text: empress consort

text: Leo IV

text: Constantine VI

text: co-regent

text: empress regnant

text: Byzantine Empire

text: iconoclast

text: iconophile

text: Second Council of Nicaea

text: Pope Leo III

text: Charlemagne

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Lesbos

text: Nikephoros I

text: Athens

text: Greek

text: patrician

text: strategos

text: theme

text: spatharios

text: Constantinople

text: Constantine V

text: Leo IV

text: bride-show

text: Constantine VI

text: Telerig

text: iconoclast

text: Patriarch Niketas of Constantinople

text: Paul of Cyprus

text: tonsure

text: George Kedrenos

text: Theodora, wife of Theophilos

text: regent

text: Maurice

text: Herakleios

text: Caesar

text: Nikephoros

text: Armeniac Theme

text: logothete

text: dromos

text: excubitors

text: ordained

text: priest

text: Hagia Sophia

text: Empress Martina

text: Rhodes

text: Carolingian dynasty

text: Papacy

text: Rotrude

text: Charlemagne

text: Hildegard

text: Saxons

text: Frankish

text: Elpidius

text: strategos

text: Sicily

text: Africa

text: Abbasid Caliphate

text: Michael Lachanodrakon

text: Harun al-Rashid

text: invaded Anatolia

text: Bucellarian Theme

text: Tatzates

text: tribute

text: veneration

text: icon

text: Tarasios

text: Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Constantinople

text: Nicaea

text: Eastern church

text: Rome

text: Seventh Ecumenical Council

text: Istria

text: Benevento

text: Staurakios

text: Slavs

text: Caliph

text: Al-Mahdi

text: Harun al-Rashid

text: Constantine

text: oath of fidelity

text: Armeniacs

text: Bosphorus

text: Constantinople

text: solar eclipse

text: Heaven

text: basileus

text: Carolingian Empire

text: Western Europe

text: Italy

text: Avars

text: Central Europe

text: Iberian Peninsula

text: al-Andalus

text: Aachen

text: Germany

text: Carolingian renaissance

text: Pope Leo III

text: Einhard

text: Roman Empire

text: Theophanes the Confessor

text: Aetios

text: Nikephoros

text: logothetēs tou genikou

text: Lesbos

text: Theophano

text: Staurakios

text: monasteries

text: Theodore the Studite

text: saint

text: canonized

text: Menaion

text: liturgical book

text: propers

text: Nikodemos the Hagiorite

text: Anastasius Bibliothecarius

text: Theophanes

categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors,Augustae,Isaurian dynasty,8th-century Byzantine emperors,8th-century Byzantine women,Byzantine regents,780s in the Byzantine Empire,803 deaths,Byzantine Athenians,9th-century Byzantine women,800s in the Byzantine Empire,9th-century women rulers,8th-century women rulers,Empresses regnant,752 births,Byzantine Iconoclasm,790s in the Byzantine Empire

paragraph: Irene of Athens

paragraph: Irene of Athens ( 752 – 9 August 803 AD), also known as Irene Sarantapechaina, was Byzantine empress consort by marriage to Leo IV from 775 to 780, regent during the minority of her son Constantine VI from 780 until 790, co-regent from 792 until 797, and finally sole ruler and first empress regnant of the Byzantine Empire from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominent Sarantapechos family, she was selected as Leo IV's bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband was an iconoclast, she harbored iconophile sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which condemned iconoclasm as heretical and brought an end to the first iconoclast period (730–787).

paragraph: As Irene's son Constantine reached maturity, he began to move out from under the influence of his mother. In the early 790s, several attempted revolts tried to proclaim him as sole ruler. In 797, Irene gouged out her son's eyes, maiming him so severely that he died a few days later. With her son dead, Irene proclaimed herself sole ruler. Irene's unprecedented status as a female ruler of the Roman Empire led Pope Leo III to proclaim Charlemagne emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day of 800 under the pretext that a woman could not rule and so the throne of the Roman Empire was actually vacant. A revolt in 802 overthrew Irene and exiled her to the island of Lesbos, supplanting her on the throne with Nikephoros I. Irene died in exile less than a year later.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Irene was born in Athens sometime between 750 and 755. She was a member of the noble Greek Sarantapechos family, which had significant political influence in central mainland Greece. Although she was an orphan, her uncle or cousin Constantine Sarantapechos was a patrician and possibly also a "strategos" ("general") of the theme of Hellas at the end of the eighth century. Constantine Sarantapechos's son Theophylact was a "spatharios" and is mentioned as having been involved in suppressing a revolt in 799.

paragraph: Section::::Empress consort.

paragraph: Irene was brought to Constantinople by Emperor Constantine V on 1 November 768 and was married to his son Leo IV on 17 December. It is unclear why she was selected as the bride for the young Leo IV. Especially unusual is that, while Constantine V was a militant iconoclast who was known for persecuting venerators of icons, Irene herself displayed iconophile predilections. This fact, combined with the limited information available about her family, has led some scholars to speculate that Irene may have been selected in a bride-show, in which eligible young women were paraded before the bridegroom until one was finally selected. If this was the case, then she would have been the first imperial bride to be selected in this manner. However, there is no solid evidence to support this hypothesis other than the apparent bizarreness of Irene's selection as Leo IV's bride.

paragraph: On 14 January 771, Irene gave birth to a son, the future Constantine VI, who was named after his grandfather, Irene's father-in-law, Constantine V. When Constantine V died in September 775, Leo IV ascended to the throne at the age of twenty-five years, with Irene as his empress consort. An unnamed female relative of Irene was married to the Bulgar ruler Telerig in 776. Irene also had a nephew.

paragraph: Leo IV, though an iconoclast like his father, pursued a policy of moderation towards iconophiles. He removed the penalties on monasteries that had been imposed by his father and began appointing monks as bishops. When Patriarch Niketas of Constantinople died in 780, Leo IV appointed Paul of Cyprus, who had iconophile sympathies, as his successor, although he did force him to swear oaths that he would uphold the official iconoclasm. During Lent of 780, however, Leo IV's policies on iconophiles became much harsher. He ordered for a number of prominent courtiers to be arrested, scourged, tonsured, and tortured after they were caught venerating icons.

paragraph: According to the historian George Kedrenos, who wrote many centuries after Irene's death, this crackdown on iconophiles began after Leo IV discovered two icons hidden underneath Irene's pillow. Leo IV launched an investigation and discovered the courtiers who had brought the icons. He had them tortured and scolded Irene for violating the law and breaking with her faith. Irene insisted that she had not known the icons were there. After the incident, Leo refused to have marital relations with Irene ever again. Lynda Garland, a historian of the Byzantine Empire, states that this story too closely resembles a different story told about the later empress Theodora, wife of Theophilos to be historically true. Nonetheless, she maintains that it is possible that Irene may have been trying to fill the palace with supporters of iconophilism, which may have triggered Leo IV's crackdown.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.

paragraph: Leo IV died on 8 September 780 and Irene became regent for their nine-year-old son Constantine VI. Rumors were circulated claiming that Leo IV had died of a fever after putting on the jeweled crown that had been dedicated by either Maurice (ruled 582 – 602) or Herakleios (ruled 610 – 641). Irene herself may have promoted this rumor in effort to smear her deceased husband's memory.

paragraph: In October, only six weeks after Leo IV's death, Irene was confronted with a conspiracy led by a group of prominent dignitaries that sought to raise Caesar Nikephoros, a half-brother of Leo IV, to the throne. Irene had Bardas (the former "strategos" of the Armeniac Theme), Gregory (the "logothete" of the "dromos"), and Konstantinos (the count of the excubitors) scourged, tonsured, and banished. She replaced all of them with dignitaries who were loyal to her. She had Nikephoros and his four brothers ordained as priests, a status which disqualified them from ruling, and forced them to serve communion at the Hagia Sophia on Christmas Day 780. On the same day, Irene returned the crown her husband had removed as part of a full imperial procession. Possibly hoping to placate supporters of her husband's family, Irene is reported to have proposed that Leo IV's sister Anthousa should join her as co-regent, but Anthousa is said to have rejected the offer.

paragraph: From the beginning, Irene seems to have taken more power for herself than was traditionally expected of female regents. Her earliest coins depict both herself and her son Constantine IV on the obverse, listing them as co-rulers rather than as ruler and regent. Furthermore, Irene is shown holding the orb, not Constantine, and only Irene's name is listed on the obverse of the coin, with Constantine IV's name only listed on the reverse, the less important side. At the same time, Irene appears to have been well aware that her position as regent was insecure. The last female regent of the Byzantine Empire had been Empress Martina, who had only managed to survive as regent for less than a year before her tongue was cut out and she was exiled to the island of Rhodes. Most people were probably expecting that Irene's reign would come to a similarly swift and bloody end.

paragraph: As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the Carolingian dynasty and the Papacy in Rome. She negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and Rotrude, a daughter of Charlemagne by his third wife Hildegard. During this time Charlemagne was at war with the Saxons, and would later become the new king of the Franks. Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the Frankish princess in Greek; however, Irene herself broke off the engagement in 787, against her son's wishes.

paragraph: Irene next had to subdue a rebellion led by Elpidius, the "strategos" of Sicily. Irene sent a fleet, which succeeded in defeating the Sicilians. Elpidius fled to Africa, where he defected to the Abbasid Caliphate. After the success of Constantine V's general, Michael Lachanodrakon, who foiled an Abbasid attack on the eastern frontiers, a huge Abbasid army under Harun al-Rashid invaded Anatolia in summer 782. The "strategos" of the Bucellarian Theme, Tatzates, defected to the Abbasids, and Irene had to agree to pay an annual tribute of 70,000 or 90,000 dinars to the Abbasids for a three-year truce, to give them 10,000 silk garments, and to provide them with guides, provisions, and access to markets during their withdrawal.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.:Ending iconoclasm.

paragraph: Irene's most notable act was the restoration of the veneration of icons (images of Christ or the saints). Having chosen Tarasios, one of her partisans and her former secretary, as Patriarch of Constantinople in 784, she summoned two church councils. The first of these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition of the iconoclast soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the veneration of icons and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome. (See Seventh Ecumenical Council.)

paragraph: While this greatly improved relations with the Papacy, it did not prevent the outbreak of a war with the Franks, who took over Istria and Benevento in 788. In spite of these reverses, Irene's military efforts met with some success: in 782 her favoured courtier Staurakios subdued the Slavs of the Balkans and laid the foundations of Byzantine expansion and re-Hellenization in the area. Nevertheless, Irene was constantly harried by the Abbasids, and in 782 and 798 had to accept the terms of the respective Caliphs Al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid.

paragraph: Section::::Accession as empress regnant.

paragraph: As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restless under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force was met and crushed by the Empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the army of the Armeniacs, formally proclaimed Constantine VI as the sole ruler.

paragraph: A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine and Irene, whose title of co-ruler was confirmed in 792; but the rival factions remained, and in 797 Irene, by cunning intrigues with the bishops and courtiers, organized a conspiracy on her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even there participants in the plot surrounded him. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, Constantine was carried back to the palace at Constantinople. His eyes were gouged out, and he died from his wounds several days later. A solar eclipse and darkness lasting 17 days were attributed to the horror of Heaven.

paragraph: Although it is often asserted that, as monarch, Irene called herself "basileus" (βασιλεύς), 'emperor', rather than "basilissa" (βασίλισσα), 'empress', in fact there are only three instances where it is known that she used the title "basileus": two legal documents in which she signed herself as "Emperor of the Romans" and a gold coin of hers found in Sicily bearing the title of "basileus". In relation to the coin, the lettering is of poor quality and the attribution to Irene may be problematic. She used the title "basilissa" in all other documents, coins, and seals.

paragraph: Section::::Carolingian Empire.

paragraph: Irene's unprecedented position as an empress ruling in her own right was emphasized by the coincidental rise of the Carolingian Empire in Western Europe, which rivaled Irene's Byzantium in size and power. Charlemagne invaded Italy early on in his reign, annexing the Lombard kingdom of Italy. He also campaigned against the Saxon tribes in northern Germany for more than thirty years, annexing their territory and compelling them to convert to Christianity, and defeated the Avars in Central Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula, Charlemagne's expedition against al-Andalus led to the creation of a buffer zone between Francia and the Islamic world called the "Spanish March". Charlemagne also increasingly modelled his rule after Roman Emperors by sponsoring enormous construction programs, exemplified by the building of his favourite residence at Aachen (in modern-day Germany), standardizing weights and measures and supporting intellectual and artistic endeavors in the Carolingian renaissance. Moreover, Charlemagne issued laws called "capitularies" in the style of a Roman Emperor.

paragraph: Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne as "Augustus". In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the Imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be Emperor. However, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all, remains controversial – his biographer Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope – but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole Roman Empire threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity.

paragraph: Relations between the two Empires remained difficult. Irene is said to have endeavoured a marriage alliance between herself and Charlemagne, but according to Theophanes the Confessor, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetios, one of her favourites.

paragraph: Section::::Deposition and death.

paragraph: In 802 the patricians conspired against her and placed Nikephoros, the minister of finance ("logothetēs tou genikou"), on the throne. Irene was exiled to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning wool. She died the following year.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: A female relative of Irene, Theophano, was chosen in 807 by Emperor Nikephoros I as the bride of his son and heir Staurakios.

paragraph: Irene's zeal in restoring the icons and monasteries made Theodore the Studite praise her as a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church, but she was not canonized. Claims about her supposed canonization are mainly from Western sources. Such claims are not supported by the Menaion (the official liturgical book providing the propers of the saints of the Orthodox Church), the "Lives of Saints" by Nikodemos the Hagiorite, or any other relevant book of the Orthodox Church.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Bibliography.

paragraph: Primary sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anastasius Bibliothecarius "Chronographia tripartita"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theophanes "Chronographia"

paragraph: Secondary sources

paragraph: Holland, Cecilia (fiction), The Belt of Gold (1984)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander, Archibald, and André Lagarde, Joseph Turmel. "The Latin Church in the Middle Ages", C. Scribner's Sons, 1915.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barbe, Dominique. "Irène de Byzance: La femme empereur", Paris, 1990.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barbara H. Rosenwein, A Short History of the Middle Ages, second ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 80, 98-99.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sir Steven Runciman. "The Empress Irene." "Conspectus of History" 1.1 (1974): 1–11.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wace, Henry and William Smith, "A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines," J. Murray, 1882.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- De Imperatoribus Romanis – Constantine VI (780–797 A.D.) and Irene (797–802 A.D.)

description: Empress of Byzantine Empire

wikidata_label: Irene of Athens

wikipedia_title: Irene of Athens


text: Roman Emperor

text: Carinus

text: Carus

text: praetorian prefect

text: Probus

text: Carus

text: Raetia

text: Noricum

text: praetorian prefect

text: Carus

text: Probus

text: Sirmium

text: Sremska Mitrovica

text: Serbia

text: Historia Augusta

text: Gibbon

text: Caesar

text: Arrius Aper

text: Sassanid Empire

text: Zonaras

text: Eutropius

text: Festus

text: Seleucia

text: Ctesiphon

text: Al-Mada'in

text: Iraq

text: Tigris

text: title

text: Bahram II

text: Homs

text: Syria

text: Asia Minor

text: rescript

text: Cyzicus

text: Bithynia

text: Thrace

text: Nicomedia

text: İzmit

text: Heraclea

text: Thrace

text: Chalcedon

text: Bosphorus

text: Diocletian

text: Historia Augusta

text: Aurelius Victor

text: Epitome de Caesaribus

text: Eutropius

text: Breviarium ab urbe condita

text: Historia Augusta

text: Life of Carus, Carinus and Numerian

text: Joannes Zonaras

text: Barnes, Timothy D.

text: Carus (282–283 A.D.)

text: Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)

text: Carinus (283–285 A.D.)

text: Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)

categories: 3rd-century murdered monarchs,Year of birth missing,Imperial Roman consuls,Deified Roman emperors,3rd-century Roman emperors,Aurelii,284 deaths,Crisis of the Third Century,Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard

paragraph: Numerian

paragraph: Numerian (; died 20 November 284) was Roman Emperor from 283 to 284 with his older brother Carinus. They were sons of Carus, a general raised to the office of praetorian prefect under Emperor Probus in 282.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and Carus' reign.

paragraph: Numerian was the younger son of Carus. In 282, the legions of the upper Danube in Raetia and Noricum proclaimed as emperor Numerian's father, the praetorian prefect Marcus Aurelius Carus, after a mutiny against the emperor Probus, in which the latter was killed. By one account, Carus had "himself" rebelled against the emperor, and Probus' army, stationed in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia), decided they did not wish to fight Carus and assassinated their emperor instead. According to the "Historia Augusta" and the view accepted by Gibbon, Carus was not responsible for Probus's death, and inflicted severe punishment upon the murderers. Carus, already sixty, wished to establish a dynasty and immediately elevated Carinus and Numerian to the rank of Caesar.

paragraph: In 283, Carus left Carinus in charge of the West and moved with Numerian and his praetorian prefect Arrius Aper to the East to wage war against the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanids had been embroiled in a succession dispute since the death of Shapur and were in no position to oppose Carus' advance.

paragraph: According to Zonaras, Eutropius, and Festus, Carus won a major victory against the Persians, taking Seleucia and the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (near modern Al-Mada'in, Iraq), cities on opposite banks of the Tigris. In celebration, Numerian, Carus, and Carinus all took the title "Persici maximi". Carus died in July or early August of 283, allegedly due to a strike of lightning.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and Carus' reign.:Numerian and Carinus as Augusti.

paragraph: The death of Carus left Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from Gaul, arriving in January 284, while Numerian lingered in the East. The Roman retreat from Persia was orderly and unopposed, for the Persian King, Bahram II, was still struggling to establish his authority.

paragraph: By March 284, Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health, as he issued the only extant rescript in his name there. Coins were issued in his name in Cyzicus at some time before the end of 284, but it is impossible to know whether he was still in the public eye by that point.

paragraph: After Emesa, Numerian's staff, including the prefect Aper, reported that Numerian suffered from an inflammation of the eyes and had to travel in a closed coach. When the army reached Bithynia, or Thrace, some of Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach. They opened its curtains and found Numerian dead. Gibbon, however, dismisses with derision the report of the stench of Numerian's decay: "Could no aromatics be found in the Imperial house-hold?"

paragraph: Section::::Early life and Carus' reign.:After Numerian's death.

paragraph: Aper officially broke the news of Numerian's death in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November 284, though Gibbon represents the occurrence of this event at Heraclea, in Thrace, and the discovery, which the prefect attempted to conceal, as due to the forwardness of the soldiery, who forced open the Imperial tent to investigate for themselves the situation of their invisible monarch. Numerian's generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, which met at Chalcedon across the Bosphorus, where they chose as emperor Diocletian, commander of the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard, despite Aper's attempts to garner support. The army of the east unanimously saluted their new Augustus. Diocletian accepted the purple imperial vestments and raised his sword to the light of the sun, swearing an oath denying responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed the deed. In full view of the army, Diocletian then turned and killed Aper, who had been hauled bound before the assembly.

paragraph: Section::::Character.

paragraph: According to the unreliable "Historia Augusta", Numerian was a man of considerable literary attainments, remarkably amiable, and known as a great orator and poet. Allegedly, the senate raised him a statue, inscribed "To the most powerful of orators".

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita

paragraph: BULLET::::- Historia Augusta, Life of Carus, Carinus and Numerian

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284

paragraph: Section::::References.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. "Constantine and Eusebius". Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. "The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine". Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bowman, Alan K. "Diocletian and the First Tetrarchy." In "The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire", edited by Alan Bowman, Averil Cameron, and Peter Garnsey, 67–89. Cambridge University Press, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leadbetter, William. "Carus (282–283 A.D.)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (2001a). Accessed 16 February 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leadbetter, William. "Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (2001b). Accessed 16 February 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leadbetter, William. "Carinus (283–285 A.D.)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (2001c). Accessed 16 February 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 A.D.)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1997). Accessed 16 February 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Potter, David S. "The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395". New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Southern, Pat. "The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine". New York: Routledge, 2001.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, Stephen. "Diocletian and the Roman Recovery". New York: Routledge, 1997.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leadbetter, William, "Numerianus (283–284 A.D.)", "DIR" (2001)

description: Roman emperor

wikidata_label: Numerian

wikipedia_title: Numerian


text:
castrato
Milan
Milan Cathedral
Rome
Teatro delle Dame
Josef Mysliveček
Ezio
oratorio
Munich
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Teatro San Carlo
Naples
Vienna
St. Petersburg
London
Earl of Mount Edgcumbe
Napoleon
Simon Mayr
Trieste
solfeggi
Angelo Tarchi
Domenico Cimarosa
La Lodoiska
Maria Cosway
Luisa Todi
Rome
Niccolò Piccinni
Pasquale Anfossi
Milan
Pietro Guglielmi
Venice
Munich
Adriano in Siria
Padua
Ezio
Josef Mysliveček
La Calliroe
Naples
L'Olimpiade
Vicente Martín y Soler
La Circe
Josef Mysliveček
Giuseppe Sarti
Florence
Castore e Polluce
Francesco Bianchi
Armida
Pisa
Armida abbandonata
Niccolò Jommelli
Joseph Schuster
Arbace
Genoa
Giulio Sabino
Giuseppe Sarti
Vienna
London
Felice Alessandri
Alessandria
Lucca
Turin
Giacomo Rust
Luigi Cherubini
Medonte, re di Epiro
Senigallia
Domenico Cimarosa
Vicenza
Livorno
Modena
Gaetano Pugnani
Angelo Tarchi
St. Petersburg
Siena
Angelica e Medoro
Ferdinando Bertoni
Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli
Bergamo
Faenza
Marcos Portugal
Reggio Emilia
La Lodoiska
Simon Mayr
pasticcio
Lisbon

categories: 18th-century Italian opera singers,18th-century Italian male actors,1829 deaths,1754 births,19th-century Italian singers,Italian opera singers,Italian male stage actors,Singers from Milan,Castrati

paragraph: Luigi Marchesi

paragraph: Luigi Marchesi (; 8 August 1754 – 14 December 1829) was an Italian castrato singer, one of the most prominent and charismatic to appear in Europe during the second half of the eighteenth century.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Luigi Ludovico Marchesi was born in Milan. He joined the Milan Cathedral choir in 1765 and made his operatic debut in Rome in 1773 at the Teatro delle Dame, cast as a female character, in Marcello da Capua's comic opera "La contessina". For several years, Marchesi appeared either in minor roles or minor operatic centers, but he found a valuable ally in the Czech composer Josef Mysliveček after he appeared in the latter's opera "Ezio" and oratorio "Isacco figura del redentore" in Munich early in the year 1777. Marchesi's singing in both productions was considered to be extraordinary. In a letter written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart to his father from Munich on 11 October 1777, it is mentioned that Mysliveček bragged of his influence with the management of the Teatro San Carlo in Naples, the most prestigious venue for the performance of Italian serious opera in Europe: he apparently had the power to recommend the engagement of singers who were to be featured in productions planned for the 1778–79 operatic season there. Marchesi was one of the singers that Mysliveček recommended. His first appearances in Naples were as successful as those in Munich, and they permanently established him as one of the most talented vocal artists in Italy. In all, Mysliveček created five operatic roles for Marchesi before his premature death in 1781. After Marchesi's triumphs throughout Italy in the late 1770s and early 1780s, he ventured all the way to Vienna, St. Petersburg, and London, where he created a tremendous sensation and was proclaimed to be the greatest singer of his time. In London he was billed as Virtuoso di Camera to his Sicilian Majesty. The Earl of Mount Edgcumbe described Marchesi's impression at London as following:

paragraph: In 1796 Marchesi refused to sing for Napoleon when he entered the city of Milan. For this Marchesi was honored as a national hero by the public, as reported by Vernon Lee:

paragraph: Marchesi's last major appearance was in Simon Mayr's "Ginevra di Scozia" for the inauguration of the Teatro Nuovo in Trieste (1801). He continued to appear in public for a few more years, until 1806, when he retired for good and moved to his villa at Inzago, where he died on 14 December 1829. After his retirement Marchesi did not go into obscurity; once in a while, when in good health, he used to arrange a couple of private concerts; some of them were dedicated to charity, particularly for poor orphaned children.

paragraph: As an artist Marchesi was certainly one of the greatest singers of his time, and he was also a composer. In London he published his own volume set of "Ariette Italiane", and also a handful of solfeggi. He maintained a collaboration similar to that with Josef Mysliveček later in life with Angelo Tarchi. Perhaps his most important roles in the later part of his career were Megacle in Domenico Cimarosa's "L'Olimpiade" and Lovinski in Simon Mayr's La Lodoiska. Serious opera was the natural realm for his voice type, and he rarely sang comic roles after his early appearances in Rome.

paragraph: In person Marchesi might have been the handsomest castrato of all time; during his London engagement in the 1790s, Maria Cosway deserted her husband and children and followed the singer around Europe for several years. Also, it is said he was adored by the whole female population of Rome. At the same time, however, Marchesi became famous for his turbulent temperament and notorious stipulations. He often insisted on making his entrance on the stage descending a hill on horseback wearing a helmet with multi-coloured plumes at least a yard high, saying "Where am I?". Otherwise, he engaged in rivalry competitions that once nearly cost him life; the fanatic supporters of the soprano Luisa Todi, his bitter rival, attempted to poison him in 1791.

paragraph: Section::::Operatic Roles to 1800.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Contessina Elmira in "La contessina" by Marcello di Capua (Rome, 1773)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cecchina in "La buona figliola" by Niccolò Piccinni (Rome, 1774)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marchesa Violante in "La finta giardiniera" by Pasquale Anfossi (Rome, 1774)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gandarte in "Alessandro nell'Indie" by Carlo Monza (Milan, 1775)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Evandro in "Medonte re di Epiro" by Luigi Alessandri (Milan, 1775)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Olinto in "Demetrio" by Pietro Guglielmi (Venice, 1775)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tarquinio in "Il trionfo di Clelia" (Munich, 1776)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Farnaspe in "Adriano in Siria" by Pasquale Anfossi (Padua, 1777)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ezio in "Ezio" by Josef Mysliveček (Munich, 1777)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tarsile in "La Calliroe" by Josef Mysliveček (Naples, 1778)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aminta in "Il re pastore" by Ignazio Platania (Naples, 1778)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Megacle in "L'Olimpiade" by Josef Mysliveček (Naples, 1778)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Ifigenia in Aulide" by Vicente Martín y Soler (Naples, 1779)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ulisse in "La Circe" by Josef Mysliveček (Venice, 1779)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Achille in Sciro" by Giuseppe Sarti (Florence, 1779)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Castore in "Castore e Polluce" by Francesco Bianchi (Florence, 1779)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rinaldo in "Armida" by Josef Mysliveček (Milan, 1780)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" (Pisa, 1780)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Linceo in "L'Ipermestra" by Vicente Martín y Soler (Naples, 1780)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rinaldo in "Armida abbandonata" by Niccolò Jommelli (Naples, 1780)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Amore in "Amore e Psiche" by Joseph Schuster (Naples, 1780)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arbace in "Arbace" by Francesco Bianchi (Naples, 1781)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" (Genoa, 1781)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adone in "Venere e Adone" by Francesco Bianchi (Florence, 1781)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giulio Sabino in "Giulio Sabino" by Giuseppe Sarti (Florence, 1781; Vienna, 1785; London, 1788)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ezio in "Ezio" by Felice Alessandri (Milan, Alessandria, and Lucca, 1782; Florence, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Megacle in "L'Olimpiade" by Francesco Bianchi (Milan, 1782)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ciro in "Il trionfo della pace" by Francesco Bianchi (Turin, 1782)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" (Lucca, 1782)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arbace in "Artaserse" by Giacomo Rust (Rome, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Quinto Fabio in "Quinto Fabio" by Luigi Cherubini (Rome, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" by Felice Alessandri (Padua, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arsace in "Medonte, re di Epiro" by Giuseppe Sarti (Senigallia, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Piramo in "Piramo e Tisbe" by Giovanni Battista Borghi (Florence, 1783)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aspard in "Aspard" by Francesco Bianchi (Rome, 1784)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Megacle in "L'Olimpiade" by Giuseppe Sarti (Rome, 1784)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Poro in "Alessandro nell'Indie" by Luigi Cherubini (Mantua, 1784)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rinaldo in "Armida e Rinaldo" by Giuseppe Sarti (St. Petersburg, 1786)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Castore in "Castore e Polluce" by Giuseppe Sarti (St. Petersburg, 1786)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Megacle in "L'Olimpiade" by Domenico Cimarosa (Vicenza and Lucca, 1784; London and Milan, 1788; Venice, 1790; Livorno, 1791; Modena, 1795)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Achille in Sciro" by Gaetano Pugnani (Turin, 1785)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arbace in "Artaserse" (Turin, 1785)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arminio in "Arminio" by Angelo Tarchi (Mantua, 1785)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramiro in "Il conte di Saldagna" by Angelo Tarchi (Milan, 1787)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" by Gaetano Pugnani (Turin, 1788)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Ifigenia in Aulide" by Luigi Cherubini (Turin and Milan, 1788; London, 1789)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gualtieri in "Il disertore" by Angelo Tarchi (London, 1789; Siena, 1791; Vicenza, 1794; Genoa, 1799)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porus in "La generosità d'Alessandro" by Angelo Tarchi (London, 1789)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pyrrhus in "Andromaca" by Sebastiano Nasolini (London, 1790)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "L'usurpator innocente" by Vincenzo Federici (London, 1790)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giulio Sabino in "Giulio Sabino" by Angelo Tarchi (Turin, 1790)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Megacle in "L'Olimpiade" by Vincenzo Federici (Turin, 1790)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Medoro in "Angelica e Medoro" by Ferdinando Bertoni (Venice, 1791)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ercole in "L'apoteosi d'Ercole" by Angelo Tarchi (Venice, 1791)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" (Venice and Livorno, 1791)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Poro in "Alessandro nell'Indie" by Angelo Tarchi (Livorno, 1791)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Learco in "Adrasto re d'Egitto" by Angelo Tarchi (Milan, 1792)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pirro in "Pirro re di Epiro" by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli (Milan, 1792; Venice and Bergamo, 1793; Vicenza, 1794; Venice, 1795; Faenza, 1796; Livorno, 1798)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ezio in "Ezio" by Angelo Tarchi (Vicenza, 1792)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arbace in "Artaserse" by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli (Milan, 1794)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" by Marcos Portugal (Milan, 1794)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Achille in Sciro" by Marcello Bernardini (Venice, 1794)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramiro in "Il conte di Saldagna" by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli (Venice and Reggio Emilia, 1795; Venice and Livorno, 1798)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achille in "Ifigenia in Aulide" by Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli (Venice, 1795)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arbace in "Artaserse" by Giuseppe Nicolini (Venice, 1795)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timante in "Demofoonte" (Venice, 1795)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lovinski in "La Lodoiska" by Simon Mayr (Venice, Faenza, and Senigallia, 1796; Venice and Genoa, 1797; Livorno, 1798, Genoa, 1799; Milan, 1800)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lovinski in a pasticcio of "La Lodoiska" (Lisbon, 1796)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lauso in "Lauso e Lidia" by Simon Mayr (Venice, 1798)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mexicow in "Carolina e Mexicow" by Gaetano Rossi (Venice, 1798)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tito in "Bruto" by Giuseppe Nicolini (Genoa, 1799)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Idante in "Idante" by Marcos Portugal (Milan, 1800)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Notes

paragraph: Sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heriot, Angus (1956), "The Castrati in Opera", London.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sadie, Stanley (ed.) 1998, "The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sartori, Claudio (1992–94), "I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini al 1800". Cuneo.

description: Italian opera singer

wikidata_label: Luigi Marchesi

wikipedia_title: Luigi Marchesi


text: French

text: scribe

text: manuscript

text: alchemist

text: philosopher's stone

text: immortality

text: Jewish

text: converso

text: Santiago de Compostela

text: Perenelle

text: Catholic

text: tombstone

text: Musée de Cluny

text: Paris

text: Church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie

text: One of Flamel's houses

text: rue de Montmorency

text: Louvre Museum

text: alchemy

text: philosopher's stone

text: gold

text: Perenelle

text: immortality

text: Elixir of Life

text: tympanum

text: Cimetière des Innocents

text: philosopher's stone

text: Book of Abramelin the Mage

text: silver

text: gold

text: Hebrew

text: Isaac Newton

text: Victor Hugo

text: The Hunchback of Notre Dame

text: Erik Satie

text: Albert Pike

text: its film adaptation

text: Brontis Jodorowsky

text: BnF

text: BnF

text: Victor Hugo

text: Notre Dame de Paris

text: Claude Frollo

text: Les Innocents

text: its 2001 film adaptation

text: As Above, So Below

text: The Da Vinci Code

text: Fullmetal Alchemist

text: History Channel

text: Peter Marshall

text: The Alchemy Web Site

categories: 15th-century French people,14th-century French people,Medieval European scribes,French booksellers,1418 deaths,French folklore,1330 births,Longevity myths,People from Pontoise,French alchemists,14th-century alchemists

paragraph: Nicolas Flamel

paragraph: Nicolas Flamel (; 1340 – 22 March 1418) was a French scribe and manuscript-seller. After his death, Flamel developed a reputation as an alchemist believed to have discovered the philosopher's stone and to have thereby achieved immortality. These legendary accounts first appeared in the 17th century.

paragraph: According to texts ascribed to Flamel almost 200 years after his death, he had learned alchemical secrets from a Jewish "converso" on the road to Santiago de Compostela. He has since appeared as a legendary alchemist in various fictional works.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: The historical Flamel lived in Paris in the 14th and 15th centuries, and his life is one of the best documented in the history of medieval alchemy. He ran two shops as a scribe and married Perenelle in 1368. She brought the wealth of two previous husbands to the marriage. The French Catholic couple owned several properties and contributed financially to churches, sometimes by commissioning sculptures. Later in life, they were noted for their wealth and philanthropy.

paragraph: Flamel lived into his 70s, and in 1410 designed his own tombstone, which was carved with the images of Christ, St. Peter, and St. Paul. The tombstone is preserved at the Musée de Cluny in Paris. Records show that Flamel died in 1418. He was buried in Paris at the end of the nave of the former Church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie. His will, dated 22 November 1416, indicates that he was generous but that he did not have the extraordinary wealth of later alchemical legend. There is no indication that the real Flamel of history was involved in alchemy, pharmacy or medicine.

paragraph: Section::::House in Paris.

paragraph: One of Flamel's houses still stands in Paris, at 51 rue de Montmorency. It is the oldest stone house in the city. There is an old inscription on the wall, which states, "We, ploughmen and women living at the porch of this house, built in 1407, are requested to say every day an 'Our Father' and an 'Ave Maria' praying God that His grace forgive poor and dead sinners." The ground floor currently contains a restaurant. A Paris street near the Louvre Museum, the "rue Nicolas Flamel", has been named after him; it intersects with the "rue Pernelle", named after his wife.

paragraph: Legendary accounts of Flamel's life are based on 17th-century works, primarily "Livre des figures hiéroglyphiques". The essence of his reputation are claims that he succeeded at the two goals of alchemy: that he made the philosopher's stone, which turns base metals into gold, and that he and his wife, Perenelle, achieved immortality through the "Elixir of Life".

paragraph: An alchemical book, published in Paris in 1612 as "Livre des figures hiéroglyphiques" and in London in 1624 as "Exposition of the Hieroglyphical Figures" was attributed to Flamel. It is a collection of designs purportedly commissioned by Flamel for a tympanum at the Cimetière des Innocents in Paris, long disappeared at the time the work was published. In the publisher's introduction, Flamel's search for the philosopher's stone was described. According to that introduction, Flamel had made it his life's work to understand the text of a mysterious 21-page book he had purchased. The introduction claims that, around 1378, he travelled to Spain for assistance with translation. On the way back, he reported that he met a sage, who identified Flamel's book as being a copy of the original "Book of Abramelin the Mage". With this knowledge, over the next few years, Flamel and his wife allegedly decoded enough of the book to successfully replicate its recipe for the philosopher's stone, producing first silver in 1382 and then gold. In addition, Flamel is said to have studied some texts in Hebrew.

paragraph: The validity of this story was first questioned in 1761 by Etienne Villain. He claimed that the source of the Flamel legend was P. Arnauld de la Chevalerie, publisher of "Exposition of the Hieroglyphical Figures", who wrote the book under the pseudonym Eiranaeus Orandus. Other writers have defended the legendary account of Flamel's life, which has been embellished by stories of sightings in the 17th and 18th centuries and expanded in fictitious works ever since.

paragraph: Flamel had achieved legendary status within the circles of alchemy by the mid 17th century, with references in Isaac Newton's journals to "the Caduceus, the Dragons of Flammel". Interest in Flamel revived in the 19th century: Victor Hugo mentioned him in "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", Erik Satie was intrigued by Flamel, and Albert Pike makes reference to Nicholas Flamel in his book "Morals and Dogma of the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry". Flamel's reputation as an alchemist was further bolstered in the late 20th century by his depiction as the creator of the eponymous alchemical substance in the best-selling novel "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" and its film adaptation. He also appears in the 2018 spinoff film "", where he is portrayed by Brontis Jodorowsky.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous reputation as an alchemist.:Works ascribed to Flamel.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Livre des figures hiéroglyphiques" (The Book of hieroglyphic figures), first published in "Trois traictez de la philosophie naturelle", Paris, Veuve Guillemot, 1612

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le sommaire philosophique" (The Philosophical summary), first published in "De la transformation métallique", Paris, Guillaume Guillard, 1561

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Livre des laveures" (The Book of washing), manuscript BnF MS. Français 19978

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Bréviaire de Flamel" (Flamel's breviary), manuscript BnF MS. Français 14765

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Flamel has been portrayed in popular fiction as a legendary figure who holds the key to immortality or the philosopher's stone. For example, in Victor Hugo's 1831 novel "Notre Dame de Paris", the tragic main character Claude Frollo is a young priest and alchemist who spends much of his time studying the carvings in Les Innocents, trying to fathom Flamel's secrets. Into the twentieth and twenty-first century, works such as "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" (1997, as well as its 2001 film adaptation), "As Above, So Below" (2014), "The Da Vinci Code" (2003), "Fullmetal Alchemist" (2001–2010), "The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel" (2007–2012), and "" (2018) have propagated the legend of Nicolas Flamel.

paragraph: The works of Nicolas Flamel are central to several missions found in Ubisoft's Assassins Creed: Unity (2014) for Playstation 4, PC, and Xbox One.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Decoding the Past: The Real Sorcerer's Stone", November 15, 2006, History Channel video documentary

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Philosopher's Stone: A Quest for the Secrets of Alchemy", 2001, Peter Marshall,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Creations of Fire", Cathy Cobb & Harold Goldwhite, 2002,

paragraph: BULLET::::- , "Nicolas Flamel- des livres et de l'or", Éditions Imago, 1993,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel. The Alchemyst, The Magician, The Sorceress, The Necromancer, The Warlock, and The Enchantress

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Alchemy Web Site, alchemical writings ascribed to Flamel.

description: French alchemist

wikidata_label: Nicolas Flamel

wikipedia_title: Nicolas Flamel


text:
King of Naples
King of Jerusalem
King of Hungary
Order of the Ship
Principality of Achaea
James of Baux
Louis of Durazzo
John, Duke of Durazzo
Joanna I of Naples
Louis of Taranto
Naples
Louis I of Hungary
Anne
Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Margaret of Durazzo
Maria of Calabria
Pope Urban VI
Slavonia
Croatia
Dalmatia
Urban VI
Kingdom of Naples
Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen
Castel dell'Ovo
San Fele
Louis I of Anjou
Clement VII
Urban VI
Avignon
Amadeus VI of Savoy
Antipope Clement VII
Bernabò Visconti
John Hawkwood
Bartolomeo d'Alviano
Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy
Arezzo
Alberico da Barbiano
Nocera
Raimondello Orsini
Louis I of Hungary
Angevin
Mary of Hungary
Elizabeth of Bosnia
Visegrád
Visegrád
Ladislaus
Ladislaus I of Hungary
Margaret of Durazzo
Joanna II of Naples
Ladislaus of Naples

categories: Claimant Kings of Jerusalem,Kings of Croatia,Princes of Achaea,1345 births,House of Anjou-Durazzo,Murdered royalty,1386 deaths,Albanian monarchs,Monarchs of Naples,Kings of Hungary

paragraph: Charles III of Naples

paragraph: Charles the Short or Charles of Durazzo (1345 – 24 February 1386) was King of Naples and titular King of Jerusalem from 1382 to 1386 as Charles III, and King of Hungary from 1385 to 1386 as Charles II. In 1381, Charles created the chivalric Order of the Ship. In 1383, he succeeded to the Principality of Achaea on the death of James of Baux.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.:Childhood and youth (1354 or 1357 – 1370).

paragraph: He was the only child of Louis of Durazzo and his wife, Margaret of Sanseverino. Louis of Durazzo was a younger son of John, Duke of Durazzo who was the youngest son of King Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary. Charles's date of birth is uncertain: he was born in 1354, according to historian Szilárd Süttő, and in 1357, according to Nancy Goldstone.

paragraph: Louis of Durazzo rebelled against his cousins, Joanna I of Naples, and her husband, Louis of Taranto in the spring of 1360, but he was defeated. He was also compelled to send the child Charles as a hostage to Queen Joanna I's court in Naples. After Charles's father died in prison in the summer of 1362, Queen Joanna ordered that Charles was to be treated "with all honours due to the royal household and to maintain him in a royal state".

paragraph: Charles's distant cousin, Louis I of Hungary, who had not fathered a son, decided to invite Charles to Hungary. Charles came to Hungary in 1364 or 1365. King Louis initially planned to arrange a marriage between Charles and Anne, who was a daughter of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. However, the negotiations of their marriage were broken off because the relations between Louis I and Charles IV had deteriorated. Next, Louis proposed a marriage between Charles and Charles's cousin, Margaret of Durazzo, who was the youngest daughter of Queen Joanna's younger sister, Maria of Calabria. Although the queen was opposed to the marriage, Pope Urban VI granted the papal dispensation that was necessary for the marriage on 15 June 1369. Their marriage took place in Naples on 24 January 1370.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.:In Louis I's service (1371–1379).

paragraph: Louis made Charles governor of Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia with the title of duke in 1371.

paragraph: The conflict between Joanna and Pope Urban VI caused the Pope (as feudal overlord of the kingdom) to declare her dethroned in 1381 and give the kingdom to Charles. He marched on the Kingdom of Naples with a Croatian army, defeated her husband Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, at San Germano, seized the city and besieged Joanna in the Castel dell'Ovo. After Otto's failed attempt to relieve her, Charles captured her and had her imprisoned at San Fele. Soon afterwards, when news reached Charles that her adopted heir, Louis I of Anjou, was setting out on an expedition to reconquer Naples, Charles had the Queen strangled in prison in 1382. Then he succeeded to the crown.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.:War for Naples (1379–1381).

paragraph: Queen Joanna I of Naples officially acknowledged Clement VII as the lawful pope against Urban VI on 22 November 1378. She even gave shelter to Clement VII, who had been expelled from Rome, and helped him to leave Italy for Avignon in May 1378. In retaliation, Pope Urban VI excommunicated the queen and declared her deprived of her kingdom in favor of Charles of Durazzo and his wife Margaret on 17 June.

paragraph: Louis's expedition counted to some 40,000 troops, including those of Amadeus VI of Savoy, and had the financial support of Antipope Clement VII and Bernabò Visconti of Milan. Charles, who counted on the mercenary companies under John Hawkwood and Bartolomeo d'Alviano, for a total of some 14,000 men, was able to divert the French from Naples to other regions of the kingdom and to harass them with guerrilla tactics. Amadeus fell ill and died in Molise on 1 March 1383, and his troops abandoned the field. Louis asked for help to his king in France, who sent him an army under Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy. The latter was able to conquer Arezzo and then invade the Kingdom of Naples, but midway was reached by the news that Louis had suddenly died at Bisceglie on 20 September 1384.

paragraph: In the meantime relationships with Urban VI became strained, as he suspected that Charles was plotting against him. In January 1385 he had six cardinals arrested, and one, under torture, revealed Charles' conjure. He thus excommunicated Charles, his wife and raised an interdict over the Kingdom of Naples. The King replied sending Alberico da Barbiano to besiege the pope in Nocera. After six months of siege, Urban was freed by two Neapolitan barons who had sided with Louis of Anjou, Raimondello Orsini and Tommaso di Sanseverino.

paragraph: Section::::Succession in Hungary.

paragraph: While Urban took refuge in Genoa, Charles left the Kingdom to move to Hungary. Here, on the death of Louis I of Hungary, he had claimed the Hungarian throne as the senior Angevin male, and ousted Louis' daughter Mary of Hungary in December 1385. It was not difficult for him to reach the power, as he counted with the support of several Croatian lords, and many contacts which he made during his period as Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia. However, Elizabeth of Bosnia, widow of Louis and mother of Mary, arranged to have Charles assassinated on 7 February 1386. He died of wounds at Visegrád on 24 February.

paragraph: He was buried in Visegrád without religious ceremony, because of his still valid excommunication by Pope Urban VI. His son Ladislaus (named in honor of the King-Knight Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary) succeeded him in Naples, while the regents of Mary of Hungary reinstated her as Queen of Hungary. However, Ladislaus would try to obtain the crown of Hungary in the future.

paragraph: Section::::Children.

paragraph: Charles III and Margaret of Durazzo had three children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mary of Durazzo (1369–1371).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joanna II of Naples (23 June 1373 – 2 February 1435).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ladislaus of Naples (11 February 1377 – 6 August 1414).

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Papa Urbano VI e il Regno di Napoli", at Cronologia della Storia d'Italia

alias:
Charles the Short
Charles of Durazzo
Charles III
Charles II

description: King of Naples(1345 – 1386) and King of Hugary(1385-1386)

wikidata_label: Charles III of Naples

wikipedia_title: Charles III of Naples


text: embryo

text: Richtenberg

text: Pomerania

text: Germany

text: University of Rostock

text: University of Leipzig

text: University of Freiburg

text: Hans Spemann

text: Naples

text: Europe

text: Lapland

text: Helgoland

text: Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute

text: cells

text: University of Munich

text: Bali

text: Nazi regime

text: Gestapo

text: Cambridge University

text: Canada

text: German

text: McGill University

text: University of Rochester

text: Curt Stern

text: developmental biology

text: bacteria

text: Holtfreter’s medium

text: notochord

text: Viktor Hamburger

text: amphibian

categories: American biologists,1901 births,1992 deaths,Embryologists

paragraph: Johannes Holtfreter

paragraph: Johannes Holtfreter (January 9, 1901 – November 13, 1992) was a German-American developmental biologist whose primary focus was the “organizer,” a part of the embryo essential for the development of the proper body plan.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Holtfreter was born on January 9, 1901, in Richtenberg, Pomerania, Germany, as the only son and second out of three children. As a child, he captured animals (including butterflies) and made drawings of them, and after graduating from the Realgymnasium, he wanted to enter field biology. Upon beginning this path at the University of Rostock and the University of Leipzig, he eventually moved to the University of Freiburg in order to study under Doflein, a famous naturalist who died soon after Holtfreter transferred. His new thesis advisor was Dr. Hans Spemann, who introduced Holtfreter to his eventual field of study: embryology.

paragraph: After obtaining his Ph.D. in 1924, he eventually entered the field of marine biology at the Stazione Zoologica in Naples, and traveled around Europe afterwards, painting, attempting to research, and passing through locations including Lapland and Helgoland. However, he was unable to find a steady research position until 1928, when Otto Mangold of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute recruited Holtfreter. Here, Holtfreter followed up on the research his old advisor (Spemann) did on the concept of an “organizer,” or a part of the developing organism that dictates the fates of other cells. Joseph Needham, an English biologist interested in Holtfreter’s work, went to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute in order to research with him.

paragraph: Holtfreter then researched at the University of Munich, beginning in 1934, and pursued further global travels, particularly to Bali. Needham, the English researcher who was also interested in the organizer, was able to ensure Holtfreter’s escape from the Nazi regime in 1939 after Holtfreter commented how the Gestapo was watching him and how his safety seemed jeopardized. After fleeing to Cambridge University, Holtfreter was taken to an internment camp in Canada in 1940 due to his German nationality. He then obtained a research position in McGill University in 1942, where he based gastrulation-centered work on research conducted by Vogt in 1929.

paragraph: In 1946, he was invited to become an associate professor at the University of Rochester by another scientist he had met during his time at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute, Curt Stern. Holtfreter researched in Rochester until retiring in 1969, and his focus was once again the “organizer” examined by Spemann and his own previous research, along with other topics including a foray into the newly emerging field of cell biology.

paragraph: After retiring, Holtfreter became a professor emeritus of Zoology at Rochester until 1981 and lived out the rest of his life in Rochester before dying at the age of 91.

paragraph: Section::::Research and accomplishments.

paragraph: Through his research on amphibian embryos, Holtfreter had made many significant discoveries in the field of developmental biology, though the organizer or neural inducer was his major focus. Holtfreter (along with other developmental biologists including Hans Spemann) demonstrated that the neural inducer still functioned after treatments including heat killing and alcohol treatment (it still produced a secondary body axis). This set of experiments paved the way for Holtfreter to discover other types of inducers.

paragraph: Holtfreter also solved two problems that plagued many other preceding developmental biologists (infection of embryo specimens by bacteria and inability of the specimen to survive in solutions containing improper levels of salts) by devising both the sterile technique to eliminate bacteria and Holtfreter’s medium to allow the developing embryonic cells to survive for extended periods of time.

paragraph: Finally, Holtfreter provided strong evidence that induction is necessary for neural tube development by examining how tissues like the notochord aid in formation of the neural tube. He demonstrated that the notochord provides necessary signals to ensure the neural tube’s ventral differentiation. As a capstone paper, Viktor Hamburger and Holtfreter published an amphibian development chapter that contained in it the information gathered by many preeminent amphibian development researchers and described Holtfreter’s theory that cell-cell interactions are critical in the development of the organism.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerhart J (1998) Johannes Holtfreter. National Academic Press, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1-22.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sanes DH, Reh TA, Harris WA (2012) Neural Induction. In: Development of the Nervous System, 3rd ed. Academic Press, Burlington, MA, 1-22.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir

description: embryologist

wikidata_label: Johannes Holtfreter

wikipedia_title: Johannes Holtfreter


text:
Shinsaibashi
Chūō-ku
Osaka
Nihonga
Tokyo School of Fine Art
Shimomura Kanzan
oil painting
Agency of Cultural Affairs
Important Cultural Properties of Japan
painting on glass
France
atelier
Ashiya, Hyōgo

categories: People of Meiji-period Japan,1931 deaths,Japanese portrait painters,People from Osaka,1887 births

paragraph: Narashige Koide

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Koide was born in what is now the Shinsaibashi area of Chūō-ku Osaka. Interested in art from childhood, he studied "Nihonga" in elementary and middle school. In 1907, he applied to the western arts department of Tokyo School of Fine Art, but failed his entrance examinations, and was accepted into the Nihonga department instead. Although he was able to study under famed "Nihonga" painter Shimomura Kanzan, he was still drawn to oil painting. After graduating in 1914 he returned to Osaka and continued to paint and entered a "yōga"-style portrait group titled "N-Family" into the 1919 6th "Nikakai" (Second Division Society) Exhibition, where he won the Chōgyū Prize. This painting is now recognized by the Agency of Cultural Affairs of the Japanese government as an Important Cultural Properties of Japan. In the "Nikakai" exhibition of 1920 his portrait of the "Young Girl Omme" received the Nika Prize.

paragraph: He received numerous commissions following these successes, and experimented with a variety of media, including painting on glass. From 1921–1922, he travelled to France, and established his atelier in Osaka in 1924. (This studio is now preserved at the Ashiya City Art Museum). In his later years, Koide was especially known for his nudes.

paragraph: He died in Ashiya, Hyōgo in 1931.

paragraph: Section::::Noted Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- , 1919, Ohara Art Museum, National Important Cultural Property

paragraph: BULLET::::- , 1923, National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- , 1929, National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- , 1930, Ohara Museum of Art, Tokyo, Japan

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Keene, Donald. "Dawn to the West". Columbia University Press; (1998).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mason, Penelope. "History of Japanese Art ". Prentice Hall (2005).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Miyoshi, Masao. "Postmodernism and Japan". Duke University Press (1986)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sadao, Tsuneko. "Discovering the Arts of Japan: A Historical Overview". Kodansha International (2003).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schaarschmidt Richte. "Japanese Modern Art Painting From 1910 ". Edition Stemmle.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Weisenfeld, Gennifer. "MAVO: Japanese Artists and the Avant-Garde, 1905-1931". University of California Press (2001).

alias:
小出樽重
小出楢重
Koide Narashige

description: Japanese painter and illustrator

wikidata_label: Narashige Koide

wikipedia_title: Narashige Koide


text: Cambridgeshire

text: antiquary

text: Buckinghamshire

text: British Museum

text: Little Abington

text: Cambridge

text: Linton

text: Saffron Walden

text: Eton College

text: Horace Walpole

text: in trick

text: Clare College, Cambridge

text: King's College

text: Bishops of Ely

text: court roll

text: Lisbon

text: Scotland

text: Henry Bromley, 1st Baron Montfort

text: Alban Butler

text: Withersfield

text: Thomas Hay, 7th Earl of Kinnoull

text: George

text: Society of Antiquaries of London

text: Haddenham

text: Isle of Ely

text: Glasgow

text: Hornsey

text: Thomas Sherlock

text: Browne Willis

text: Bletchley

text: Buckinghamshire

text: Roman Catholic church

text: droit d'aubaine

text: folio

text: Lady Day

text: Waterbeach

text: Charles Bonaventure Bedingfeld

text: Over

text: Glamorganshire

text: Oxfordshire

text: Milton

text: Edmund Keene

text: Madingley

text: John Green

text: Burnham, Buckinghamshire

text: gout

text: St Clement's Church, Cambridge

text: Thomas Gray

text: Michael Lort

text: George Steevens

text: Richard Farmer

text: William Bennet

text: John Nichols

text: Richard Gough

text: Alban Butler

text: School of Pythagoras

text: Francis Grose

text: James Bentham

text: Robert Masters

text: James Granger

text: Andrew Ducarel

text: Gentlemen's Society at Spalding

text: Gentleman's Magazine

text: British Library

text: Bodleian Library

text: Thomas Baker

text: Strawberry Hill

text: folio

text: British Library

text: Emmanuel College

text: British Museum

text: Samuel Egerton Brydges

text: Thomas Kerrich

text: Facius

text: John Nichols

text: Thompson Cooper

text: John Nichols

text: Horace Walpole's Letters

text: Peter Cunningham

text: Athenae Cantabrigienses

text: Charles Henry Cooper

categories: People educated at Eton College,Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge,Deputy Lieutenants of Cambridgeshire,English antiquarians,1714 births,1782 deaths,Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London

paragraph: William Cole (antiquary)

paragraph: William Cole (3 August 1714 – 16 December 1782), was a Cambridgeshire clergyman and antiquary, known for his extensive manuscript collections on the history of Cambridgeshire and of Buckinghamshire.

paragraph: He published little, but left his manuscript volumes (over 100 of them) to the British Museum, where they have proved invaluable to people writing about the history of Cambridgeshire. He kept a diary between 1765 and 1770, and two volumes – one relating to a trip to France, and one to his time at Bletchley – were published in 1931.

paragraph: A nineteenth-century biographer described Cole as "one of the most learned men of the eighteenth century in his particular line, and the most industrious antiquary that Cambridgeshire has ever had, or is likely to have", while the verdict of a contemporary, Professor Michael Lort, was "... with all his oddities, he was a worthy and valuable man".

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Cole was born in Little Abington, a village near Baberham, Cambridgeshire, on 3 August 1714. He was the son of William Cole of Baberham, a well-to-do farmer, and his third wife (of four), Elizabeth, daughter of Theophilus Tuer, merchant, of Cambridge, and widow of Charles Apthorp. He was descended from a family of respectable yeomen, who had lived for several generations in the part of Cambridgeshire bordering on Essex.

paragraph: William (the son) received his early education in private schools at Cambridge, Linton, and Saffron Walden. From Saffron Walden he entered Eton College, where he remained for five years on the foundation. His principal friend and companion there – who became a lifelong friend – was Horace Walpole, who even at that early period used to make jocular remarks on his inclination to Roman Catholicism. While still a boy he was in the habit of copying monumental inscriptions, and drawing coats of arms in trick from the windows of churches. On leaving Eton he was admitted a pensioner of Clare College, Cambridge, on 24 January 1733; and in April 1734 he obtained one of the Freeman scholarships in the college.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:1735–1753: Cambridgeshire.

paragraph: In 1735, on the death of his father, Cole inherited a substantial estate, and found himself with no obligation to earn a living. He entered himself as a fellow-commoner of Clare Hall, and the next year migrated to King's College, where he had a younger brother, then a fellow. He remained for 18 years at King's, collecting historical information on the county of Cambridgeshire. He visited nearly all the churches in the county, making sketches of them and taking notes of monumental inscriptions and coats of arms (as well as local gossip). He made extensive transcriptions of the registers of the Bishops of Ely, court rolls, registers of wills, and other manuscripts relating to the county.

paragraph: In April 1736 he travelled for a short time in French Flanders with his half-brother, Dr Stephen Apthorp. In October of the same year he took the degree of B.A. In 1737, in consequence of ill health, he went to Lisbon on his doctor's advice for six months, returning to college in May 1738. He also travelled to Scotland.

paragraph: In 1739, he was put into the commission of the peace for Cambridgeshire, in which capacity he acted for many years. In 1740 his friend Henry Bromley, 1st Baron Montfort, lord-lieutenant of the county, appointed him one of his deputy-lieutenants, and in the same year he commenced M.A.

paragraph: In 1743, his health being again impaired, he took another trip through Flanders, described in his manuscript collections. During his travels on the continent he formed lasting friendships with Alban Butler and other catholic ecclesiastics. On Christmas Day 1744 he was ordained deacon, and for some time officiated as curate to Dr Abraham Oakes, rector of Withersfield, Suffolk. In 1745, after being admitted to priest's orders, he was appointed chaplain to Thomas Hay, 7th Earl of Kinnoull, in which office he was continued by the succeeding earl, George. He was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1747. In 1749 he was living at Haddenham in the Isle of Ely, and on 25 Aug in that year he was admitted to the freedom of the city of Glasgow.

paragraph: In the same year he was collated to the rectory of Hornsey, Middlesex, by Bishop Thomas Sherlock. "Sherlock," says Cole, "gave me the rectory of Hornsey, yet his manner was such that I soon resigned it again to him. I had not been educated in episcopal trammels, and liked a more liberal behaviour; yet he was a great man, and I believe an honest man." Cole was inducted on 25 November; but finding that the parsonage-house required rebuilding, and understanding that the bishop insisted upon his being resident, he sent in his resignation within a month. This the bishop refused to accept, because Cole had rendered himself liable for dilapidations and other expenses by being instituted to the benefice. Cole continued, therefore, to hold the rectory till 9 January 1751, when he resigned it in favour of Mr Territ. During this time he never resided, but employed a curate, Matthew Mapletoft.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:1753–1767: Buckinghamshire.

paragraph: In 1753 Cole quit the university on being presented by his early friend and patron, Browne Willis, to the rectory of Bletchley, Buckinghamshire. He now turned his attention to the history and antiquities of Buckinghamshire.

paragraph: In 1765 he undertook a lengthy tour in France with Horace Walpole. His aim was to find some quiet and cheap spot, in Normandy or elsewhere, to which he might eventually retire. This scheme of settling permanently in France probably originated in a wish to openly join the Roman Catholic church, for in his manuscripts he takes little or no pains to conceal his Catholic inclinations and his contempt for the English and German reformers. However, he was dissuaded from this plan of self-banishment largely by Walpole, who pointed out that under the "droit d'aubaine" the king of France would become the possessor of his cherished manuscripts, which even at this date comprised some 40 folio volumes. Cole wrote to Walpole on 17 March 1765:

paragraph: Moreover, in the course of his travels he was shocked at the tendency towards irreligion in France. He therefore determined not to make the country his home. His journal of this tour was published in 1931.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:1767–1782: return to Cambridgeshire.

paragraph: Cole left Bletchley in November 1767, and on Lady Day 1768 he resigned the rectory in favour of Browne Willis's grandson, the Rev. Thomas Willis, because he knew it has been his patron's intention so to bestow the living if he had lived to effect an exchange. Cole now became curate of Waterbeach, five miles from Cambridge, and resumed work on his history of Cambridgeshire. His rented house, little better than a cottage, was very uncomfortable. To make matters worse, he discovered that he had got into a parish which abounded with fanatics of almost all denominations. Writing about this period to his friend Father Charles Bonaventure Bedingfeld, a Minorite friar, he says: "My finances are miserably reduced by quitting the living of Bletchley, and by half my own estate being under water by the breaking of the Bedford river bank at Over after the great snow in February was twelvemonth;" and he proceeds to remark: "Yet I am not disposed to engage myself in any ecclesiastical matters again, except greater should be offered than I am in expectation of. I have already refused two livings, one in Glamorganshire, the other in Oxfordshire; for I have no inclination to the duty and do not love to be confined." He still had a hankering after a semi-monastic life, for he wrote to Bedingfeld on 20 April 1768: "Could I have my books and conveniences about me, I should nowhere like better than to finish my days among my countrymen in a conventual manner," though not, he takes care to explain, as a monk or friar, because he had no religious vocation. A second overflow of the Hundred Foot river at Over still further diminished the value of his estate, and on 18 February 1769 he wrote to the Rev. John Allen: "I hardly ever now really enjoy myself for three days together, as the continued wet weather alarms me constantly; so that I am come to a resolution to sell my estate and purchase elsewhere, or buy an annuity." At Michaelmas 1769 he had his first attack of gout, which complaint afterwards caused him severe and frequent suffering.

paragraph: About May 1770 he left the church and moved from Waterbeach to Milton He rented a small farm from King's College, where he was to stay for the rest of his life, continuing work on his antiquarian studies. He became known as "Cole of Milton," though he was sometimes jokingly spoken of as "Cardinal Cole". In May 1771, by Lord Montfort's favour, he was put into the commission of the peace for the borough of Cambridge. In 1772 Edmund Keene, Bishop of Ely, offered him of the vicarage of Madingley, but he declined it. However, on 10 June 1774 he was instituted by John Green, Bishop of Lincoln, on the presentation of Eton College, to the vicarage of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, vacant through the death of his half-brother, Stephen Apthorp.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Cole continued to live at Milton, where he died, aged 68, on 16 December 1782. His constitution had been shattered by repeated attacks of gout. He was buried in St Clement's Church, Cambridge, under the steeple (now removed), which bore on its front his motto, "Deum Cole". On the right hand of the entrance to the church is a monument, with an inscription stating that the steeple was erected with money left by him for the purpose.

paragraph: Section::::Network.

paragraph: Cole numbered among his friends and correspondents some of the most learned men of his time, including Horace Walpole, who called him his "oracle in any antique difficulties", Thomas Gray, Michael Lort, George Steevens, Richard Farmer, William Bennet, John Nichols, Richard Gough, and Alban Butler. Although he published no separate work of his own, he rendered substantial assistance to many authors by supplying them either with entire dissertations or with minute communications or corrections.

paragraph: He wrote the account of the School of Pythagoras at Cambridge in Francis Grose's "Antiquities"; and was a major contributor to James Bentham's "History of Ely", 1771, writing the lives of the bishops and deans, and the description of the Ely tablet. He also made significant contributions to Robert Masters' "History of Corpus Christi College". Having a large collection of engraved portraits, he was able to assist James Granger in preparing his "Biographical History of England". To Andrew Ducarel he sent a complete list of the chancellors of Ely, and afterwards several hints respecting his "Tour in Normandy". To Gough's "Anecdotes of British Topography" he contributed in 1772 some remarks; as he afterwards did respecting Gough's "Sepulchral Monuments"; and when the "Memoirs of the Gentlemen's Society at Spalding" were printed in 1780, he supplied anecdotes of the early members. He was a frequent writer in the "Gentleman's Magazine", and he gave John Nichols biographical hints and corrections for "A Select Collection of Miscellaneous Poems," "Anecdotes of Hogarth" and "History of Hinckley". He transcribed Browne Willis's "History of the Hundreds of Newport and Cotslow in Buckinghamshire", and organised them in ten folio volumes from the originals in four volumes, which Willis had delivered to him a few weeks before his death. Cole's transcript is now in the British Library, while Willis's original copy is preserved, with his collections for the whole county, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. His notes on Wood's "Athenae Oxonienses" are printed in Bliss's edition of that work. Finally he collected all the materials for Horace Walpole's "Life" of the Cambridge antiquary, Thomas Baker".

paragraph: Section::::Working methods and prejudices.

paragraph: An idea of Cole's industry as a transcriber may be gathered from this passage in a letter to Walpole (12 September 1777): "You will be astonished at the rapidity of my pen when you observe that this folio of four hundred pages [Baker's "History of St. John's"], with above a hundred coats of arms and other silly ornaments, was completed in six weeks; for I was called off for above a week to another manuscript, which I expected would be demanded of me every day; besides some days of visiting and being visited." Again he remarks in a letter to Allen: "I am wearing my eyes, fingers, and self out in writing for posterity, of whose gratitude I can have no adequate idea, while I neglect my friends, who I know would be glad to hear from me."

paragraph: As he freely jotted down his inmost thoughts as to the merits or demerits of his acquaintances, he took care that no one, with the exception of two or three intimate friends, should see his manuscripts, either during his lifetime or within twenty years after his death. On the occasion of his sending the "History of King's College" to Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill, he wrote (2 March 1777) with reference to his manuscripts:

paragraph: As an example of his strong prejudices, and occasionally violent style of expressing them, a passage which he added to his "History of King's College" only a few months before his death, may be cited:

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Cole never married. He lived with his manservant Tom Wood, a maidservant, and a number of animals including 2 horses and a pony, a dog called Busy, a cat, and a parrot. He enjoyed entertaining and lived well, which may have contributed to his gout.

paragraph: Section::::Collections.

paragraph: Cole's chief literary monument is the notable collection of manuscripts, extending to nearly 100 folio volumes, in his own handwriting, which are now held by the British Library. He began to form this vast collection while at college, beginning with fifteen volumes, which he kept in a lock-up case in the university library, where he examined every book likely to yield information suitable to his purpose, besides transcribing many manuscript lists and records. The principal interval from this labour was during his residence at Bletchley (1753–67), but even there, with the aid of his own books and those he could borrow from his neighbours, he proceeded with his great undertaking, and on his frequent journeys he added to his topographical collections, illustrating them with neat copies of armorial bearings and rough but faithful drawings of churches and other buildings. At Waterbeach and Milton, where he was within an easy distance of Cambridge, he resumed his labour of love with renewed ardour, and in addition to dry historical matters, he carefully transcribed all his literary correspondence, and minutely chronicled all the anecdotes he heard respecting his contemporaries at the university.

paragraph: As late as 1778 Cole was perplexed as to the disposal of his manuscripts. "To give them to King's College," he wrote, "would be to throw them into a horsepond", the members of that society being "generally so conceited of their Latin and Greek that all other studies are barbarous". At one time he thought of Eton College and of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, but eventually he resolved to bequeath his collections to the British Museum on condition that they should not be opened until twenty years after his death. Accordingly, they did not become accessible to the public until 1803. Vol. xvii. never reached the Museum; it is conjectured to have contained a "History of Queens' College". The multifarious contents of Cole's collections are described in great detail in the "Index to the Additional MSS., with those of the Egerton Collection, acquired in the years 1783–1835", London, 1849, folio. There are also three thick volumes of Cole's own indexes in the reading-room of the Museum. The most important sections of the manuscripts are:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Parochial Antiquities of Cambridgeshire, illustrated with drawings of Churches, Monuments, Arms, &c."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Collections for an Athenae Cantabrigienses, alphabetically arranged," Add. MSS 5862–85, 5954, 5955. These collections, though they have proved very serviceable to biographers, consist for the most part only of references to printed works, and do not contain connected narratives of the lives of Cambridge authors. Some extracts, relating for the most part to persons with whom Cole was personally acquainted, are printed in Samuel Egerton Brydges's "Restituta".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "History of King's College, Cambridge," 4 vols, Add. MSS 5814–17.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Collections relating to the University of Cambridge."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Extraneous Parochial Antiquities, or an account of various Churches in different Counties in England, with drawings", Add. MSS 5806, 5811, 5836.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Topographical, Genealogical, and Miscellaneous Collections."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Parochial Antiquities for the County of Bucks, with drawings", Add. MSS 5821, 5839, 5840.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Parochial Antiquities for the County of Huntingdon, with drawings", Add. MSS 5837, 5838, 5847.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Transcript of Baker's "History of St. John's College, Cambridge", with additions, Add. MS 5850.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Literary correspondence, chiefly in Add. MS 5824.

paragraph: Section::::Portraits.

paragraph: A half-sheet print of Cole, from a drawing by Thomas Kerrich, was engraved by Facius. A portrait of him was also published in Malcolm's collection of "Letters to Mr. Granger," 1805, and is reproduced in John Nichols' "Literary Anecdotes."

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Attribution

paragraph: The entry cites:

paragraph: Section::::References.:References from the DNB.

paragraph: The Article in the DNB was written by Thompson Cooper, who cited the following references:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cole's MSS. passim

paragraph: BULLET::::- Literary anecdotes of the eighteenth century, John Nichols i. 657–701

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nichols's Illustr. of Lit.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cambridge Antiquarian Communications, i. 49, 65

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gent. Mag. lii. 599, lxxvi. 693

paragraph: BULLET::::- Warburton's Memoirs of Horace Walpole, ii. 359

paragraph: BULLET::::- Horace Walpole's Letters (Peter Cunningham)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Athenae Cantabrigienses, Charles Henry Cooper, vol. i. preface

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cooper's Annals of Cambridge, iv. 406

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dyer's Hist, of Cambridge, i. 13, 14, ii. 198

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chalmers's "Biographical Dictionary" x. 22

paragraph: BULLET::::- Granger's Letters, p. 320;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Baker's St. John's (Mayor), ii. 1142

paragraph: BULLET::::- Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. vi. 428, 3rd ser. i. 487, viii. 379

paragraph: BULLET::::- D'Israeli's Calamities of Authors (1812), i. 236, 271, 272

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charity Reports, xxxi. 55

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ellis's Original Letters, 3rd ser. iv. 388

paragraph: BULLET::::- Camden's Britannia, Cambs. (Gough), ii. 143*

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lipscomb's Buckinghamshire, ii. 39, iii. 214, iv. 24

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bromley's Cat. of Engraved Portraits.

description: English clergyman and antiquarian

wikidata_label: William Cole

wikipedia_title: William Cole (antiquary)


text:
Argentine
film actor
Argentine cinema
Buenos Aires
Melodías porteñas
Roberto Cossa
Best foreign film oscar
The Official Story
heart attack
Nora Cullen
La Historia oficial
Amalio Reyes, un hombre
Los muchachos de antes no usaban gomina
Deliciosamente amoral
Story of a Poor Young Man
Asalto a la ciudad
I Need a Mother
Mi primera novia
Los evadidos
Viaje al más allá, Un
Buscando a Mónica
The Romance of a Gaucho
The Candidate
La Bestia humana
La Casa del ángel
Bendita seas
Deshonra
La Bestia debe morir
Un Guapo del 900
The Unwanted
A Story of the Nineties
Las Aventuras de Jack
La Muerte camina en la lluvia
The Naked Angel
The Lady of Death
The Maharaja's Diamond
Las seis suegras de Barba Azul
His Best Student
Melodías porteñas

categories: Argentine male film actors,Male actors from Buenos Aires,1899 births,20th-century Argentine male actors,1988 deaths

paragraph: Guillermo Battaglia

paragraph: Guillermo Battaglia (December 7, 1899September 26, 1988) was a prolific Argentine film actor of the classic era of Argentine cinema.

paragraph: Born in Buenos Aires, he began his film career in 1937 in "Melodías porteñas". Battaglia starred in over 100 films between then and 1987. He was one of the most prolific supporting actors during this entire period, notably in Roberto Cossa's "La nona" (1979), David Lipszyc's "Volver" (1982), Alberto Fischerman's "Los días de junio" (1985), and the Best foreign film oscar-winning "The Official Story" in 1985.

paragraph: He died of a heart attack in September 1988.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: He was married to Argentine actress Nora Cullen.

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sentimientos: Mirta de Liniers a Estambul" (1987)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Miss Mary" (1986) ... Grandfather

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Días de junio, Los" (1985)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Historia oficial" (1985) ... Jose

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Noches sin lunas ni soles" (1984) ... Sr. Bertozzi

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Espera, La" (1983/II)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Volver" (1982)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Conquista del paraíso, La" (1981) ... The father

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Viernes de la eternidad, Los" (1981) ... Don Tobías Abud

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nona, La" (1979)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mary, La" (1974)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Intimidades de una cualquiera" (1974) ... Antonio

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hipólito y Evita" (1973)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Destino de un capricho" (1972)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Joven, viuda y estanciera" (1970)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Amalio Reyes, un hombre" (1970)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Día que me quieras, El" (1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Los muchachos de antes no usaban gomina" (1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Deliciosamente amoral" (1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Novicio rebelde, El" (1968) ... Ricardo Fernandez

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Story of a Poor Young Man" (1968) ... Santiago Quijano

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Asalto a la ciudad" (1968)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hombre invisible ataca, El" (1967) ... Police Chief

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Patapufete!" (1967) ... Wise Russian

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Máscara para Ana, Una" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fuego en la sangre" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hotel alojamiento" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "I Need a Mother" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ritmo nuevo y vieja ola" (1965)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hipócritas, Los" (1965)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Canuto Cañete, detective privado" (1965) ... Carranza

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mi primera novia" (1965)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gordo Villanueva, El" (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Los evadidos" (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Cigarra no es un bicho, La" (1964) ... Doctor

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Club del clan, El" (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Proceso à la conciencia" (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pesadilla" (1963)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Viaje al más allá, Un" (1963)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Buscando a Mónica" (1962)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Romance of a Gaucho" (1961)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Don Frutos Gómez" (1961)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Acusados, Los" (1960)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Potranca, La" (1960)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yo quiero vivir contigo" (1960)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Angustia de un secreto" (1959)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Candidate" (1959)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dagli Appennini alle Ande" (1959)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Bestia humana" (1957)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Casa del ángel" (1957) ... Dr. Castro, Father of Ana

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Protegido, El" (1956) ... Vañasco

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Section des disparus" (1956)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bendita seas" (1956) ... Francisco Arguello

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Después del silencio" (1956)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Codicia" (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hampones, Los" (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Novia, La" (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vida nocturna" (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Caídos en el infierno" (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mi viudo y yo" (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Siete gritos en el mar" (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tres mosquiteros, Los" (1953)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Acorralada" (1953)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Troperos, Los" (1953)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Deshonra" (1952)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Bestia debe morir" (1952)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Un Guapo del 900"(1952)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tierra extraña" (1951)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mi vida por la tuya" (1951) ... Francisco Aguirre

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Unwanted" (1951)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Filomena Marturano" (1950)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fuerza ciega, La" (1950)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Regreso, El" (1950) ... Diablo

paragraph: BULLET::::- "¿Vendrás a media noche?" (1950)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yo no elegí mi vida" (1949)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Story of the Nineties" (1949) ... 'Pardo' Márquez

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Las Aventuras de Jack" (1949)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hijo de la calle, El" (1949)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Muerte camina en la lluvia" (1948) ... Boris Andreieff

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dama del collar, La" (1948)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Como tú lo soñaste" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Con el diablo en el cuerpo" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "El que recibe las bofetadas" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Verdes paraísos, Los" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Naked Angel" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Camino del infierno" (1946) ... Dr.Mas

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Lady of Death" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Maharaja's Diamond" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Encrucijada" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Viaje sin regreso" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Las seis suegras de Barba Azul" (1945)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "His Best Student" (1944)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Muerto falta à la cita, El" (1944)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Se abre el abismo" (1944)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Safo, historia de una pasión" (1943) ... Caudal

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Stella" (1943)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Todo un hombre" (1943)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Novia de los forasteros, La" (1942)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Locos de verano" (1942)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Villa Discordia" (1938)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Melodías porteñas" (1937)

description: actor

wikidata_label: Guillermo Battaglia

wikipedia_title: Guillermo Battaglia


text:
British
peer
Tory
Member of Parliament
Charles Townshend, 1st Baron Bayning
William Townshend
Trinity College, Cambridge
House of Commons
Truro
House of Lords
Honingham Hall
Norfolk
Henry
Marquess Townshend

categories: Townshend family,Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Cornwall,1785 births,1823 deaths,Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain,People from Honingham,UK MPs 1807–1812

paragraph: Charles Powlett, 2nd Baron Bayning

paragraph: Charles Frederick Powlett, 2nd Baron Bayning (26 September 1785 – 2 August 1823), known as the Honourable Charles Townshend from 1797 to 1810, was a British peer and Tory Member of Parliament.

paragraph: Bayning was the eldest son of Charles Townshend, 1st Baron Bayning, son of William Townshend and Henrietta Powlett. His mother was Annabella Smith-Powlett, daughter of Reverend Richard Smith and Annabella Powlett. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 Bayning was elected to the House of Commons for Truro, a seat he held until 1810, when he succeeded his father in the barony and entered the House of Lords. In 1821 he assumed by Royal Licence the surname of Powlett in lieu of Townshend. He lived at Honingham Hall in Norfolk.

paragraph: Lord Bayning died in August 1823, aged 37. He never married and was succeeded in the barony by his younger brother Henry.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marquess Townshend

description: British politician

wikidata_label: Charles Powlett, 2nd Baron Bayning

wikipedia_title: Charles Powlett, 2nd Baron Bayning


text:
Ithaca, New York
ice cream sundae
Ithaca Democrat
Batavia Times
Wisconsin Leader
New York Governor
William Sulzer
Unitarian Church

paragraph: Chester Platt

paragraph: Chester C. Platt (1869–1934) operated a drugstore in Ithaca, New York, and was credited with the invention of the ice cream sundae. He was the owner of the "Ithaca Democrat", the "Batavia Times", and the Madison "Wisconsin Leader". He was secretary to New York Governor William Sulzer, and was involved in Democratic state and national politics from 1910 to 1920. In Ithaca, he was active in the Unitarian Church and in local politics.

description: American inventor

wikidata_label: Chester Platt

wikipedia_title: Chester Platt


text: Austria

text: nordic skier

text: 1956 Winter Olympics

text: nordic combined

text: Cortina d'Ampezzo

text: cross country skiing

text: Oslo

text: West Germany

text: Le Brassus

categories: Nordic combined skiers at the 1956 Winter Olympics,Austrian male cross-country skiers,Olympic cross-country skiers of Austria,Nordic combined skiers at the 1952 Winter Olympics,Austrian male Nordic combined skiers,1930 births,Olympic Nordic combined skiers of Austria,Living people,Cross-country skiers at the 1952 Winter Olympics

paragraph: Sepp Schiffner

paragraph: Josef "Sepp" Schiffner (born December 11, 1930) was an Austrian nordic skier who competed in the 1950s.

paragraph: Competing in the 1952 and 1956 Winter Olympics, he earned his best finish of 11th in the nordic combined event at Cortina d'Ampezzo in 1956.

paragraph: Schiffner also finished 69th in the 18 km cross country skiing event at Oslo in 1952.

paragraph: After the 1956 Olympic Winter Games (from summer 1956) he competed for West Germany and won the Nordic Combined Event at Le Brassus [Swiss] on January 15, 1957 (Source: "Arbeiterzeitung Vienna" from 16 Jan 1957, page 10; title: Ein Erfolg Sepp Schiffners).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 18 km Olympic cross country results: 1948-52

paragraph: BULLET::::- Olympic nordic combined results: 1948-64

description: Austrian Nordic combined skier

wikidata_label: Sepp Schiffner

wikipedia_title: Sepp Schiffner