text:
footballer
Chester City
Warrington
Football League
Rochdale
Halifax Town
Altrincham
Witton Albion
Hyde
Warrington Town
Trafford
Warrington
Chester City
1999–2000
2000–01
Football League
1999–2000 season
Warrington
2000–01
Football League
Rochdale
left back
Southampton
Oxford United
Football League
Kassam Stadium
Bristol Rovers
Accrington Stanley
Halifax Town
Conference National
Altrincham
Witton Albion
Hyde
Alfreton Town
Warrington Town
Trafford
Jim Harvey
Conference League Cup
2000–01
Conference National
2005–06

categories: Warrington Town F.C. players,Association football fullbacks,Chester City F.C. players,Halifax Town A.F.C. players,Rochdale A.F.C. players,Accrington Stanley F.C. players,Living people,English criminals,1981 births,English footballers,National League (English football) players,Witton Albion F.C. players,Altrincham F.C. players,Hyde United F.C. players,Trafford F.C. players,English Football League players,English football managers,Footballers from Warrington

paragraph: Matt Doughty

paragraph: Matthew Liam Doughty (born 2 November 1981) is an English former professional footballer.

paragraph: He started his professional career at Chester City, but whilst at the club he was sent to prison for four months following an incident outside a nightclub in Warrington, this meant he missed Chester City's last game in the Football League before they were relegated. In 2001, he joined Rochdale where he spent three seasons before moving on to play for Halifax Town and Altrincham respectively. In 2010, he moved to Witton Albion before joining Hyde in March 2011. He later returned to Altrincham, before playing for Warrington Town and Trafford.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Chester City.

paragraph: Born in Warrington, he signed professional terms with Chester City at the age of 16. He played regularly in 1999–2000 and 2000–01. This period saw the him and the club relegated from the Football League, with Doughty missing the decisive final game of the 1999–2000 season after being sent to prison for four months the day before, following an incident outside a nightclub in his home town of Warrington. After his release from prison, he regained his place in the Chester side throughout the 2000–01 season.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Rochdale.

paragraph: He attracted the interest of many Football League clubs but he joined Rochdale in July 2001. Doughty established himself as the club's first choice left back. He was offered a trial with Southampton, but a broken leg prevented the move going through. Doughty's first game for Rochdale in August 2001 saw him score in a 2–1 win at Oxford United, the first Football League goal to be scored at the Kassam Stadium. Doughty was not offered a contract renewal from Rochdale in the summer of 2004 and was left without a club.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Return to non-league.

paragraph: Despite interest from clubs, most notably Bristol Rovers, Doughty said he did not want to "up sticks" and move his young family a long way from home. During the off-season, Accrington Stanley offered Doughty a contract and announced in the press that Doughty had signed, which he had not. Two days after the false announcement he had signed for Accrington, Doughty agreed terms with Halifax Town. In 2008, after the relegation of Halifax Town, he joined Conference National side Altrincham. In 2010, he left Altrincham to join Witton Albion, after sustaining a major injury in a match against Salisbury City.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Hyde.

paragraph: On 25 March 2011, he left Witton Albion to join Hyde, making his debut the day after in a 0–0 draw against Alfreton Town.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Retirement and return to Altrincham.

paragraph: Still struggling with injury problems, Doughty fell out of football after his release from Hyde. After a year, he returned to former club Altrincham on trial. He eventually signed up for the season, and made his return to action as a substitute in a 4–1 defeat against Brackley Town. He later played for Warrington Town and Trafford. He returned to Altrincham again when appointed Assistant Manager in 2016. After manager Jim Harvey was sacked in December 2016 he was appointed interim manager. In April 2017 the club announced he was to be replaced by Phil Parkinson.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chester City

paragraph: BULLET::::- Conference League Cup winners: 2000–01

paragraph: BULLET::::- Halifax Town

paragraph: BULLET::::- Conference National play-off finalists: 2005–06

description: English footballer

wikidata_label: Matt Doughty

wikipedia_title: Matt Doughty


text:
graphic design
Tacoma, Washington
University of Pennsylvania
Great Depression
World War II
Moore Dry Dock Company
attack on Pearl Harbor
Sunset
landscape architect
House & Garden
Better Homes & Gardens
House Beautiful
Strybing Arboretum

categories: University of Pennsylvania School of Design alumni,1912 births,Deaths from liver cancer,Women graphic designers,American garden writers,American graphic designers,Writers from Tacoma, Washington,American women illustrators,1997 deaths,Artists from Tacoma, Washington,20th-century American women artists

paragraph: Maggie Baylis

paragraph: Margaret "Maggie" Hilbiber Baylis (1912–1997) was an American graphic designer, illustrator, and author of gardening books.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Margaret Hilbiber was born in Tacoma, Washington in 1912. At age 16 she was accepted as an architecture student at the University of Pennsylvania, one of three women in her cohort. Two years into her studies with the onset of the Great Depression, Maggie had to drop out of the program to support her family by working as an assistant advertising manager at a department store in Tacoma.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: During World War II, Baylis left for Hawaii where she worked as a civilian doing graphic design work for Moore Dry Dock Company In 1941 she moved to San Francisco two weeks before the attack on Pearl Harbor and began work as an assistant advertising manager at "Sunset" magazine, where she worked until 1951. While working for "Sunset", she opened her own graphic design studio and hired Douglas Baylis, a landscape architect whom she later married, as her business partner. The Baylis' worked together for 20 years. The Baylis's contributed to "Western Landscape Design", "House & Garden", "Better Homes & Gardens", "House Beautiful." At "House Beautiful", Baylis created a how-to series with detailed illustrations which were later copied by other magazines for the home gardener. Maggie Baylis was the main force behind the 1948 San Francisco Museum of Art Landscape Design catalog, credited with both the layout and design. When architect Gordon Drake was killed in a skiing accident, Maggie designed and her husband wrote a book entitled "California Houses of Gordon Drake". In 1971, she turned her attention to writing and illustrating a dozen books, the most well-known being "House Plants for the Purple Thumb". The book capitalized on a nationwide interest in houseplants, teaching new growers easily digestible information on the full range of care needed for success.

paragraph: Throughout her life Baylis was involved in community affairs. She was on the board of trustees for the Strybing Arboretum, and involved with San Francisco Beautiful, and Telegraph Hill Dwellers. In the about the author section of her book "House Plants for the Purple Thumb", Baylis described herself as a "draftsmen, delineator, bread-baker, carpenter, and house plant tender." Her career centered on creating tools for the public to create large and small changes to their built environments.

paragraph: Baylis died of liver cancer on December 10, 1997.

paragraph: Section::::Douglas and Maggie Baylis collection.

paragraph: Her works were exhibited by the Sonoma League for Historic Preservation in March 2011.

paragraph: Section::::Books.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "House Plants for the Purple Thumb." 1973.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Plant Parenthood." 1974.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Real Bread: A Fearless Guide to Making It". Cole Group, 1992.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Obniski, Monica and Darrin Alfred. "Serious play : design in midcentury America." New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-  from the finding aid for the Douglas and Maggie Baylis collection, 1938-1998 (bulk 1943–1971)

wikidata_label: Maggie Baylis

wikipedia_title: Maggie Baylis


text: chemist

text: X-ray crystallographer

text: DNA

text: RNA

text: viruses

text: coal

text: graphite

text: British Jewish

text: London

text: Sussex

text: St Paul's Girls' School

text: Natural Sciences Tripos

text: Newnham College, Cambridge

text: University of Cambridge

text: Ronald George Wreyford Norrish

text: British Coal Utilisation Research Association

text: Jacques Mering

text: King's College London

text: double helix

text: John Randall

text: Maurice Wilkins

text: Birkbeck College

text: John Desmond Bernal

text: ovarian cancer

text: Photo 51

text: double helix

text: James Watson

text: Francis Crick

text: Maurice Wilkins

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

text: Aaron Klug

text: British Jewish

text: Ellis Arthur Franklin

text: merchant banker

text: Working Men's College

text: Colin

text: Roland

text: Herbert Samuel

text: Home Secretary

text: British Cabinet

text: Norman de Mattos Bentwich

text: Attorney General

text: British Mandate of Palestine

text: trade union

text: women's suffrage movement

text: London County Council

text: Hugh Franklin

text: 1918 flu pandemic

text: Working Men's College

text: Great War

text: Nazis

text: Kindertransport

text: Buchenwald

text: Norland Place School

text: St Paul's Girls' School

text: Gustav Holst

text: tonsillitis

text: Newnham College, Cambridge

text: Natural Sciences Tripos

text: Bill Price

text: second-class honours

text: B.A.

text: M.A.

text: Marie Curie

text: University of Cambridge

text: Ronald George Wreyford Norrish

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

text: National Service Acts

text: Kingston upon Thames

text: John G. Bennett

text: Marcello Pirani

text: Victor Goldschmidt

text: Putney

text: Air Raid Warden

text: porosity

text: gas masks

text: colloid

text: Centre national de la recherche scientifique

text: Jacques Mering

text: X-ray diffraction

text: Turner & Newall

text: King's College London

text: Medical Research Council's

text: John Randall

text: protein

text: lipid

text: Maurice Wilkins

text: Raymond Gosling

text: X-ray

text: B

text: A

text: helical

text: Photo 51

text: John Desmond Bernal

text: helix

text: Patterson function

text: Acta Crystallographica

text: Copenhagen

text: Aaron Klug

text: The Double Helix

text: Linus Pauling

text: James Watson

text: Francis Crick

text: Cavendish Laboratory

text: Cambridge University

text: molecular model

text: alpha helix

text: Max Perutz

text: Medical Research Council

text: Brenda Maddox

text: Nature

text: Birkbeck College

text: John Desmond Bernal

text: Agricultural Research Council

text: King's College London

text: Kenneth Holmes

text: RNA

text: DNA

text: tobacco mosaic virus

text: RNA virus

text: Trinity College, Cambridge

text: Norman Pirie

text: turnip yellow mosaic virus

text: research assistant

text: National Coal Board

text: Donald Caspar

text: United States

text: Public Health Service

text: National Institutes of Health

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: polio virus

text: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

text: Expo 58

text: Klug

text: Laboratory of Molecular Biology

text: agnostic

text: existence of God

text: trekking

text: Menton

text: University of California, Los Angeles

text: The Eagle

text: Winston Churchill

text: John Ryle

text: Ralph Miliband

text: Donald Caspar

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: Anne Sayre

text: Royal Marsden Hospital

text: Chelsea

text: bronchopneumonia

text: carcinomatosis

text: ovarian cancer

text: Exposure to X-ray radiation

text: gynaecological cancer

text: Ashkenazi Jews

text: Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery

text: London Borough of Brent

text: Rosalind Franklin and DNA

text: purdah

text: Jean Hanson

text: Dame Honor B. Fell

text: Strangeways Laboratory

text: Randall

text: MRC

text: Public Broadcasting Service

text: Dorothy Garrod

text: Photo 51

text: haemoglobin

text: Horace Freeland Judson

text: Nobel Prize

text: Matthew Meselson

text: Franklin Stahl

text: Escherichia coli

text: Meselson–Stahl experiment

text: DNA replication

text: nucleic acids

text: genetic code

text: RNA

text: Iota Sigma Pi

text: English Heritage

text: blue plaque

text: Drayton Gardens

text: King's College London

text: King's College London

text: Newnham College, Cambridge

text: Birkbeck, University of London

text: 9241 Rosfranklin

text: National Portrait Gallery

text: King's College London

text: National Cancer Institute

text: University of Groningen

text: Rosalind Franklin Fellowship

text: Royal Society

text: Rosalind Franklin Award

text: Royal Society of Chemistry

text: North Chicago

text: Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science

text: Gruber Foundation

text: Genetics Society of America

text: American Society of Human Genetics

text: Advanced Photon Source

text: Clare College

text: Mary Ann Liebert

text: Columbia University

text: Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize

text: Institute of Physics

text: St Paul's Girls School

text: Rosalind

text: Nottingham Trent University

text: doodle

text: The Eagle

text: Julie Rotblatt-Amrany

text: Pasco

text: University of Wolverhampton

text: Newnham College Boat Club

text: British Humanist Association

text: London Centre for Nanotechnology

text: DSM

text: Delft

text: Historic England

text: European Space Agency

text: Rosalind Franklin

text: Life Story

text: Tim Pigott-Smith

text: Alan Howard

text: Jeff Goldblum

text: Juliet Stevenson

text: PBS "Nova"

text: Barbara Flynn

text: BBC

text: Birmingham Repertory Theatre

text: Oberon Books

text: Photograph 51

text: Anna Ziegler

text: Nicole Kidman

text: Lawrence Aronovitch

text: Marie Curie

text: Timeline of women in science

text: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin

text: star

text: Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix

text: Physics Today

text: Photo Finish: Rosalind Franklin and the great DNA race

text: Science

text: Aaron Klug

text: Web of Stories

text: Sir Aaron Klug

text: Churchill Archives Centre

categories: Franklin family (Anglo-Jewish),English physical chemists,20th-century British chemists,20th-century British biologists,English women chemists,1920 births,English agnostics,20th-century English scientists,English biologists,20th-century women scientists,Academics of Birkbeck, University of London,Jewish chemists,Jewish agnostics,Alumni of Newnham College, Cambridge,Crystallographers,Burials at Willesden Jewish Cemetery,English Jews,Deaths from ovarian cancer,Jewish women scientists,1958 deaths,English women biologists,Academics of King's College London,Deaths from cancer in England,People educated at St Paul's Girls' School,English chemists,English molecular biologists

paragraph: Rosalind Franklin

paragraph: Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 192016 April 1958) was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite. Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, her contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA were largely recognised posthumously.

paragraph: Born to a prominent British Jewish family, Franklin was educated at a private day school at Norland Place in West London, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex, and St Paul's Girls' School, London. Then she studied the Natural Sciences Tripos at Newnham College, Cambridge, from which she graduated in 1941. Earning a research fellowship, she joined the University of Cambridge physical chemistry laboratory under Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, who disappointed her for his lack of enthusiasm. The British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA) offered her a research position in 1942, and started her work on coals. This helped her earn a Ph.D. in 1945. She went to Paris in 1947 as a "chercheur" (post-doctoral researcher) under Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'Etat, where she became an accomplished X-ray crystallographer. She became a research associate at King's College London in 1951 and worked on X-ray diffraction studies, which would eventually facilitate the double helix theory of the DNA. In 1953, after two years, owing to disagreement with her director John Randall and more so with her colleague Maurice Wilkins, she was compelled to move to Birkbeck College. At Birkbeck, John Desmond Bernal, chair of the physics department, offered her a separate research team. She died in 1958 at the age of 37 of ovarian cancer.

paragraph: Franklin is best known for her work on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA, particularly Photo 51, while at King's College London, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix for which James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. Watson suggested that Franklin would have ideally been awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with Wilkins, but, although there was not yet a rule against posthumous awards, the Nobel Committee generally does not make posthumous nominations.

paragraph: After finishing her work on DNA, Franklin led pioneering work at Birkbeck on the molecular structures of viruses. Her team member Aaron Klug continued her research, winning the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1982.

paragraph: Section::::Education and early life.

paragraph: Franklin was born on 25 July 1920 in 50 Chepstow Villas, Notting Hill, London, into an affluent and influential British Jewish family. Her father was Ellis Arthur Franklin (1894–1964), a politically liberal London merchant banker who taught at the city's Working Men's College, and her mother was Muriel Frances Waley (1894–1976). Rosalind was the elder daughter and the second child in the family of five children. David (born 1919) was the eldest brother; Colin (born 1923), Roland (born 1926), and Jenifer (born 1929) were her younger siblings. Her father's uncle was Herbert Samuel (later Viscount Samuel), who was the Home Secretary in 1916 and the first practising Jew to serve in the British Cabinet. Her aunt, Helen Caroline Franklin, known in the family as Mamie, was married to Norman de Mattos Bentwich, who was the Attorney General in the British Mandate of Palestine. Helen Caroline Franklin was active in trade union organisation and the women's suffrage movement, and was later a member of the London County Council. Her uncle, Hugh Franklin, was another prominent figure in the suffrage movement, although his actions therein embarrassed the Franklin family. Rosalind's middle name, "Elsie", was in memory of Hugh's first wife, who died in the 1918 flu pandemic. Her family was actively involved with the Working Men's College, where her father taught the subjects of electricity, magnetism, and the history of the Great War in the evenings, later becoming the vice-principal.

paragraph: Franklin's parents helped settle Jewish refugees from Europe who had escaped the Nazis, particularly those from the "Kindertransport". They took in two Jewish children to their home, and one of them, a nine-year-old Austrian, Evi Eisenstädter, shared Jenifer's room. (Evi's father Hans Mathias Eisenstädter had been imprisoned in Buchenwald, and after liberation, the family adopted the surname "Ellis".)

paragraph: From early childhood, Franklin showed exceptional scholastic abilities. At the age of six, she joined her brother Roland at Norland Place School, a private day school in West London. At that time, her aunt Mamie (Helen Bentwich), described her to her husband: "Rosalind is alarmingly clever – she spends all her time doing arithmetic for pleasure, and invariably gets her sums right." She also developed an early interest in cricket and hockey. At the age of nine, she entered a boarding-school, Lindores School for Young Ladies in Sussex. The school was near the seaside, and the family wanted a good environment for her delicate health. She was 11 when she went to St Paul's Girls' School, West London, one of the few girls' schools in London that taught physics and chemistry. At St Paul's she excelled in science, Latin, and sports. She also learned German, and became fluent in French, a language she would later find useful. She topped her classes, and won annual awards. Her only educational weakness was in music, for which the school music director, the composer Gustav Holst, once called upon her mother to inquire whether she might have suffered from hearing problem or tonsillitis. With six distinctions, she passed her matriculation in 1938, winning a scholarship for university, the School Leaving Exhibition of £30 a year for three years, and £5 from her grandfather. Her father asked her to give the scholarship to a deserving refugee student.

paragraph: Section::::Education and early life.:Cambridge and World War II.

paragraph: Franklin went to Newnham College, Cambridge in 1938 and studied chemistry within the Natural Sciences Tripos. There she met the spectroscopist Bill Price, who worked with her as a laboratory demonstrator and who later became one of her senior colleagues at King's College London. In 1941, she was awarded second-class honours from her final exams. The distinction was accepted as a bachelor's degree in qualifications for employment. Cambridge began awarding titular B.A. and M.A. degrees to women from 1947, and the previous women graduates retroactively received these. In her last year at Cambridge, she met a French refugee Adrienne Weill, a former student of Marie Curie, who had a huge influence on her life and career and helped her to improve her spoken French.

paragraph: Franklin was awarded a research fellowship at Newnham College, with which she joined the physical chemistry laboratory of the University of Cambridge to work under Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, who later won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In her one year of work there, she did not have much success. As described by his biographer, Norrish was "obstinate and almost perverse in argument, overbearing and sensitive to criticism". He could not decide for her what to work upon, and at that time was succumbing to heavy drinking. Franklin wrote that he made her despise him completely. Resigning from Norrish's Lab, she fulfilled the requirements of the National Service Acts by working as an assistant research officer at the British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA) in 1942. The BCURA was located on the Coombe Springs Estate near Kingston upon Thames near the southwestern boundary of London. Norrish acted as advisor to the military at BCURA. John G. Bennett was the director. Marcello Pirani and Victor Goldschmidt, both refugees from the Nazis, were consultants and lectured at BCURA while Franklin worked there. During her BCURA research, she stayed at Adrienne Weill's boarding house in Cambridge until her cousin Irene Franklin asked to join her in a vacated house of her uncle in Putney. With Irene, she volunteered as an Air Raid Warden and regularly made patrols to see the welfare of people during air raids.

paragraph: She studied the porosity of coal using helium to determine its density. Through this, she discovered the relationship between the fine constrictions in the pores of coals and the permeability of the porous space. By concluding that substances were expelled in order of molecular size as temperature increased, she helped classify coals and accurately predict their performance for fuel purposes and for production of wartime devices such as gas masks. This work was the basis of her Ph.D. thesis "The physical chemistry of solid organic colloids with special reference to coal" for which the University of Cambridge awarded her a Ph.D. in 1945. It was also the basis of several papers.

paragraph: Section::::Career and research.

paragraph: Franklin spent her career working in London and Paris.

paragraph: Section::::Career and research.:Paris.

paragraph: With World War II ending in 1945, Franklin asked Adrienne Weill for help and to let her know of job openings for "a physical chemist who knows very little physical chemistry, but quite a lot about the holes in coal". At a conference in the autumn of 1946, Weill introduced her to Marcel Mathieu, a director of the Centre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), the network of institutes that comprise the major part of the scientific research laboratories supported by the French government. This led to her appointment with Jacques Mering at the Laboratoire Central des Services Chimiques de l'État in Paris. She joined the "labo" (as referred to by the staff) of Mering on 14 February 1947 as one of the fifteen "chercheurs" (researchers).

paragraph: Mering was an X-ray crystallographer who applied X-ray diffraction to the study of rayon and other amorphous substances, in contrast to the thousands of regular crystals that had been studied by this method for many years. He taught her the practical aspects of applying X-ray crystallography to amorphous substances. This presented new challenges in the conduct of experiments and the interpretation of results. Franklin applied them to further problems related to coal, in particular the changes to the arrangement of atoms when it is converted to graphite. She published several further papers on this work which has become part of the mainstream of the physics and chemistry of coal. This work was covered in a 1993 monograph, and in the regularly-published textbook "Chemistry and Physics of Carbon". Mering continued the study of carbon in various forms, using X-ray diffraction and other methods.

paragraph: Section::::Career and research.:King's College London.

paragraph: In 1950, Franklin was granted a three-year Turner & Newall Fellowship to work at King's College London. In January 1951, she started working as a research associate in the Medical Research Council's (MRC) Biophysics Unit, directed by John Randall. She was originally appointed to work on X-ray diffraction of proteins and lipids in solution, but Randall redirected her work to DNA fibres because of new developments in the field, and she was to be the only experienced experimental diffraction researcher at King's at the time. Randall made this reassignment, even before she started working at King's, because of the following pioneering work by Maurice Wilkins and Raymond Gosling – a Ph.D. student assigned to help her.

paragraph: Even using crude equipment, Wilkins and Gosling had obtained an outstanding diffraction picture of DNA which sparked further interest in this molecule. They had been carrying out X-ray diffraction analysis of DNA in the unit since May 1950, but Randall had not informed them that he had asked Franklin to take over both the DNA diffraction work and guidance of Gosling's thesis. Randall's lack of communication about this reassignment significantly contributed to the well documented friction that developed between Wilkins and Franklin.

paragraph: Franklin, working with Gosling, started to apply her expertise in X-ray diffraction techniques to the structure of DNA. She used a new fine-focus X-ray tube and microcamera ordered by Wilkins, but which she refined, adjusted and focused carefully. Drawing upon her physical chemistry background, she also skillfully manipulated the critical hydration of her specimens. When Wilkins inquired about this improved technique, she replied in terms which offended Wilkins as Franklin had "an air of cool superiority".

paragraph: Franklin presented her data at a lecture in November 1951, in King's College London. In her lecture notes, Franklin wrote the following:

paragraph: Franklin's habit of intensely looking people in the eye while being concise, impatient and direct unnerved many of her colleagues. In stark contrast, Wilkins was very shy, and slowly calculating in speech while he avoided looking anyone directly in the eye. In spite of the intense atmosphere, Franklin and Gosling discovered that there were two forms of DNA: at high humidity (when wet), the DNA fibre became long and thin; when it was dried it became short and fat.

paragraph: Franklin named these two forms "B" and "A" respectively. (The biological functions of A-DNA were only discovered 60 years later.) Because of the intense personality conflict developing between Franklin and Wilkins, Randall divided the work on DNA. Franklin chose the data rich "A" form while Wilkins selected the "B" form because, according to his self-written biography, Wilkins' preliminary pictures had hinted it might be helical. The X-ray diffraction pictures, including the landmark "Photo 51", taken by Franklin at this time have been called by John Desmond Bernal as "amongst the most beautiful X-ray photographs of any substance ever taken".

paragraph: By the end of 1951 it was generally accepted at King's that the B form of DNA was a helix, but after she had recorded an asymmetrical image in May 1952, Franklin became unconvinced that the A form of DNA was a helix. In July 1952, as a practical joke on Wilkins (who frequently expressed his view that both forms of DNA were helical), Franklin and Gosling produced a funeral notice regretting the 'death' of helical crystalline DNA (A-DNA). During 1952, they worked at applying the Patterson function to the X-ray pictures of DNA they had produced. This was a long and labour-intensive approach but would yield significant insight into the structure of the molecule.

paragraph: By January 1953, Franklin had reconciled her conflicting data, concluding that both DNA forms had two helices, and had started to write a series of three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA backbone (see below). Her two A-DNA manuscripts reached "Acta Crystallographica" in Copenhagen on 6 March 1953, one day before Crick and Watson had completed their model on B-DNA. She must have mailed them while the Cambridge team was building their model, and certainly had written them before she knew of their work. On 8 July 1953 she modified one of these "in proof" "Acta" articles, "in light of recent work" by the King's and Cambridge research teams.

paragraph: The third draft paper was on the B form of DNA, dated 17 March 1953, which was discovered years later amongst her papers, by Franklin's Birkbeck colleague, Aaron Klug. He then published an evaluation of the draft's close correlation with the third of the original trio of 25 April 1953 "Nature" DNA articles. Klug designed this paper to complement the first article he had written defending Franklin's significant contribution to DNA structure. He had written this first article in response to the incomplete picture of Franklin's work depicted in Watson's 1968 memoir, "The Double Helix".

paragraph: As vividly described in "The Double Helix", on 30 January 1953, Watson travelled to King's carrying a preprint of Linus Pauling's incorrect proposal for DNA structure. Since Wilkins was not in his office, Watson went to Franklin's lab with his urgent message that they should all collaborate before Pauling discovered his error. The unimpressed Franklin became angry when Watson suggested she did not know how to interpret her own data. Watson hastily retreated, backing into Wilkins who had been attracted by the commotion. Wilkins commiserated with his harried friend and then showed Watson Franklin's DNA X-ray image. Watson, in turn, showed Wilkins a prepublication manuscript by Pauling and Corey, which contained a DNA structure remarkably like their first incorrect model.

paragraph: Section::::Career and research.:DNA structure.

paragraph: In February 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick of the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge University had started to build a molecular model of the B form of DNA using data similar to that available to both teams at King's. Much of their data was derived directly from research done at King's by Wilkins and Franklin. Franklin's research was completed by February 1953, ahead of her move to Birkbeck, and her data was critical. Model building had been applied successfully in the elucidation of the structure of the alpha helix by Linus Pauling in 1951, but Franklin was opposed to prematurely building theoretical models, until sufficient data were obtained to properly guide the model building. She took the view that building a model was to be undertaken only after enough of the structure was known.

paragraph: Ever cautious, she wanted to eliminate misleading possibilities. Photographs of her Birkbeck work table show that she routinely used small molecular models, although certainly not ones on the grand scale successfully used at Cambridge for DNA. In the middle of February 1953, Crick's thesis advisor, Max Perutz, gave Crick a copy of a report written for a Medical Research Council biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952, containing many of Franklin's crystallographic calculations.

paragraph: Since Franklin had decided to transfer to Birkbeck College and Randall had insisted that all DNA work must stay at King's, Wilkins was given copies of Franklin's diffraction photographs by Gosling. By 28 February 1953, Watson and Crick felt they had solved the problem enough for Crick to proclaim (in the local pub) that they had "found the secret of life". However, they knew they must complete their model before they could be certain.

paragraph: Watson and Crick finished building their model on 7 March 1953, one day before they received a letter from Wilkins stating that Franklin was finally leaving and they could put "all hands to the pump". This was also one day after Franklin's two A-DNA papers had reached "Acta Crystallographica". Wilkins came to see the model the following week, according to Franklin's biographer Brenda Maddox on 12 March, and allegedly informed Gosling on his return to King's.

paragraph: It is uncertain how long it took for Gosling to inform Franklin at Birkbeck, but her original 17 March B-DNA manuscript does not reflect any knowledge of the Cambridge model. Franklin did modify this draft later before publishing it as the third in the trio of 25 April 1953 "Nature" articles. On 18 March, in response to receiving a copy of their preliminary manuscript, Wilkins penned the following: "I think you're a couple of old rogues, but you may well have something".

paragraph: Crick and Watson then published their model in "Nature" on 25 April 1953 in an article describing the double-helical structure of DNA with only a footnote acknowledging "having been stimulated by a general knowledge of" Franklin and Wilkins' "unpublished" contribution. Actually, although it was the bare minimum, they had just enough specific knowledge of Franklin and Gosling's data upon which to base their model. As a result of a deal struck by the two laboratory directors, articles by Wilkins and Franklin, which included their X-ray diffraction data, were modified and then published second and third in the same issue of "Nature", seemingly only in support of the Crick and Watson theoretical paper which proposed a model for the B form of DNA.

paragraph: Weeks later, on 10 April, Franklin wrote to Crick for permission to see their model. Franklin retained her scepticism for premature model building even after seeing the Watson–Crick model, and remained unimpressed. She is reported to have commented, "It's very pretty, but how are they going to prove it?" As an experimental scientist, Franklin seems to have been interested in producing far greater evidence before publishing-as-proven a proposed model. As such, her response to the Watson–Crick model was in keeping with her cautious approach to science. Most of the scientific community hesitated several years before accepting the double helix proposal. At first mainly geneticists embraced the model because of its obvious genetic implications.

paragraph: Section::::Career and research.:Birkbeck College.

paragraph: Franklin left King's College London in mid-March 1953 for Birkbeck College, in a move that had been planned for some time and that she described (in a letter to Adrienne Weill in Paris) as "moving from a palace to the slums ... but pleasanter all the same." She was recruited by physics department chair John Desmond Bernal, a crystallographer who was a communist, known for promoting women crystallographers. Her new laboratories were housed in 21 Torrington Square, one of a pair of dilapidated and cramped Georgian houses containing several different departments; Franklin frequently took Bernal to task over the careless attitudes of some of the other laboratory staff, notably after workers in the pharmacy department flooded her first-floor laboratory with water on one occasion.

paragraph: Despite the parting words of Bernal to stop her interest in nucleic acids, she helped Gosling to finish his thesis, although she was no longer his official supervisor. Together they published the first evidence of double helix in the A form of DNA in the 25 July issue of "Nature". At the end of 1954, Bernal secured funding for Franklin from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC), which enabled her to work as a senior scientist supervising her own research group. John Finch, a physics student from King's College London, subsequently joined Franklin's group, followed by Kenneth Holmes, a Cambridge graduate, in July 1955. Despite the ARC funding, Franklin wrote to Bernal that the existing facilities remained highly unsuited for conducting research "...my desk and lab are on the fourth floor, my X-ray tube in the basement, and I am responsible for the work of four people distributed over the basement, first and second floors on two different staircases."

paragraph: Franklin continued to explore another major nucleic acid, RNA, a molecule equally central to life as DNA. She again used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), an RNA virus. Her meeting with Aaron Klug in early 1954 led to a longstanding and successful collaboration. Klug had just then earned his PhD from Trinity College, Cambridge, and joined Birkbeck in late 1953. In 1955 Franklin published her first major works on TMV in "Nature", in which she described that all TMV virus particles were of the same length. This was in direct contradiction to the ideas of the eminent virologist Norman Pirie, though her observation ultimately proved correct.

paragraph: Franklin assigned the study of the complete structure of TMV to her PhD student Holmes. They soon discovered (published in 1956) that the covering of TMV was protein molecules arranged in helices. Her colleague Klug worked on spherical viruses with his student John Finch, with Franklin coordinating and overseeing the work. As a team, from 1956 they started publishing seminal works on TMV, cucumber virus 4 and turnip yellow mosaic virus.

paragraph: Franklin also had a research assistant, James Watt, subsidised by the National Coal Board and was now the leader of the ARC group at Birkbeck. The Birkbeck team members continued working on RNA viruses affecting several plants, including potato, turnip, tomato and pea. In 1955 the team was joined by an American post-doctoral student Donald Caspar. He worked on the precise location of RNA molecules in TMV. In 1956 he and Franklin published individual but complementary papers in the 10 March issue of "Nature", in which they showed that the RNA in TMV is wound along the inner surface of the hollow virus. Caspar was not an enthusiastic writer, and Franklin had to write the entire manuscript for him.

paragraph: In 1957 her research grant from ARC expired, and was given a one-year extension ending in March 1958. She applied for a new grant from the United States Public Health Service of the National Institutes of Health, which approved £10,000 for three years, the largest fund ever received at Birkbeck. In her grant application, Franklin mentioned her new interest in animal virus research. The previous year, Franklin had visited the University of California, Berkeley, where colleagues had suggested her group research the polio virus. She obtained Bernal's consent in July 1957, though serious concerns were raised after she disclosed her intentions to research live, instead of killed, polio virus at Birkbeck. Eventually, Bernal arranged for the virus to be safely stored at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine during the group's research. With her group, Franklin then commenced deciphering the structure of the polio virus while it was in a crystalline state. She attempted to mount the virus crystals in capillary tubes for X-ray studies, but was forced to end her work due to her rapidly failing health.

paragraph: Expo 58, the first major international fair after World War II, was to be held in Brussels in 1958. Franklin was invited to make a five-foot high model of TMV, which she started in 1957. Her materials included table tennis balls and plastic bicycle handlebar grips. The Brussels world's fair, with an exhibit of her virus model at the International Science Pavilion, opened on 17 April, one day after she died.

paragraph: After Franklin's death, Klug succeeded her as group leader, and he, Finch and Holmes continued researching the structure of the polio virus. They eventually succeeded in obtaining extremely detailed X-ray images of the virus. In June 1959, Klug and Finch published the group's findings, revealing the polio virus to have icosahedral symmetry, and in the same paper suggested the possibility for all spherical viruses to possess the same symmetry, as it permitted the greatest possible number (60) of identical structural units. The team moved to the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge in 1962, and the old Torrington Square laboratories were demolished four years later, in May 1966.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Franklin was best described as an agnostic. Her lack of religious faith apparently did not stem from anyone's influence, rather from her own line of thinking. She developed her scepticism as a young child. Her mother recalled that she refused to believe in the existence of God, and remarked, "Well, anyhow, how do you know He isn't She?" She later made her position clear, now based on her scientific experience, and wrote to her father in 1940:

paragraph: However, she did not abandon Jewish traditions. As the only Jewish student at Lindores School, she had Hebrew lessons on her own while her friends went to church. She joined the Jewish Society while in her first term at Newnham College, Cambridge, out of respect of her grandfather's request. She confided to her sister that she was "always consciously a Jew".

paragraph: Franklin loved travelling abroad, particularly trekking. She first "qualified" at Christmas 1929 for a vacation at Menton, France, where her grandfather went to escape English winter. Her family frequently spent vacations in Wales or Cornwall. A trip to France in 1938 gave her a lasting love for France and its language. She considered the French lifestyle at that time as "vastly superior to that of English". In contrast, she described English people as having "vacant stupid faces and childlike complacency". Her family was almost stuck in Norway in 1939, as World War II was declared on their way home. In another instance, she trekked the French Alps with Jean Kerslake in 1946, which almost cost her her life. She slipped off on a slope, and was barely rescued. But she wrote to her mother, "I am quite sure I could wander happily in France forever. I love the people, the country and the food."

paragraph: She made several professional trips to US, and was particularly jovial among her American friends and constantly displayed her sense of humour. William Ginoza of the University of California, Los Angeles later recalled that she was the opposite of Watson's description of her, and as Maddox comments, Americans enjoyed her "sunny side".

paragraph: In his book "The Double Helix," Watson provides his first-person account of the search for and discovery of DNA. He paints a sympathetic but sometimes critical portrait of Franklin. He praises her intellect and scientific acumen, but portrays her as difficult to work with and careless with her appearance. After introducing her in the book as “Rosalind,” he writes that he and his male colleagues usually referred to her as "Rosy", the name people at King's College London used behind her back. She did not want to be called by that name because she had a great-aunt Rosy. In the family, she was called "Ros". To others, she was simply "Rosalind". She made it clear to an American visiting friend Dorothea Raacke, while sitting with her at Crick's table in The Eagle pub in Cambridge: Raacke asked her how she was to be called and she replied "I'm afraid it will have to be Rosalind", adding "Most definitely not "Rosy"."

paragraph: She often expressed her political views. She initially blamed Winston Churchill for inciting the war, but later admired him for his speeches. She actively supported Professor John Ryle as an independent candidate for parliament in 1940, but he was unsuccessful.

paragraph: She did not seem to have an intimate relationship with anyone, and always kept her deepest personal feelings to herself. After her younger days, she avoided close friendship with the opposite sex. Once her cousins visited them, she paid Roland to accompany them. In her later years, Evi Ellis, who had shared her bedroom when a child refugee and who was then married to Ernst Wohlgemuth and had moved to Notting Hill from Chicago, tried matchmaking her with Ralph Miliband but failed. Franklin once told Evi that her flatmate asked her for a drink, but she did not get the intention. She was quite infatuated by her French mentor Mering, who had a wife and a mistress. Mering also admitted that he was captivated by her "intelligence and beauty". According to Sayre, she did confess her feeling for Mering when she was undergoing surgery, but her family denied this. But Mering wept when he visited her later, and destroyed all her letters.

paragraph: Her closest personal affair was probably with her once post-doctoral student Donald Caspar. In 1956, she visited him at his home in Colorado after her tour to University of California, Berkeley, and she was known to remark later that Caspar was one "she might have loved, might have married". In her letter to Sayre, she described him as "an ideal match".

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.:Illness and death.

paragraph: In mid-1956, while on a work-related trip to the United States, Franklin first began to suspect a health problem. While in New York she found difficulty in zipping her skirt; her stomach had bulged. Back in London she consulted Mair Livingstone, who asked her, "You're not pregnant?" to which she retorted, "I wish I were." Her case was marked "URGENT". An operation on 4 September of the same year revealed two tumours in her abdomen. After this period and other periods of hospitalization, Franklin spent time convalescing with various friends and family members. These included Anne Sayre, Francis Crick, his wife Odile, with whom Franklin had formed a strong friendship, and finally with the Roland and Nina Franklin family where Rosalind's nieces and nephews bolstered her spirits.

paragraph: Franklin chose not to stay with her parents because her mother's uncontrollable grief and crying upset her too much. Even while undergoing cancer treatment, Franklin continued to work, and her group continued to produce results – seven papers in 1956 and six more in 1957. At the end of 1957, Franklin again fell ill and she was admitted to the Royal Marsden Hospital. On 2 December, she made her will. She named her three brothers as executors and made her colleague Aaron Klug the principal beneficiary, who would receive £3,000 and her Austin car. Her other friends Mair Livingstone would get £2,000, Anne Piper £1,000, and her nurse Miss Griffith £250. The remainder of the estate was to be used for charities.

paragraph: She returned to work in January 1958, and she was given a promotion to Research Associate in Biophysics on 25 February. She fell ill again on 30 March, and she died on 16 April 1958, in Chelsea, London, of bronchopneumonia, secondary carcinomatosis, and ovarian cancer. Exposure to X-ray radiation is sometimes considered to be a possible factor in her illness.

paragraph: Other members of her family have died of cancer, and the incidence of gynaecological cancer is known to be disproportionately high among Ashkenazi Jews. Her death certificate states: "A Research Scientist, Spinster, Daughter of Ellis Arthur Franklin, a Banker." She was interred on 17 April 1958 in the family plot at Willesden United Synagogue Cemetery at Beaconsfield Road in London Borough of Brent. The inscription on her tombstone reads:

paragraph: IN MEMORY OF br ROSALIND ELSIE FRANKLIN br מ' רחל בת ר' יהודה [Rochel/Rachel daughter of Yehuda, her Hebrew name]Br DEARLY LOVED ELDER DAUGHTER OF br ELLIS AND MURIEL FRANKLIN br 25 JULY 1920 – 16 APRIL 1958 br SCIENTIST br HER RESEARCH AND DISCOVERIES ON br VIRUSES REMAIN OF LASTING BENEFIT br TO MANKIND br ת נ צ ב ה [Hebrew initials for "her soul shall be bound in the bundle of life"]

paragraph: Section::::Controversies after death.

paragraph: Various controversies surrounding Rosalind Franklin came to light following her death.

paragraph: Section::::Controversies after death.:Allegations of sexism.

paragraph: Anne Sayre, Franklin's friend and one of her biographers, stated in her book "Rosalind Franklin and DNA," "In 1951 ... King's College London as an institution, was not distinguished for the welcome that it offered to women ... Rosalind ... was unused to "purdah" [a religious and social institution of female seclusion] ... there was one other woman scientist on the laboratory staff". Andrzej Stasiak states "Sayre's book became widely cited in feminist circles for exposing rampant sexism in science." Farooq Hussain states "there were seven women in the biophysics department ... Jean Hanson became an FRS, Dame Honor B. Fell, Director of Strangeways Laboratory, supervised the biologists". Maddox states, "Randall ... did have many women on his staff ... they found him ... sympathetic and helpful."

paragraph: Sayre states "that while the male staff at King's lunched in a large, comfortable, rather clubby dining room" the female staff of all ranks "lunched in the student's hall or away from the premises". Elkin states that most of the MRC group typically ate lunch together (including Franklin) in the mixed dining room discussed below. And Maddox states, of Randall, "He liked to see his flock, men and women, come together for morning coffee, and at lunch in the joint dining room, where he ate with them nearly every day." Francis Crick also commented that "her colleagues treated men and women scientists alike."

paragraph: Sayre also discusses at length Franklin's struggle in pursuing science, particularly her father's concern about women in academic professions. This account had been taken to accuse Ellis Franklin of sexism against his daughter. A good deal of information explicitly claims that he strongly opposed her entering Newnham College. Franklin's Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) biography goes further by stating that he refused to pay her fees, and that an aunt stepped in for her. Her sister Jenifer Glynn claimed that these stories are myths, and that her parents fully supported Franklin's entire career.

paragraph: Sexism is said to pervade the memoir of one peer, James Watson, in his book "The Double Helix" published 10 years after Franklin's death and after Watson had returned from Cambridge to Harvard. His Cambridge colleague, Peter Pauling, wrote in a letter, "Morris ["sic"] Wilkins is supposed to be doing this work; Miss Franklin is evidently a fool." Crick acknowledges later, "I'm afraid we always used to adopt – let's say, a "patronizing" attitude towards her."

paragraph: Glynn accuses Sayre of making her sister a feminist heroine, and Watson's "The Double Helix" as the root of what she calls "Rosalind Industry". She conjectures that these alleged sexism stories would "have embarrassed her [Rosalind Franklin] almost as much as Watson's account would have upset her", and declared that "she was never a feminist." Klug and Crick also concurred that she was definitely not a feminist.

paragraph: Franklin's letter to her parents in January 1939 is often taken as reflecting her own prejudiced attitude and that she was "not immune to the sexism rampant in these circles." In it she remarked one lecturer as "very good, though female." But as Maddox explains, it was more of circumstantial comment rather than a gender bias. It was more of an admiration because at the time woman teachers of science were a rarity. She in fact laughed at men who were embarrassed by the appointment of the first female professor Dorothy Garrod.

paragraph: Section::::Controversies after death.:Contribution to the model of DNA.

paragraph: Rosalind Franklin's first important contributions to the model popularised by Crick and Watson was her lecture at the seminar in November 1951, where she presented to those present, among them Watson, the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, her position being that the phosphate units are located in the external part of the molecule. She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data that have considerable importance in terms of the stability of the molecule. Franklin was the first to discover and formulate these facts, which in fact constituted the basis for all later attempts to build a model of the molecule. However, Watson, at the time ignorant of the chemistry, failed to comprehend the crucial information, and this led to construction of a wrong model.

paragraph: The other contribution included an X-ray photograph of B-DNA (called "Photo 51"), that was briefly shown to Watson by Wilkins in January 1953, and a report written for an MRC biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952 which was shown by Perutz at the Cavendish Laboratory to both Crick and Watson. This MRC report contained data from the King's group, including some of Franklin's and Gosling's work, and was given to Crick – who was working on his thesis on haemoglobin structure – by his thesis supervisor Perutz, a member of the visiting committee.

paragraph: Sayre's biography of Franklin contains a story alleging that the photograph 51 in question was shown to Watson by Wilkins without Franklin's permission, and that this constituted a case of bad science ethics. Others dispute this story, asserting that Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Franklin's Ph.D. student Gosling because she was leaving King's to work at Birkbeck, and there was allegedly nothing untoward in this transfer of data to Wilkins because Director Randall had insisted that all DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and had instructed Franklin in a letter to even stop working on it and submit her data. Also, it was implied by Horace Freeland Judson, that Maurice Wilkins had taken the photograph out of Franklin's drawer, but this is also said to be incorrect.

paragraph: Likewise, Perutz saw "no harm" in showing an MRC report containing the conclusions of Franklin and Gosling's X-ray data analysis to Crick, since it had not been marked as confidential, although "The report was not expected to reach outside eyes". Indeed, after the publication of Watson's "The Double Helix" exposed Perutz's act, he received so many letters questioning his judgment that he felt the need to both answer them all and to post a general statement in "Science" excusing himself on the basis of being "inexperienced and casual in administrative matters".

paragraph: Perutz also claimed that the MRC information was already made available to the Cambridge team when Watson had attended Franklin's seminar in November 1951. A preliminary version of much of the important material contained in the 1952 December MRC report had been presented by Franklin in a talk she had given in November 1951, which Watson had attended but not understood.

paragraph: The Perutz letter was as said one of three letters, published with letters by Wilkins and Watson, which discussed their various contributions. Watson clarified the importance of the data obtained from the MRC report as he had not recorded these data while attending Franklin's lecture in 1951. The upshot of all this was that when Crick and Watson started to build their model in February 1953 they were working with critical parameters that had been determined by Franklin in 1951, and which she and Gosling had significantly refined in 1952, as well as with published data and other very similar data to those available at King's. It was generally believed that Franklin was never aware that her work had been used during construction of the model, but Gosling asserted in his 2013 interview that, "Yes. Oh, she did know about that."

paragraph: Section::::Controversies after death.:Recognition of her contribution to the model of DNA.

paragraph: Upon the completion of their model, Crick and Watson had invited Wilkins to be a co-author of their paper describing the structure. Wilkins turned down this offer, as he had taken no part in building the model. He later expressed regret that greater discussion of co-authorship had not taken place as this might have helped to clarify the contribution the work at King's had made to the discovery. There is no doubt that Franklin's experimental data were used by Crick and Watson to build their model of DNA in 1953. Some, including Maddox, have explained this citation omission by suggesting that it may be a question of circumstance, because it would have been very difficult to cite the unpublished work from the MRC report they had seen.

paragraph: Indeed, a clear timely acknowledgment would have been awkward, given the unorthodox manner in which data were transferred from King's to Cambridge. However, methods were available. Watson and Crick could have cited the MRC report as a personal communication or else cited the "Acta "articles in press, or most easily, the third "Nature" paper that they knew was in press. One of the most important accomplishments of Maddox's widely acclaimed biography is that Maddox made a well-received case for inadequate acknowledgement. "Such acknowledgement as they gave her was very muted and always coupled with the name of Wilkins".

paragraph: Fifteen years after the fact, the first clear recitation of Franklin's contribution appeared as it permeated Watson's account, "The Double Helix", although it was buried under descriptions of Watson's (often quite negative) regard towards Franklin during the period of their work on DNA. This attitude is epitomized in the confrontation between Watson and Franklin over a preprint of Pauling's mistaken DNA manuscript. Watson's words impelled Sayre to write her rebuttal, in which the entire chapter nine, "Winner Take All" has the structure of a legal brief dissecting and analyzing the topic of acknowledgement.

paragraph: Sayre's early analysis was often ignored because of perceived feminist overtones in her book. Watson and Crick did not cite the X-ray diffraction work of Wilkins and Franklin in their original paper, though they admit having "been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King's College London". In fact, Watson and Crick cited no experimental data at all in support of their model. Franklin and Gosling's publication of the DNA X-ray image, in the same issue of "Nature", served as the principal evidence:

paragraph: Section::::Controversies after death.:Nobel Prize.

paragraph: Franklin was never nominated for a Nobel Prize. Her work was a crucial part in the discovery of DNA's structure, which along with subsequent related work led to Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins being awarded a Nobel Prize in 1962. She had died in 1958, and during her lifetime the DNA structure was not considered to be fully proven. It took Wilkins and his colleagues about seven years to collect enough data to prove and refine the proposed DNA structure. Moreover, its biological significance, as proposed by Watson and Crick, was not established. General acceptance for the DNA double helix and its function did not start until late in the 1950s, leading to Nobel nominations in 1960, 1961, and 1962 for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and in 1962 for Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The first breakthrough was from Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958, who experimentally showed the DNA replication of a bacterium "Escherichia coli". Now known as Meselson–Stahl experiment, DNA was found to replicate into two double-stranded helices, with each helix having one of the original DNA strands. This DNA replication was firmly established by 1961 after further demonstration in other species, and of the stepwise chemical reaction. According to the 1961 Crick–Monod letter, this experimental proof, along with Wilkins having initiated the DNA diffraction work, were the reasons why Crick felt that Wilkins should be included in the DNA Nobel Prize.

paragraph: In 1962 the Nobel Prize was subsequently awarded to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins. Nobel rules prohibit posthumous nominations or splitting of Prizes more than three ways. The award was for their body of work on nucleic acids and not exclusively for the discovery of the structure of DNA. By the time of the award Wilkins had been working on the structure of DNA for more than 10 years, and had done much to confirm the Watson–Crick model. Crick had been working on the genetic code at Cambridge and Watson had worked on RNA for some years. Watson has suggested that ideally Wilkins and Franklin would have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

paragraph: Aaron Klug, Franklin's colleague and principal beneficiary in her will, was the sole winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982, "for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes." This work was exactly what Franklin had started and which she introduced to Klug, and it is highly plausible that, were she alive, she would have shared the Nobel Prize.

paragraph: Section::::Awards and honours.

paragraph: Section::::Awards and honours.:Posthumous recognition.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1982, Iota Sigma Pi designated Franklin a National Honorary Member.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1992, English Heritage placed a blue plaque commemorating Franklin on the building in Drayton Gardens, London, where she lived until her death.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1993, King's College London renamed the Orchard Residence at their Hampstead Campus as Rosalind Franklin Hall.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1993, King's College London placed a blue plaque on its outside wall bearing the inscription: "R. E. Franklin, R. G. Gosling, A. R. Stokes, M. H. F. Wilkins, H. R. Wilson – King's College London – DNA – X-ray diffraction studies – 1953."

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1995, Newnham College, Cambridge opened a graduate residence named "Rosalind Franklin Building" and put a bust of her in its garden.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997, Birkbeck, University of London School of Crystallography opened the "Rosalind Franklin Laboratory".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997, the asteroid discovered in 1997 was named 9241 Rosfranklin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998, National Portrait Gallery in London added Rosalind Franklin's portrait next to those of Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999, the Institute of Physics at Portland Place, London, renamed its theatre as Franklin Lecture Theatre.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2000, King's College London opened the "Franklin–Wilkins Building" in honour of Franklin's and Wilkins's work at the college.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2001, the American National Cancer Institute established the Rosalind E. Franklin Award for women in cancer research.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002, the University of Groningen, supported by the European Union, launched the Rosalind Franklin Fellowship to encourage women researchers to become full university professors.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003, the Royal Society established the Rosalind Franklin Award (officially the Royal Society Rosalind Franklin Award and Lecture) for an outstanding contribution to any area of natural science, engineering or technology. The award consists of a silver-coated medal and a grant of £30,000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003, the Royal Society of Chemistry declared King's College London as "National Historic Chemical Landmark" and placed a plaque on the wall near the entrance of the building, with the inscription: "Near this site Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, Raymond Gosling, Alexander Stokes and Herbert Wilson performed experiments that led to the discovery of the structure of DNA. This work revolutionised our understanding of the chemistry behind life itself."

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004, Finch University of Health Sciences/The Chicago Medical School, located in North Chicago, Illinois, USA changed its name to the "Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science". It also adopted a new motto "Life in Discovery", and "Photo 51" as its logo.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004, the Gruber Foundation started the Rosalind Franklin Young Investigator Award for two female geneticists from all over the world. It carries an annual fund of $25,000, each award is for three years, and selection is made by a joint committee appointed by the Genetics Society of America and the American Society of Human Genetics.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) and the APS Users Organization (APSUO) started the APSUO Rosalind Franklin Young Investigator Award for young scientists who made contributions through the APS.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005, the DNA sculpture (donated by James Watson) outside Clare College, Cambridge's Memorial Court incorporates the words ""The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.""

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006, the Rosalind Franklin Society was established in New York by Mary Ann Liebert. The Society aims to recognise, foster, and advance the important contributions of women in the life sciences and affiliated disciplines.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008, Columbia University awarded an honorary Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize to Franklin, "for her seminal contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008, the Institute of Physics established a biennial award the Rosalind Franklin Medal and Prize.

paragraph: BULLET::::- St Paul's Girls School established the Rosalind Franklin Technology Centre.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012, the bioinformatics education software platform "Rosalind" is named in honour of Franklin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012, The "Rosalind Franklin Building" is opened at Nottingham Trent University.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013, Google honoured Rosalind Franklin with a doodle, showing her gazing at a double helix structure of DNA with an X-ray of "Photo 51" beyond it.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013, a plaque was placed on the wall of The Eagle pub in Cambridge commemorating Franklin's contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA, on the sixtieth anniversary of Crick and Watson's announcement in the pub.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin Award for Leadership in Industrial Biotechnology was established by Biotechnology Industry Organization in collaboration with the Rosalind Franklin Society, for an outstanding woman in the field of industrial biotechnology and bioprocessing.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science unveiled a bronze statue of Franklin, created by Julie Rotblatt-Amrany, near its front entrance.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014, the Rosalind Franklin STEM Elementary was opened in Pasco, Washington, the first science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) elementary school in the district.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014, the University of Wolverhampton opened its new laboratory building named the Rosalind Franklin Science Building.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015, Newnham College Boat Club, Cambridge, launched a new racing VIII, naming it the Rosalind Franklin

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015, the Rosalind Franklin Appathon was launched by University College London as a national app competition for women in STEMM (science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine).

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015, a high performance computing and cloud facility in London was named "Rosalind".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2016, the British Humanist Association added the Rosalind Franklin Lecture to its annual lecture series, aimed to explore and celebrate the contribution of women towards the promotion and advancement of humanism.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2016, the Rosalind Franklin Prize and Tech Day was held on 23 February in London, organised by University College London, i-sense, UCL Enterprise, the London Centre for Nanotechnology and the UCL Athena Swan Charter.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2017, DSM opened the Rosalind Franklin Biotechnology Center in Delft, the Netherlands.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2017, the Historic England listed the tomb of Franklin under the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 as a "special architectural or historic interest". Official description states that "the tomb commemorates the life and achievements of Rosalind Franklin, a scientist of exceptional distinction, whose pioneering work helped lay the foundations of molecular biology; Franklin’s X-ray observation of DNA contributed to the discovery of its helical structure."

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) named their ExoMars rover "Rosalind Franklin".

paragraph: Section::::Awards and honours.:Cultural references.

paragraph: Franklin's part in the discovery of the nature of DNA was shown in the 1987 TV Movie "Life Story", starring Tim Pigott-Smith as Crick, Alan Howard as Wilkins, Jeff Goldblum as Watson, and Juliet Stevenson as Franklin. This movie portrayed Franklin as somewhat stern, but also alleged that Watson and Crick did use a lot of her work to do theirs.

paragraph: A 56-minute documentary of the life and scientific contributions of Franklin, "DNA – Secret of Photo 51", was broadcast in 2003 on PBS "Nova". Narrated by Barbara Flynn, the program features interviews with Wilkins, Gosling, Klug, Maddox, including Franklin's friends Vittorio Luzzati, Caspar, Anne Piper, and Sue Richley. The UK version produced by BBC is titled "Rosalind Franklin: DNA's Dark Lady".

paragraph: The first episode of another PBS documentary serial, "DNA", was aired on 4 January 2004. The episode titled "The Secret of Life" centres much around the contributions of Franklin. Narrated by Jeff Goldblum, it features Watson, Wilkins, Gosling and Peter Pauling (son of Linus Pauling).

paragraph: A play titled "Rosalind: A Question of Life" was written by Deborah Gearing to mark the work of Franklin, and was first performed on 1 November 2005 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre, and published by Oberon Books in 2006.

paragraph: Another play, "Photograph 51" by Anna Ziegler, published in 2011, has been produced at several places in the US, and in late 2015 was put on at the Noel Coward Theatre, London, with Nicole Kidman playing Franklin. Ziegler's version of the 1951–53 'race' for the structure of DNA sometimes emphasizes the pivotal role of Franklin's research and her personality. Although sometimes altering history for dramatic effect, the play nevertheless illuminates many of the key issues of how science was and is conducted.

paragraph: "False Assumptions" by Lawrence Aronovitch is a play about the life of Marie Curie in which Franklin is portrayed as frustrated and angry at the lack of recognition for her scientific contributions.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: Rosalind Franklin's most notable publications are listed below. The last two were published posthumously.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timeline of women in science

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, astronomer who discovered the most elemental composition of stars

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elkin, L. O., "Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix Physics Today" March 2003, pp. 42–48.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holt, J. (2002) "Photo Finish: Rosalind Franklin and the great DNA race" "The New Yorker" October

paragraph: BULLET::::- Watson, J. Letter to "Science", "164", p. 1539, 27 (1969).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Recordings by Aaron Klug at "Web of Stories":

paragraph: BULLET::::- by Sir Aaron Klug

paragraph: BULLET::::- The first American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the structure of DNA.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Website for television program first broadcast in 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- Documents from the Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge. Also available at

description: British chemist, biophysicist, and X-ray crystallographer

enwikiquote_title: Rosalind Franklin

wikidata_label: Rosalind Franklin

wikipedia_title: Rosalind Franklin


text:
Conservative
House of Commons of Canada
Shakespeare
Canada West
Stratford
Cariboo riding
Conservatives
1909 British Columbia election
Michael Callanan
1912
1916 provincial election
John McKay Yorston
Liberals
Cariboo
1925 general election
1926
1930
James Gray Turgeon
Liberals
1935 federal election

categories: Canadian schoolteachers,1960 deaths,Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia,Canadian merchants,1866 births,Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs,People from Perth County, Ontario,British Columbia Conservative Party MLAs

paragraph: John Fraser (British Columbia politician)

paragraph: John Anderson Fraser (4 April 1866 – 8 May 1960) was a Conservative member of the House of Commons of Canada. He was born in Shakespeare, Canada West and became a merchant and teacher.

paragraph: He attended the secondary school Stratford Collegiate Institute and became a director of John A. Fraser and Company. He taught schools in Ontario and British Columbia.

paragraph: Fraser entered provincial politics at the Cariboo riding for the Conservatives in the 1909 British Columbia election, joining fellow Conservative Michael Callanan in the two-member riding. He was re-elected there in 1912. After Cariboo was changed to a single-member riding, Fraser was the sole Conservative candidate in the 1916 provincial election but was defeated by John McKay Yorston of the Liberals.

paragraph: He was elected to Parliament at the federal Cariboo riding in the 1925 general election then re-elected in 1926 and 1930. Fraser was defeated by James Gray Turgeon of the Liberals in the 1935 federal election.

description: British Columbia politician, born 1866

wikidata_label: John Fraser


text:
Union Army
American Civil War
Medal of Honor
Battle of Perryville
New York City
Malone, Wisconsin
Battle of Perryville
Leavenworth, Kansas
Leavenworth National Cemetery
List of Medal of Honor recipients

categories: United States Army Medal of Honor recipients,Union Army soldiers,1918 deaths,Military personnel from Wisconsin,1843 births,Military personnel from New York City,People from Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin

paragraph: John Durham (Medal of Honor)

paragraph: John Stafford Durham (a.k.a. Mark Cromwell, June 8, 1843 – January 12, 1918) served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Perryville.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Durham was born on June 8, 1843, in New York City, the son of Amos H. Durham and Mary Ann née Laken. He ran away from home at age seven and was adopted by a showman, who changed his name to "Mark Cromwell". Durham's official residence was Malone, Wisconsin when he joined the Union Army. He joined the 1st Wisconsin Infantry in August 1861, and mustered out in October 1864. During the Battle of Perryville he took over as the flag bearer for his regiment when the color sergeant was shot. He moved forward with the flag until he was ordered to stop midway by his commanding officer. Durham was admitted to the Soldiers' Home in Leavenworth, Kansas in 1902; he died there on January 12, 1918 and was buried at Leavenworth National Cemetery in Leavenworth. His grave can be found in section 33, row 10, grave 18.

paragraph: Section::::Medal of Honor citation.

paragraph: Rank and organization: Sergeant, Company F, 1st Wisconsin Infantry. Place and date: At Perryville, Ky., 8 October 1862. Entered service at: Malone, St. Croix County, Wis. Born: 1843, New York, N.Y. Date of issue: 20 November 1896.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: For extraordinary heroism on 8 October 1862, while serving with Company F, 1st Wisconsin Infantry, in action at Perryville, Kentucky. Sergeant Durham seized the flag of his regiment when the color sergeant was shot and advanced with the flag midway between the lines, amid a shower of shot, shell, and bullets, until stopped by his commanding officer.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients

description: Union Army Medal of Honor recipient

wikidata_label: John Durham

wikipedia_title: John Durham (Medal of Honor)


text: Houlton, Maine

text: Boston, Massachusetts

text: Technicolor

text: feature

text: Herbert T. Kalmus

text: David O. Selznick

text: Gone with the Wind

text: Vincente Minnelli

text: Meet Me in St. Louis

text: Allan Dwan

text: Kalmus v. Kalmus

text: Kalmus v. Kalmus

text: Natalie Kalmus television sets

text: Natalie Kalmus Collection

paragraph: Natalie Kalmus

paragraph: Natalie Kalmus (née Dunfee or Dunphy) (April 7, 1882, Houlton, Maine – November 15, 1965, Boston, Massachusetts), was credited as the "color supervisor" of virtually all Technicolor feature films made from 1934 to 1949. She was married to Technicolor founder Herbert T. Kalmus from July 23, 1902 to June 22, 1922, and they continued to live together until 1944.

paragraph: Originally a catalog model, then an art student, Kalmus made sure that costumes, sets and lighting were adjusted for the color film process's sensitivities. Her services were contractually part of Technicolor's services. In her work to make sure filming rendered colors properly on screen, she was accused of going to the other extreme of mildness. She wrote: "A super-abundance of color is unnatural, and has a most unpleasant effect not only upon the eye itself, but upon the mind as well." She recommended "the judicious use of neutrals" as a "foil for color" in order to lend "power and interest to the touches of color in a scene." Producer David O. Selznick complained in a memo during the making of "Gone with the Wind":

paragraph: Director Vincente Minnelli recalled of making "Meet Me in St. Louis", "My juxtaposition of color had been highly praised on the stage, but I couldn't do anything right in Mrs. Kalmus's eyes." Director Allan Dwan was more blunt: "Natalie Kalmus was a bitch."

paragraph: Her association with Technicolor ended in 1948 when she named the corporation as a co-defendant in an alimony suit against Herbert Kalmus, when it appeared he was about to remarry. She sued unsuccessfully for separate maintenance and half his assets of Technicolor, Inc. In 1950 she licensed her name for a line of designer television cabinets made by a California manufacturer. Her personal papers are now in the Margaret Herrick Library at the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalie Kalmus, "Color Consciousness," "Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers" 25, August 1935, p. 135-47.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalie Kalmus, "Colour," in "Behind the Screen: How Films Are Made", Stephen Watts, ed. London: A. Barker, Ltd., 1938.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kathleen McLaughlin, "Expert in Color Photography, Woman Is Paid $65,000 a Year," "New York Times", Feb. 26, 1939, p. 46.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Madam Kalmus, Chemist," "New York Times", April 2, 1939, p. 134.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalie Kalmus, "Doorway to Another World," "Coronet", vol. 25, no. 6, April 1949.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard L. Coe, "Nation's Screens to Take on Color," "Washington Post", March 7, 1950, p. 12.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scott Higgins, "Harnessing the Technicolor Rainbow: Color Design in the 1930s". University of Texas Press, 2007. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kalmus v. Kalmus, 1950.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kalmus v. Kalmus, 1951.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalie Kalmus television sets.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalie Kalmus Collection, Margaret Herrick Library.

alias:
Natalie Calmus
Natalie Mabelle Dunfee Kalmus

description: American media executive

wikidata_label: Natalie Kalmus

wikipedia_title: Natalie Kalmus


text:
Assos
Greek
Stoic philosopher
Zeno of Citium
scholarch
Athens
boxer
Stoic physics
materialism
pantheism
Chrysippus
Assos
Troad
Diogenes Laërtius
boxer
drachma
Athens
Crates
Cynic
Zeno
Areopagus
minae
Chrysippus
Antigonus II Gonatas
ulcer
Simplicius
Roman Senate
materialism
Diogenes Laërtius
Stobaeus
Cicero
Seneca
Plutarch
Stoic physics
pantheism
logic
ethics
soul
Sun
divine
Aristarchus
Earth
Stobaeus
Zeus
passions
Universal Nature
José Enrique Rodó
Zeno
utilitarian
Hume, David
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
"Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes"
"Bibliography for Cleanthes"
"A Hellenistic Bibliography"

categories: Stoic philosophers,Ancient Greek boxers,230s BC deaths,Male suicides,Ancient Greeks who committed suicide,3rd-century BC Greek people,3rd-century BC philosophers,Hellenistic-era philosophers from Anatolia

paragraph: Cleanthes

paragraph: Cleanthes (; "Kleanthēs"; c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), of Assos, was a Greek Stoic philosopher and successor to Zeno of Citium as the second head ("scholarch") of the Stoic school in Athens. Originally a boxer, he came to Athens where he took up philosophy, listening to Zeno's lectures. He supported himself by working as a water-carrier at night. After the death of Zeno, c. 262 BC, he became the head of the school, a post he held for the next 32 years. Cleanthes successfully preserved and developed Zeno's doctrines. He originated new ideas in Stoic physics, and developed Stoicism in accordance with the principles of materialism and pantheism. Among the fragments of Cleanthes' writings which have come down to us, the largest is a "Hymn to Zeus". His pupil was Chrysippus who became one of the most important Stoic thinkers.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Cleanthes was born in Assos in the Troad about 330 BC. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was the son of Phanias, and early in life he was a boxer. With but four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he took up philosophy, listening first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic. In order to support himself, he worked all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his nickname "the Well-Water-Collector", ). As he spent the whole day in studying philosophy with no visible means of support, he was summoned before the Areopagus to account for his way of living. The judges were so delighted by the evidence of work which he produced, that they voted him ten minae, though Zeno would not permit him to accept them. His power of patient endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of ""the Ass"" from his fellow students, a name which he was said to have rejoiced in, as it implied that his back was strong enough to bear whatever Zeno put upon it.

paragraph: Such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on the death of Zeno in 262, he became the leader of the school. He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus II Gonatas, from whom he accepted 3000 minae. He died at the age of 99, c. 230 BC. We are told that a dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his steps.

paragraph: Simplicius, writing in the 6th century AD, mentions that a statue of Cleanthes was still visible at Assos, which had been erected by the Roman Senate.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.

paragraph: Cleanthes was an important figure in the development of Stoicism, and stamped his personality on the physical speculations of the school, and by his materialism gave a unity to the Stoic system.

paragraph: He wrote some fifty works, of which only fragments have survived preserved by writers such as Diogenes Laërtius, Stobaeus, Cicero, Seneca and Plutarch.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Physics.

paragraph: Cleanthes revolutionized Stoic physics by the theory of tension ("tonos") which distinguished Stoic materialism from all conception of matter as dead and inert. He developed Stoic pantheism, and applied his materialistic views to logic and ethics. Thus he argued that the soul was a material substance, and that this was proved (a) by the circumstance that not only bodily qualities, but also mental capacity, are transmitted by ordinary generation from parent to child; and (b) by the sympathy of the soul with the body seen in the fact that, when the body is struck or cut, the soul is pained; and when the soul is torn by anxiety or depressed by care, the body is correspondingly affected. Cleanthes also taught that souls live on after death, but that the intensity of its existence would vary according to the strength or weakness of the particular soul.

paragraph: Cleanthes regarded the Sun as being divine; because the Sun sustains all living things, it resembled the divine fire which (in Stoic physics) animated all living beings, hence it too must be part of the vivifying fire or aether of the universe. Some maintain that he accused Aristarchus of impiety for daring to put into motion "the hearth of the universe" (i.e. the Earth); this interpretation depends on an emendation of the received text, since in the manuscripts it is Aristarchus that did the accusing. The largest surviving fragment of Cleanthes is the portion of the "Hymn to Zeus", which has been preserved in Stobaeus, in which he declares praise and honour of Zeus to be the highest privilege of all rational beings.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Ethics.

paragraph: Cleanthes maintained that pleasure is not only not a good, but is "contrary to nature" and "worthless." It was his opinion that the passions (love, fear, grief) are weaknesses: they lack the strain or tension which he persistently emphasized, and on which the strength of the soul, no less than that of the body, depends, and which constitutes in human beings self-control, and moral strength, and also conditions every virtue. He said in a striking passage: "People walk in wickedness all their lives or, at any rate, for the greater part of it. If they ever attain to virtue, it is late and at the very sunset of their days."

paragraph: Zeno had said that the goal of life was "to live consistently," the implication being that no life but the passionless life of reason could ultimately be consistent with itself. Cleanthes is credited with having added the words "with nature," thus completing the well-known Stoic formula that the goal is "to live consistently with nature." For Cleanthes, this meant, in the first place, living conformably to the course of the universe; for the universe is under the governance of reason, and everyone has it as their privilege to know or become acquainted with the world-course, to recognize it as rational and cheerfully to conform to it. This, according to him, is true freedom of will not acting without motive, or apart from set purpose, or capriciously, but humbly acquiescing in the universal order, and, therefore, in everything that befalls one. The direction to follow Universal Nature can be traced in his famous prayer:

paragraph: Section::::Modern influence.

paragraph: José Enrique Rodó tells us in his famous essay "Ariel" that Cleanthes, while performing his night work, sculpted in rocks teachings from Zeno. In this book, Cleanthes is depicted as an inspirational symbol of double activity, utilitarian/material and profound/transcendent too.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hume, David, "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion", in which ""Cleanthes"" is a character

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meijer P. A., (2008), "Stoic theology. Proofs for the existence of the cosmic god and of the traditional gods. Including a commentary on Cleanthes' Hymn on Zeus". Delft, Eburon.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pearson, A., (1891), "Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes". Greek/Latin fragments with English commentary.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thom, J., (2005), "Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus: Text, Translation, and Commentary". Mohr Siebeck. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bibliography for Cleanthes" at "A Hellenistic Bibliography", compiled by Martine Cuypers, Trinity College Dublin.

description: ancient Greek philosopher

wikidata_label: Cleanthes

wikipedia_title: Cleanthes