href: Tannaim Mishnaic Gamaliel%20II Rabbi%20Akiva kohen Ezra Gamaliel%20II Sanhedrin Shabbat Rome Gamaliel%20II Joshua%20b.%20Hananiah Rabbi%20Akiva Sukkot Temple%20at%20Jerusalem Day%20of%20Atonement Bible Egyptians Israelites Biblical Rabbi%20Akiva Hermeneutics Aggadah mishnah aggadah Torah Mishnah Tosefta Zacuto Herschell%20Filipowski

text:
tanna
Mishnaic
Gamaliel II
Akiva
kohen
Ezra
Gamaliel II
Sanhedrin
Sabbath
Rome
Gamaliel II
Rabbi Yehoshua
Rabbi Akiva
Sukkot
Temple at Jerusalem
Day of Atonement
Bible
Egyptian
Israelites
Biblical
Akiva
Hermeneutics
Aggadah
mishnah
aggadah
Torah
Mishnah
Tosefta
Zacuto
Filipowski

wikipedia_title:
Tannaim
Mishnah
Gamaliel II
Rabbi Akiva
Kohen
Ezra
Gamaliel II
Sanhedrin
Shabbat
Rome
Gamaliel II
Joshua ben Hananiah
Rabbi Akiva
Sukkot
Temple in Jerusalem
Yom Kippur
Bible
Egyptians
Israelites
Bible
Rabbi Akiva
Hermeneutics
Aggadah
Mishnah
Aggadah
Torah
Mishnah
Tosefta
Abraham Zacuto
Herschell Filipowski

paragraph: Eleazar ben Azariah

paragraph: Eleazar ben Azariah () was a 1st-century CE Jewish tanna, i.e. Mishnaic sage. He was of the second generation and a junior contemporary of Gamaliel II, Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, Joshua b. Hananiah, and Akiva.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He was a kohen and traced his pedigree for ten generations back to Ezra, and was very wealthy. These circumstances, added to his erudition, gained for him great popularity. When Gamaliel II was temporarily deposed from the patriarchate due to his provoking demeanor, Eleazar, though still very young, was elevated to that office by the deliberate choice of his colleagues. He did not, however, occupy it for any length of time, for the Sanhedrin reinstated Gamaliel. Nevertheless he was retained as vice-president ("ab bet din"), and it was arranged that Gamaliel should lecture three (some say two) Sabbaths, and Eleazar every fourth (or third) Sabbath.

paragraph: He once journeyed to Rome along with Gamaliel II, Rabbi Yehoshua, and Rabbi Akiva. Neither the object of the journey nor the result of the mission is stated, but that affairs important as pressing were involved is apparent from the season at which the journey was undertaken: they celebrated Sukkot aboard the ship. With the same companions Eleazar once visited the ruins of the Temple at Jerusalem. On a visit to the aged Dosa b. Harkinas the latter joyfully exclaimed, "In him I see the fulfillment of the Scriptural saying: 'I have been young, and now am old; yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken, nor his seed begging bread'", The latter was amassed by dealing in wine, oil, and cattle. Subsequent generations entertained the belief that dreaming of Eleazar b. Azariah presaged the acquisition of wealth.

paragraph: While he lived he enjoyed the glowing praise of his famous colleagues, who said, "That generation in which Eleazar b. Azariah flourishes can not be termed orphan". When he died, the learned said, "With the death of R. Eleazar b. Azariah was removed the crown of the sages".

paragraph: Section::::Teachings.

paragraph: With Eleazar's accession to the patriarchate, the gates of the academy were opened to all who sought admittance. It is said that three hundred benches had to be added for the accommodation of the eager throngs which pressed into the halls of learning. Under his presidency, too, a review of undecided points of law was undertaken.

paragraph: Rabbinic homiletics owes to Eleazar the introduction of the rule called "semuchin" (סמוכין = "contiguous"), by which one Scriptural passage is explained or supplemented by another immediately preceding or succeeding it. Thus, Eleazar declares that the slanderer and the listener and the false witness deserve to be thrown to the dogs. He derives this idea from the juxtaposition of the expression, "Ye shall cast it to the dogs," and the prohibition against raising false reports, bearing false witness, and associating with the false witness.

paragraph: In his homilies he generally aims to bring out some ethical or practical lesson.

paragraph: BULLET::::- With reference to the Day of Atonement the Bible says, "On that day ... ye may be clean (Hebrew: תטהרו = "ye shall cleanse yourselves") from all your sins before the Lord." From this verse, Eleazar concludes that the efficacy of the day extends only to sins against God, while sins against man are not forgiven unless the offended party has first been reconciled.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Bible says, "Thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian ... because thou wast a stranger in his land." On this verse Eleazar remarked, "The Egyptians admitted the Israelites out of self-interest; nevertheless God accounts their act as one of merit. Now, if he who unintentionally confers a favor is accorded a token of merit, how much more so he who intentionally does a good deed".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Similar is his deduction from , which says, "When thou cuttest down thine harvest in thy field, and hast forgot a sheaf in the field, thou shalt not go again to fetch it: it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow: that the Lord thy God may bless thee in all the work of thine hands." "Here," argues Eleazar, "the Bible promises blessings to him by whom a good deed is done unintentionally; hence if one unwittingly loses money, and a needy one finds it and sustains life thereon, God will bless the loser for it".

paragraph: Section::::Teachings.:Biblical interpretations.

paragraph: Eleazar was independent in his Biblical interpretations. He often rejected Akiva's opinions, remarking, "Even if thou persist the whole day in extending and limiting (see Hermeneutics), I shall not harken to thee", or, "Turn from the Aggadah and betake thee to the laws affecting leprosy and the defilement of tents" (ואהלות נגעים;). Above all, he strove to be methodical. When one applied to him for information on a Biblical topic, he furnished that; was he called upon to explain a mishnah, a halakah, or an aggadah, he explained each point. Eleazar was opposed to frequent sentences of capital punishment. In his opinion a court that averages more than one execution in the course of seventy years is a murderous court.

paragraph: Section::::Teachings.:Wisdom.

paragraph: The following few sentences summarize Eleazar's practical philosophy:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Where there is no study of the Torah there is no seemly behaviour; where there is no seemly behaviour there is no study of the Torah. Where there is no wisdom there is no fear of God; where there is no fear of God there is no wisdom. Where there is no discernment there is no learning; without learning there is no discernment. Where there is a want of bread, study of the Torah can not thrive; without study of the Torah there is a lack of bread."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "With what is he to be compared who possesses more knowledge than good deeds? With a tree of many branches and but few roots. A storm comes and plucks it up and turns it over. Thus also Scripture says, 'He shall be like the heath in the desert, and shall not see when good cometh; but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness, in a salt land and not inhabited.' But what does he resemble who can show more good deeds than learning? A tree of few branches and many roots. Even should all the winds of heaven rage against it, they could not move it from its place. Thus, the Bible says, 'He shall be as a tree planted by the waters, that spreadeth out her roots by the river, and shall not see when heat cometh, but her leaf shall be green; and shall not be careful in the year of drought, neither shall cease from yielding fruit'"

paragraph: Section::::Teachings.:Modern Critical Study.

paragraph: According to a form-critical analysis performed by modern scholar Tzvee Zahavy, while Eleazar's rulings as recorded in the Mishnah and Tosefta fit the context of the chapters in which they appear, nevertheless Eleazar is not represented as a central authority in the formulation of the larger conceptions which underlie the law, nor do his traditions set the agenda of the law. Zahavy concludes that, "What we know of Eleazar thus is limited to the data that a few editors chose to preserve for the direct needs of their compilations. We have only brief glimpses of the whole tradition and the man. The thought and life of Eleazar remains... for the most part unknowable."

paragraph: Section::::Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 219 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brüll, Mebo ha-Mishnah, i. 88 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, pp. 91 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Grätz, Gesch. 2d ed., iv. 37 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 156 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii., s.v.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Weiss, Dor, ii. 94 et seq.;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zacuto, Yuḥasin, ed. Filipowski, pp. 39b et seq.

alias:
Eleazar ben Azaria
Eleazar Ben Azariah
R. Eleazar b. Azariah
Eleazar b. Azariah
Eleazar ben Azaryah
Rabbi Eliezar
Eleazar ben azariah
Elazar ben Azariah

description: Rabbi and Tannaim sage.

wikidata_label: Eleazar ben Azariah

wikipedia_title: Eleazar ben Azariah


text:
Heaton Castle
Cornhill-on-Tweed
Northumberland
Wars of Scottish Independence
Thomas Grey
Battle of Bannockburn
knight
Norham Castle
Clydesdale
William Wallace
assassination of the Sheriff
Lanark
Patrick IV, Earl of March
Ayr
Melrose Abbey
John Comyn
Edward I
Stirling Castle
trebuchet
Warwolf
Henry de Beaumont
Earl of Buchan
springald
crest
coat of arms
Christina
Christopher Seton
John Comyn
Edward II
Westminster Palace
Cupar Castle
man-at-arms
lance
grooms
Battle of Bannockburn
Robert Clifford
Berwick-upon-Tweed
eleven-week siege
Bishop of Durham
Lewis de Beaumont
Howick, Northumberland
Islandshire
Constable
Norham Castle
truce
hobelar
Lindisfarne
Sheriff of York
York Castle
Invasion of England of 1326
Isabella
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
Orwell
Suffolk
Edward III
Halidon Hill
Mitford Castle
Thomas Grey
Earl Greys of Tankerville
Chillingham
Baron Greys of Powis
Baron Greys of Werke

wikipedia_title:
Heaton Castle
Cornhill-on-Tweed
Northumberland
Wars of Scottish Independence
Thomas Grey (chronicler)
Battle of Bannockburn
Knight
Norham Castle
Clydesdale
William Wallace
Action at Lanark
Lanark
Patrick IV, Earl of March
Ayr
Melrose Abbey
John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch
Edward I of England
Stirling Castle
Trebuchet
Warwolf
Henry de Beaumont
Earl of Buchan
Springald
Crest (heraldry)
Coat of arms
Christina Bruce
Christopher Seton
John III Comyn, Lord of Badenoch
Edward II of England
Palace of Westminster
Cupar Castle
Man-at-arms
Lance
Groom (profession)
Battle of Bannockburn
Robert Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford
Berwick-upon-Tweed
Siege of Berwick (1318)
Bishop of Durham
Lewis de Beaumont
Howick, Northumberland
Islandshire
Castellan
Norham Castle
Ceasefire
Hobelar
Lindisfarne
High Sheriff of Yorkshire
York Castle
Invasion of England (1326)
Isabella of France
Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
River Orwell
Suffolk
Edward III of England
Battle of Halidon Hill
Mitford Castle
Thomas Grey (chronicler)
Earl of Tankerville
Chillingham, Northumberland
Baron Grey of Powis
Baron Grey of Werke

categories: English people of the Wars of Scottish Independence,1344 deaths,13th-century English people,Knights banneret of England,Year of birth unknown,People from Northumberland,14th-century English people,English knights

paragraph: Thomas Grey (constable)

paragraph: Sir Thomas Grey (d. before March 1344) of Heaton Castle in the parish of Cornhill-on-Tweed, Northumberland, was a soldier who served throughout the Wars of Scottish Independence. His experiences were recorded by his son Thomas Grey in his chronicles, and provide a rare picture of the day to day realities of the Wars. His career, blemished by his suicidal charge at the Battle of Bannockburn, a contributing factor to the devastating English defeat, is perhaps best known for his role in the tale of Sir William Marmion the chivalric knight of Norham Castle.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Early life.

paragraph: Grey was serving under William de Hesilrig, Sheriff of Clydesdale as early as 1297. Following William Wallace's nighttime assassination of the Sheriff at Lanark, Grey was left for dead, stripped naked in the snow. He only survived because of the heat from the houses burning around him and was rescued the next day and his wounds healed.

paragraph: Grey was knighted before September 1301 and served with the king's lieutenant for Scotland, Patrick IV, Earl of March at Ayr.

paragraph: In May 1303 Grey found himself under the command of Hugh de Audley encamped at Melrose Abbey when they were attacked at night by a much larger force led by John Comyn. Grey was beaten to the floor and taken prisoner but most of his comrades were slain.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Siege of Stirling Castle (1304).

paragraph: Edward I had captured most of Scotland by April 1304 and embarked upon a nineteen-week siege of the last significant uncaptured fortress at Stirling Castle using twelve siege engines which included the massive trebuchet called "Warwolf".

paragraph: Grey fought at the siege under the command of Henry de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Buchan. A hook thrown from a siege machine ensnared de Beaumont one day, and was about to haul him to his death upon the castle walls, when Grey freed him in the nick of time and dragged him to safety.

paragraph: Just as Grey had performed this act of bravery he was struck in the head by a large bolt fired from a springald (a large multi-man crossbow) just below his eyes. He collapsed to the ground lifeless and preparations for a quick burial were made. Just as the funeral ceremony started, Grey suddenly stirred and opened his eyes, much to the astonishment of the funeral party. He subsequently staged a full recovery.

paragraph: It is from this event that Grey perhaps adopted a ram's head as the crest of his coat of arms as a light-hearted reference to his thick skull.

paragraph: Grey became closer to the Beaumont family, who were kinsmen of both the king and queen, and was drawn into court life. In 1305 Grey acted as attorney for de Beaumont's sister Isabella de Vesci. In December 1307 Grey took custody of Robert Bruce's sister Christina following the execution of her husband Christopher Seton for his part in the murder of John Comyn, Guardian of Scotland.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Ambush at Cupar Castle (1308).

paragraph: Upon the death of Edward I he was succeeded by his son Edward II and Grey attended the coronation at Westminster Palace in February 1308. As Grey returned to Cupar Castle, of which he was the then warden, he was ambushed by Walter de Bickerton, a supporter of Bruce.

paragraph: Grey was heavily outnumbered, having only 26 man-at-arms compared to the 400 men commanded by Bickerton. Deciding that he could not avoid the ambush he decided to charge the heart of Bickerton's men using lance and the shock of his horse to down many of the enemy. Seeing the success of his aggression he was joined by his men at arms and together they succeeded in overthrowing many of the enemy and stampeded their horses.

paragraph: Before starting the charge, Grey had instructed his grooms to follow at a distance carrying a battle standard. As they came into view of Bickerton's confused men they mistook the grooms for another formation of soldiers and took flight. Grey and his men drove one hundred and eighty of Bickerton's abandoned horses to his castle as booty.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Battle of Bannockburn (1314).

paragraph: Grey's lack of discipline at the Battle of Bannockburn was undoubtedly the low point of his career but he was not alone and the English defeat is often recognised as being caused by both poor leadership by Edward II and hot-headedness. On the first day of the battle Grey was in one of the two cavalry forces alongside Robert Clifford and Henry de Beaumont.

paragraph: The next day the demoralised English were heavily defeated and the king was rushed from the scene by his bodyguard.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Norham Castle.

paragraph: Following their victory at Bannockburn, the Scottish attacked and raided the north of England repeatedly over the ensuing years. Grey was garrisoned at Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1318 which fell to Bruce following an eleven-week siege. Grey was subsequently recompensed £179 arrears of wages for himself and 14 man-at-arms and for horses he had lost.

paragraph: In 1317 Grey's patron de Beaumont and his brother, the newly appointed Bishop of Durham, Lewis de Beaumont were kidnapped by Middleton before being released. Middleton was executed and his lands confiscated. In May 1319, as reward for his services, Grey was granted 108 acres at Howick, Northumberland that formerly belonged to a supporter of Middleton, John Mautulent.

paragraph: Grey was appointed in 1319 as Sheriff of Norham and Islandshire and Constable of Norham Castle where he was to be based for 11 years. During this time Norham remained under a state of almost perpetual siege and it is Grey's rescue of William Marmion that he is probably best known for.

paragraph: A two year truce expired in 1322 and Grey promised the king to recruit an extra 20 men at arms and 50 hobelars to reinforce Lewis de Beaumont's existing garrison to protect both Norham castle and the March. By 17 September Norham found itself besieged by 100 Scottish men at arms and 100 hobelars. The king sent Grey money to pay his garrison and requested that he send frequent reports of the situation and reassured the people around the castle that any losses in crops and goods would be made up to them.

paragraph: Edward II agreed to a 13 year truce with Bruce in March 1323 and, three months later, Grey was given permission to go to Scotland to resupply Norham Castle with corn and ammunition and to replace its ploughs and carts which had been destroyed in the preceding years. He imprisoned 80 Scots at Norham who had, coming from overseas, landed at Lindisfarne and attempted to reach Scotland and on 2 October was ordered to send them to the Sheriff of York at York Castle.

paragraph: On 9 July 1325 Grey was ordered to accept back into the king's peace all those of Northumberland who had joined the Scottish through poverty or other urgent needs.

paragraph: Section::::Career and Life.:Later career.

paragraph: During the buildup to the impending Invasion of England of 1326 Grey was first granted more land at Howyk and then in August ordered to join John de Sturmy, Admiral of the Fleet of the North, alongside other captains and their ships, to help defend the hugely unpopular Edward II from his wife Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March. Grey was ordered to "compel" ships from Northumberland ports to join the fleet and to supervise their departure for Orwell, Suffolk in early September. No naval conflict occurred and, landing at Orwell on 24 September, Isabella and Mortimer seized control of England with virtually no opposition, with most of Edward's orders having been ignored. Edward II was imprisoned and replaced on the throne by Edward III.

paragraph: Edward III resumed hostilities with the Scottish and, shortly after the defeat of the Scottish at Halidon Hill in July 1333, Grey was appointed as deputy constable of Berwick.

paragraph: In about 1334 Grey was granted Mitford Castle and the hamlet of Mollisdoun and in October 1335 he was granted custody of the lands and marriage of the heir of Andrew de Grey in Berwick.

paragraph: Section::::Family and descendants.

paragraph: Grey married Agnes de Bayles and had the following issue:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sir Thomas Grey, Soldier and Chronicler

paragraph: Thomas is an ancestor of the Earl Greys of Tankerville, Baronet Grey of Chillingham, Baron Greys of Powis and Baron Greys of Werke.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norham Castle English Heritage Site

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norham Castle

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heaton Hall

paragraph: BULLET::::- Castle Heaton, Northumberland

description: Sir Thomas Grey of Heaton

wikidata_label: Thomas Grey of Heaton

wikipedia_title: Thomas Grey (constable)


text:
Italian
Summer Olympic Games
Asciano
Florence
Italy
Amos Cassioli
Tito Sarrocchi
Victor Hugo
Toilers of the Sea
Palazzo Pubblico
Siena
Gioachino Rossini
Basilica of Santa Croce
Odessa
Arezzo Cathedral
bronze door
Florence Cathedral
self-portrait
International Olympic Committee
Summer Olympic Games
Trionfo
Nike
Greek goddess
Colosseum
1928 Summer Olympics
Amsterdam
1972 Summer Olympics
Munich
2000 Summer Olympics
Sydney
Wojciech Pietranik
Greek
Roman
Parthenon
Australian Olympic Committee
Panathinaiko Stadium
2004 Summer Olympics
Athens

wikipedia_title:
Italy
Summer Olympic Games
Asciano
Florence
Italy
Amos Cassioli
Tito Sarrocchi
Victor Hugo
Toilers of the Sea
Palazzo Pubblico
Siena
Gioachino Rossini
Santa Croce, Florence
Odessa
Arezzo Cathedral
Bronze sculpture
Florence Cathedral
Self-portrait
International Olympic Committee
Summer Olympic Games
Trionfo
Nike (mythology)
Greek mythology
Colosseum
1928 Summer Olympics
Amsterdam
1972 Summer Olympics
Munich
2000 Summer Olympics
Sydney
Wojciech Pietranik
Greece
Rome
Parthenon
Australian Olympic Committee
Panathenaic Stadium
2004 Summer Olympics
Athens

categories: Italian male painters,19th-century Italian sculptors,1942 deaths,People from Florence,20th-century Italian painters,19th-century Italian painters,Italian male sculptors,Tuscan painters,1865 births

paragraph: Giuseppe Cassioli

paragraph: Giuseppe Cassioli (22 October 1865 – 5 October 1942) was an Italian painter and sculptor known for his Summer Olympic Games medal design. Many of his paintings are on display at the Museo Cassioli di Pittura senese dell'Ottocento in Asciano, Tuscany.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Cassioli was born in Florence, Italy to Amos Cassioli, who himself was a well-known painter and went on to mentor his son. Tito Sarrocchi taught Cassioli techniques in sculpting. In 1885 he exhibited at the Academy of Fine Arts in Siena with a painting inspired by Victor Hugo's "Toilers of the Sea".

paragraph: He worked in the memorial hall of the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena. In 1900 he created the monument to composer Gioachino Rossini in the Basilica of Santa Croce, which was followed by sculpted decorations for the stock exchange in Odessa, and statues and carvings for Arezzo Cathedral. He also produced several paintings for the Church of the Seven Holy Founders in Florence.

paragraph: Cassioli sculpted the right-hand bronze door for Florence Cathedral which brought about years of criticism and harassment to the point where he created a self-portrait depicting himself being suffocated by a snake.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The Olympic medal.

paragraph: In 1923 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) launched a competition for sculptors to design the medals for the Summer Olympic Games. Cassioli's "Trionfo" design was chosen as the winner in 1928. The obverse incorporated Nike, the Greek goddess of victory, holding a winner's crown and palm with a depiction of the Colosseum in the background. In the top right section of the medal a space was left for the name of the Olympic host and the Games numeral. The reverse features a crowd of people carrying a triumphant athlete. His winning design was first presented at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. The competition saw this design used for 40 years until the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich became the first Games with a different design for the reverse side of the medal.

paragraph: Cassioli's design continued to inspire the obverse of the medal for many more years, though recreated each time, with the Olympic host and numeral updated. The trend ended in 2004 due to the negative publicity in reaction to the design of medal for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Wojciech Pietranik, the designer of the medal, along with the organisers of the Games were criticised by the Greek press for using the Roman Colosseum rather than the Greek Parthenon. Pietranik defended himself by stating that the Australian Olympic Committee had instructed him to use Cassioli's 1928 design as a template. The error had remained for 76 years until a new style depicting the Panathinaiko Stadium was introduced at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.

description: Italian painter

wikidata_label: Giuseppe Cassioli

wikipedia_title: Giuseppe Cassioli


text:
Greek
Ephrem the Syrian
first ecumenical council
Nicaea
Eastern Orthodox Church
Oriental Orthodox Church
Roman Catholic Church
Gregory the Illuminator
Gennadius of Massilia
Confessor of the Faith
Maximian
anchorite
Theodoret of Cyrrhus
Bishop of Arbela
Chronicle of Arbela
Mount Qardu
Noah's Ark
Great Flood
sacred spring
Ephrem the Syrian
Catholic Encyclopedia
Elijah of Nisibis
Chronicle of Edessa
first church
Nisibis
Bishop of Susa
Adiabene
School of Nisibis
First Council of Nicaea
Arius
Metrophanes of Byzantium
Shapur II
Iran
Martyrologium Hieronymianum
Council of Antioch
Chronicon Paschale
Shapur II
Constantius II
Etchmiadzin Cathedral
Armenia
Edessa
Constantinople
Armenians at Venice
Hildesheim Cathedral
Germany
Plovdiv
Bulgaria
Canada
Montreal
Toronto
Aphraates

categories: 3rd-century Romans,Mesopotamian saints,Wonderworkers,3rd-century births,Angelic visionaries,3rd-century Christian saints,4th-century Romans,Byzantine saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church,4th-century bishops,4th-century Christian saints,4th-century deaths

paragraph: Jacob of Nisibis

paragraph: Saint Jacob of Nisibis (, ', Greek: "Ἅγιος Ἰάκωβος Ἐπίσκοπος Μυγδονίας"), also known as Saint Jacob of Mygdonia, Saint Jacob the Great, and Saint James of Nisibis, was the Bishop of Nisibis until his death.

paragraph: He was lauded as the "Moses of Mesopotamia", and was the spiritual father of the renowned writer and theologian Saint Ephrem the Syrian. Saint Jacob was present at the first ecumenical council at Nicaea, and is venerated as a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox Church, and Roman Catholic Church.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Saint Jacob was the son of prince Gefal, and was born in the city of Nisibis in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century AD. It is claimed that he was a relative of Saint Gregory the Illuminator. According to Gennadius of Massilia, Saint Jacob became a Confessor of the Faith for his suffering during persecution by Emperor Maximian. Saint Jacob became an anchorite in c. 280 in the mountains near Nisibis where, according to Saint Theodoret of Cyrrhus, he survived on herbs and fruits, and chose to wear no clothes, build shelter, or light fires for warmth. The saint became famous, and received visits from Sheria, Bishop of Arbela (r. 304-316), according to the "Chronicle of Arbela".

paragraph: The saint resolved to climb Mount Qardu, traditionally believed to be the resting place of Noah's Ark, and recover a fragment of the ark upon hearing from the hermit Maroukeh that local people doubted the Great Flood. Saint Jacob ascended the mountain and rested close to the summit; in his sleep, an angel placed a fragment of the ark close to him, and instructed him to awake. The saint brought the relic to the hermit Maroukeh and, according to the saint's hagiography, a sacred spring appeared where the saint had rested, reputed to have healing properties.

paragraph: A number of miracles are credited to Saint Jacob by Saint Theodoret in "Historia Religiosa" (Religious History), in which the saint had a boulder explode beside a Persian judge who had given an unjust judgement. Also, in one incident, Saint Jacob cursed boastful, promiscuous women by a spring so that their hair became white, and the spring disappeared. The women subsequently repented, and the spring returned, however, the women's hair remained white. As well as this, a group of people attempted to deceive the saint whereby they asked for money to fund the burial of a man they had lain down and covered with a sheet with the illusion of death; consequently, the man died, and the people repented and thus the man was resurrected as a result of Saint Jacob's prayers.

paragraph: Disagreement exists as to the date of the saint's consecration as bishop of Nisibis as it is argued it took place in c. 300, and he is recorded as the city's first bishop by Saint Ephrem the Syrian. However, Saint Jacob is credited as the successor of Babu, the first bishop of Nisibis (r. 300-309), by the "Catholic Encyclopedia", who Saint Ephrem states was in fact Saint Jacob's successor. In his "Chronography", Elijah of Nisibis states that Saint Jacob was consecrated bishop in 308.

paragraph: The "Chronicle of Edessa" states that the saint constructed the first church in Nisibis in c. 313-320. Miles, Bishop of Susa, is said to have contributed a large quantity of silk from Adiabene to the church's construction. The foundation of the School of Nisibis is also attributed to Saint Jacob. Saint Jacob attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and opposed Arius. Saint Ephrem purportedly accompanied the saint to the council, however, this is considered apocryphal. Saint Jacob attended the funeral of Saint Metrophanes of Byzantium in 326.

paragraph: Saint Jacob was present at the siege of Nisibis by Shapur II, "Shahanshah" of Iran, in 337/338, and according to Saint Theodoret, with encouragement from the city's population and Saint Ephrem, Saint Jacob ascended the walls and prayed for the city, and cursed the besiegers. The "Martyrologium Hieronymianum" relates that he died on 15 July, the thirtieth day of the siege, according to the "Chronicle of 724". Gennadius and Saint Ephrem record that Saint Jacob was buried within the walls of Nisibis. Saint Theodoret adds that the Iranian army was afflicted by a swarm of gnats and flies summoned by the saint, and Shapur II subsequently abandoned the siege.

paragraph: The saint is counted amongst the signatories of the Council of Antioch in 341, however, his presence at the council is unrecorded in other sources. In 350, according to the "Chronicon Paschale", Saint Jacob helped defend Nisibis against Shapur II again, and as he was wearing the imperial regalia, was confused for Emperor Constantius II. Shapur II challenged the saint to fight outside the city, where it was revealed he was an apparition and the Iranian army withdrew as a result.

paragraph: Section::::Relics.

paragraph: The fragment of Noah's Ark discovered by Saint Jacob was later brought to Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Armenia.

paragraph: Saint Theodoret relates that the bones of Saint Jacob were transferred from Nisibis to Edessa following the city's cession to Iran on 22 August 363. The saint's relics were later moved to Constantinople in 970, according to the Menologion of the Armenians at Venice.

paragraph: Fragments of the skull of Saint Jacob were donated to Hildesheim Cathedral in Germany in 1367 by Lippold von Steinberg after the Battle of Dinklar ().

paragraph: In 2018, relics of Saint Jacob were brought from the Armenian Church of Saint George in Plovdiv, Bulgaria, to Canada, where they were taken to the Armenian Church of Saint Gregory the Illuminator in Montreal on 17 June, and the Armenian Church of the Holy Trinity in Toronto on 24 June.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: Several homilies previously attributed to Saint Jacob by Gennadius of Massilia and others are now understood to be the work of Saint Aphraates. The misidentification arose from Aphraates' assumption of the name Jacob upon becoming bishop. Letters and canons, as well as other works, formerly attributed to the saint are known to be written in a later period.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Notes

paragraph: Citations

description: Syrian saint

wikidata_label: Jacob of Nisibis

wikipedia_title: Jacob of Nisibis


text:
Delft
Netherlands
Dutch
radio
pseudonym
Vengaboys
Alice Deejay
Radio 538
Nu.nl
Vengaboys
Wichita
Kansas
United States
KKRD
3FM
The Netherlands
VARA
3FM
Veronica
Countdown
Erik de Zwart
Veronica
Radio 538
Tiësto
Oakenfold
TMF
L.A. Style
James Brown Is Dead
Nakatomi
Alice Deejay
Vengaboys
Rocket to Uranus
Martin Garrix

categories: 1966 births,Happy hardcore musicians,People from Delft,Dutch radio personalities,Living people

paragraph: Wessel van Diepen

paragraph: Wessel van Diepen (born on November 12, 1966 in Delft, Netherlands) is a Dutch radio host, music producer, voice actor and former TV presenter. Under the pseudonym DJ Delmundo, he is part of Danski & Delmundo, the producer duo behind internationally famous acts like the Vengaboys and Alice Deejay. With a total of 10 UK top 10 hits including 2 UK number one hits, two Billboard Dance number one hits, a gold album in the USA and multi-platinum selling singles worldwide, he is one of the most successful dance-pop music producers in Dutch history. Van Diepen is the station-voice for Radio 538 and FOX Television NL and does movie trailer voiceover work. In spring 2019 Dutch online newspaper Nu.nl declared Vengaboys as the most successful Dutch pop group in history

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: At age 15, van Diepen started a pirate radio station called "Radio Stad Delft". The station was taken down by the police numerous times. When he was 17 years old, during a holiday in Wichita, Kansas, United States, he met a DJ at KKRD who gave van Diepen the opportunity to fill in for him.

paragraph: In 1986, van Diepen was noticed by 3FM DJ Rob Stenders in The Netherlands and became a DJ at the VARA, which also broadcasts via National radio 3FM.

paragraph: As a fresh voice in Dutch radio, van Diepen was recruited by popular broadcasting organization Veronica for radio and TV programs. This included the Europe-wide broadcast pop music TV show Countdown, broadcast on Sky Channel and Super Channe, which brought him to international fame.

paragraph: In the 1990s, television moguls Erik de Zwart and Lex Harding left Veronica and started Radio 538 and Van Diepen was asked to join them. From his daily drive-time show he went on to create the radio show "Van Diepen's Dance Department" where DJs such as Tiësto and Oakenfold would spin their vinyl live in the studio. When Dutch music video channel TMF (The Music Factory) was launched in 1995, Van Diepen took up a VJ role in a show called "Wessels Woelige Wereld" (translated: "Wessels Wild World"), which he hosted until 1999.

paragraph: Van Diepen also started a run of dance music productions in the 1990s. Together with Peran van Dijk and later Dennis van Den Driesschen ('Danski'), he produced acts such as L.A. Style (James Brown Is Dead (with Van Diepen doing the trademark megaphone catchphrase)). James Brown Is Dead was the first technosong to hit the billboard hot 100., Nakatomi, and eventually Alice Deejay and Vengaboys. The Vengaboys alone sold over 15 million singles, 4.5 million albums. The group went platinum in 73 countries and performed in more than 130 different countries.

paragraph: The Vengaboys split in 2000, but Van Diepen co-wrote and produced their comeback release 'Rocket to Uranus' in 2010. In 2013, Protocol recordings released the EDM track WTF!? which was also co-written by van Diepen and produced by Nicky Romero and Peran van Dijk.

paragraph: Van Diepen resigned as a radio presenter in 2006 to focus more on artist development and music production, but he returned to Radio 538 in 2013 with Global Dance Chart, a weekly beat-mixed chart-show with the 40 biggest dance hits worldwide. The show was officially opened by Martin Garrix smashing a bottle of champagne on Van Diepen's head.

description: Dutch  radio host

wikidata_label: Wessel van Diepen

wikipedia_title: Wessel van Diepen


text: Lithuanian American

text: Fluxus

text: Ay-O

text: Joseph Beuys

text: Jonas Mekas

text: George Brecht

text: Dick Higgins

text: Yoko Ono

text: Nam June Paik

text: Wolf Vostell

text: happening

text: Tiflis

text: Aleksandr Kerensky

text: advancing

text: Red Army

text: Frankfurt

text: Long Island

text: New York

text: Cooper Union

text: Carnegie Institute of Technology

text: Pittsburgh

text: art history

text: New York University

text: Raoul Hausmann

text: Berlin Dada

text: John Cage

text: New School for Social Research

text: avant-garde

text: AG Gallery

text: Toshi Ichiyanagi

text: Chambers Street

text: Yoko Ono

text: Henry Flynt

text: La Monte Young

text: Joseph Byrd

text: Robert Morris

text: Robert Watts

text: George Brecht

text: Rutgers University

text: mail art

text: Allan Kaprow

text: Alison Knowles

text: Ay-O

text: Black Mountain College

text: Robert Rauschenberg

text: David Tudor

text: Merce Cunningham

text: Nouveaux Réalistes

text: Marcel Duchamp

text: readymade

text: Fluxus

text: avant-garde

text: Dick Higgins

text: intermedia

text: Manifesto

text: Ken Friedman

text: Richard Maxfield

text: La Monte Young

text: Al Hansen

text: Allan Kaprow

text: Jackson Mac Low

text: U.S. Air Force

text: Wiesbaden, Germany

text: avant-garde

text: Philip Corner

text: corporation

text: Christo

text: George Brecht

text: "Water Yam"

text: Ben

text: "Flux Chess"

text: George Brecht

text: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill

text: Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation

text: Knoll (company)

text: Khrushchyovka

text: National Endowment for the Arts

text: SoHo

text: Lower Manhattan Expressway

text: Robert Moses

text: Lower Manhattan Expressway

text: Attorney General

text: New Marlborough

text: Massachusetts

text: Boston

text: Dimitri Devyatkin

text: the Guardian

text: oratorio loosely based on Maciunas

text: Vilnius

text: Lithuania

text: Lucio Pozzi

text: Frank J. Oteri

text: The Museum of Modern Art

text: Stendhal Gallery

text: Jonas Mekas

text: Jonas Mekas

text: Harry Stendhal

text: George Maciunas/Fluxus Foundation

text: Fluxus

text: Anti-art

text: An Anthology of Chance Operations

text: Museum Fluxus+ Potsdam Germany

text: 1962–2012 50 years Fluxus in Germany

text: Museum Vostell Malpartida with Fluxus Collection

text: The Fluxus edition of Aspen on UbuWeb

text: Reminiscences of meeting Maciunas, by Yoko Ono

text: Fluxus Performance Workbook

text: Bibliography of Maciunas material

text: Maciunas' Timeline and CV

text: 37 short Fluxus films, 1962–70

text: A nice archive of Flux boxes at Printed Matter

text: Media Art Net archive of early Fluxus works

text: FluxRadio

categories: Deaths from liver cancer,American people of Lithuanian descent,1931 births,Lithuanian artists,American artists,Lithuanian emigrants to the United States,Deaths from pancreatic cancer,Fluxus,Neo-Dada,Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts,1978 deaths

paragraph: George Maciunas

paragraph: George Maciunas (; ; November 8, 1931 – May 9, 1978) was a Lithuanian American artist. He was a founding member and the central coordinator of Fluxus, an international community of artists, architects, composers, and designers. Other leading members brought together by this movement included Ay-O, Joseph Beuys, Jonas Mekas, George Brecht, Dick Higgins, Yoko Ono, Nam June Paik and Wolf Vostell.

paragraph: He is most famous for organising and performing early happenings and for assembling a series of highly influential artists' multiples.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: His father, Alexander M. Maciunas, was a Lithuanian architect and engineer who had trained in Berlin, and his mother, Leokadija, was a Russian-born dancer from Tiflis affiliated with the Lithuanian National Opera and, later, Aleksandr Kerensky's private secretary, helping him complete his memoirs.

paragraph: After fleeing Lithuania to avoid being arrested by the advancing Red Army in 1944, and living briefly in Bad Nauheim, Frankfurt, Germany, Jurgis Mačiūnas and his family emigrated to the USA in 1948, living in a middle class area of Long Island, New York.

paragraph: After arriving in the USA, George studied art, graphic design, and architecture at Cooper Union, architecture and musicology at the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh and finally art history at New York University's Institute of Fine Arts specializing in the European and Siberian art of migrations. His studies lasted eleven years from 1949 to 1960 and were completed in succession. This began a fascination with the history of art for the rest of his life, and whilst there he began his first art-history chart, measuring 6 by 12 feet, a "time/space chart categorizing all past styles, movements, schools, artists etc." between 1955 and 1960. Whilst this project remained unfinished, he would publish three versions of a history of the avant-garde. The first appeared in 1966, with Fluxus as the focal point. He also began a correspondence with Raoul Hausmann, an original member of Berlin Dada, who advised him to stop using the term "neo-dada" and concentrate instead on "fluxus" to describe the nascent movement.

paragraph: Duke University Professor Kristine Stiles has discussed Fluxus as part of a movement towards global humanism achieved through the breakdown of boundaries in artistic media, cultural norms, and political conventions. The blurring of cultural conventions, which began in the early 20th century with movements such as Dada and Futurism, was continued by Fluxus artists in correspondence with the changes taking place in the sixties. Like the definition of "Flux", which means "to flow", Fluxus artists sought to reorder the temples of production and reveal "the extraordinary that remains latent in the undisclosed ordinary" during the midst of the dramatic modernist epoch.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Fluxus and the New York avant-garde.

paragraph: Primarily influenced by John Cage's Experimental Music Composition classes at the New School for Social Research and an emerging interest in eastern philosophy, a number of avant-garde artists in New York were beginning to run parallel and competing happenings at the beginning of the 1960s.

paragraph: As well as Maciunas' concerts at the AG Gallery in March 1961 featuring music and events by Maciunas himself, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Mac Low and Dick Higgins, the two other most important precursors to "fluxus" were La Monte Young's influential series of performances in the Chambers Street loft of Yoko Ono and Toshi Ichiyanagi in 1961 involving Henry Flynt, La Monte Young, Joseph Byrd & Robert Morris amongst others; and Robert Watts and George Brecht's "Yam Festival", spring 1963 at Rutgers University and New York, which included a series of mail art event scores and performances by John Cage, Allan Kaprow, Alison Knowles, Ay-O and Dick Higgins. All of these artists and more eventually became associated with fluxus, 'either through their collaboration on multiples, inclusion in anthologies, or participation in Fluxus concerts'.

paragraph: Other key influences noted by Maciunas included the happenings that had occurred at the Black Mountain College involving Robert Rauschenberg, John Cage, David Tudor, Merce Cunningham and others; the Nouveaux Réalistes; the Concept Art of Henry Flynt and Marcel Duchamp's notion of the readymade.

paragraph: Though Maciunas conceived of the name "Fluxus" for a publication covering Lithuanian Culture conceived of during a meeting of Lithuanian émigrés, Fluxus soon developed into much more. "Fluxus" became an avant-garde movement characterized by playful subversion of previous art traditions (even including those of previous avant-garde movements), Dick Higgins' famously coined term "intermedia", a view that art should not-be something rarefied or commercial, and a firm commitment to blurring the distinctions between art and life. Maciunas' lifelong interest in diagrams made him chart the political, cultural and social history as well as art history and the chronology of Fluxus.

paragraph: In 1963, Maciunas composed the first Fluxus Manifesto, (see above), which called upon its readers to:

paragraph: ...purge the world of bourgeois sickness, 'intellectual', professional & commercialized culture ... PROMOTE A REVOLUTIONARY FLOOD AND TIDE IN ART, ... promote NON ART REALITY to be grasped by all peoples, not only critics, dilettantes and professionals ... FUSE the cadres of cultural, social & political revolutionaries into united front & action.

paragraph: Shared by its sibling art movements Pop Art and minimalism, Fluxus expressed a countercultural sentiment to the value of art and the modes of its experience –distinctly achieved by its commitment to collectivism and to decommodifying and deaestheticizing art. Its aesthetic practitioners, valuing originality over imitating overworked forms, reconceptualized the art object and the nature of performance through musical 'concerts', 'olympic' games, and publications. By undermining the traditional role of art and artist, its humor is reflective of a goal to bring life back into art, which Maciunas states in his agenda, "If man could experience the world, the concrete world surrounding him (from mathematical ideas to physical matter) in the same way he experiences art, there would be no need for art, artists and similar 'nonproductive' elements". For this reason, Fluxus has been described by Fluxus artist and scholar Ken Friedman as "an active philosophy of experience that sometimes only takes the form of art" in acting as a critical approach to art, life, and the mechanism of its methodologies.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The AG Gallery and the first Fluxus festivals.

paragraph: In 1960, whilst attending composition classes of the electronic composer Richard Maxfield at the New School for Social Research in New York, Maciunas met many of the future participants of Fluxus, including La Monte Young, Al Hansen, Allan Kaprow, & Jackson Mac Low. In 1961 he opened the AG Gallery at 925 Madison Avenue with fellow Lithuanian Almus Salcius, intending to finance the gallery's ambitious programme of events and exhibitions by importing delicatessen foods and rare musical instruments. The gallery, though short-lived (it closed on July 30 due to lack of funds), was devoted to new and groundbreaking art across genres and held exhibits and performances by many of his new acquaintances.

paragraph: To avoid debt collectors, Maciunas took a job as a civilian graphic designer at a U.S. Air Force base in Wiesbaden, Germany in late 1961. It was there that he organized the first Fluxus Festival in September 1962. This festival featured various "concerts," scripted actions performed by Fluxus artists, as well as interpreting a number of works by other members of the international avant-garde .

paragraph: One of the most notorious events performed at Wiesbaden was Maciunas' interpretation of Philip Corner's "Piano Activities", the score of which asked a group of people to 'play', 'scratch or rub' and 'strike soundboard, pins, lid or drag various objects across them.' In Maciunas' interpretation, with the help of Higgins, Williams and others, the piano was completely destroyed. This event was considered scandalous enough to appear on German television four times. The festival then travelled to Cologne, Paris, Düsseldorf, Amsterdam, The Hague and Nice. These concerts and events were to become integral to the legacy of Fluxus.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The return to New York and the Fluxshop.

paragraph: After his contract with the US Airforce was terminated due to chronic illness, Maciunas was forced to return to New York, September 1963. He began to work as a graphic artist at the New York studio of graphic designer Jack Marshad. He established the official Fluxus Headquarters at 359 Canal Street in New York City

paragraph: and proceeded to make Fluxus into a sort of multinational corporation replete with "a complex amalgam of Fluxus Products from the FluxShop and the Flux Mail-Order Catalogue and Warehouse, Fluxus copyright protection, a collective newspaper, a Flux Housing Cooperative and frequently revised lists of incorporated Fluxus "workers".

paragraph: The shop, like all his business ventures, was notoriously unsuccessful, however. In an interview with Larry Miller in 1978 shortly before his death, Maciunas estimated spending 'about $50,000' on fluxus projects over the years that would never recoup their investment.

paragraph: Larry Miller, "May I ask a stupid question? Why didn't it pay off? Because isn't part of the idea that it's low cost and multiple distribution..."

paragraph: GM; "No one was buying it, in those days. We opened up a store on Canal Street, what was it, 1964, and we had it open almost all year. We didn't make one sale in that whole year... We did not even sell a 50 cent item, a postage stamp sheet... you could buy V TRE papers for a quarter, you could buy George Brecht's puzzles for one dollar, Fluxus yearboxes for twenty dollars."

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Flux boxes.

paragraph: During this time, Maciunas was assembling Fluxus boxes and Flux-Kits, small boxes containing cards and objects designed and assembled by artists such as Christo, Yoko Ono, and George Brecht. The first one to be planned was "Fluxus 1", a wooden box filled with artworks by most of Maciunas' colleagues. Production difficulties meant that the publication date was pushed back to 1964; Brecht's "Water Yam", 1963, became the first Flux box to actually be published. It was quickly followed by similar collected works of other affiliated artists, such as Ben and Robert Watts; the "Fluxkit" contained in an attaché case (1965–66) and another compendium "Flux Year Box 2" (1966–68). There was an anthology of "Fluxfilms" (1966), 11 irregularly-spaced editions of the Fluxus newspaper "cc V TRE" edited with George Brecht (1964–79) and the "Fluxus Cabinet" (1975–77). He was also closely involved with the production of a number of "Flux Chess" sets.

paragraph: Perhaps most important of all of Maciunas's publishing activities remain the object multiples, conceived as inexpensive, mass-produced unlimited editions. These were either works made by individual Fluxus artists, sometimes in collaboration with Maciunas, or, most controversially, Maciunas's own interpretations of an artist's concept or score. Their purpose was to erode the cultural status of art and to help to eliminate the artist's ego.

paragraph: Maciunas, a trained graphic designer, was responsible for the memorable packaging of fluxus objects, posters and newspapers, helping to give the movement a sense of unity that the artists themselves often denied. He also designed a series of name cards incorporating multiple fonts to characterise each of the participating artists. According to Maciunas, Fluxus was epitomized by the work of George Brecht, particularly his word event, "Exit." The artwork consists solely of a card on which is printed the words: "Word Event" and then the word "Exit" below. Maciunas said of "Exit":

paragraph: The best Fluxus 'Composition' is a most non-personal, 'readymade' one like Brecht's 'Exit'—it does not require and of us to perform it since it happens daily without any 'special' performance of it. Thus our festivals will eliminate themselves (and our need to participate) when they become total readymades (like Brecht's exit) (see )

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Some works.

paragraph: Whilst Maciunas was still alive, no fluxus work was ever signed or numbered, and many weren't even credited to any artist. As such, huge confusion continues to surround many key fluxus works; Maciunas strived to uphold his stated aims of demonstrating the artist's 'non-professional status...his dispensability and inclusiveness' and that 'anything can be art and anyone can do it.' This strategy was maintained throughout his life; key works that have been assigned to him include "USA Surpasses all the Genocide Records!", c1966 (see ), an American Flag comparing massacres in Nazi Germany, Russia and Vietnam; the "Flux Smile Machine" c1970 (see  ) in which a spring forces the mouth into a grimace, usually considered a critique on capitalist imperialism; and the film "12! Big Names!", 1973 (for the poster see ) in which the assembled audience, having been enticed into the cinema with the promise of 12 big names, including Warhol and Yoko Ono, watched a film made entirely of 12 names—Warhol, Ono etc.—filling the screen, one after the other, for a duration of five minutes each.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Professional employments.

paragraph: Maciunas held several prestigious professional positions as an architect and graphic designer in firms including Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Air Force Exchanges (Europe), Jack Marshad Inc., Olin Mathieson Chemical Corporation, and Knoll (company) Associates.

paragraph: As an architect he developed an innovative modular prototype useful in the construction of prefabricated buildings while working at Olin Mathieson's division of Aluminum Product Development and Design. He filed a patent (#2,970,676) for the invention of a structural framework for prefabricated buildings using aluminum beams and columns on January 27, 1958. Maciunas was awarded a patent (#4,545,159) for a modular building system on February 7, 1961. He used this invention towards designing a modular prefabricated mass-housing system known as Fluxhouse. Developed as an improved design to Soviet Block Housing (or Khrushchyovka), Fluxhouse was conceived in consideration to efficiency of materials, transportation, and labor to produce a cost and time effective mass-produced housing system. As an efficient modular system intended for factory production, this eco-friendly and sustainable design can be adapted to construct a single family home, a mid-rise building, or a neighborhood community with the multiplication or subtraction of units. Maciunas conceived this design as a dwelling which combines the low-cost advantages of standardization with the freedom of customization.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:SoHo and the Fluxhouse Co-Operative.

paragraph: As an urban planner, Maciunas is credited as the "Father of SoHo" for developing dilapidated loft buildings and gentrifying this New York neighborhood with artists cooperatives known as the Fluxhouse Cooperatives during the late sixties. Maciunas converted buildings into live-work spaces for and envisioned the Fluxhouse Cooperatives as collective living environments composed of artists working in many mediums. With financial support from the J.M. Kaplan Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts, Maciunas began buying several loft buildings from closing manufacturing companies in 1966. The renovation and occupancies violated the M-I zoning laws that designated SoHo as a non-residential area. The zoning laws were in place to construct the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a vast highway conceived by Robert Moses which would have obliterated much of Lower Manhattan's industrial loft district. Though the Lower Manhattan Expressway was opposed by dozens of public figures and over 200 community groups, Maciuanas' efforts and the loft artists' power effectively stopped Moses, "Opposition to the expressway was going nowhere. Our whole planning board couldn't even slow it down. Then a handful of artists stepped in and stopped it cold" (South Houston Artist Tenants Association).

paragraph: When Kaplan left the project to embark on other artist cooperative buildings, Maciunas was left with little support against the law. Maciunas continued the co-op despite contravening planning laws, buying a series of loft buildings to sell to artists as working and living spaces. Although it was illegal to sell the units publicly without first filing a full-disclosure prospectus with the New York State Attorney General, Maciunas ignored the legal requirements, beginning a series of increasingly bizarre run-ins with the Attorney General of New York. Maciunas began wearing disguises and going out only at night. Strategies included sending postcards from around the world via associates and friends to persuade the authorities that he was abroad, and placing razor-sharp guillotine blades onto his front door to avoid unwanted visitors. Though, like other Fluxus projects, Maciunas managed his duties without personal profit, financial disputes between the cooperatives led to problems. An argument with an electrician over unpaid bills resulted in a severe beating, allegedly by 'Mafia thugs', November 8, 1975, which left him with 4 broken ribs, a deflated lung, 36 stitches in his head and blind in one eye. He left New York shortly after, to attempt to start a Fluxus-oriented arts centre in a dilapidated mansion and stud farm in New Marlborough, Massachusetts.

paragraph: The Fluxhouse cooperatives are often cited as playing a major role in regenerating and gentrifying SoHo. SoHo has since been an enclave in which contemporary art movements have developed and flourished.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The Fluxwedding and early death.

paragraph: Perpetually sick, Maciunas developed cancer of the pancreas and liver in 1977. He died on May 9 of the following year in a hospital in Boston. Three months before his death, he married his friend and companion, the poet Billie Hutching. After a legal wedding in Lee, Massachusetts, the couple performed a "Fluxwedding" in a friend's loft in SoHo, February 25, 1978. The bride and groom traded clothing. The event was taped by video artist Dimitri Devyatkin.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous reputation.

paragraph: Maciunas remains enigmatic to this day, and his reputation still elicits strong responses both from artists and critics who have come after Fluxus, and by artists who knew him whilst still alive.

paragraph: Adrian Searle, art critic for the Guardian, put it succinctly in a review of a Fluxus exhibition;

paragraph: The view that his death liberated Fluxus is also widespread;

paragraph: The life of George Maciunas is subject of a documentary film by the Manhattan-based artist and independent filmmaker Jeffrey Perkins who met Maciunas in 1966. It is made out of Maciunas' friends voices, material from 44 interviews that had been gathered by Perkins since 2010 on his travels to Europe, America and Japan.

paragraph: Section::::Friends reminisce.

paragraph: An oratorio loosely based on Maciunas and titled "Machunas" premiered in August 2005 in the St. Christopher Summer Festival in Vilnius, Lithuania. "Machunas" was conceived by artist Lucio Pozzi, with music by Frank J. Oteri. Several of Maciunas' friends and colleagues protested the fact that the libretto was mistaken by many as a biography.

paragraph: Section::::Dedicated museums and collections.

paragraph: Maciunas' work has been exhibited in many of the major museums around the world with archives held in The Whitney Museum of American Art, The Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, The Getty Research Institute, and Staatsgalerie Stuttgart. Recently acquired from the Gilbert and Lila Silverman Fluxus Collection, The Museum of Modern Art currently holds the largest collection of Maciunas and Fluxus works of 10,000 items. As part of a touring exhibition organized by Dartmouth College, Maciunas' work was featured in "Fluxus and the Essential Questions of Life" at New York University's Grey Gallery in fall 2011 and University of Michigan's Museum of Art in spring 2012.

paragraph: Despite controversy, the Stendhal Gallery located in Chelsea, formerly the Maya Stendhal Gallery, has held multiple exhibitions devoted to the legacy and work of George Maciunas. In 2005, they presented "To George With Love: From the Personal Collection of Jonas Mekas," which displayed original drawings, posters, objects, and other Fluxus items as well as various films from the Fluxfilm Anthology, a collection of 41 films made by Fluxus artists. In 2006, the gallery presented "George Maciunas, 1953–1978: Charts Diagrams, Films, Documents, and Atlases." In 2007, the Maya Stendhal Gallery collaborated with the city of Vilnius, Lithuania, to open the Jonas Mekas Visual Arts Center. The center's inaugural exhibition examined the lives and work of prominent figures within the history of the avant-garde, including George Maciunas. In 2008, the gallery held an exhibition devoted to Maciunas' architectural projects, in particular, a utopian housing structure Maciunas drafted in the late fifties and early sixties, entitled "George Maciunas: Prefabricated Building Systems."

paragraph: In 2010 problems arose between Harry Stendhal and Jonas Mekas in which some of the practices of the Stendhal Gallery fell into question, causing concern among surviving Fluxus artists. The George Maciunas/Fluxus Foundation, became active in November 2011, presenting exhibitions on the contemporary applications of Maciunas' inventions and theories regarding education and architecture. These exhibitions have explored his ideas as precursors to adaptive design processes and global networks. In September 2012, the foundation held an exhibition on Maciunas' architectural work centered on his prefabricated modular mass-housing system known as Fluxhouse. "Fluxcity: Prefabricated/Modular Solution for Social Housing".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fluxus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anti-art

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Anthology of Chance Operations

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Astrit Schmidt-Burkhardt, "Maciunas' Learning Machines. From Art History to a Chronology of Fluxus." With a Foreword by Jon Hendricks. Second, revised and enlarged edition(SpringerWienNewYork, 2011, )

paragraph: BULLET::::- Julia Robinson, "The Brechtian Event Score: A Structure in Fluxus", Performance Research (U.K.) Vol. 7, No. 3, September 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas Kellein, "The Dream of Fluxus" (Edition Hanjorg Mayer, 2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Liz Kotz, "Post-Cagean Aesthetics and the Event Score" (the MIT Press, October, Vol. 95 (Winter, 2001), pp. 54–89)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roslyn Bernstein & Shael Shapiro, "Illegal Living: 80 Wooster Street and the Evolution of SoHo" (Jonas Mekas Foundation), September 2010. www.illegalliving.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Der Traum von Fluxus". George Maciunas: Eine Künstlerbiographie. Thomas Kellein, Walther König, 2007. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Petra Stegmann. "The lunatics are on the loose… European Fluxus Festivals 1962–1977". Down with art! Potsdam, 2012, .

paragraph: Section::::Films about George Maciunas.

paragraph: "George". Jeffrey Perkins, Documentary feature-length film/video portrait of George Maciunas, USA, 2018

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A whole series of artworks by Maciunas on We Make Money Not Art

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum Fluxus+ Potsdam Germany

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1962–2012 50 years Fluxus in Germany

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum Vostell Malpartida with Fluxus Collection

paragraph: BULLET::::- An excellent interview with Emmett Williams about Fluxus, Maciunas and the European Avant-Garde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- An extraordinary postcard sent to Nam June Paik, expelling him from Fluxus after performing with Stockhausen, c1965

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Fluxus edition of Aspen on UbuWeb

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reminiscences of meeting Maciunas, by Yoko Ono

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fluxus Performance Workbook

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bibliography of Maciunas material.

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Maciunas Inerview – KRAB Radio Broadcast, Seattle, 1977 (streaming audio clips)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maciunas' Timeline and CV

paragraph: BULLET::::- 37 short Fluxus films, 1962–70

paragraph: BULLET::::- A nice archive of Flux boxes at Printed Matter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Media Art Net archive of early Fluxus works

paragraph: BULLET::::- A history and critique of early fluxus, especially the fluxus festorum; The Origins of Fluxus, Stuart Home

paragraph: BULLET::::- FluxRadio an online radio programme on the Fluxus movement at Ràdio Web MACBA

alias:
Jurgis Mačiūnas
Yurgis Maciunas

description: Lithuanian artist

enwikiquote_title: George Maciunas

wikidata_label: George Maciunas

wikipedia_title: George Maciunas


text:
Malmberget
Swedish
cross-country skier
Anna Dahlberg
2006 Winter Olympics
Turin
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
2005
2009
International Ski Federation (FIS)

categories: Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing,Olympic gold medalists for Sweden,1981 births,Cross-country skiers at the 2006 Winter Olympics,Cross-country skiers from Norrbotten County,Olympic cross-country skiers of Sweden,People from Gällivare Municipality,Cross-country skiers at the 2002 Winter Olympics,Swedish female cross-country skiers,Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics,FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in cross-country skiing,Living people

paragraph: Lina Andersson

paragraph: Lina Andersson (born March 18, 1981 in Malmberget) is a Swedish cross-country skier who has competed since 1998. She won a gold medal in the Team sprint (with Anna Dahlberg) at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin and also finished 11th in the Individual sprint in those same games.

paragraph: Andersson also won three medals at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships with two silvers (Individual sprint: 2005, team sprint: 2009) and a bronze (4 × 5 km relay: 2009). She also has nineteen individual victories at all levels at various distances since 1999.

paragraph: Section::::Olympic results.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1 medal – (1 gold)

paragraph: Section::::World Championship results.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 3 medals – (2 silver, 1 bronze)

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.

paragraph: All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Individual podiums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2 victories – (2 )

paragraph: BULLET::::- 7 podiums – (7 )

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Team podiums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1 victory – (1 )

paragraph: BULLET::::- 6 podiums – (4 , 2 )

description: cross-country skier

wikidata_label: Lina Andersson

wikipedia_title: Lina Andersson


text: Hanover

text: Marienbad

text: German

text: Jewish

text: philosopher

text: Hindenburg

text: Weimar Republic

text: Jewish self-hatred

text: Hitler

text: phenomenon

text: intellectual

text: anti-Semitism

text: people

text: Judaism

text: Zionism

text: Nazi Germany

text: Czechoslovakia

text: Marienbad

text: assassinated

text: Sudeten German

text: Nazi

text: Nietzsche

text: African Spir

text: Theodore Ziolkowski

text: Ratsgymnasium Hannover

text: Ludwig Klages

text: Freiburg im Breisgau

text: Bonn

text: Munich

text: Afrikan Spir

text: habilitation

text: University of Dresden

text: Edmund Husserl

text: Göttinger Zeitung

text: Samuel Lublinski

text: Thomas Mann

text: World War I

text: Volkshochschule Hannover-Linden

text: Ada Lessing

text: Prager Tagblatt

text: Dortmunder Generalanzeiger

text: Weimar Germany

text: Fritz Haarmann

text: Paul von Hindenburg

text: Technische Universität Braunschweig

text: Carl Heinrich Becker

text: Marienbad

text: Czechoslovakia

text: Munich phenomenology

text: Essay

text: Feuilleton

text: Luchterhand Literaturverlag

text: "Hindenburg" (1925)

text: Über den Mord an Lessing

text: Personality of the Week - Lessing

text: Internet Archive

categories: Jewish philosophers,German Jews,People from Hanover,Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany,1872 births,German people murdered abroad,Assassinated Jews,German philosophers,1933 deaths,People murdered in Czechoslovakia,German male writers,Deaths by firearm in Czechoslovakia,Assassinated German people,People from the Province of Hanover

paragraph: Theodor Lessing

paragraph: Theodor Lessing (8 February 1872, Hanover – 31 August 1933, Marienbad) was a German Jewish philosopher.

paragraph: He is known for opposing the rise of Hindenburg as president of the Weimar Republic and for his classic on Jewish self-hatred (Der jüdische Selbsthaß), a book which he wrote in 1930, three years before Hitler came to power, in which he tried to explain the phenomenon of Jewish intellectuals who incited anti-Semitism against the Jewish people and who regarded Judaism as the source of evil in the world.

paragraph: Lessing's political ideals, as well as his Zionism made him a very controversial person during the rise of Nazi Germany. He fled to Czechoslovakia where he lived in Marienbad in the village of a local social democratic politician. On the night of 30 August 1933, he was assassinated by Sudeten German Nazi sympathizers. Lessing was shot through a window of the villa where he lived. His assassins were German National Socialists from Sudetenland, Rudolf Max Eckert, Rudolf Zischka and Karl Hönl. They fled to Nazi Germany after the assassination.

paragraph: Lessing's philosophical views were influenced by Nietzsche and African Spir. According to Theodore Ziolkowski in Lessing's "Geschichte als Sinngebung des Sinnlosen" ("History as Giving Meaning to the Meaningless"), "writing in the tradition of Nietzsche, argued that history, having no objective validity, amounts to a mythic construct imposed on an unknowable reality, in order to give its some semblance of meaning."

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early life.

paragraph: Lessing was born into an upper-middle-class assimilated Jewish family. His father was a doctor in Hanover, his mother the daughter of a banker. He remembered his schooldays as unhappy; he was a mediocre student and graduated from Ratsgymnasium Hannover only with great difficulty. In his memoirs he wrote: "This humanistic German gymnasium specialising in patriotism, Latin, and Greek... this institute for the furtherance of stupidification, half of it built on white-collar boundering, the other half on mendacious, platitudinous German nationalism, was not just incredibly irresponsible, it was utterly boring... Nothing, nothing could ever make up for what those fifteen years destroyed in me. Even now, almost every night I dream of the tortures of my schooldays." At the time he was friendly with Ludwig Klages, but this friendship came to an end in 1899 (although whether anti-Semitism was a factor is unclear). Each later maintained that his own adult views had been determined by this shared background.

paragraph: After his graduation he began studying medicine in Freiburg im Breisgau, Bonn, and finally Munich, where, in greater conformity with his real interests, he turned to literature, philosophy, and psychology. He concluded his study of philosophy with a dissertation on the work of the Russian logician Afrikan Spir.

paragraph: His plans of habilitation at the University of Dresden were abandoned in the face of continuing public outrage over the influence in academia of Jews, socialists, and feminists. The next few years he spent as a substitute teacher and lecturer. In 1906 he travelled to Göttingen in order to obtain a habilitation under Edmund Husserl. This plan also came to nothing, but resulted briefly in a position as theatre critic for the "Göttinger Zeitung"; his critical notes were later collected in book form as "Nachtkritiken".

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Growing renown.

paragraph: In 1907 he returned to Hanover, where he lectured on philosophy at the "Technische Hochschule", founding the first German anti-noise (noise abatement) society.

paragraph: In January 1910 he created a literary scandal with a vicious attack on the critic Samuel Lublinski and his "Bilanz der Moderne" (1904), in a piece published in "Die Schaubühne" filled with "Jewish jokes" and gibes about Lublinski's appearance; it drew strong condemnation from Thomas Mann, who returned the insults by calling Lessing a "disgraceful dwarf who should consider himself lucky that the sun shines on him, too."

paragraph: On the outbreak of World War I Lessing volunteered for service, hoping to put his medical studies to good use at the front. At this time he wrote his famous essay "Geschichte als Sinngebung des Sinnlosen" ("History as Making Sense of the Senseless"). Its publication was delayed by the censor until 1919 on account of its uncompromising anti-war position. After the war he returned to lecturing in Hanover and established the Volkshochschule Hannover-Linden with the help of his second wife, Ada Lessing.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Fame and anti-nationalist polemics.

paragraph: From 1923 he was highly active in public life, publishing articles and essays in "Prager Tagblatt" and "Dortmunder Generalanzeiger", and quickly became one of the best-known political writers of Weimar Germany. In 1925 he drew attention to the fact that the serial killer Fritz Haarmann had been a spy for the Hanover police, and this resulted in him being excluded from covering the trial. In the same year he wrote an unflattering piece on Paul von Hindenburg, describing him as an intellectually vacuous man who was being used as a front by sinister political forces:

paragraph: This article earned him the enmity of nationalists, and his lectures were soon disrupted by anti-Semitic protestors. Lessing received only limited support from the public, and even his colleagues argued that he had gone too far. A six-month leave of absence failed to calm the situation. On 7 June nearly a thousand students threatened to move their studies to the Technische Universität Braunschweig unless he was removed, and on 18 June 1926 the Prussian minister Carl Heinrich Becker bowed to public pressure by putting Lessing on indefinite leave on a reduced salary.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Escape from the Nazis and assassination.

paragraph: On 30 January 1933 the Nazi Party entered government and in February, after the suppression of the "Freie Wort" congress, Lessing started packing his bags. On 1 March he and his wife fled to Marienbad in Czechoslovakia, where he continued to write for German-language newspapers abroad. But in June it was reported in Sudeten newspapers that a reward had been announced for his capture.

paragraph: On 30 August 1933 he was working in his study when he was shot through the window by assassins. He died the next day at the hospital in Marienbad.

paragraph: Section::::Literary works / editions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "African Spirs Erkenntnislehre", Gießen, Münchow, 1900. br Lessing's dissertation at Erlangen.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Geschichte als Sinngebung des Sinnlosen". (Beck) 1919 bzw. Leipzig: Reinicke Verlag 1927 . Neu: München: Matthes & Seitz 1983.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Haarmann. Die Geschichte eines Werwolfs". 1925

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Meine Tiere". 1926

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Blumen". 1928

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Der jüdische Selbsthaß". 1930

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Einmal und nie wieder". Erinnerungen, aus dem Nachlass herausgegeben 1935

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die verfluchte Kultur". Matthes & Seitz 1981.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jörg Wollenberg (Hrsg.): "Theodor Lessing – Ausgewählte Schriften". Donat Verlag Bremen

paragraph: BULLET::::- Band 1: "Theodor Lessing: 'Bildung ist Schönheit' – Autobiographische Zeugnisse und Schriften zur Bildungsreform". Bremen 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- Band 2: "Theodor Lessing: 'Wir machen nicht mit!' – Schriften gegen den Nationalismus und zur Judenfrage". Bremen 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- Band 3: "Theodor Lessing: 'Theaterseele' und 'Tomi melkt die Moralkuh' – Schriften zu Theater und Literatur". Bremen 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- ""Geschichte als Sinngebung des Sinnlosen". Zum Leben und Werk des Kulturkritikers Theodor Lessing (1872-1933)", hrsg. von Elke-Vera Kotowski, Hildesheim 2006

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Munich phenomenology

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- August Messer, "Der Fall Lessing, eine objektive Darstellung und kritische Würdigung", Bielefeld 1926

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ekkehard Hieronimus, "Theodor Lessing, Otto Meyerhof, Leonard Nelson. Bedeutende Juden in Niedersachsen", hrsg. von der Niedersächsischen Landeszentrale für Politische Bildung, Hannover 1964

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lawrence Baron, "Theodor Lessing: Between Jewish Self-Hatred and Zionism", in: Year Book XXVI Leo Baeck Inst. 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ich warf eine Flaschenpost ins Eismeer der Geschichte". Sammelband mit Essays und Feuilletons, herausgegeben und eingeleitet von R. Marwedel, Luchterhand Literaturverlag, Frankfurt am Main 1986

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rainer Marwedel: "Theodor Lessing 1872-1933. Eine Biographie". Luchterhand Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1987

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Kühntopf-Gentz, "Der im Judentum ignorierte Gott: Theodor Lessings religiöse Philosophie", in: "Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte" (ZRGG), Jahrgang 41, 1989

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helmut Heiber: "Universität unterm Hakenkreuz." Teil 1: "Der Professor im Dritten Reich. Bilder aus der akademischen Provinz." K.G. Saur, München 1991, S. 54-67, Anm. 514, S. 186ff.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maja I. Siegrist: "Theodor Lessing – Die entropische Philosophie – Freilegung und Rekonstruktion eines verdrängten Denkers". Peter Lang Verlag, Bern 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- Julius H. Schoeps: "Der ungeliebte Außenseiter. Zum Leben und Werk des Philosophen und Schriftstellers Th. L.", in: "Der Exodus aus Nazideutschland und die Folgen. Jüdische Wissenschaftler im Exil" Hg. Marianne Hassler, Attempto, Tübingen 1997,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elke-Vera Kotowski: "Feindliche Dioskuren – Theodor Lessing und Ludwig Klages – Das Scheitern einer Freundschaft". Jüdische Verlagsanstalt, Berlin 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lessing und Ludwig Klages – Das Scheitern einer Freundschaft", Jüdische Verlagsanstalt, Berlin 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- ""Ich warf eine Flaschenpost in das unermessliche Dunkel". Theodor Lessing 1872-1933", hrsg. von Elke-Vera Kotowski (Katalog zur gleichnamigen Wanderausstellung), Hildesheim 2008

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hindenburg" (1925)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Über den Mord an Lessing*

paragraph: BULLET::::- Personality of the Week - Lessing at www.bh.org.il

paragraph: BULLET::::- Der jüdische Selbsthaß, Berlin 1930, Jüdischer Verlag, Theodor Lessing on the Internet Archive.

description: German philosopher

wikidata_label: Theodor Lessing

wikipedia_title: Theodor Lessing


text:
cross-country skier
Aino-Kaisa Saarinen
2006 Winter Olympics
Turin
Four years later
Vancouver
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
Riitta-Liisa Roponen
Tour de Ski
2006–07
Norway
Marit Bjørgen
2006–07 Cross-Country Skiing World Cup
Finnish Sportswoman of the Year
Jari Sarasvuo
2001 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
Lahti
was disqualified
hydroxyethyl starch
blood plasma
2003 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
International Ski Federation (FIS)
1999 World Championships
Tour de Virpi report

categories: Olympic cross-country skiers of Finland,Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing,1976 births,Medalists at the 2010 Winter Olympics,Olympic bronze medalists for Finland,Finnish female cross-country skiers,Cross-country skiers at the 2010 Winter Olympics,Cross-country skiers at the 2006 Winter Olympics,Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics,People from Kangasniemi,Doping cases in cross-country skiing,FIS Cross-Country World Cup champions,FIS Nordic World Ski Championships medalists in cross-country skiing,Tour de Ski winners,Finnish sportspeople in doping cases,Living people

paragraph: Virpi Sarasvuo

paragraph: Virpi Katriina Sarasvuo (née Kuitunen, born 20 May 1976) is a Finnish former cross-country skier who competed from 1995 to 2010. She won a bronze medal in the team sprint event (with Aino-Kaisa Saarinen) at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin and earned her best individual finish of fifth in the individual sprint event in those same games. Four years later in Vancouver, Kuitunen won another bronze, this time in the 4 × 5 km relay.

paragraph: Kuitunen has eight medals at the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships with six golds (2001: 5 km + 5 km combined pursuit, 2007: Team sprint, with Riitta-Liisa Roponen, 30 km, & 4 x 5 km; 2009: Team sprint, 4 x 5 km), one silver (2005: 30 km), one bronze (2007: Individual sprint). She also has thirty-four additional individual victories at various levels of various distances since 2000.

paragraph: Kuitunen won the first ever Tour de Ski competition for women in 2006–07, winning over Norway's Marit Bjørgen by 1:17.5. She also won the overall 2006–07 Cross-Country Skiing World Cup, as well as the sprint World Cup the same season. In the season 2007–08 Kuitunen won the overall again.

paragraph: Because of Kuitunen's successes in cross-country skiing in 2007, she was awarded Finnish Sportswoman of the Year. Kuitunen also won the Tour de Ski in 2008–09.

paragraph: Virpi Kuitunen married Jari Sarasvuo on 16 July 2010.

paragraph: Section::::Doping controversy.

paragraph: At the 2001 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in Lahti, Kuitunen was disqualified when she tested positive for hydroxyethyl starch, a banned blood plasma expander. This forced her to relinquish her silver medal earned in the 4 x 5 km and serve a two-year suspension that would not end until the 2003 FIS Nordic World Ski Championships.

paragraph: Section::::Olympic results.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2 medals – (2 bronze)

paragraph: Section::::World Championship results.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 8 medals – (6 gold, 1 silver, 1 bronze)

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.

paragraph: All results are sourced from the International Ski Federation (FIS).

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Season titles.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 5 titles – (2 overall, 2 distance, 1 sprint)

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Individual podiums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 26 victories – (20 , 6 )

paragraph: BULLET::::- 51 podiums – (43 , 8 )

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Team podiums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 4 victories – (4 )

paragraph: BULLET::::- 16 podiums – (13 , 3 )

paragraph: Section::::World Cup results.:Overall record.

paragraph: Note: Until 1999 World Championships, World Championship races are part of the World Cup. Hence results from 1999 World Championships races are included in the World Cup overall record.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tour de Virpi report – Accessed 11 January 2007.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: br

alias:
Virpi Katriina Sarasvuo
Virpi Katriina Kuitunen
Virpi Kuitunen

description: Finnish cross-country skier

wikidata_label: Virpi Sarasvuo

wikipedia_title: Virpi Sarasvuo


text: king

text: Kartli

text: Georgian

text: Iberia

text: classical antiquity

text: The Georgian Chronicles

text: Pharnavazid dynasty

text: The Conversion of Kartli

text: Prince Vakhushti of Kartli

text: Cyril Toumanoff

text: Pavle Ingoroqva

text: Alexander the Great

text: Achaemenid Empire

text: Georgian royal annals

text: Kartlos

text: Japheth

text: Noah

text: Christian

text: c.

text: Kartlos

text: ethnarch

text: mamasakhlisi

text: Mtskheta

text: Persian

text: Isfahan

text: Prince Teimuraz of Georgia

text: Anton I of Georgia

text: Darius III

text: Persian

text: cf.

text: khvarenah

text: Armenia

text: Faustus of Byzantium

text: History of Armenia

text: Stele of Serapit

text: Azon

text: Alexander the Great

text: Pliny the Elder

text: Gaius Julius Solinus

text: Macedonian

text: Strabo

text: gold mine

text: peripeteia

text: Kuji of Colchis

text: Romans

text: aznauri

text: Iran

text: Cyrus the Great

text: Ardashir I

text: Sasanian

text: Shahanshah

text: Seleucids

text: Hellenistic

text: Middle East

text: Antiochus

text: eristavi

text: sceptre

text: ring

text: belt

text: armament

text: eristavi

text: Colchis

text: Kakheti

text: Azerbaijan

text: Kvemo Kartli

text: Javakheti

text: Kola

text: Artaani

text: Odzrkhe

text: Klarjeti

text: spaspet

text: Kartli

text: satrap

text: strategoi

text: Kartli

text: Wars of Alexander the Great

text: Hellenistic

text: Parthian

text: Sasanian

text: king

text: spaspet

text: eristavi

text: saeristavo

text: Strabo

text: Orontids

text: Armazi

text: similarly named fortress

text: Durdzuk

text: Sarmatian

text: Georgian royal annals

text: Georgian script

text: Georgian language

text: official language

text: Saurmag

text: grave

text: Mirian III

text: Armazi

text: Hellenistic deification

text: Greco-Roman

text: Arrian

text: The Anabasis of Alexander

text: Chorasmia

text: Alexander the Great

text: Euxine

text: Central Asia

text: Cholarzene

text: Tao-Klarjeti

text: Pontus

text: Arrian

text: Bagrationi dynasty

text: Kingdom of Iberia

text: Tbilisi

text: Batumi

text: Kutaisi

text: Khashuri

text: Gori

text: Gurjaani

text: Sachkhere

text: Zestaponi

text: Pharnavazid dynasty

text: Georgian monarchs family tree of Iberia

text: Ashgate Publishing

text: Georgian royal annals

text: TITUS

text: Rayfield, Donald

text: Routledge

text: Suny, Ronald Grigor

text: Indiana University Press

text: Toumanoff, Cyril

text: Georgetown University Press

text: Salia, Kalistrat

text: Yarshater, Ehsan

text: Cambridge University Press

text: Lordkipanidze, Otar

text: Brosset, Marie-Félicité

categories: 4th-century BC births,Pharnavazid kings of Iberia,3rd-century BC rulers,3rd-century BC deaths,Founders of religions,City founders,Deified people,Georgian people of Iranian descent,Creators of writing systems,People from Mtskheta

paragraph: Pharnavaz I of Iberia

paragraph: Pharnavaz I (; ) was a king of Kartli, an ancient Georgian kingdom known as Iberia in the classical antiquity. "The Georgian Chronicles" credits him with being the first monarch founding the kingship of Kartli and the Pharnavazid dynasty, while other independent chronicles, "The Conversion of Kartli" makes him the second Georgian monarch. Based on the medieval evidence, most scholars locate Pharnavaz’s rule in the 3rd century BC: 302–237 BC according to Prince Vakhushti of Kartli, 299–234 BC according to Cyril Toumanoff and 284–219 BC according to Pavle Ingoroqva. Pharnavaz's rise and the advent of the Iberian monarchy was directly tied to the victory of Alexander the Great over the Achaemenid Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: According to the "Georgian royal annals", Pharnavaz descended from Uplos, son of Mtskhetos, son of Kartlos, who was one of the powerful and famous eight brothers, who from their part were descendants of Targamos, son of Tarsi, the grandson of Japheth, son of the Biblical Noah. He is not directly attested in non-Georgian sources and there is no definite contemporary indication that he was indeed the first of the Georgian kings. His story is saturated with legendary imagery and symbols, and it seems feasible that, as the memory of the historical facts faded, the real Pharnavaz "accumulated a legendary façade" and emerged as the model pre-Christian monarch in the Georgian annals.

paragraph: According to the c. 800 chronicle "The Life of Kings", Pharnavaz had a distinguished genealogy, tracing back to Kartlos, the mythical ethnarch of Kartli. His paternal uncle, Samara, held the position of "mamasakhlisi" ("father of the house") of the Georgian tribes around Mtskheta. Pharnavaz’s mother is claimed to have been a Persian woman from Isfahan, whom Prince Teimuraz of Georgia and Patriarch Anton I of Georgia identify with a daughter of King Darius III. The entire story of Pharnavaz, although written by a Christian chronicler, abounds in ancient Iranian-like imagery and mystic allusions, a reflection of the archaeologically confirmed cultural and presumably political ties between Iran and Kartli of that time. The name "Pharnavaz" is also an illustrative example with its root "par"- being based upon the Persian "farnah", the divine radiance believed by the ancient Iranians to mark a legitimate dynast (cf. "khvarenah"). The dynastic tag Parnavaziani ("of/from/named for Pharnavaz") is also preserved in the early Armenian histories as P'arnawazean ("Faustus of Byzantium" 5.15; fifth century) and P'arazean ("History of Armenia" 14; probably the early fifth century), an acknowledgment that a king named Pharnavaz was understood to have been the founder of a Georgian dynasty. Pharnavaz is also mentioned in the Stele of Serapit.

paragraph: Perhaps the most artistically rounded section of the Georgian annals, the narrative follows Pharnavaz's life from birth to burial. Aged 3, small Pharnavaz's family is destroyed, and his heritage is usurped by Azon installed by Alexander the Great during his campaign in Kartli. Alexander's invasion of Iberia, remembered not only by the Georgian historical tradition, but also by Pliny the Elder (4.10.39) and Gaius Julius Solinus (9.19), appears to be memory of some Macedonian interference in Iberia, which must have taken place in connection with the expedition mentioned by Strabo (11.14.9) sent by Alexander in 323 BC to the confines of Iberia, in search of gold mines.

paragraph: Pharnavaz is brought up fatherless, but a magic dream, in which he anoints himself with the essence of the Sun, heralds the peripeteia. He is persuaded by this vision to "devote [himself] to noble deeds". He then sets off and goes hunting. In a pursuit of a deer, he encounters a mass of treasure stored in a hidden cave. Pharnavaz retrieves the treasure and exploits it to mount a loyal army against the tyrannical Azon. He is aided by Kuji of Colchis, who eventually marries Pharnavaz's sister. The rebels are also joined by 1,000 soldiers from Azon's camp; they are anachronistically referred to by the author as Romans, and claimed to have been entitled by the victorious Pharnavaz as "aznauri" (i.e., nobles) after Azon (this etymology is false, however).

paragraph: The main threads of Pharnavaz's story - a fatherless boy hidden and raised in a remote mountains, a forgotten lineage, his dreams, sacral kingship, solar imagery, the hunt, discovery of cave-concealed treasure etc. are reminiscent of legends about Iran's founding kings, like Cyrus the Great and Ardashir I. Pharnavaz's self-anointment may have a Sasanian inspiration, as some early "Shahanshahs" crowned themselves.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: In the ensuing battle, Azon is defeated and killed, and Pharnavaz becomes the king of Kartli at the age of 27. He is reported to have acknowledged the suzerainty of the Seleucids, the Hellenistic successors of Alexander in the Middle East, who are afforded by the Georgian chronicles the generic name of Antiochus.

paragraph: Pharnavaz is also said to have patterned his administration upon an "Iranian" model.

paragraph: Pharnavaz had introduced a military-administrative organization based on a network of regional governors or "eristavi". The insignia of the eristavi, received from the king, constituted a sceptre, a special signet ring, belt and armament. Iberia had in total seven eristavis, in Colchis, Kakheti, Khunani (modern-day northern Azerbaijan), Samshvilde (Kvemo Kartli), Tsunda (included Javakheti, Kola and Artaani), Odzrkhe and Klarjeti. The kingdom had one spaspet who was under the direct control of the royal power based in Inner Kartli. Eristavates mimicked aspects of Achaemenid "satrapies" and Seleucid "strategoi". The major motive of later historian of the chronicles was to convince posterity that the basic political structure of Kartli was created by the very first Georgian monarch in the wake of Wars of Alexander the Great; was of Achaemenid administrative system and had remained stable throughout Hellenistic, Parthian and Sasanian times. In this way, the long-term viability and stability of the Georgian realm are established.

paragraph: The hierarchic structure created by Pharnavaz was the following: king; commander-in-chief (spaspet) of the royal army; eristavis; middle commanders ("atasistavis tsikhistavis") of the garrisons stationed in the royal strongholds; junior commanders ("asistavis") who were the younger sons of the aristocratic families; mercenary professional warriors from the neighboring countries and all the soldiers organized around the entire kingdom.

paragraph: It is evident that the division of Iberia by Pharnavaz into saeristavos served first and foremost a military aim, namely the organization of people for the purpose of defence. This organization was not so much directed against other countries. Back then the total population of the kingdom would have been, including foreign captives and the population of the tributary areas, about 600,000, which could raise a fairly big army not less than 100,000. According to Strabo the Iberian army numbered 70-80,000 so it appears that each saeristavo had 10,000 soldiers.

paragraph: While Georgian and Classical evidence makes the contemporaneous Kartlian links with the Seleucids plausible (Toumanoff has even implied that the kings of Kartli might have aided the Seleucids in holding the resurgent Orontids of Armenia in check), Pharnavaz's alleged reform of the eristavi fiefdoms is most likely a back-projection of the medieval pattern of subdivision to the remote past.

paragraph: Pharnavaz is then reported to have embarked on social and cultural projects; he supervised two building projects: the raising of the idol Armazi – reputedly named after him – on a mountain ledge and the construction of a similarly named fortress.

paragraph: Pharnavaz made alliances with various North Caucasian peoples during his reign, to whom he called upon for help against both Macedonia and internal foes. He took a Durdzuk woman in marriage, in order to consolidate the alliance of Iberia with the Durdzuks, who helped him consolidate his reign against his unruly vassals. Similarly he married his sister to a Sarmatian chief.

paragraph: According to the "Georgian royal annals" he also created the Georgian script and made the Georgian language an official language of the kingdom:

paragraph: The chronicles report Pharnavaz's lengthy reign of 65 years.

paragraph: Upon his death, he was buried in front of the idol Armazi and worshipped. His son Saurmag succeeded him to the throne.

paragraph: Pharnavaz's grave is undisclosed so far. One of the last monarchs who visited his grave to adorn it and pay his respects was King Mirian III. Pharnavaz's very burial in front of idol Armazi suggests a Hellenistic deification of the early monarchs of Iberia.

paragraph: Section::::Pharnavaz and Arrian's Pharasmanes.

paragraph: Several modern scholars have been tempted to make identification between the Pharnavaz of the medieval Georgian tradition and the Pharasmanes of the Greco-Roman historian Arrian, a 2nd-century AD author of "The Anabasis of Alexander". Arrian recounts that "Pharasmanes (Фαρασμάνης), king of the Chorasmians", visited Alexander the Great with 1500 horseman, and pledged his support should Alexander desire to campaign to the Euxine lands and subdue Colchians, whom Pharasmanes names as his neighbors. Apart from the similarity of the names of Pharasmanes and Pharnavaz (both names are apparently based on the same root, the Iranian "farnah"), the king of Chorasmia in Central Asia reports Colchis (today’s western Georgia, i.e., the western neighbor of ancient Kartli/Iberia) to be a neighboring country. Some Georgian scholars have suggested that the Greek copyists of Arrian might have confused Chorasmia with Cholarzene (Chorzene), a Classical rendering of the southwest Georgian marchlands (the medieval Tao-Klarjeti), which indeed bordered with Colchis and Pontus.

paragraph: According to Arrian:

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The Bagrationi dynasty claimed descent directly from Pharnavaz. During the continuity of monarchy in Georgia, the Georgian kings presented themselves as heirs to the Kingdom of Iberia founded by King Pharnavaz.

paragraph: In Tbilisi there is a King Pharnavaz Street, Avenue, and also a statue of Pharnavaz. Also, there are streets named after Pharnavaz in Batumi, Kutaisi, Khashuri, Gori, Gurjaani, Sachkhere, Zestaponi and others. Some buildings, including schools and hotels, also bear his name, as well as about five hundred Georgians.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pharnavazid dynasty

paragraph: BULLET::::- Georgian monarchs family tree of Iberia

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rapp, Stephen H. (2003) "Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts". Peeters Bvba .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rapp, Stephen H. (2014) "The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature" Ashgate Publishing

paragraph: BULLET::::- Georgian royal annals, "Life of Pharnavaz: The first Georgian king of Kartli", Part IV. TITUS (Online Version).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rayfield, Donald (2000) "". Routledge, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994) "The Making of the Georgian Nation" (2nd edition). Indiana University Press, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Toumanoff, Cyril (1963) "Studies in Christian Caucasian History". Georgetown University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Salia, Kalistrat (1980) "Histoire de la nation géorgienne"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gamkrelidze, Gela (2012) "Researches in Iberia-Colchology", David Braund ed.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yarshater, Ehsan (1983) "The Cambridge History of Iran". Cambridge University Press, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- «Обращение Грузии», перевод с древнегрузинского Е. С. Такаишвили. Редакционная обработка, исследование и комментарии М. И. Чхартишвили. Тбилиси — 1989

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lordkipanidze, Otar (1983) ""La Géorgie à l'époque hellénistique", dans Dialogues d'histoire ancienne", vol. 9, pp. 197–216.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brosset, Marie-Félicité (1849) "Histoire de la Géorgie", Saint-Pétersbourg

paragraph: BULLET::::- Toumanoff, Cyrill (1969) "Chronology of the early Kings of Iberia" Traditio, Vol. 25, pp. 1–33

wikidata_label: Pharnavaz I of Iberia

wikipedia_title: Pharnavaz I of Iberia