Quaker Giants for the last part of 1906.

paragraph: He returned to the Leland Giants in 1907, where he would remain until a court battle split the Leland Giants in 1910. Wright went to the Chicago Giants and played there in 1910.

paragraph: He moved on to the New York Lincoln Giants in 1911, and finished up the last part of the season with the last known team he was known to play on (at this time), the Brooklyn Royal Giants in 1913.

paragraph: Wright received votes listing him on the 1952 "Pittsburgh Courier" player-voted poll of the Negro Leagues' best players ever.

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: George Martin Wright

wikipedia_title: George Martin Wright


text: Mikhail Lermontov

text: duel

categories: 1815 births,Duellists,1875 deaths,Imperial Russian Army personnel,Mikhail Lermontov,Russian military personnel of the Caucasian War

paragraph: Nikolai Martynov

paragraph: Nikolai Solomonovich Martynov () (1815–1875) was the Russian army officer who fatally shot the poet Mikhail Lermontov in a cliff-edge duel on July 27, 1841, despite Lermontov's supposedly having made it known that he was going to shoot into the air.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brief Biography of Lermontov at faculty.virginia.edu with mention of the duel

description: Russian army officer

wikidata_label: Nikolai Martynov

wikipedia_title: Nikolai Martynov


text:
Noord-Scharwoude
Amsterdam
Dutch
architect
Calvinist
Amsterdam School
Calvinist
minister
draughtsman
Eduard Cuypers
Johan van der Mey
Piet Kramer
Michel de Klerk
Amsterdam School
Charles Estourgie
Arie Keppler
Tuindorp Oostzaan
Tuindorp Nieuwendam
Amsterdam
Abraham Kuyper
Martin Luther
John Calvin
Vrije university
Second World War
Rhenen
Eusebiuskerk
Arnhem

categories: People from Langedijk,Dutch architects,1886 births,1969 deaths,Dutch ecclesiastical architects

paragraph: Berend Tobia Boeyinga

paragraph: Berend Tobia Boeyinga (Noord-Scharwoude, 27 March 1886 - Amsterdam, 6 November 1969) was a Dutch architect noted for his Calvinist church buildings and as a practicing member of the Amsterdam School.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Boeyinga was the son of a Calvinist minister. Boeyinga started his training as a carpenter and then as a draughtsman and a foreman. From 1909 until 1919 he studied in Amsterdam to become an architect. In this period he worked for two years at the office of Eduard Cuypers. Cuypers gave the architects working in his office considerable autonomy and Boeyinga, Johan van der Mey, Piet Kramer and Michel de Klerk, all of whom were more experimental than Cuypers himself, established the principle of what would later become known as the Amsterdam School, while working there. Boeyinga then went on to work for Charles Estourgie and, from 1917 to 1921, for Michel de Klerk. During this period Boeyinga oversaw the construction of De Klerk's famous housing complexes at the Spaarndammerplantsoen in Amsterdam.

paragraph: After the completion of his studies with a massive design for a government building in Amsterdam, the director of the municipal housing service, ir. Arie Keppler, asked Boeyinga to design new garden villages in Amsterdam-Noord, known today as Tuindorp Oostzaan and Tuindorp Nieuwendam. These projects are now considered highlights of Amsterdam school architecture, of which they represent a rural variant.

paragraph: Not satisfied with the relative anonymity of his work as a municipal civil servant, and insufficiently harnassed against the developments in Amsterdam which would marginalise the municipal housing service, Boeyinga established himself as an independent architect in 1926. That year he built his first church, the Kloppersingelkerk in Haarlem, based on a design he had entered in a competition for a new Calvinist church in Amsterdam in 1923. The church was designed according to the ideas of Abraham Kuyper, leader of the denomination Boeyinga was a member of. The space had a fan-shaped floorplan with the pulpit at the centre. Stylistically the church was closely related to the Amsterdam School. There was some controversy about the inclusion of statues at the entrance of Protestant leaders like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Kuyper. Since the church on 23 March 2003 was entirely destroyed by a dramatic fire, these statues are all that remain of the building. Although Boeyinga designed many more churches, the complexity of the Kloppersingelkerk was never repeated.

paragraph: For the Vrije university in Amsterdam he built the famous laboratories in the 1930s. In that period he became involved in the training of architects, first as a teacher, later as the head of a school for architecture in Amsterdam. After the Second World War he was involved in restoration work, among others the Cuneratoren in Rhenen and The Eusebiuskerk in Arnhem, both heavily damaged during the war.

paragraph: Section::::Buildings (Selected).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Garden village Oostzaan, Zonneplein Amsterdam-Noord, 1921–1924

paragraph: BULLET::::- Garden village Nieuwendam, Purmerplein / weg Amsterdam-Noord, 1923–1926

paragraph: BULLET::::- Church, Kloppersingel (destroyed 2003) Haarlem,1926–1927

paragraph: BULLET::::- Church Bergen (NH), 1926–1927

paragraph: BULLET::::- Church Bergen op Zoom, 1927–1928

paragraph: BULLET::::- VU Laboratories Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1930–1932

paragraph: BULLET::::- Restoration Cunera-church Rhenen, 1940–1963

paragraph: BULLET::::- Restoration Eusebius-church Arnhem, 1946–1961

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pniël-church, Amsterdam, 1954

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.vitruvio.ch/arc/masters_02/boeyinga.php

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Radboud van Beekum: B.T. Boeyinga, Amsterdamse School Architect, Thoth, Bussum, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maristella Casciato, The Amsterdam School, Rotterdam, 1996

paragraph: BULLET::::- G. Fanelli, Architettura moderna in Olanda 1900-1940, Florence, 1968

description: Dutch architect

wikidata_label: Berend Tobia Boeyinga

wikipedia_title: Berend Tobia Boeyinga


text: Phipps family

text: Hanover Bank

text: U.S. Steel Corp.

text: W. R. Grace & Co.

text: Allegheny, Pennsylvania

text: Henry Phipps

text: Pittsburgh

text: entrepreneur

text: Andrew Carnegie

text: Carnegie Steel Company

text: Amy Phipps

text: Frederick Edward Guest

text: Bradley Martin

text: Henry Carnegie Phipps

text: Gladys Livingston Mills

text: The Plains, Virginia

text: polo

text: Thoroughbred

text: Quaker

text: Long Island

text: Old Westbury Gardens

text: West Palm Beach, Florida

text: El Cid Historic District

text: Addison Mizner

text: Margarita Celia Grace

text: Battle Abbey

text: Battle, East Sussex

text: England

text: Michael P. Grace

text: William Russell Grace

text: Irish

text: Grace Shipping Line

text: John Henry Phipps

text: Hubert Beaumont Phipps

text: Margaret Phipps Boegner

text: Michael Grace Phipps

text: Palm Beach, Florida

text: Phipps family

text: Old Westbury Gardens

text: Photos of Westbury House & Gardens

text: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

text: "Brenton", The Plains, Virginia

categories: American polo players,People from Palm Beach, Florida,People from Westbury, New York,American racehorse owners and breeders,1874 births,Yale University alumni,American real estate businesspeople,Real estate and property developers,Phipps family,People from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania,1958 deaths

paragraph: John Shaffer Phipps

paragraph: John Shaffer Phipps (August 11, 1874 – May 12, 1958) was an American lawyer and businessman who was an heir to the Phipps family fortune and a shareholder of his father-in-law's Grace Shipping Lines. He was a director of the Hanover Bank, U.S. Steel Corp. and W. R. Grace & Co.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: John Shaffer Phipps, who was known as "Jay", was born on August 11, 1874 in Allegheny, Pennsylvania to Henry Phipps (1839–1930) and Anne Childs Shaffer (1850–1934).

paragraph: His father was the son of English born parents who emigrated to Philadelphia in the early part of the 19th century before settling in Pittsburgh in 1845. His father became an entrepreneur known for his business relationship with Andrew Carnegie and involvement with the Carnegie Steel Company.

paragraph: His siblings were Amy Phipps (1872–1959), who married Frederick Edward Guest (1875–1937), Helen Margaret Phipps (1876–1934), who married Bradley Martin, Henry Carnegie Phipps (1879–1953), who married Gladys Livingston Mills (1883–1970), and Howard Phipps (1881–1981), who married Harriet Dyer Price.

paragraph: Section::::Estates.

paragraph: John Phipps amassed almost of rolling Virginia farm lands in The Plains, Virginia including Brenton, an 1889 stone manor house. He was a polo player and Thoroughbred racehorse owner, and the property assembled from 1928 onwards would be the site of his Rockburn Stud farm. Upon his death it passed to his son Hubert.

paragraph: Phipps purchased an old Quaker farm on Long Island where he built a large mansion with magnificent gardens that, following his death, became a non-profit organization that today is known as Old Westbury Gardens and is open to the public.

paragraph: In the 1920s he purchased several large properties in West Palm Beach, Florida including one that was once used as a pineapple plantation. He subdivided the property and turned it into the three largest subdivisions containing luxury residential homes in what is now the El Cid Historic District. John Phipps built a home for himself he called "Casa Bendita." A large oceanfront mansion in Palm Beach, Florida, it was designed in 1921 by architect Addison Mizner. Today, the property is occupied by his granddaughter, Susan Phipps Cochran, and her husband.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: On November 4, 1903 he married Margarita Celia Grace (1876-1957) at Battle Abbey in Battle, East Sussex, England. She was the daughter of Michael P. Grace and niece of William Russell Grace, Irish immigrants who became very successful in business, founding the Grace Shipping Line. They spent their honeymoon, traveling via automobile, in India. John and Margarita had four children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Henry Phipps (1904–1982), who married Elinor Klapp

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hubert Beaumont Phipps (1905–1969), who married Lady Phoebe Pleydell-Bouverie, third daughter of William Pleydell-Bouverie, 7th Earl of Radnor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret Phipps Boegner (1906–2006), who married J. Gordon Douglas, Jr.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Grace Phipps (1910–1973), who married Muriel Fillans "Molly" Lane (1909–1968).

paragraph: He died on April 27, 1958 in Palm Beach, Florida.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Phipps family

paragraph: BULLET::::- Old Westbury Gardens

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Article on "Casa Bendita" with photo collection at the New York Social Diary/a

paragraph: BULLET::::- Photos of Westbury House & Gardens

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Halcyon Days: An American Family Through Three Generations" by Peggie Phipps Boegner (daughter of John Shaffer Phipps), Richard Gachot (1987) Harry N. Abrams, Inc.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Brenton", The Plains, Virginia

description: American lawyer and businessman

wikidata_label: John Shaffer Phipps

wikipedia_title: John Shaffer Phipps


text:
Latin
Doge of Venice
Eraclea
Longobards
Orso Ipato
John Julius Norwich
Paoluccio Anafesto
Paul
Exarch of Ravenna
magister militum
Norwich, John Julius
Alfred A. Knopf
New York
Charles Knight
London

categories: 726 deaths,8th-century Doges of Venice,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Marcello Tegalliano

paragraph: Marcello Tegalliano (Latin: "Marcellus Tegalianus"; died 726) was, according to tradition, the second Doge of Venice (717–726). He is described as having hailed from Eraclea, and during his nine-year reign was apparently in great disagreement with the nearby Longobards. He died in 726 and was succeeded by Orso Ipato.

paragraph: Section::::History.

paragraph: However, John Julius Norwich has argued that the first doge, Paoluccio Anafesto, was Paul, Exarch of Ravenna, and that Marcellus was his "magister militum" of the same first name.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norwich, John Julius. "A History of Venice". Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge: Volume 26." Charles Knight: London, 1843.

description: venetian doge (partly legendary)

wikidata_label: Marcello Tegalliano

wikipedia_title: Marcello Tegalliano


text:
Tamil
Shiva
Nayanars
Shaiva
bhakti
Tamil Nadu
Cheraman Perumal
Kotpuli Nayanar
Periyapuranam
Periya Puranam
Tirumurai
Shaiva Siddhanta
Pallava
gotra
Bharadwaja
Sri Shiva
Arulmigu Sokkantheeshwarar Temple
Vedic
Shiva
Sivan
Tamil
Shiva
Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu
Tiruvarur
Thanjavur
Thiruvottriyur
Madras
Cheraman Perumal
Raja Raja Chola I
Nambiyandar Nambi
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Dikshitars
Appar
Sundar
Thirugnanasambandar
Appar
Rajaraja
Shiva
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Dikshitars
Nayanmars
Thillai Nataraja Temple
Rajaraja
Shiva
Sambandar
Appar
Manickavasagar
Tiruvacakam
Tirumandiram
Tirumular
Sekkizhar
Pallava
Kampavarman
Tirumurai
United Theological College, Bangalore
Fred Goodwill
Agamic
puja
Kulothunga Chola III
sangam times
Paadal Petra Sthalam
Siva temples of the continent
Vaippu Sthalangal
Kerala
Thiruvanchikulam
David Dean Shulman
Songs of Sundararmoorthy Swamigal
Life of Sundaramoorthy Swamigal

paragraph: Sundarar

paragraph: Sundarar (Tamil "Sundarar"), also known affectionately as Tampiran Tōḻan ("Comrade of the Master", meaning "friend" of Shiva) was an eighth-century poet who was one of the most prominent Nayanars, the Shaiva bhakti (devotional) poets of Tamil Nadu. He was a contemporary of Cheraman Perumal and Kotpuli Nayanar who also figure in the 63 Nayanmars. The songs of praise are called Thiruthondathogai and is the original nucleus around which the Periyapuranam is based. The Periya Puranam, which collects the legends of the Nayanars, starts and ends with him. The hymns of seventh volume of the "Tirumurai", the twelve-volume compendium of the poetry of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta, were composed by him.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Sundarar is unique among the Nayanars in that both of his parents are also recognized as Nayanars. He was born in

paragraph: Thirunavalur into an Adi Saiva family who worked as temple priests. His original name was Nambi Aroorar. The chieftain ruler of the local kingdom (Thirumunaipadi-Nadu), Narasingamunaiarayar, enthralled by the divine aesthetic possessed by young Sundarar who was playing in the street, adopted him and brought him up as his own son. Sundarar was a contemporary of the great Pallava emperor Rajasimha, who was also a Nayanmar saint as well as the author of many devotional hymns works in Tamil literature. A temple inscription in Tiruvarur states that Sundarar's father, Sadayan Nayanmar, belonged to the same ″gotram″ (lineage) of the renowned sage Bharadwaja. His mother Isaignani, also a Nayanmar saint, belonged to same the ″gotram″ of the great sage Gautama. From epigraphs, it is also inferred that a hagiography on Sundarar named "Sva Swami Mitra Prabhandam" translated as travelogues of how he got in the good graces of the Lord, Sri Shiva.

paragraph: After he came of age, his parents wanted him to get married. Sadaiyanar sought Sandakavi Sivachariar’s consent to obtain his daughter’s hand for Sundarar. Sandakavi Sivachariar’s and his daughter Kamalagnana Poongathai were living in Puthur (modern-day Manamthaviznthaputhur) at the time. Sivachariar gladly consented, but the wedding was not to take place. All lavish arrangements had been made in Arulmigu Sokkantheeshwarar Temple at Puthur for the wedding. According to a legend, while Sundarar was being married, the service was interrupted by an old ascetic who asked for Sundarar as his servant, making a namesake claim that Sundarar's "grandfather pledged him" according to an ancient palm leaf manuscript in his possession. Sundarar and those assembled at the wedding were outraged and belittled the old man as a madman (piththaan: Tamil). Nonetheless, a court of Vedic scholars concluded that the palm leaf was legally valid. Crestfallen, Sundarar resigned himself to servitude in the old man's household and in following him to Thiruvennainallur village, was led to the Thiruvarutturai Shiva temple.

paragraph: The old man was said to be Shiva (Lord Thyagaraja) himself, who told him "That the document shown was only a namesake reason and he wanted Sundarar to be reminded of his actual form as Alalasundarar, a servitor in the holy abode Kailasam, who had to be born on Earth both due to moments of worldly thoughts that overcame Shiva. The fact that the southern Tamil region that had done great ″thavam″ during a period of the Kali Yuga and needed to be blessed with an account of lives of great Nayanmars called Tiru-Thondar Thokai also contributed to my decision. You will henceforth be known as Vanthondan, the argumentative devotee. Did you not call me a mad man just a short while ago? Begin your hymn addressing me 'O mad man!'". Lord Sivan also advised vanthondar that while on earth he should sing in Tamil. Accordingly, Sundarar began his first poem by addressing Shiva as "Pittaa pirai chudi.." meaning "O mad man, who has the crescent as his crown..".

paragraph: Subsequently, Sundarar moved around Tamil Nadu, visiting several Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu. In Tiruvarur, in the Thanjavur district, he fell in love with a girl named Paravayar, of the Rudra Kanigayar caste of female ascetics, and married her. Sundarar was held in such a high regard by his contemporary Nayanmar saints like Viranmindar, Kalikamanar etc. that he was offered royal treatment by those rich servitors. One another Nayanmar saint namely Kotpuliyar, a Vellala, praised for some magnificent services also offers sundarar hand of his daughter but the saint politely declines and instantly picks up the girl and puts in his lap and dedicates a hymn to siva in the end of which he says that he considers the girl equivalent to his daughter. The same treatment is accorded by the saint to yet another girl namely singati. In many hymns, Sundarar makes this declaration of love filled, gracious patronage to the children that he accorded.

paragraph: In Thiruvottriyur, a sea-side suburb of Madras, he prayed at the Padampakkanathar/Thyagarajar/Vadivudaiamman Temple, where he saw a farmer's girl, Sangiliyar, who was preparing flower garlands and married her, promising never to leave.

paragraph: Sundarar is also famous for declaring in many hymns that one reality of lord Sivan is apprehended by selfless, dispassionate and attachment free service to him. He also declares that all beings are created equal by the lord.

paragraph: At Tirupunkoor near Thillai Chidambaram a famous saivite temple, the region was devoid of rains for a long time. A local chola prince requested sundarar to address the problem, thereupon the saint put up a wail for justice saying that 12 of land be given to the temple if it rains by his service and upon completing the song to lord sivan rains lashed incessantly. After many such days, sundarar was summoned by the prince again to fix the problem of heavy rains. sundarar once again insisted that 12 more acres be given to the temple should the rains cease after his song. The same happened and the temple became richer by 24 acres more.

paragraph: At Avinashi, near Coimbatore, There is an ancient Siva temple where Sundarar prayed to lord sivan to give back life to an eight-year-old boy who had died untimely many years ago. On hearing his hymn lord sivan bestowed his grace and the boy who was swallowed by a crocodile was instantly returned by the same crocodile.

paragraph: The legend states that at Tiruvarur he recited the names of all sixty-three future Nayanars: this recitation is called "Tiruttondar-Tokai". In it, he refers to himself as the "servant of servants" of these saints. His fame reached the ears of the Cheraman Perumal, who came to Tiruvarur. Both embarked on a pilgrimage. But Sundarar became tired of life and was taken up to heaven by a white elephant. The king followed him on his horse. Sundarar prayed to Shiva to take Cheraman Peruman along with him to heaven, which was readily accepted. This occurred in "Swathi Nakshatra" in the Tamil month of "Aadi".

paragraph: Section::::Compilation.

paragraph: Raja Raja Chola I (985-1013 CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of "Tevaram" in his court. He sought the help of Nambiyandar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. The "brahmanas" (Dikshitars) in the temple are supposed to have disagreed with the king by saying that the works were too divine,and that only by the arrival of the "Naalvar"(The four saints)-Appar, Sundar, Thirugnanasambandar and Appar would they allow for the chambers to be opened.Rajaraja,however,created idols of them and prepared for them to be brought to the temple through a procession. but Rajaraja is said to have prevailed. Rajaraja thus became to be known as "Tirumurai Kanda Cholan" meaning one who saved the "Tirumurai"..

paragraph: In another version of the story, Rajaraja is said to have experienced a dream from lord Shiva telling Rajaraja that the hymns in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram are in a state of destruction and to recover the remaining hymns from the chambers.The "brahmanas" (Dikshitars) in the temple,however,are supposed to have disagreed with the king by saying that the works were too divine to be accessed,and that only by the arrival of the 63 Nayanmars would they allow for the chambers to be opened.Rajaraja,devising a plan,consecrated idols of each of them and prepared for them to be brought into the temple through a procession.It is said that the 63 idols are still present in the Thillai Nataraja Temple.When the vault was opened, Rajaraja is said to have found the room infested with white ants,and that the hymns were salvaged as much as possible.

paragraph: Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar's "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the "Tirumandiram" of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, "Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi" - the sacred "anthathi" of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book. The first seven books were later called as "Tevaram", and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar's "Periya Puranam" (1135 CE) is wholly known as "Tirumurai", the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.

paragraph: The earlier Pallava inscriptions of Dantivarman and Kampavarman inform about the singing of Tirumurai in temples to the sounding of udukkai(small drum) and talam(cymbals).

paragraph: In 1921, an English translation of Sundarar's hymns was done by Francis Kingsbury and GE Phillips, both of United Theological College, Bangalore (Edited by Fred Goodwill) and published in a book as "Hymns of the Tamil Śaivite Saints", by the Oxford University Press.

paragraph: Section::::In temple worship services.

paragraph: "Tirumurai" was one of the sole reasons for converting Vedic ritual to "Agamic puja" followed in Shiva temples. Though these two systems are overlapping, "Agamic" tradition ensures the perpetuation of the Vedic religion's emphasis on the efficacy of ritual as per Davis. "Odhuvars", "Sthanikars", or "Kattalaiyars" offer musical programmes in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu by singing "Tevaram" after the daily rituals. These are usually carried out as chorus programme soon after the divine offering. There are records from Kulothunga Chola III from Nallanyanar temple in South Arcot indicating singing of "Tiruvempavai" and "Tiruvalam" of Manickavasagar during special occasion in the temple. From the 13th century, the texts were passed on to the Odhuvars by the "Adheenams" or charitable establishments. The charitable establishments that ran on the philanthropy of individuals and merchant caravans had come to be because after the 13th century, the time of ancient nation states viz. cholas etc. was finished and the temples became only denominated, voluntary, charitable places. This is briefed by a 15th-century, Chidambaram temple inscription.During the time of cholas etc. the temple hymn service workers were known as uvacchar and marars. These terms are of very ancient origin and traceable to even early sangam times.

paragraph: "Periya Puranam", the 11th-century Tamil book on the Nayanars that forms the last volume of the "Tirumurai" primarily had references only to "Tevaram" and subsequently expanded to 12 parts and is one of the first anthologies of "Tirumurai". One of the first anthologies of "moovars" hymns called the "Tevara Arulmuraitirattu" is linked to Tamil Saiva siddhantha philosophy by grouping ninety-nine verses into 10 categories. The category headings are God, soul, bond, grace, divine intiation, methodology, enlightenment, bliss, mantra and liberation - correspond to Umapthi's work, "Tiruvarutpayan". "Tirumurai kanda puranam" is another anthology for "Tirumurai" as a whole, but primarily focuses on "Tevaram". It is the first of the works to refer the collection of volumes as "Tirumurai".

paragraph: Section::::List of temples revered by Sundarar.

paragraph: The Paadal Petra Sthalams are 276 temples that are revered in the verses of "Tevaram" and are amongst the greatest Siva temples of the continent. "Vaippu Sthalangal" are places that were mentioned casually in the songs in Tevaram. The focus of the "moovars" (first three poets) hymns suggests "darshan" (seeing and being seen by God) within the "puja" (worship) offering. The hymnists made classificatory lists of places like "katu" (forest), "turai" (port or refuge), "kulam" (water tank) and "kalam" (field) being used - thus both structured and unstructured places in the religious context find a mention in "Tevaram". Out of the 276 locations only one is in Kerala at Mahadeva Temple, Thiruvanchikulam.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend" () by Anna Dallapiccola

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Songs of the harsh devotee" by David Dean Shulman

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The religion and philosophy" of thevaram by M.A. Dorai Swamy

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Development of Religion in South India" by K. A. Nilakanta Sastri

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Arupathu Moovar Kadhaigal" by Durgadas S. K. Swamy (Prema Pirasuram publishers)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Origin and early history of Śaivism in South India" By Sadananda (Swami.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ten saints of India By T. M. P. Mahadevan

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A short introduction to Saivism" By Subodh Kapoor

paragraph: BULLET::::- Songs of Sundararmoorthy Swamigal

paragraph: BULLET::::- Life of Sundaramoorthy Swamigal

wikidata_label: Sundarar

wikipedia_title: Sundarar


text:
King of Norway
King of Sweden
Haakon V
Magnus Eriksson
Eric
Albert of Mecklenburg
Bo Jonsson Grip
Margaret
Valdemar IV of Denmark
Olaf
regent
Sweden
Magnus Eriksson
Blanche of Namur
Eric
House of Bjelbo
House of Eric
House of Sverre
Haakon V of Norway
Ingeborg
Magnus III of Sweden
Varberg Castle
Båhus Castle
Norwegian Law of Succession
Bergen
Oslo
Hålogaland
North Sea
Tønsberg
Skien
Borgar
Bohuslän
Scania
Uppsala
Valdemar IV of Denmark
Margaret
Christopher II of Denmark
Helsingborg Castle
Nordic
Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Albert II of Mecklenburg
Euphemia
North German
Västergötland
Dalsland
Värmland
Stockholm
Uppland
Västerås
Battle of Gataskogen
Hanseatic League
Öland
Gotland
Visby
Battle of Helsingborg
Nordic
Baltic
Bryggen
Confederation of Cologne
Agder
Copenhagen
Jutland
Easter
Rigsdrost
Henning Podebusk
Baltic Sea
Danish Sound
Treaty of Stralsund
Gurre Castle
Zealand
Henry of Mecklenburg
Ingeborg
Albert
Slagelse
Black Death
Earldom of Orkney
Kingdom of Scotland
Tønsberg
Earl of Orkney
Henry Sinclair, Baron of Roslin
leidang
civil service
Oslo

wikipedia_title: Ingeborg of Denmark, Duchess of Mecklenburg

categories: Medieval child rulers,14th-century Swedish monarchs,Norwegian monarchs,1380 deaths,14th-century monarchs in Europe,Rulers of Finland,14th-century Norwegian people,1340 births,Swedish monarchs,House of Bjelbo

paragraph: Haakon VI of Norway

paragraph: Haakon VI of Norway (, ; 1340–1380), also known as "Håkan Magnusson", was King of Norway from 1343 until his death and King of Sweden between 1362 and 1364. He is sometimes known as "Haakon Magnusson the Younger" to distinguish him from his great-grandfather, Haakon V (reigned 1299–1319).

paragraph: Haakon was the younger son of Magnus Eriksson, king of both Norway and Sweden. His older brother Eric was meant to succeed their father on the throne of Sweden, while Haakon was made king of Norway in his father's lifetime. Magnus greatly favored Haakon over Eric, leading to the latter's rebellion and seizure of Southern Sweden. Eric died in 1359, and Haakon became co-ruler of Sweden with his father three years later. The two reigned over Sweden together until 1364, when they were deposed in favor of Magnus' sororal nephew, Albert of Mecklenburg, by a clique of exiled Swedish noblemen led by Bo Jonsson Grip. Magnus and Haakon tried to retake the Swedish throne, but without success.

paragraph: In 1363, Haakon married Margaret, daughter of Valdemar IV of Denmark. The marriage, itself a significant element in the Nordic power struggle, resulted in the birth of one son, Olaf. Haakon's continuous conflicts with his father-in-law ended only with the latter's death in 1375. Haakon seized the opportunity to have his son elected Valdemar's successor, defeating the claims of his and his wife's Mecklenburg relatives.

paragraph: Upon his death in 1380, Haakon was succeeded by Olaf, with Margaret as regent. Olaf died childless seven years later, and Haakon's widow proceeded to assert authority over all three Scandinavian kingdoms as their first female monarch.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Haakon was born in 1340 (possibly in mid-August), most likely in Sweden, though the exact date and location of his birth remain unknown. He was the younger son of Magnus Eriksson, king of Sweden and Norway, and Blanche of Namur. His older brother Eric was a rival king of Sweden in opposition to his father between 1356 and 1359. Haakon and his paternal family belonged to the Swedish House of Bjelbo, which had succeeded the House of Eric in Sweden and the House of Sverre in Norway. Haakon was a great-grandson of Haakon V of Norway through his only legitimate daughter, Ingeborg, and was considered an acceptable heir to the throne by the Norwegian nobility. Another noteworthy ancestor of Haakon, through his paternal grandfather Eric Magnusson, Duke of Södermanland, is Magnus III of Sweden.

paragraph: Section::::Accession in Norway.

paragraph: Haakon was raised in Norway, to prepare the young prince to later rule the kingdom in his own right. During the early autumn of 1343, the most prominent members of the Norwegian Council of the Realm attended a meeting with Magnus at Varberg Castle. On 15 August 1343, letters were issued throughout Norway and Sweden stating that the King and the Council had decided to place Haakon on the throne of Norway.

paragraph: Barely a year later, representatives of the cities and the general public assembled at Båhus Castle, where they hailed Haakon as their king and took the oath of perpetual fealty and servitude to him. Though the meeting at Båhus Castle forged historic ties to the old elective monarchy in Norway, the acclamation documents created by the Council of the Realm stipulated that Haakon was to rule over only parts of Norway, and it was also carefully documented that the Norwegian Law of Succession would apply if he were to die leaving no legitimate son, thereby ensuring that the hereditary monarchy would be upheld. The next in line to the Norwegian throne would then be his older brother Eric and his descendants, but the provision became moot when Eric died in 1359. The meetings at Varberg Castle in 1343 and at Båhus Castle in 1344 were later properly ratified in another meeting in the port city of Bergen as late as 1350.

paragraph: Magnus abdicated his Norwegian throne sometime between 8 and 18 August in 1355. Haakon would then rule as the sole king in the kingdom, though his father continued to exercise control over Norway in the following years, albeit not in name anymore. The first documented event in which Haakon acted as sole king and ruler over his kingdom was on 22 January 1358, when he sent a letter of approval for the privileges in the capital city of Oslo. Norway in 1355 was actually partitioned between Haakon and Magnus: Magnus had specifically requested the territories of Hålogaland and the Norwegian islands in the North Sea at the ratification meeting in Bergen in 1350. Magnus additionally held the territories of Tønsberg and Skien, and he was also the real ruler over the territories of Borgar and most of Bohuslän which were held as personal fiefs by Queen Blanche. Because of this, the realm of Magnus was centered in the south-east, up against the important south-Swedish countryside and the Swedish-held Scania province.

paragraph: Section::::Accession in Sweden.

paragraph: As king, Haakon was immediately pulled into his father's internal strife in Sweden, where a growing conflict eventually had erupted into open warfare. Eric was discontent with his father's rule, likely because he had not been granted a membership in the Swedish Council of the Realm, and because of favouritism Magnus had shown his youngest son. With Eric as a rallying figure, a part of Sweden's most powerful nobility rose up in rebellion against the rule of Magnus. The rebellion was short-lived however and Magnus and Eric made peace with each other a year after the conflict erupted. Eric "XII" was elevated to King of Sweden and was made co-ruler with his father in the subsequent peace agreement. Eric was also given dominion over Southern Sweden. It all took a dramatic turn when Eric suddenly died of the plague in 1359. In accordance with the peace agreement between father and eldest son in 1357, the Swedish nobility soon deposed Magnus and elected Haakon as King of Sweden in Uppsala 15 February 1362. From 1357 Haakon had styled himself "Lord of Sweden", but dropped this title upon his election and styled himself "King of Norway and Sweden".

paragraph: Section::::Marriage.

paragraph: In 1359, Valdemar IV of Denmark's younger daughter, Margaret, was bethroted to Haakon in a marriage contract intended to be a part of a larger alliance treaty between Magnus and Valdemar. It was presumed that Valdemar would assist Magnus in the aforementioned rebellion, started by his eldest son Eric, by invading the province of Scania, which had been pawned by Christopher II of Denmark before his death in 1332 to Magnus and had been under Swedish rule since. Valdemar in turn would receive Helsingborg Castle as compensation for that assistance, but in June 1359 Eric unexpectedly died of the plague and Magnus tried to renege on his promise to return the castle to the Danish Crown. Valdemar was far too ambitious a ruler to have his plan to reassemble the Danish kingdom fall into pieces, and so he proceeded to invade Scania in 1360 with his mercenary army. The Danish forces quickly occupied the province and started besieging Helsingborg Castle, eventually forcing the Swedish garrison to surrender and capturing the castle. When the castle was captured, Valdermar had virtually regained control over all of Scania, and when Magnus proved to be unable to retake the province by force, it simply passed back to Danish rule. Further strife between the two kingdoms would put the marriage contract on hold for a few years until the two parties eventually reconciled in 1363; Haakon and Margaret were married that year in the Copenhagen Cathedral. Margaret's marriage was broadly considered to be a part of the Nordic power struggle.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion in Sweden.

paragraph: In 1363, former members of the Swedish Council of the Realm, led by Bo Jonsson Grip, arrived at the court in the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Swedish noblemen promptly persuaded Duke Albert II of Mecklenburg, who had gained influence in the affairs of Sweden by marrying Magnus' sister Euphemia, to intervene against Magnus and Haakon in Sweden and depose them both in favour of his and Euphemia's son Albert. In 1364, Duke Albert enlisted military support from several powerful North German noblemen and proceeded to swiftly invade and conquer Sweden and subsequently installed his son as the new king. In November 1365, the younger Albert was formally hailed as Sweden's new king, though he had already been crowned on 18 February 1364. Magnus sought refuge with his son in Norway where they immediately planned the reconquest of Sweden. After an invasion, a temporary truce was established between the two warring parties, and though Haakon and Magnus had lost control over much of Sweden, they still maintained control over the important provinces of Västergötland, Dalsland and Värmland.

paragraph: In early 1365, Haakon and Magnus assembled a large army in Västergötland, consisting mainly of Norwegians, but also a large number of Swedes from the said province, and marched on the German-held city of Stockholm. On 27 February, Haakon issued a proclamation against Albert of Mecklenburg and his supporters, encouraging the local populace to stir up in rebellion against the German usurper. The Norwegian army entered Uppland through Västerås and clashed against the Swedish-German army in the disastrous Battle of Gataskogen where Haakon and Magnus suffered a devastating defeat and Magnus was captured and taken prisoner by the Germans; which he would remain for six years.

paragraph: The chief foreign policy of Haakon was now to retrieve Sweden from the Germans and his father from captivity. He was still in possession of West Sweden and found that he could rely on the support from several noblemen who were displeased with the Germans. The war between Norway and Sweden continued, and Haakon soon found himself in need of allies. He entered into an alliance with King Valdemar, the father of his wife, which was something that later would dramatically concentrate the Norwegian foreign policy to the east, rather than to the traditional west. After a turbulent conflict and war against the North German cities and the Hanseatic League, Haakon was again free to turn his attention to Sweden, and launched a successful campaign against the Germans in Sweden. The military campaign ended in the Siege of Stockholm in 1371, where it looked like Haakon could decisively defeat the Germans and acquire revenge for his defeat at the Battle of Gataskogen; but Albert and his German supporters managed to withstand the siege and Haakon was forced to sign a peace treaty. The treaty was signed on 14 August 1371, and Haakon would have to be content with having his father released from captivity against a large ransom. When released, Magnus resumed ruling his remaining domains in Norway and Sweden until his death in 1374 only three years later.

paragraph: Section::::Foreign policies in the east.

paragraph: In 1361, Valdemar had invaded and conquered the Swedish province of Scania, as well as the two islands of Öland and Gotland, and captured the major Hanseatic town of Visby in the process. In 1361, the Hanseatic League's fleet launched a counter-strike at the Danish fleet, culminating in the Battle of Helsingborg in which the Danish fleet inflicted a devastating defeat upon the League's fleet. Furthermore, the League was forced to accept a humiliating truce, which eventually led to the unfavourable Treaty of Vordingborg, severely curtailing the League's power and influence. In Norway, Haakon had shifted his political and foreign affairs towards the east, and the reconquest of his Swedish kingdom was in particular his strongest motivation for the alliance with the recuperating Danish kingdom. The alliance between the Norwegians and the Danes threatened to shift the political and military power in the Nordic and Baltic areas, and in 1365 a series of German protests in the city of Bergen eventually forced the Hanseatic office on Bryggen in the city to be closed until 1366, which temporarily damaged the trade for the kingdom. Valdemar was unable to enforce the fragile peace with the Hanseatic cities, and in 1367 the League founded the Confederation of Cologne against Denmark and Norway to counter the growing ambitions of the two allied kings. The Confederation renewed their alliance with German-held Sweden and assembled a large fleet of warships and subsequently assaulted the Norwegian coast and continued to raid it all the way to Agder. Also, the Confederation launched a successful campaign against Valdemar in Denmark, which turned out to be disastrous for Valdemar's plans to reassemble the Danish kingdom. The Confederation raided and pillaged the Danish coast, invaded the province of Danish-held Scania, and even captured and looted the city of Copenhagen through a successful siege. This, in combination with the rebellious nobles in Jutland, forced Valdemar to flee his kingdom during Easter in 1368. Realizing the futility in a prolonged and costly war, as well as Haakon's wavering support for the disastrous conflict, Valdemar appointed his friend and advisor, Rigsdrost Henning Podebusk, to negotiate peace with the Confederation in his absence. The Confederation agreed to a truce, but only on the promise of having Valdemar acknowledge their right to tax exemption on trade across the entire Baltic Sea and renewed fishing rights in the Danish Sound. In addition to this, the Confederation forced Valdemar to grant the Hanseatic League a considerable amount of influence over the future Danish king-elections, including the right to veto against any throne candidate. Lastly, the Confederation put several towns on the coast of Scania and Helsingborg Castle under the control of the Hanseatic League for a fixed period of fifteen years.

paragraph: On 24 May 1370, representatives from the Hanseatic cities, Denmark and Norway signed the Treaty of Stralsund at Båhus Castle and formally ended the war between them, the treaty included an extension of the already established truce for an additional five years. Through this treaty, the Hanseatic League reached its pinnacle of power in the region with a virtual monopoly on lucrative trade. The defeat at the hands of the Hanseatic cities was another humiliating blow to the foreign policies of Haakon in the east. Not only did the power of the monarch gradually weaken under the mounting pressure and influence of the Hanseatic cities, but the Norwegian trade also suffered as a consequence of the Hanseatic monopoly. Haakon became less interested in Danish affairs following the military failures against the Hanseatic cities, and would again turn his attention to his chief foreign policy of retaking Sweden from the Germans, something which he would have some limited success with in the following years. However, Haakon would gain a renewed interest in Danish affairs when the opportunity to have his son elected king of Denmark arose upon Valdemar's death in 1375.

paragraph: Section::::Danish succession.

paragraph: On 24 October 1375, Valdemar succumbed to illness and died at Gurre Castle in Zealand. The new monarch would have to be elected by the Danish Council of the Realm and any potential candidate had to be approved by the Hanseatic League. As Valdemar left no immediate clear successor to the throne, two candidates were put forward for the election: Haakon and Margaret suggested their only son, Olav, as a claimant to the throne. Their brother-in-law Henry of Mecklenburg (widower of Margaret's sister older Ingeborg and another son of Haakon's aunt Euphemia) in turn suggested his son (their nephew) Albert as a rival claimant. Haakon, having already lost a substantial portion of his Swedish realm to the Germans, would go to great and costly lengths to assure his son's accession to the Danish throne. To accomplish this, Haakon borrowed large sums of money and offered it to the Hanseatic League in return for the League's neutrality in the upcoming election, which they promptly accepted. In addition to this, the Danish Council of the Realm was more inclined to a potential union and alliance with Norway, largely because of anti-German sentiments within the Council, and the general reluctance to have a second German ruler in Scandinavia. On 3 May 1376, Olav was elected king in Slagelse, succeeding his grandfather. The election proved to be a major victory for Haakon and his foreign ambitions, curtailing the German influence while greatly expanding his own over much of Scandinavia.

paragraph: Section::::Domestic policies.

paragraph: In 1349, the Black Death was brought to Bergen on board an English merchant ship to devastating effects, killing between 50% and 60% of the population, leaving the kingdom in a period of social and economic decline. The kingdom's financial framework (which was originally weak) virtually collapsed as the plague ravaged through the realm, and the aggressive foreign policies of Haakon would in addition take a heavy toll on the kingdom's decaying economy. In 1371, Haakon acquired the release of his father from German imprisonment against a large ransom sum of 12,000 silver marks, which alone was more than the kingdom's ordinary tax incomes just before the outbreak of the plague. A special tax had to be imposed on Haakon's subjects to pay for the ransom. In 1379, Haakon resolved the succession dispute over the Earldom of Orkney, a Norwegian dignity located within the Kingdom of Scotland. On 2 August the same year, at Marstrand near Tønsberg, Haakon invested and confirmed the title of Earl of Orkney upon Henry Sinclair, Baron of Roslin (a grandson of Maol Íosa V, Earl of Strathearn) over the rival claim of Sinclair's cousin, Malise Sparre. In return, Sinclair pledged to pay a sum of 1000 nobles before 11 November the same year, and when called upon, was to serve the Norwegian king on Orkney or elsewhere with 100 equipped and armed men for up to three months. As a security for upholding this arrangement, Sinclair had to leave behind valued hostages when he departed for his earldom. It is unknown if Haakon ever attempted to call upon the forces pledged by Sinclair, or if the agreed sum was ever actually paid in full. Shortly before his death in 1380, Haakon permitted the hostages to return home.

paragraph: Furthermore, throughout Haakon's reign he reportedly had an unproblematic relationship with the church. Also, throughout his rule, especially after the loss of Sweden to the Germans, a noticeable number of Swedish noblemen pledged their support to Haakon and settled on Norwegian lands. The generally accepted reason was because of their displeasure towards the German usurper and his favoritism towards his own kinsmen. Curiously enough, German noblemen from Mecklenburg reportedly entered the service of Haakon during his reign.

paragraph: Section::::Military policies.

paragraph: Throughout the reign of Haakon, the Norwegian military was extensively reformed. The military structure was altered from that of the traditional leidang peasant conscription to under the direct control of loyal Norwegian lords. His Norwegian predecessor had pursued a domestic policy to establish a functional civil service in his realm, also extending to the military. This was however not continued by Haakon who elected to transfer more power and military responsibilities on to loyal lords. As a consequence, Haakon would be able to field much larger armies, but it became increasingly expensive to maintain this system. Because of the war against Sweden and the aggressive Norwegian policies in the east, Haakon had to mortgage and borrow money at an unprecedented scale to maintain his armies, and had to increasingly rely on the Norwegian nobility and the rich German merchants. The substantial rise in foreign debt would eventually come to shift the political power in Norway, and gradually weakened the power of the monarch.

paragraph: Section::::Later life and death.

paragraph: Nearing his final days, Haakon was exhausted by the almost constant warfare and the straining conflict with his cousin, Albert of Mecklenburg. It has been speculated that this, in addition to the considerable financial difficulties of Haakon's reign, may have contributed to his early death. Haakon never ceased to pursue his inherited responsibility to reclaim the lost Swedish territories, and would in March 1380 issue letters to prepare for war against the Germans in Sweden. The letters requested that the leidang fleet should be assembled and made ready for departure. Apparently, the Germans had broken the previous peace treaty and conspired to wage war against Haakon. However, there are no existing records of any war or battles fought during this period of time. Sometime during the late summer or early in the autumn Haakon died in Oslo, barely reaching the age of forty. He was buried in St. Mary's Church in Oslo. His son succeeded him as the King of Norway with Queen Margaret acting as his regent.

description: King of Norway and Sweden

wikidata_label: Haakon VI of Norway

wikipedia_title: Haakon VI of Norway


text: epithet

text: Denmark

text: Christopher II of Denmark

text: Euphemia of Pomerania

text: Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Bavaria

text: Eric

text: Otto

text: pretender

text: Niels Ebbesen

text: King of Denmark

text: Viborg Assembly

text: Eric II, Duke of Schleswig

text: Jutland

text: Kongeå

text: Holstein

text: Sønderborg Castle

text: North Friesland

text: Zealand

text: Roskilde

text: Copenhagen Castle

text: Copenhagen

text: Kalundborg

text: Søborg Castle

text: Estonia

text: Teutonic Knights

text: Danish Estonia

text: crusade

text: Lithuania

text: Lübeck

text: Prussia

text: Erich II of Saxony

text: Lithuanians

text: Jerusalem

text: Knight of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Pope Clement VI

text: Vordingborg Castle

text: Vordingborg

text: Funen

text: Skåne

text: ghost ship

text: Ribe

text: diocese

text: Danish Court

text: Christopher II

text: Jens Peter Jacobsen

text: Valdemar I of Denmark

text: Middelfart

text: Eric XII of Sweden

text: Magnus IV of Sweden

text: Blekinge

text: Hanseatic League

text: Gotland

text: Visby

text: Hanseatic League

text: Håkon of Sweden

text: Margrethe

text: herring

text: Lübeck

text: Henning Podebusk

text: Treaty of Stralsund

text: Pope Gregory XI

text: Gurre Castle

text: Sorø Abbey

text: drost

text: Albert

text: Ingeborg

text: Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg

text: Olaf II

text: Margaret

text: Haakon VI of Norway

text: Magnus II of Sweden

text: Middle Low German

text: Denmark was fighting Germany

text: traditional southern Jutland region

text: Valdemar V, Duke of Schleswig

text: Helvig of Schleswig

text: dowry

text: Sønderborg Castle

text: Eric II, Duke of Schleswig

text: Adelaide of Holstein-Rendsburg

text: Viborg

text: Christopher of Denmark, Duke of Lolland

text: Henry III, Duke of Mecklenburg

text: Ingeborg of Denmark

text: King Eric VII of Denmark

text: Margaret I of Denmark

text: Haakon VI of Norway

text: Zealand

text: Roskilde Cathedral

text: Eric VI of Denmark

text: Knight of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Fletcher Pratt

categories: 1320 births,14th-century Danish people,Roman Catholic monarchs,1375 deaths,14th-century monarchs in Europe,Valdemar IV of Denmark,House of Estridsen,Burials at Sorø Abbey,Danish monarchs

paragraph: Valdemar IV of Denmark

paragraph: Valdemar IV Atterdag (the epithet meaning "A New Dawn"), or Waldemar (132024 October 1375; ), was King of Denmark from 1340 to 1375.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Accession to the throne.

paragraph: He was the youngest son of King Christopher II of Denmark and Euphemia of Pomerania. He spent most of his childhood and youth in exile at the court of Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor in Bavaria, after the defeats of his father and the death and imprisonment, respectively, of his two older brothers, Eric and Otto, at the hand of the Holsteiners. Here he acted as a pretender, waiting for a comeback.

paragraph: Following the assassination of Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, by Niels Ebbesen and his brothers, Valdemar was proclaimed King of Denmark at the Viborg Assembly ("landsting") on St John's Day (St Hans' Day) on 24 June 1340, led by Ebbesen. By his marriage with Helvig of Schleswig, the daughter of Eric II, Duke of Schleswig, and with what was left to him by his father, he controlled about one quarter of the territory of Jutland north of the Kongeå river.

paragraph: He was not compelled to sign a charter as his father had done, probably because Denmark had been without a king for years, and no one expected the twenty-year-old king to be any more trouble to the great nobles than his father had been. But Valdemar was a clever and determined man and realized that the only way to rule Denmark was to get control of its territory.

paragraph: Ebbesen attempted to liberate central Jutland from the Holsteiners at the siege of Sønderborg Castle on 2 November 1340, but Ebbesen and his brothers were killed.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Mortgage of Denmark.

paragraph: Under his father, King Christopher II, Denmark went bankrupt and was mortgaged out in parcels. King Valdemar IV sought to repay the debt and reclaim the lands of Denmark. The first opportunity came with his wife Helvig's dowry. The mortgage on the rest of northern Jutland was paid off by taxes collected from King Valdemar's peasants above the Kongeå. In 1344, he recovered North Friesland, which he immediately taxed to pay off the debt on southern Jutland (7,000 silver marks). The over-taxed peasants grew restive under the constant demands for money.

paragraph: Valdemar next set his sights on Zealand. The bishop of Roskilde, who owned Copenhagen Castle and town, gave both to Valdemar, providing a secure base from which to gather taxes on trade through the Sound. He was the first Danish king to rule Copenhagen, a possession of the Bishop of Roskilde. Valdemar was able to capture or buy other castles and fortresses until he could force the Holsteiners out. When he ran out of money, he took Kalundborg and Søborg Castles by force. While in the midst of that campaign, he went to Estonia to negotiate with the Teutonic Knights who controlled Estonia. Danes had never migrated there in any numbers, and so for 19,000 marks Valdemar gave up Danish Estonia, a far-off eastern province, which allowed him to pay off mortgages of parts of Denmark which were more important to him.

paragraph: Around 1346 Valdemar IV initiated a crusade against Lithuania. Franciscan chronicler noted that Valdemar IV traveled to Lübeck in 1346, then turned to Prussia together with Erich II of Saxony in order to fight the Lithuanians. However, the crusade against the Lithuanians came to nothing, instead Valdemar went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (without Papal permission). He succeeded and was made a Knight of the Holy Sepulchre in honor of his accomplishment. He was censured by Pope Clement VI for not getting prior approval for such a journey.

paragraph: Upon his return, Valdemar gathered an army. In 1346, he took back Vordingborg Castle, the main headquarters of the Holsteiners. By the end of the year, Valdemar could claim all of Zealand as his own. He made Vordingborg his personal residence, expanded the castle, and built the Goose Tower which has become the symbol of the town. Valdemar's reputation for ruthlessness against those who opposed him made many think carefully about switching sides. His tax policy crushed the peasants who feared to do anything but pay up. By 1347 Valdemar had thrown out the Germans and once again Denmark was a nation.

paragraph: With his increased income, Valdemar was able to pay for a larger army and by treachery came into possession of Nyborg Castle and eastern Funen Island and the smaller islands. Valdemar's attention had just turned to Skåne, held by Sweden,when disaster struck the entire region.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The plague.

paragraph: In 1349 Bubonic Plague (then known as the "Black Death") arrived unexpectedly. Tradition has it that plague came to Denmark on a ghost ship that beached itself on the coast of northern Jutland. Those who went aboard found the dead swollen and black faced, but stayed long enough to take everything of value from it and thereby introduced the fleas that carried the disease into the population. People began to die by the thousands. During the next two years plague swept through Denmark like a forest fire. In Ribe twelve parishes ceased to exist in a single diocese. A few towns simply died with no one left alive. The general figures for plague in 1349–50 ranges between 33% and 66% of the people of Denmark. City dwellers were often harder hit than farm folk leading many people to abandon towns altogether. Valdemar remained untouched and took advantage of the deaths of his enemies to add to his growing lands and properties. He refused to reduce the taxes the following year though fewer peasants farmed less land. Nobles, too, felt their incomes shrink and the tax burdens fell heavier on them as well. Uprisings flared up in the following years.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The final pieces.

paragraph: In 1354 the King and nobles met together as the Danish Court ("Danehof") and worked out a peace settlement among the parties. The terms of the charter said that the Danehof was to meet at least once a year on St. John's Day, 24 June. The old system established in 1282 was reinstated and everyone's rights reverted to the traditional ones from before Christopher II's charter which gutted the powers of the king.

paragraph: Valdemar responded by raising an army and march through southern Jutland taking still more pieces of the lands that German counts had pried away from Denmark in the previous years. Rebellion spread quickly through Funen and he ravaged the Holsteiners' remaining territories and took the rest of the island. The charter proved to be useless when the king ignored the terms and the sporadic rebellions continued. That same year there was a monetary crisis which caused panic all over northern Europe.

paragraph: There is a famous poem, written by Jens Peter Jacobsen and included in his work "Gurresange" about Valdemar's mistress, Tove, who was killed on the orders of Queen Helvig,

paragraph: though that particular story saga originally seems to be connected with his ancestor Valdemar I of Denmark.

paragraph: In 1358 Valdemar went back to Funen to try to reconcile with Jutland leader Niels Bugge (c. 1300-c. 1358) and several other nobles and two bishops. The king refused to meet their terms, so they left the meeting in disgust. When they reached the town of Middelfart to find a ship to carry them over to Jutland, the fishermen they hired to transport them, murdered them. King Valdemar was blamed and the restive people of Jutland came out in open rebellion once again. They agreed to support each other in their fight to restore the rights the king once again had abrogated.

paragraph: Valdemar turned once again to Skåne which still lay under Swedish rule. In 1355, Prince Eric XII of Sweden had rebelled against his father, King Magnus IV of Sweden, taking Skåne and other parts of Sweden. King Magnus turned to Valdemar and entered into an agreement with him for help with Erik. Erik suddenly died in 1359. Valdemar crossed the Sound with an army and forced Magnus to give up Helsingborg in 1360. With the taking of Helsingborg, Valdemar for all intents regained Skåne. Magnus wasn't strong enough to hold Skåne, so it passed back to Danish control. Valdemar captured Halland, Blekinge, and Skåne.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Foreign policy after 1360.

paragraph: Valdemar could do little about the increasing power of the Hanseatic League which had already become a major power in the region. Even before the conclusion of the small conflict with King Magnus, Valdemar decided to attack the Swedish island of Gotland, specifically the town of Visby.He raised an army loaded on ships and invaded Gotland in 1361. Valdemar fought the Gotlanders and defeated them in front of the city, killing 1800 men. The city surrendered, and Valdemar tore down part of the wall to make his entry. Once in possession, he set up three huge beer barrels and informed the city fathers that if the barrels weren't filled with silver and gold within three days, he would turn his men loose to pillage the town.

paragraph: To Valdemar's surprise the barrels were filled before nightfall of the first day passed. The churches were stripped of their valuables and the riches were loaded on Danish ships and carried home to Vordingborg, Valdemar's residence. Valdemar added "King of Gotland" to his title list. But his action against Visby, a member of the Hanseatic League, would have dire consequences later.

paragraph: Valdemar tried to interfere with the succession in Sweden by capturing Countess Elizabeth who was to marry Crown Prince Håkon of Sweden. She was forced into a nunnery and Valdemar convinced King Magnus that his son should marry Valdemar's daughter, Margrethe. The king agreed, but the nobles did not and forced Magnus to abdicate.

paragraph: They elected Albrecht of Mecklenburg, one of Valdemar's sworn enemies, as King of Sweden. Albrecht immediately went to work to stop Valdemar in his tracks. He persuaded the Hansa states to work with him because Valdemar threatened their access through the Sound and to the lucrative herring trade.

paragraph: Valdemar attacked the Hansa fleet trying force them out of the Sound fishing grounds. The Hansa member states demanded action. With Lübeck in the lead, they wrote to Valdemar complaining about his interference with trade.

paragraph: In 1362 the Hansa states, Sweden, and Norway allied against Valdemar seeking retribution. The Hansa sent a fleet and an army to ravage the coasts of Denmark, and they succeeded in capturing and pillaging Copenhagen and parts of Skåne. Combined with the rebellious nobles in Jutland, they forced Valdemar out of Denmark at Easter in 1368.

paragraph: He appointed his friend and advisor Henning Podebusk (c. 1350 – c. 1388) to negotiate with the Hanseatic League in his absence. They agreed to a truce so long as Valdemar acknowledged their right to free trade and fishing rights in the Sound. They took control of several towns on the coast of Skåne and the fortress at Helsingborg for 15 years. They also forced the king to grant the Hanseatic League a say in Denmark's succession after Valdemar's death.

paragraph: Valdemar was forced to sign the Treaty of Stralsund in 1370, which acknowledged Hansa rights to participate in the herring trade and tax exemptions for its trading fleet. The king was able to return to Denmark after an absence of four years. Valdemar received Gotland, however, so even in defeat he was able to salvage something for himself and Denmark.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: Even while dealing with the Hansa states, he was trying to suppress rebellious nobles who tried to assert the rights they had forced Valdemar's father to concede, and fight the Swedes and Norwegians. He was in the process of taking gradual control of southern Jutland when he fell ill.

paragraph: Valdemar enlisted the help of Pope Gregory XI who agreed to excommunicate rebellious Danes. But before anything along those lines was done, Valdemar died at Gurre Castle in north Zealand on 24 October 1375. Valdemar was buried at Sorø Abbey in 1375. When Podebusk died, he was buried next to Valdemar at Sorø Abbey.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: King Valdemar was a pivotal figure in Danish history; he gradually reacquired the lost territories that had been added to Denmark over the centuries. His heavy-handed methods, endless taxation, and usurpation of rights long held by noble families led to uprisings throughout Valdemar's reign. His attempt to recreate Denmark as a power in northern Europe was welcomed by the Danes in the beginning, but Valdemar's policies met with bitter opposition by the great landed families of Jutland. He expanded the powers of the king based upon his military prowess and the loyal nobility that became the foundation of Danish rulers until 1440. Many foreigners were appointed as court officials and councillors. The most important of them was the German-Slavic nobleman Henning Podebusk who was drost (prime minister) from 1365 to 1388.

paragraph: Valdemar IV is often regarded as one of the most important of all Danish medieval kings. The sources give the impression of an intelligent, cynical, reckless and clever ruler with a talent for both policies and economy. His grandson Albert by his eldest daughter Ingeborg was offered unsuccessfully by his grandfather Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg as Valdemar's successor. Instead his grandson Olaf II, the offspring of his daughter Margaret and Haakon VI of Norway, son of Magnus II of Sweden, was elected as his successor.

paragraph: His nickname "Atterdag" is usually interpreted as "day again" (its literal meaning in Danish), indicating that he brought new hope to the realm after a dark period of bad kingship. The epithet has also been suggested as a misinterpretation of the Middle Low German phrase "ter tage" ("these days"), which can best be interpreted as "what times we live in!" In his biography of Valdemar, Fletcher Pratt stated it meant "another day", that is, whatever happened today, good or bad, tomorrow would be another day.

paragraph: Many stories, ballads, and poems have been made about Valdemar. He was "reinvented' as one of the Danish hero kings during the mid-19th century when Denmark was fighting Germany for its traditional southern Jutland region.

paragraph: Section::::Issue.

paragraph: In the 1330s, Valdemar V, Duke of Schleswig (previous king of Denmark as Valdemar III) made an alliance with Valdemar IV against his uncle, Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg, and arranged a marriage between Valdemar IV and his sister, Helvig of Schleswig. She was to bring the pawned province of Nørrejylland, one quarter of the territory of Jutland, as a dowry. The wedding took place at Sønderborg Castle in 1340. Helvig was the daughter of Eric II, Duke of Schleswig and Adelaide of Holstein-Rendsburg. After the wedding, the couple traveled to Viborg to be officially greeted as king and queen of Denmark. With his wife Helvig, Valdamer IV had the following children:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Christopher of Denmark, Duke of Lolland (1341–1363)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Margaret of Denmark (1345–1350), betrothed to Henry III, Duke of Mecklenburg, died young.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Ingeborg of Denmark (1347–1370), married Henry III, Duke of Mecklenburg, and was the maternal grandmother of King Eric VII of Denmark.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Catherine of Denmark (1349), died young.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Valdemar of Denmark (135011 June 1363), died young.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Margaret I of Denmark (1353–1412), married King Haakon VI of Norway, and was Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

paragraph: Evidence indicated also an illegitimate son, Erik Sjællandsfar, at on Zealand, buried in Roskilde Cathedral with a crown. However, other evidence indicate that he was a son of King Eric VI of Denmark.

paragraph: Section::::Distinctions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Knight of the Holy Sepulchre

paragraph: Section::::Other sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fletcher Pratt (1950) "The Third King", a biography of Valdemar Atterdag (Sloane)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter Lundbye (1939) "Valdemar Atterdag: Danmarks Riges Genopretter, skildret i ny historisk Belysning efter de samtidige Kilders Beretning" (Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard)

description: King of Denmark

wikidata_label: Valdemar IV of Denmark

wikipedia_title: Valdemar IV of Denmark


text: Roman

text: Roman conquest of Britain

text: Apulia

text: Aulus Plautius

text: suffect

text: consul

text: Pannonia

text: Claudius

text: Trieste

text: Rijeka

text: Britannia

text: Verica

text: Atrebates

text: Catuvellauni

text: legions

text: IX "Hispana"

text: II "Augusta"

text: XIV "Gemina"

text: XX "Valeria Victrix"

text: Thracians

text: Batavians

text: Vespasian

text: Titus Flavius Sabinus

text: Gnaeus Hosidius Geta

text: Dio Cassius

text: Eutropius

text: Gaul

text: Ocean

text: freedman

text: Narcissus

text: Saturnalia

text: Richborough

text: Kent

text: Togodumnus

text: Caratacus

text: guerrilla tactics

text: Medway

text: Thames

text: Colchester

text: Roman province

text: Publius Ostorius Scapula

text: ovation

text: Aulus Plautius

text: Vitellia

text: Quintus Plautius

text: Publius Petronius

text: Pomponia Graecina

text: Anthony Birley

text: Gaius Pomponius Graecinus

text: Claudius

text: Messalina

text: Christianity

text: Agrippina the younger

text: Nero

text: Quintus Plautius

text: Plautius Lateranus

text: Messalina

text: Pisonian conspiracy

text: Henryk Sienkiewicz

text: Quo Vadis

text: Simon Scarrow

text: The Eagle's Conquest

text: Quo Vadis

text: Felix Aylmer

text: David Morrissey

text: Britannia

categories: Roman governors of Britain,Ancient Romans in Britain,Plautii,1st-century Romans,Year of death unknown,Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome,Ancient Roman generals,1st-century deaths

paragraph: Aulus Plautius

paragraph: Aulus Plautius was a Roman politician and general of the mid-1st century. He began the Roman conquest of Britain in 43, and became the first governor of the new province, serving from 43 to 46.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Little is known of Aulus Plautius's early career. It was previously believed that he was involved in the suppression of a slave revolt in Apulia, probably in AD 24, alongside Marcus Aelius Celer. However, the "A·PLAVTIO" of the inscription is now associated with Aulus' father of the same name, Aulus Plautius. The younger Plautius was suffect consul for the second half of 29, and held a provincial governorship, probably of Pannonia, in the early years of Claudius's reign; another inscription shows he oversaw the building of a road between Trieste and Rijeka at that time.

paragraph: Claudius appointed Plautius to lead his invasion of Britannia in 43, in support of Verica, king of the Atrebates and an ally of Rome, who had been deposed by his eastern neighbours, the Catuvellauni. The army was composed of four legions: IX "Hispana", then in Pannonia; II "Augusta"; XIV "Gemina"; and XX "Valeria Victrix", plus about 20,000 auxiliary troops, including Thracians and Batavians. Legio II "Augusta" was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known to have been involved in the invasion: Vespasian's brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus, and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta appear in Dio Cassius's account of the invasion; Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus is mentioned by Eutropius, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.

paragraph: On the beaches of northern Gaul Plautius faced a mutiny by his troops, who were reluctant to cross the Ocean and fight beyond the limits of the known world. They were persuaded after Claudius's freedman and secretary Narcissus addressed them. Seeing a former slave in place of their commander, they cried ""Io Saturnalia!"" (Saturnalia being a Roman festival in which social roles were reversed for the day) and the mutiny was over.

paragraph: The invasion force sailed in three divisions, and is generally believed to have landed at Richborough in Kent, although parts may have landed elsewhere (see Site of the Claudian invasion of Britain). The Britons, led by Togodumnus and Caratacus of the Catuvellauni, were reluctant to fight a pitched battle, relying instead on guerrilla tactics. However, Plautius defeated first Caratacus, then Togodumnus, on the rivers Medway and Thames. Togodumnus died shortly afterwards, although Caratacus survived and continued to be a thorn in the invaders' side.

paragraph: Having reached the Thames, Plautius halted and sent for Claudius, who arrived with elephants and heavy artillery and completed the march on the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). A Roman province was established in the conquered territory, and alliances made with nations outside direct Roman control. Plautius became governor of the new province, until 47 when he was replaced by Publius Ostorius Scapula. On his return to Rome and civil life, Plautius was granted an ovation, during which the emperor himself walked by his side to and from the Capitol.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Aulus Plautius was the son of Aulus Plautius suffect consul in 1 BC and possibly Vitellia.

paragraph: Quintus Plautius, consul in 36, was his younger brother.

paragraph: His sister Plautia has been identified as the wife of Publius Petronius, consul in 19; the marriage is attested in an inscription. . The daughter of Plautia and Publius Petronius, named Petronia, married Lucius Vittelius, who during the 'Year of Four Emperors' 69 AD was briefly emperor. They had divorced prior to the year 69 AD: Tacitus states that Lucius Vitellius 'feared and hated' a man by the name of Dolabella, as he had married his divorced wife Petronia. He consequently had Dolabella put to death by the side of the road. .

paragraph: Aulus Plautius married Pomponia Graecina, whom Anthony Birley has identified as the daughter of Gaius Pomponius Graecinus, suffect consul in 16. After the execution of her kinswoman Julia Drusi Caesaris by Claudius and Messalina, Pomponia remained in mourning for forty years in open and unpunished defiance of the emperor. In 57 she was charged with a "foreign superstition", interpreted by some to mean conversion to Christianity. According to Roman law, she was tried by her husband before her kinsmen, and was acquitted.

paragraph: There are no attested children of this marriage; though it has been suggested that a later Aulus Plautius, alleged to be the lover of Agrippina the younger, who was consequently raped and murdered by Agrippina's son Nero, may have been their son. However, some modern historians, such as Birley, have suggested that, despite the shared name, this Aulus Plautius is the son of Aulus Plautius' brother, Quintus Plautius

paragraph: Aulus Plautius was the uncle whose "distinguished service" saved his nephew Plautius Lateranus, (another son of Quintus Plautius) from execution in AD 48 after his affair with Messalina was discovered; though Lateranus was removed from his senatorial position and exiled instead. . Lateranus was later executed for his involvement in the Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in AD 65; from which it is concluded that his Uncle Aulus Plautius was by that time deceased.

paragraph: Section::::Portrayals in fiction.

paragraph: Plautius is a character in Henryk Sienkiewicz's novel "Quo Vadis". Plautius is also a character in Simon Scarrow's novel "The Eagle's Conquest".

paragraph: In the 1951 film "Quo Vadis", based on the novel, Plautius (played by Felix Aylmer) and his wife Pomponia are (unhistorically) Christians.

paragraph: He is played by David Morrissey in the 2018 TV series "Britannia", which portrays a fantasy version of the Roman conquest.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Smith (ed) (1870), "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" Vol 4 p. 405

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Patrick Welch (1963), "Britannia: the Roman Conquest and Occupation of Britain"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anthony R Birley (1981), "The "Fasti" of Roman Britain", p 37–40

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anthony R Birley (2005), "The Roman Government of Britain", p 17–25

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paul L. Maier (1981), "The Flames of Rome"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aulus Plautius at Roman-Britain.org

description: governor of Roman Britain and suffect consul

wikidata_label: Aulus Plautius

wikipedia_title: Aulus Plautius


text: Trondheim

text: Lister og Mandal amt

text: Sweden

text: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia

text: Peter III of Russia

categories: People from Trondheim,18th-century Norwegian people,Norwegian torture victims,Norwegian civil servants,Norwegian non-fiction writers,People executed for treason,People executed by Denmark–Norway,1673 births,1723 deaths

paragraph: Povel Juel

paragraph: Povel Juel (c.1673 – 8 March 1723) was a Norwegian civil servant and writer.

paragraph: Povel Juel was born and grew up in Trondheim, Norway where his father was a merchant. In 1709, he was appointed acting commissioner in Bergen. He was appointed County Manager of Lister og Mandal amt (now Vest-Agder) from 1711. Juel was suspended as district governor in 1713, but regained his position in 1715. He was deposed in 1718 due to unruly behavior. He was later executed for high treason in 1723. He was charged with a role in a conspiracy involving Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, pretender to the throne of Sweden, husband of Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna of Russia and father of Peter III of Russia.

paragraph: During his lifetime, Povel Juel was an author. Among his books were "Et lycksaligt Liv" from 1721, and "En god Bonde, hans Avl og Biæring" from 1722.

description: Norwegian civil servant and writer

wikidata_label: Povel Juel

wikipedia_title: Povel Juel


text: Benedictine

text: hermit

text: Italian

text: patron saint

text: Ariano Irpino

text: diocese of Ariano Irpino-Lacedonia

text: Frangipani family

text: Honorius II

text: Innocent II

text: Frascati

text: Leonard of Limoges

text: Abbey of Cava de' Tirreni

text: Rule of St Benedict

text: Montevergine Abbey

text: William of Vercelli

text: asceticism

text: Ariano Irpino

text: Naples

text: Benevento

text: Bari

text: Holy Land

text: hermit

text: Saint Peter

text: diocese of Ariano Irpino-Lacedonia

text: Ariano Irpino Cathedral

text: Castelbottaccio

text: Molise

text: Roman Martyrology

text: Assumption

text: Frederick II

text: relics

text: Montemiletto

text: Lucera

text: pebble

text: Elzéar of Sabran

text: scourge

text: Sant’Ottone Frangipane

categories: Medieval Italian saints,12th-century Christian saints,People from Ariano Irpino,1127 deaths,1040 births

paragraph: Saint Ottone Frangipane

paragraph: Ottone Frangipane (1040 – 23 March 1127), also known as Saint Ottone (or Saint Oto), was a Benedictine monk and a hermit. In Italian Roman Catholic theology he is patron saint of Ariano Irpino and the diocese of Ariano Irpino-Lacedonia.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Ottone is believed to have belonged to the Frangipani family, a powerful baronial family occupying a prominent position in Rome from the 11th to the 13th century. Manouevring cleverly between the Empire and the Papacy, they were instrumental in the appointment of at least two popes: Honorius II and Innocent II.

paragraph: Around 1058, Ottone, then a knight, took part in a military action in defence of the Pope against rebel lords in the area of Frascati. He was captured and put in chains in a cell in a tower, from which he escaped after beseeching the intercession of the patron saint of the imprisoned, Saint Leonard of Limoges, who appeared to him in the night and released him from his chains. Thus miraculously set free, he went on pilgrimage to the Abbey of Cava de' Tirreni, where under the direction of the abbot Pietro he followed the Rule of St Benedict, dedicating himself to prayer and manual labour. He then went to Montevergine Abbey, where he came to know Saint William of Vercelli and developed his vocation to asceticism.

paragraph: In about 1117, Ottone went to Ariano Irpino. At this time the city was a place of transit for the pilgrims travelling from Naples and Benevento towards Bari to take ship for the Holy Land. Ottone dedicated himself to their help and to accommodate them founded the hospital of San Giacomo (Saint James).

paragraph: In 1120 he decided to enter upon the life of a hermit and withdrew into seclusion close to the church of Saint Peter, now known as "San Pietro dei Reclusiis", and built a small cell where he prayed, kept vigil, did penance and fasted. He also dug out a tomb for himself, to remind himself continually that death was close. The reputation of sanctity quickly spread around him and many miraculous happenings were reported.

paragraph: Ottone died on 23 March 1127.

paragraph: Section::::Cult.

paragraph: Ottone Frangipane is the patron saint of the city of Ariano Irpino and of the diocese of Ariano Irpino-Lacedonia. He also shares the dedication of Ariano Irpino Cathedral. He is also venerated in the village of Castelbottaccio in the Molise, of which he is the patron saint. The "Roman Martyrology" set his feast on 23 March. In Ariano he is also commemorated on the octave of the Assumption.

paragraph: Soon after his death his body was carried in procession to Ariano Cathedral and was buried there. In 1220, in the time of Frederick II, for fear of Saracen raids his remains were translated to Benevento. (In the "Synodicon Diocesanum Sanctae Beneventanae Ecclesiae" of 1686 it is reported that the relics of Saint Ottone Frangipane were preserved in the parish church of San Pietro at Montemiletto).

paragraph: The most important miracle recorded of Ottone took place in around 1180, when the Saracens of Lucera who were besieging Ariano were struck down by a rain of pebbles by the intercession of the saint, who appeared among the clouds. To commemorate this event the Arianese built the church of Santa Maria della Ferma. Among others who received miracles by the intercession of Ottone was Saint Elzéar of Sabran, who became Count of Ariano and is now venerated as its joint patron saint.

paragraph: Particularly noted is the vow made by the Arianese in 1528: Ariano was gripped by the plague and inhabitants turned to Saint Ottone to be freed of it. Tradition relates that the saint saved the city from plague on other occasions.

paragraph: In art his attributes are the monastic habit, a sword and a scourge.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A.D’Agostino, "Sant'Ottone Frangipane" - Ariano, Stab. Tip. Appulo Irpino, 1892.

paragraph: BULLET::::- B.A.Grasso, "Sant'Ottone Frangipane nella storia e nella leggenda" - Ariano, Stab. Tip. Appulo Irpino, 1901.

paragraph: BULLET::::- F.De Stasio-D. Minelli, "I Santi Patroni di Ariano e le Sante Spine" - Marigliano, 1982

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sant’Ottone Frangipane

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diocese of Ariano and Lacedonia: Notes on Ottone Frangipane

alias:
Saint Ottone Frangipane
Saint Otho
Otho Frangipane

description: Italian hermit, saint

wikidata_label: Ottone Frangipane

wikipedia_title: Saint Ottone Frangipane


text: Beatus Rhenanus

text: Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums

text: Johannes Classen

text: Adolf Kiessling

text: Hermann Usener

text: Franz Bücheler

text: Bernard de Montfaucon

text: palaeography

text: Charles Graux

text: Martin Schanz

text: stichometry

text: Hermann Alexander Diels

text: Hermann Cohen

text: Paul Natorp

text: neo-Kantianism

text: Martin Heidegger

text: Hannah Arendt

text: Paul Friedlander

text: Ernst Cassirer

text: José Ortega y Gasset

text: Kurt Wolff

text: Boris Pasternak

text: "The Book Scroll in Ancient Art" at the Internet Archive (German)

text: "Kritik and Hermeneutik" at the Internet Archive (German)

text: Wikisource has many of Birt's publications (German)

paragraph: Theodor Birt

paragraph: Theodor Birt (22 March 1852 in Wandsbek – 28 January 1933 in Marburg) was a German classicist and novelist. He also used the name of the Humanist Beatus Rhenanus as a pseudonym.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Birt's ancestors came from Pennsylvania and had been settled in Germany for three generations. Birt's father intended for him to become a shopkeeper but allowed his musically talented son to attend the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums, a gymnasium in Hamburg, for three years where Johannes Classen and Adolf Kiessling were his teachers. From 1872, Birt studied classics, at first for a year in Leipzig, and then (1873–76) in Bonn under Hermann Usener and Franz Bücheler. From the time he completed his studies (from his 'Habilitation,' 1878) he remained at the University of Marburg. He became a full professor ('Ordinarius') in 1886, and taught until 1921. In 1902–1903 he was the rector of the university.

paragraph: Apart from his scholarly research, he became well-known to a wider public after 1913 for a large number of works that aimed to popularize scholarship on ancient Greece and Rome. He later published fiction and literary works (short stories, historical novels, plays, and poems). His collection of biographical sketches of famous Romans remains in print today.

paragraph: He belonged to academic societies: the classical studies section of the Philologisch-Historischen Vereins and later to the scholarly Verbindung Hercynia.

paragraph: Section::::History of the Ancient Book.

paragraph: Birt was a pioneering and influential historian of the ancient book in Greece and Rome. His 1882 "The Nature of the Ancient Book" and his 1901 "The Book Scroll in Ancient Art" are representative of nineteenth century German classical scholarlship at its best and are still widely cited. For example, in their 1987 book "The Birth of the Codex," Roberts and Skeat criticized some of Birt's interpretations but added:

paragraph: 'Any worker in this field must begin by expressing his obligations to Theodor Birt's "The Nature of the Ancient Book" ... As a collection of the literary material Birt's work is indispensable and calls for few supplements ...'

paragraph: The early reception of Birt's work is reflected in a review of his work on ancient depictions of reading and book scrolls by C. B. Gulick (Harvard University):

paragraph: Just twenty-five years have elapsed between the appearance of

paragraph: Theodor Birt's "The Nature of the Ancient Book" and the present work. Although,

paragraph: perhaps, it is less important in scope and subject-matter than the earlier

paragraph: book, this elaborate study of the scroll as it appears in art is a useful

paragraph: contribution, exhibiting the same qualities of untiring search for all possible

paragraph: material bearing on the theme, fresh judgments on that material,

paragraph: careful exposition of fact, often enlivened by a pertinent comparison with

paragraph: modern practice, and a genius for classification which in combined comprehensiveness

paragraph: and attention to detail is admirable, even for a German.

paragraph: Birt summarized his many publications on Greek philology and on the ancient book in his 1913 book "Kritik and Hermeneutic".

paragraph: Birt's work played an important role in reshaping historical research on the ancient book. From the time of Bernard de Montfaucon (1655 –1741), the field was dominated by palaeography, which married an interest in tracing the evolution in Greek and Latin handwriting through the centuries with techniques for deciphering, annotating, and amending manuscripts. As important as this was for interpreting the books recovered during the Renaissance, the narrow focus on writing and grammar gave only a limited view of the central medium for organizing and communicating knowledge and literary art. Birt turned the field toward the broader social, economic, and intellectual roles of the ancient book.

paragraph: Birt's innovations were stimulated by discoveries in the preceding decade. Many medieval copies of ancient texts end with short notes that contain numerals. In 1873, Charles Graux correctly interpreted these as measures of the length of each work. Just as moderns measure the size of their books in pages, ancient Greeks and Romans counted the number of 'standard lines' in their books (each as long as a line in Homer's poems). Before his premature death, Graux together with Martin Schanz and other scholars launched the modern study of the spatial organization of ancient books, which is now called stichometry. Birt saw that the breakthrough in understanding the practice of line-counting led to a cascade of insights about the way ancient publishers paid ancient scribes (by the line), about the way ancient authors cited each other's works (by the line), and about the kinds of formats and editions used in antiquity. As Hermann Alexander Diels said,

paragraph: The investigations of the recently deceased Charles Graux, taken all too early from the world of scholarship, have made it henceforth inalterably certain that the standard line (the "stichos") of the ancients was a unit of spatial length equal to the hexameter. Theodor Birt has rightly erected his shrewd and persuasive "The Nature of the Ancient Book" upon this foundation.

paragraph: Birt's 550-page work was stimulated by these practical questions about the ancient culture of books but grew into a broad reevaluation and reorganization of our knowledge of ancient literature and intellectual life. His introduction argued:

paragraph: The nature of the literature of antiquity and the form of the ancient book reciprocally conditioned each other. The context of publication enveloped and modified literary creativity. The dividends of these investigations will thereby far exceed the satisfaction of merely antiquarian pleasures.

paragraph: Many of Birt's theories and interpretations are dated and have been superseded by later research, but he permanently broadened and deepened the methodologies used in histories of the ancient book.

paragraph: Section::::Neo-Kantianism in Marburg.

paragraph: When Birt was a professor in classics at Marburg University, its philosophy department was among the most important in Europe. Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp there developed what came to be known as neo-Kantianism. As the name suggests, this aimed to develop Kant's philosophy and apply it to a wide range of contemporary issues. In addition to Cohen and Natorp, Marburg's philosophy department was home during Birt's career to such important figures as Martin Heidegger, Hannah Arendt, Paul Friedlander, Ernst Cassirer, and José Ortega y Gasset. Birt contributed a section to one of Natorp's books, who thanked him as a 'great friend and colleague.' A letter from Kurt Wolff, who became a well-known German publisher, to the writer Boris Pasternak shows that Birt and the philosophers were part of the same social circle:

paragraph: I was a student in Marburg about a year before your time and spent an unforgettable semester reading Plato in Cohen's seminar ... What pleasure it would give me to talk about Cohen, Natorp, and the others with you! (Perhaps you remember Theodor Birt, the professor of Latin, Johannes Weiss, the theologian and excellent pianist, Jenner, the musicologist who was also a student of Brahms, the Germanist Professor Vogt, and Elster.) I was on friendly terms with all of them ... because I always took my cello along when I went to call on them... They were all musical and making music in their homes was an integral part of their lives.

paragraph: Methodologically, Birt's "The Nature of the Ancient Book" is notable for its characteristic mixture of rigorous classical scholarship and neo-Kantian concerns with space and time, as can be seen in passages like:

paragraph: The "logos" is as non-spatial as music, and has its extension only in time. Before writing, our collective memory entrusted its survival to song, to Homer and the ancient rhapsodes. When writing first came, it was nothing more than a crutch for our memory. In itself, the written word is not more than sound and thought crystallized into space, and streams out into time again as soon as it touches the reader’s eye.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Scholarly Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1882: Das antike Buchwesen in seinem Verhältnis zur Literatur. Hertz, Berlin. - Nachdruck Scientia, Aalen 1959 und 1974

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1892: Claudianus, Claudius: Carmina Recensuit Theodorus Birt. Weidmann, Berlin (Monumenta Germaniae historica, Auctores antiquissimi 10). - Nachdruck Weidmann, Berlin 1981 und MGH München 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1907 Die Buchrolle in der Kunst. Teubner, Leipzig 1907. - Nachdruck Olms, Hildesheim 1976

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1913: Kritik und Hermeneutik. Nebst Abriss des antiken Buchwesens. Beck, München. 3. Aufl. (Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft I, 3)

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Popular Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1894: Eine römische Litteraturgeschichte in 5 Stunden gesprochen. Elwert, Marburg. - 2. Aufl. ( in 5 Vorträgen) 1909

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1909: Zur Kulturgeschichte Roms : gesammelte Skizzen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. - 5. Aufl. 1935

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1913: Römische Charakterköpfe, Ein Weltbild in Biographien. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. - 9. Aufl. 1932. 36.-40. Tsd. 1954

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1916: Schiller, der Politiker, im Licht unserer großen Gegenwart. Cotta, Stuttgart. - 2.-5. Tsd. 1916

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1917: Die Germanen. Eine Erklärung der Überlieferung über Bedeutung und Herkunft des Völkernamens. Beck, München

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1918: Aus dem Leben der Antike. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. - 4. Aufl. 1925

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1918: Sokrates, der Athener. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1919: Charakterbilder Spätroms und die Entstehung des modernen Europa. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. - 5. Aufl. 1930

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1919: Von Homer bis Sokrates. Ein Buch über die alten Griechen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig.- 4. Aufl. 1928

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1922: Die Cynthia des Properz. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1924: Alexander der Große und das Weltgriechentum bis zum Erscheinen Jesu. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. 1924

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1925: Horaz' Lieder : Studien zur Kritik und Auslegung. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig, 2 Bände

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1928: Das Kulturleben der Griechen und Römer in seiner Entwicklung. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1931: Die Schaubauten der Griechen und die attische Tragödie. Gesellschaft für Theatergeschichte, Berlin

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1932: Frauen der Antike. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1941: Das römische Weltreich [Römische Charakterköpfe u. Charakterbilder Spätroms] Knaur, Berlin

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Autobiographical.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1910: Aus der Provence. Reiseskizzen. Deutsche Bücherei [Reihe], Leipzig. Nachdr. Rüsch, Großenwörden 1927

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1922: Griechische Erinnerungen. Ein Reisebuch. Elwert, Marburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1927: Marburger Licht- und Schattenbilder. Erinnerungen. Elwert, Marburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1929: Wie ich lernte. Hamburger Erinnerungen und Stimmungsbilder aus den Jahren 1813 bis 1872. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Fiction and Literary Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1886: Attarachus und Valeria. Eine lyrische Erzählung von Beatus Rhenanus. Grunow, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1895: König Agis. Eine Tragödie des Beatus Rhenanus in 5 Akten. Elwert, Marburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1908: Artiges und Unartiges. Gedichte des Beatus Rhenanus. Elwert, Marburg. - 2. Aufl. 1924

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1916: Novellen und Legenden aus verklungenen Zeiten. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig. - 4. Aufl. 1928

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1911: Menedem. Die Geschichte eines Ungläubigen. Cotta, Stuttgart. - 2. u. 3. Tsd. 1921

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1919: Von Hass und Liebe : 5 Erzählungen aus verklungenen Zeiten. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1922: Helle und dunkle Klänge in Gedichten. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1923: Neue Novellen und Legenden aus verklungenen Zeiten. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1923: Moderne Novellen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1927: Roxane: Ein Alexanderroman in 10 Handlungen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1930: Rätsel und Silbenspiele. Elwert, Marburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1931: König wider Willen. - Achill. 2 Novellen. Quelle & Meyer, Leipzig

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Nature of the Ancient Book" at the Internet Archive (German)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Book Scroll in Ancient Art" at the Internet Archive (German)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kritik and Hermeneutik" at the Internet Archive (German)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wikisource has many of Birt's publications (German)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Franz Gundlach: "Catalogus professorum academiae Marburgensis", 1527–1910. Marburg 1927, p. 340.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Inge Auerbach: "Catalogus professorum academiae Marburgensis". Zweiter Band: 1910 bis 1971. Marburg 1979, p. 467.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hermann Bengtson: Birt, Theodor. In: "Neue Deutsche Biographie" (NDB). Band 2, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1955, , p. 260 ff. (Digitalized).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eckart Mensching: "Nugae zur Philologie-Geschichte", 9 (1996), pp. 9–66.

description: German classicist

wikidata_label: Theodor Birt

wikipedia_title: Theodor Birt