text: Amiens

text: First Crusade

text: French

text: English

text: francophone

text: surname

text: Picard

text: Netherlands

text: surname

text: Anna Comnena

text: pilgrimage

text: Jerusalem

text: Seljuk Turks

text: Pope Urban II

text: Council of Clermont

text: Huy

text: Jonathan Riley-Smith

text: People's Crusade

text: Middle Ages

text: mendicant

text: Church

text: pilgrim

text: Rhineland massacres

text: People's Crusade

text: Church of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Cologne

text: Constantinople

text: Eastern Roman Emperor

text: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Catholic

text: Balkans

text: Walter Sans Avoir

text: Holy Land

text: Bosporus

text: Battle of Civetot

text: Asia Minor

text: Jerusalem

text: Battle of Civetot

text: Palestine

text: siege of Antioch

text: Guibert of Nogent

text: Kerbogha

text: alms

text: siege of Arqa

text: before it fell

text: Battle of Ascalon

text: Latakia

text: Albert of Aix

text: Roger of Wendover

text: Matthew Paris

text: Gesta Francorum

text: Albert of Aix

text: Jesus

text: Church of the Holy Sepulchre

text: William of Tyre

text: Von Sybel

text: Godfrey

text: Lorrainers

text: Albert of Aix

text: prior

text: church of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Flanders

text: monastery

text: France

text: Flanders

text: Huy

text: his home town

text: Solières Abbey

text: Abbey Neufmoustier Huy

text: Jacques de Vitry

text: bishopric of Liège

text: Albigensian crusade

text: 14th century

text: troubadour

text: Rosary

text: Jerusalem

wikipedia_title: March from Antioch to Jerusalem during the First Crusade

categories: Christians of the Crusades,11th-century people,Christians of the First Crusade,Year of birth uncertain,11th-century French people,1050s births,French hermits

paragraph: Peter the Hermit

paragraph: Peter the Hermit (also known as Cucupeter, Little Peter or Peter of Amiens; 1050 – 8 July 1115) was a priest of Amiens and a key figure during the First Crusade.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: His name in French is "Pierre l'Ermite". The structure of this name in French unlike in English has led some francophone scholars to treat l'Ermite as a surname rather than a title.

paragraph: According to some authors, he was born around 1050 and was the son of Renauld L'Ermite of Auvergne, and his wife Alide Montaigu, de Picardie. Others claim he was a member of the "L'Hermite" family of Auvergne in the Netherlands. These claims are disputed by other authors, who argue that nothing can confirm that "the Hermit" was an actual surname and that surnames had not developed until after his day.

paragraph: Section::::Before 1096.

paragraph: According to Anna Comnena, Peter had attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before 1096, but was prevented by the Seljuk Turks from reaching his goal and was reportedly mistreated. He used this supposed mistreatment to preach inflammatory statements about the Turks toward upset Christians. However, doubts remain whether he ever made such a journey.

paragraph: Sources differ as to whether he was present at Pope Urban II's famous Council of Clermont in 1095. It is certain that he was one of the preachers of the crusade in France afterward, and his own experience may have helped to give fire to the Crusading cause. Tradition in Huy holds that he was there when the crusade was announced and he began his preaching at once. He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist, and the vast majority of sources and historians agree that thousands of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding.

paragraph: Jonathan Riley-Smith has proposed that the People's Crusade also included well-armed soldiers and nobles. This part of the crusade was also known as the crusade of the "paupers", a term which in the Middle Ages indicated a status as impoverished or mendicant wards of the Church. Peter organized and guided the paupers as a spiritually purified and holy group of pilgrims who would, supposedly, be protected by the Holy Ghost. A list of known participants in Peter's army can be found at Riley-Smith, et al.

paragraph: Section::::Crusade to the Holy Land.

paragraph: Before Peter went on his crusade he got permission from the Patriarch of Jerusalem. This particular Patriarch was named Simeon. Peter was able to recruit from England, Lorraine, France, and Flanders. Peter the Hermit arrived in Cologne, Germany, on Holy Saturday, the 12th of April in 1096. In Germany in spring 1096 Peter was one of the prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the Rhineland massacres against the Jews.

paragraph: Leading the first of the five sections of the People's Crusade to the destination of their pilgrimage, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, he started (with 40,000 men and women) from Cologne in April, 1096, and arrived (with 30,000 men and women) at Constantinople at the end of July. The Eastern Roman Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was less than pleased with their arrival, for along with the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nicholas III of Constantinople, he was now required to provide for the care and sustenance of the vast host of paupers for the remainder of their journey.

paragraph: Before reaching Constantinople though, Peter and his followers began to run into trouble. In Zemun, the Governor, who was descendant of a Ghuzz Turk, and a colleague, got frightened by the army's size and decided to tighten regulations on a frontier. This would have been fine if a dispute about the sale of a pair of shoes had not occurred. This led to a riot and against Peter's wishes the town was attacked and the citadel was stormed. This resulted in 4000 Hungarians being killed and lots of provisions stolen. Then on June 26, 1096 Peter's army was able to cross the Save river. Then the army marched into Belgrade and lit the town on fire and proceeded to pillage it. The army then made its way into and through Nish after an eight-day delay. After riding though Nish the Crusaders made their way towards Sofia when they were attacked on the road. The army took heavy losses. They lost 1/4 of their men but arrived in Sofia on July 12 nonetheless. The forces then arrived in Constantinople on August 1, 1096. After a while, they arrived at a castle called Xerigordon and captured it. They captured the castle by taking possession of the castle's spring and well. After setting off to Civetot they had set up camp near a village called Dracon. This is where the Turks ambushed Peter and his forces. This was the final battle of the People's Crusade that Peter led.

paragraph: Most of the paupers failed to make their way out of Catholic jurisdiction. The majority were incapable of being provided for by the various lordships and dioceses along the way and either starved, returned home or were put into servitude, while a substantial number were captured and sold into slavery by the various Slavic robber barons in the Balkans, kindling the view of the Balkan Slavs as unredeemed robbers and villains.

paragraph: Peter joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching Constantinople, that of Walter Sans Avoir, into a single group and encamped the still numerous pilgrims around Constantinople while he negotiated the shipping of the People's Crusade to the Holy Land. The Emperor meanwhile had failed to provide for the pilgrims adequately and the camp made itself a growing nuisance, as the increasingly hungry paupers turned to pilfering the imperial stores.

paragraph: Alexios, worried at the growing disorder and fearful of his standing before the coming armed Crusader armies, quickly concluded negotiations and shipped them across the Bosporus to the Asiatic shore at the beginning of August, with promises of guards and passage through the Turkish lines. He warned the People's Crusade to await his orders, but in spite of his warnings, the paupers entered Turkish territory. The Turks began skirmishing with the largely unarmed host. Peter returned in desperation to Constantinople, seeking the Emperor's help.

paragraph: In Peter's absence, the pilgrims were ambushed and cut to pieces in detail by the Turks, who were more disciplined, at the Battle of Civetot. Despite Peter's pronunciations of divine protection, the vast majority of the pilgrims were slaughtered by the swords and arrows of the Turks or were enslaved. Left in Constantinople with the small number of surviving followers, during the winter of 1096–1097, with little hope of securing Byzantine support, the People's Crusade awaited the coming of the armed crusaders as their sole source of protection to complete the pilgrimage.

paragraph: When the princes arrived, Peter joined their ranks as a member of the council in May 1097, and with the little following which remained they marched together through Asia Minor to Jerusalem. While his "paupers" never regained the numbers previous to the Battle of Civetot, his ranks were increasingly replenished with disarmed, injured, or bankrupted crusaders. Nonetheless, aside from a few rousing speeches to motivate the Crusaders, he played a subordinate part in the remaining history of the First Crusade which at this point clearly settled on a military campaign as the means to secure the pilgrimage routes and holy sites in Palestine.

paragraph: Peter appears, at the beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations of the siege of Antioch—showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent says, a "fallen star." Guibert and other sources go on to write that Peter was responsible for the speech before the half-starved and dead Crusaders which motivated their sally from the gates of Antioch and their subsequent crushing defeat of the overwhelmingly superior Muslim army besieging the city. Thus, having recovered his stature, in the middle of the year he was sent by the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences via a duel, which the Emir subsequently declined.

paragraph: In 1099 Peter appears as the treasurer of the alms at the siege of Arqa (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions around the walls of Jerusalem before it fell, and later within Jerusalem which preceded the Crusaders' surprising victory at the Battle of Ascalon (August). At the end of 1099, Peter went to Latakia, and sailed thence for the West. From this time he disappears from the historical record. Albert of Aix records that he died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France.

paragraph: Section::::Role in Preaching First Crusade.

paragraph: Although later Catholic historians and many other scholars disagree, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris wrote that Peter the Hermit was the true author and originator of the First Crusade, a view also recounted in the anonymous Gesta Francorum – written c. 1100 – and by Albert of Aix in his "Historia Hierosolymitanae Expeditionis", and also supported by some modern scholars.

paragraph: Such historical sources recount that during an early visit to Jerusalem sometime before 1096, Jesus appeared to Peter the Hermit in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. This story also appears in the pages of William of Tyre, which indicates that even a few generations after the crusade, the descendants of the crusaders already believed Peter was its originator. The origin of such a legend is a matter of some interest. Von Sybel, in his "Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges", published in 1841, suggested that in the camp of the paupers (which existed side by side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the crusade took a more and more heavy toll on the purses of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had already begun, parallel to the similar glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers.

paragraph: Section::::Later life.

paragraph: There is very little concrete record for his life after returning to Europe and much of what we do know is speculation or legend. However, Albert of Aix records that he died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France or Flanders. It is thought that during the Siege of Antioch during the days of famine and cold weather, Peter attempted to flee only to be captured by the Norman Tancred and placed back on the battlefield in 1112. Peter also held services of intercession for Latin and native recruits. Peter advised Greeks and Latins to form processions as well.

paragraph: It is generally quoted that he founded an Augustinian monastery in France named for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. However, it was actually in Flanders at Neufmoustier near Huy, or Huy itself which may have been his home town. His tomb is in the Neufmoustier Abbey, so it is presumed that this was his Abbey but in another tradition the nearby Solières Abbey claims that it was his foundation.

paragraph: Peter's obituary is in the chronicle of Abbey Neufmoustier Huy. On its page entry of 8 July 1115 the chronicle says that this day saw "the death of Dom Pierre, of pious memory, venerable priest and hermit, who deserved to be appointed by the Lord to announce the first to the holy Cross" and the text continues with "after the conquest of the holy land, Pierre returned to his native country" and also that "he founded this church ... and chooses them a decent burial". This record further supports Neufmoustier's claim as his foundation.

paragraph: Section::::Legend.

paragraph: Since his death various legends have sprung up around Peter. One legend has its roots in the writings of Jacques de Vitry, who found it convenient to convince people from the bishopric of Liège of the merits of participating in the Albigensian crusade by manipulating the story of Peter.

paragraph: Another legend is given in the 14th century by the French troubadour Jehan-de-Bouteiller, who sings the memory of "a dict Peter the Hermit deschendant a count of Clairmont by a Sieur d'Herrymont [who] married a Montagut". Peter the Hermit's parents would, therefore, be Renauld de Hérimont and Aleidis Montaigu (Aleidis is known in Huy as the "mother of Dom Pierre, with a home in Huy").

paragraph: There is also a strong and old tradition that Peter the Hermit was the first to introduce the use of the Rosary. It follows that he began this tradition in about 1090. If this is the case and if he had also been on a previous pilgrimage to Jerusalem, it is possible that he derived this practice from similar Islamic practices.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Peter the Hermit", "Famous Men of the Middle Ages "

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prof. J. S. C. Riley-Smith, Prof, Jonathan Phillips, Dr. Alan V. Murray, Dr. Guy Perry, Dr. Nicholas Morton, A Database of Crusaders to the Holy Land, 1099-1149 (available on-line)

description: French Christian and Crusader

wikidata_label: Peter the Hermit

wikipedia_title: Peter the Hermit


text:
Prince of Antioch
Bohemond I
Byzantine Empire
Treaty of Devol
Constance of France
Principality of Antioch
Tancred
Roger of Salerno
Battle of the Field of Blood
Baldwin II of Jerusalem
Imad ad-Din Zengi
Mosul
Aleppo
Roger II of Sicily
Danishmend
Emir Gazi Gümüshtigin
Cilician Armenia
embalmed
Abbasid Caliph
Alexios I Komnenos
William of Tyre
Fulcher of Chartres
Ilghazi
Artuqid
Mardin
Walter the Chancellor
Alice
William II, Duke of Apulia
Alexander of Telese
Alexander, Count of Conversano
St. Symeon
Matthew of Edessa
Kafartab
Steven Runciman
Shaizar
Joscelin I of Edessa
Azaz
Bernard of Valence
Latin Patriarch of Antioch
interdict
County of Edessa
Pope Honorius II
Taranto
Otranto
Brindisi
Assassins
Taj al-Muluk Buri
Banias
Anazarbus
Ceyhan River
Leo I of Cilicia
Al-Mustarshid
Constance

wikipedia_title: Constance of France, Princess of Antioch

categories: 12th-century Princes of Antioch,Roman Catholic monarchs,1108 births,Italo-Normans,Norman warriors,Princes of Antioch,Military personnel killed in action,1130 deaths

paragraph: Bohemond II of Antioch

paragraph: Bohemond II (1107/1108 – February 1130) was Prince of Taranto from 1111 to 1128 and Prince of Antioch from 1111/1119 to 1130. He was the son of Bohemond I, who in 1108 was forced to submit to the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the Treaty of Devol. Three years later, the infant Bohemond inherited the Principality of Taranto under the guardianship of his mother, Constance of France. The Principality of Antioch was administered by his father's nephew, Tancred, until 1111. Tancred's cousin, Roger of Salerno, managed the principality from 1111 to 1119. After Roger died in the Battle of the Field of Blood, Baldwin II of Jerusalem took over the administration of Antioch. However, he did acknowledge Bohemond's right to personally rule the principality upon reaching the age of majority.

paragraph: Bohemond came to Antioch in autumn 1126. He launched successful military campaigns against the nearby Moslem rulers, but his conflict with Joscelin I of Courtenay enabled Imad ad-Din Zengi to secure Mosul and Aleppo. Meanwhile, Roger II of Sicily occupied the Principality of Taranto in 1128. Bohemond died fighting against Danishmend Emir Gazi Gümüshtigin during a military campaign against Cilician Armenia, and Gümüshtigin sent Bohemond's embalmed head to the Abbasid Caliph.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Bohemond II was the son of Bohemond I, Prince of Taranto and Antioch, and Constance of France. He was born in 1107 or 1108. In 1104, Bohemond I returned to Europe to seek military assistance against the Byzantine Empire and left his nephew Tancred in Syria to administer Antioch. Two charters show that Tancred styled himself "prince of Antioch" in 1108. In September of that year, Bohemond I was forced to sign the Treaty of Devol, which authorized the Byzantine Empire to annex the Principality of Antioch upon his death.

paragraph: Bohemond I died in Apulia in 1111. Bohemond II was still a minor, so his mother took charge of the government of Taranto. The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos sent envoys to Tancred to demand control of Antioch, but Tancred refused to obey and continued to govern the principality. Tancred died in 1112 and bequeathed Antioch to his sister's son, Roger of Salerno.

paragraph: Roger's legal status during his rule in Antioch is uncertain. According to William of Tyre, Tancred made Roger his successor "with the understanding that, at the demand of Bohemond or his heirs, he should not refuse to return it," suggesting that Roger was simply regent for the child Bohemond. Roger adopted the title of prince, which implies that he regarded himself the ruler of Antioch in his own right. The contemporaneous Fulcher of Chartres accused Roger of depriving of "his inheritence his own lord, the son of Bohemond [I], then living in Apulia with his mother." Charters issued in Bohemond's Italian domains between 1117 and 1119 emphasized that he was the son of the prince of Antioch, but did not style him prince.

paragraph: After Roger and most Antiochene noblemen perished in the Battle of the Field of Blood on 28 June 1119, Baldwin II of Jerusalem hurried to Syria to save Antioch from Ilghazi, the Artuqid ruler of Mardin. The notables of Antioch proclaimed Baldwin ruler of Antioch, but they emphasized that Antioch was Bohemond's "rightful inheritance," according to Walter the Chancellor. Baldwin promised to cede Antioch to Bohemond if Bohemond came to the principality. Those who were present at the meeting agreed that Bohemond should marry Baldwin's daughter, Alice. They also decreed that Bohemond would not be entitled to reclaim grants made during his absence from the principality.

paragraph: Baldwin II was captured in 1123, and the burghers of Antioch sent envoys to Bohemond, urging him to come to his principality. Bohemond reached the age of majority at the age of 16. According to William of Tyre, he made an agreement with William II, Duke of Apulia, stipulating that the one who first died without issue was to will his principality to the other; however, the reliability of William's report is suspect. Alexander of Telese recorded that before leaving for Syria, Bohemond entrusted his Italian domains to the Holy See, but Romuald of Salerno said that he made Alexander, Count of Conversano, the overseer of those lands. Bohemond sailed from Otranto with a fleet of twenty-four ships in September 1126.

paragraph: Section::::Prince of Antioch.

paragraph: Bohemond landed at the port of St. Symeon in the Principality of Antioch in October or November. He went to Antioch to meet Baldwin II of Jerusalem, who subsequently ceded Antioch to him. Bohemond was officially installed as prince in Baldwin's presence.

paragraph: Matthew of Edessa portrayed Bohemond as "a forceful character and great power." Badr ad-Daulah captured Kafartab shortly after Bohemond's arrival, but Bohemond quickly recaptured the fortress in early 1127. According to historian Steven Runciman, Bohemond's attack against the Munqidhites of Shaizar, which was recorded by Usama ibn Munqidh, also occurred during this period.

paragraph: Bohemond came into conflict with Joscelin I of Edessa in 1127, although sources do not reveal the reason behind the enmity of the two Christian rulers. According to Runciman, Joscelin seized former Antiochene territories from Il-Bursuqi, governor of Mosul. Furthermore, Bohemond refused to cede Azaz to Joscelin, despite the fact that Roger of Salerno promised it to Joscelin as the dowry of his second wife, Maria of Salerno. Taking advantage of Bohemond's absence due to a campaign, Joscelin invaded Antioch with the assistance of Turkish mercenaries, plundering the villages along the frontier.

paragraph: Bernard of Valence, Latin Patriarch of Antioch, imposed an interdict on the County of Edessa. Baldwin II of Jerusalem hurried to Syria to mediate between Bohemond and Joscelin in early 1128. Joscelin, who had become seriously ill, agreed to restore the property to Bohemond and to do homage to him. However, the conflict between Bohemond and Joscelin enabled Imad ad-Din Zengi, Il-Bursuqi's successor as governor of Mosul, to seize Aleppo without resistance on 28 June 1128.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Bohemond's cousin, William II of Apulia, had died without issue on 25 July 1127. Pope Honorius II tried to prevent Roger II of Sicily (the cousin of both William and Bohemond) from seizing Apulia, but Roger did not obey him. In May 1128, he invaded Bohemond's Italian principality, capturing Taranto, Otranto and Brindisi without resistance. He completed the conquest of the whole principality around 15 June.

paragraph: Taking advantage of the disputes between the Assassins and Taj al-Muluk Buri, atabeg of Damascus, Baldwin II of Jerusalem invaded Damascene territory and laid siege to Banias in November 1129. Bohemond and Joscelin joined Baldwin, but a heavy rainfall forced the crusaders to abandon the siege.

paragraph: Bohemond decided to recover Anazarbus and other territories which had been lost to the Cilician Armenia. He invaded Cilicia in February 1130, traveling along the Ceyhan River. Leo I of Cilicia sought assistance from the Danishmend Emir Gazi Gümüshtigin who made a surprise attack on Bohemond's army. Bohemond and his soldiers were massacred in the battle. According to Michael the Syrian, the Turks killed Bohemond because they did not recognize him; had they recognized him, they would have saved him so they could demand a ransom from him. Gümüshtigin had Bohemond's head embalmed and sent to Al-Mustarshid, the Abbasid Caliph.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Bohemond's wife, Alice, was the second daughter of Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Morphia of Melitene. Their only child, Constance, was two when Bohemond died in 1130. Alice tried to secure the regency for Constance for herself, but the Antiochene noblemen preferred her father, Baldwin II of Jerusalem. After Bohemond's death, Roger II of Sicily laid claim to Antioch, but he could never assert it against Constance.

description: Prince of Antioch

wikidata_label: Bohemond II of Antioch

wikipedia_title: Bohemond II of Antioch


text:
Grand Prix
road racing
World Champion
500 cc World Championships
Giacomo Agostini
Valentino Rossi
Gold Coast
Brisbane
Superbike World Championship
Oran Park
Australian motorcycle Grand Prix
Mount Panorama
Phillip Island
Superbike World Championship
Grand Prix
Honda
1989
Hungarian Grand Prix
1991
Wayne Gardner
Honda RVF750
superbike
Suzuka 8 Hours
1992 Dutch TT
complications
amputation
Yamaha
Wayne Rainey
1993
1994
500 cc World Championship
1998
1997
Order of Australia
Honda
race engineer
Jeremy Burgess
personal water craft
handlebar
1999
Jeremy Burgess
Valentino Rossi
Isle of Man TT
Snaefell Mountain Course
Joey Dunlop
Hamilton Island
Red Bull junior
Grand Prix motorcycle racing
Formula One
Williams FW19
Circuit de Catalunya
Intamin
Motorbike Launch Roller Coaster
Mick Doohan's Motocoaster
Dreamworld
Gold Coast, Queensland
Order of Australia
Australian Sports Medal
Sport Australia Hall of Fame
Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit
Q150
Q150 Icons
Daijiro Kato
Nicky Hayden
Motorcycle sport
"The Age" article on Doohan

categories: Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees,Australian motorcycle racers,Members of the Order of Australia,Superbike World Championship riders,Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal,Australian people of Irish descent,500cc World Championship riders,Sportspeople from Brisbane,1965 births

paragraph: Mick Doohan

paragraph: Michael "Mick" Sydney Doohan, (born 4 June 1965) is an Australian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion, who won five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. Only Giacomo Agostini with eight (seven consecutive) and Valentino Rossi with seven (five consecutive) have won more premier class titles.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Originally from the Gold Coast, near Brisbane, Doohan attended St. Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace, Brisbane. He raced in Australian Superbikes in the late 1980s, and also won both races as Superbike World Championship visited Oran Park in as well as the second leg of the Japanese round held earlier in the year. In a break-out season he also won the final Australian motorcycle Grand Prix to be held in the TT format at Mount Panorama before the race became a round of the World Championship the following year and moved to Phillip Island. He is one of the few 500 cc or MotoGP World Champions to have won a Superbike World Championship race.

paragraph: He made his Grand Prix debut for Honda on an NSR 500 cc two-stroke motorcycle in 1989. Late in the 1990 season Doohan claimed his first victory at the Hungarian Grand Prix on his way to third in the championship. In 1991, he was paired with his fellow Australian Wayne Gardner on a Honda RVF750 superbike and won the Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race. He competed successfully throughout the early 1990s and appeared to be on his way to winning his first world championship when he was seriously injured in a practice crash before the 1992 Dutch TT. He suffered permanent and serious damage to his right leg due to medical complications and, at one stage, faced amputation of the leg. At the time, Doohan was 65 points in the lead of the championship, but could not compete for eight weeks after the crash. After an arduous recovery, he returned to racing for the final two races but could not prevent Yamaha rider Wayne Rainey from winning his third consecutive title (by four points from Doohan). In 1993 he struggled with the healing of his leg and the ability to race the Honda at elite level, stating later that in that year it was all he could do to just keep his ride at Honda. It was also during this time he switched to a left thumb-operated rear brake, as his right foot is no longer able to perform this function.

paragraph: In 1994 however, he won his first 500 cc World Championship. Thereafter, until 1998, he dominated the class, winning five consecutive 500 cc World Championships. In 1997, his most successful year, Doohan won 12 out of 15 races, finished second in another two, and crashed out of the final race of the season at his home GP while leading by more than six seconds. In June 1996, Doohan was inducted as a Member of the Order of Australia for his contribution to the sport of motor racing.

paragraph: Despite up to eight rivals on non-factory HRC Honda motorcycles Doohan's margin of superiority over them was such that in many races Doohan would build a comfortable lead and then ride well within his limits to cruise to victory. Although pure riding skill clearly played a large part in his success, the ability of his chief race engineer, Jeremy Burgess, to perfect the suspension and geometry of a racing motorcycle may have given him an advantage over his rivals. Between 1994 and 1998 the bike was said not to have had many changes, with Honda engineers reportedly becoming frustrated at Doohan's reluctance to try innovations such as electronic shifting (it was only when Rossi came to Honda in 2000 that Honda engineers had their head with Rossi willing to try more innovations).

paragraph: One notable trait of Doohan's post-crash riding style was the use of a thumb-operated rear brake developed during 1993 owing to the reduced range of motion in his ankle. This was operated by a "nudge" bar similar to a personal water craft throttle, but mounted on the left handlebar. In 1999 Doohan had another accident, this time in a very wet qualifying session for the Spanish Grand Prix. He again broke his leg in several places and subsequently announced his retirement. Jeremy Burgess, Doohan's chief engineer for his entire career, later became Valentino Rossi's chief engineer. After Doohan retired he went to work as a roving adviser to Honda's Grand Prix race effort. At the conclusion of the 2004 season, Doohan and Honda parted company.

paragraph: In June 2011, Doohan made an appearance at the Isle of Man TT. Doohan completed a parade lap, and was most enamored by the thrill and spectacle of the Snaefell Mountain Course. He then went on to pay tribute to his former Honda racing teammate, Joey Dunlop.

paragraph: Section::::Court case.

paragraph: On 8 August 2006, Doohan appeared in Darwin Magistrates Court to face charges over a weekend fracas at a strip club. He was fined $2,500 after pleading guilty to assaulting a bouncer and failing to leave a licensed premise. No conviction was recorded.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage.

paragraph: Doohan married Selina Sines, his partner of eleven years, on Tuesday 21 March 2006, on Hamilton Island; the couple have two children, including racing driver and Red Bull junior Jack Doohan.

paragraph: Section::::Formula One.

paragraph: After his success in Grand Prix motorcycle racing he got a chance to test a Formula One race car, the Williams FW19, at Circuit de Catalunya (in Spain) in April 1998. He found the car difficult to drive and crashed against a guard rail.

paragraph: Section::::Doohan's Motocoaster.

paragraph: Doohan helped design an Intamin Motorbike Launch Roller Coaster, named Mick Doohan's Motocoaster. The ride is located at Dreamworld on the Gold Coast, Queensland.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: Doohan was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1996 and received an Australian Sports Medal in 2000. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2009. The first turn at Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit is named after him.

paragraph: In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Mick Doohan was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a "sports legend".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Daijiro Kato

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nicky Hayden

paragraph: BULLET::::- Motorcycle sport

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Age" article on Doohan

alias:
Michael Sydney Doohan
Michael "Mick" Doohan

description: Australian motorcycle racer

wikidata_label: Michael Doohan

wikipedia_title: Mick Doohan


text: SJ

text: Roman Catholic

text: sociologist

text: Trier

text: Germany

text: Pope Pius XI

text: encyclical

text: Quadragesimo anno

text: Rerum novarum

text: subsidiarity

text: Nazi Germany

text: Frankfurt am Main

categories: People from Trier,20th-century German Catholic theologians,Members of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art,German male non-fiction writers,Grand Crosses 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany,People from the Rhine Province,1991 deaths,German Jesuits,1890 births,German centenarians

paragraph: Oswald von Nell-Breuning

paragraph: Oswald von Nell-Breuning SJ (8 March 1890 – 21 August 1991) was a Roman Catholic theologian and sociologist.

paragraph: Born in Trier, Germany into an aristocratic family, Nell-Breuning was ordained in 1921 and appointed Professor of Ethics at the Sankt Georgen Graduate School of Philosophy and Theology in 1928. He was instrumental in the drafting of Pope Pius XI's social encyclical "Quadragesimo anno" (1931), which – like the earlier "Rerum novarum" (1891), after which it was named – dealt with the "Social Question" and developed the principle of subsidiarity. Nell-Breuning was not allowed to publish from 1936 to the end of Nazi Germany in 1945. He died in Frankfurt am Main.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oswald von Nell-Breuning (1890-1991)—Katholischer Sozialethiker, Sozialphilosoph und Sozialwissenschaftler

description: German theologian

wikidata_label: Oswald von Nell-Breuning

wikipedia_title: Oswald von Nell-Breuning


text:
Ptolemaic queen
Ptolemaic Kingdom
ancient Egypt
Thrace
Anatolia
Macedonia
Lysimachus
Ptolemaic Kingdom
Pharaoh
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Upper and Lower Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter
Berenice I of Egypt
Memphis
Alexandria
Strato of Lampsacus
Ptolemy Epigonos
Lysimachus
Philip
Agathocles
Samothrace temple complex
Cassandreia
Ptolemy Keraunos
Eurydice of Egypt
Anatolia
Ptolemy II Philadelphus
Antigonus II Gonatas
Arsinoe I
First Syrian War
Seleucid Empire
Posidippus
chariot race
Olympic Games
Arsinoitherium
Coin with her portrait
Encyclopædia Britannica
Arsinoe II

categories: Egyptian goddesses,3rd-century BC Egyptian people,Ancient Olympic competitors,Hellenistic Macedonia,316 BC births,260s BC deaths,Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty,3rd-century BC women rulers,Ancient Greek chariot racers,3rd-century BC Pharaohs,Ancient Greek women rulers,4th-century BC women,Ancient Greek queens consort,Hellenistic Thrace

paragraph: Arsinoe II

paragraph: Arsinoë II (, 316 BC – unknown date between July 270 and 260 BC) was a Ptolemaic queen and co-regent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of ancient Egypt.

paragraph: Arsinoe was queen of Thrace, Anatolia and Macedonia by marriage to King Lysimachus () and co-ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom with her brother-husband, Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus ( "Ptolemy the Sibling-Loving"). Arsinoe was given the unprecedented Egyptian title "King of Upper and Lower Egypt", marking her as a full pharaoh.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early life.

paragraph: Arsinoë was the first daughter of Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter (Greek: Πτολεμαίος Σωτήρ, "Ptolemy the Savior"), founder of the Hellenistic state of Egypt, and his second wife Berenice I of Egypt.

paragraph: She was born in Memphis, but was raised in the new city of Alexandria, where her father moved his capital early on. Nothing is known of her childhood or education, but judging from her later life as patron of scholars and noted for her learning, she is estimated to have been given a high education. Her brothers were tutored by intellectuals hired by their fathers, and it is regarded likely that she attended these lessons as well: she corresponded with the intellectual Strato of Lampsacus later in life, and he may have previously been her tutor.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Queen of Lysimachus.

paragraph: At about age 15, Arsinoë married King Lysimachus (who was then around 60 years old), with whom she had three sons: Ptolemy Epigonos, Lysimachus, and Philip.

paragraph: In order to position her sons for the throne, she had Lysimachus' first son, Agathocles, poisoned on account of treason.

paragraph: Arsinoe reportedly paid for a rotunda in the Samothrace temple complex, where she was likely an initiate.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Queen of Ptolemy Keraunos.

paragraph: After Lysimachus' death in battle in 281 BC, she fled to Cassandreia () and married her paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos, one of the sons of Ptolemy I Soter from his previous wife, Eurydice of Egypt. The marriage was for political reasons as they both claimed the throne of Macedonia and Thrace (by the time of his death Lysimachus was ruler of both regions, and his power extended to southern Greece and Anatolia). Their relationship was never good.

paragraph: As Ptolemy Keraunos was becoming more powerful, she decided it was time to stop him and conspired against him with her sons. This action caused Ptolemy Keraunus to kill two of her sons, Lysimachus and Philip, while the eldest, Ptolemy, was able to escape and to flee north, to the kingdom of the Dardanians.

paragraph: She herself sought refuge in the Samothrace temple complex, which she had benefited during her tenure as queen. She eventually left from Samothrace for Alexandria, Egypt, to seek protection from her brother, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

paragraph: It is not known which year she left for Egypt. She may have left so early as 280, directly after the murder of the younger sons, or as late as 276, when the claim of her eldest son to the Macedonian throne had clearly failed after the succession of Antigonus II Gonatas.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Queen of Egypt.

paragraph: In Egypt, she is believed to have instigated the accusation and exile of her brother Ptolemy II's first wife, Arsinoe I. Whether this was actually true is unknown: it is not known which year she arrived in Egypt, and her sister-in-law may already have been exiled at that point, or her divorce may have taken place without her involvement.

paragraph: Whatever the case, after the divorce of Ptolemy, Arsinoe II then married her brother. As a result, both were given the epithet "Philadelphoi" ( "Sibling-loving (plural)") by the presumably scandalized Greeks. The closer circumstances and reasons behind the marriage is not known.

paragraph: Her role as queen was unprecedented in the dynasty at the time and became a role model for later Ptolemaic queens: she acted alongside her brother in ritual and public display, became a religious and literal patron and was included in the Egyptian and Greek cults created by him for them. Sharing in all of her brother's titles, she apparently was quite influential, having towns dedicated to her, her own cult (as was Egyptian custom), appearing on coinage and contributing to foreign policy, including Ptolemy II's victory in the First Syrian War between Egypt and the Seleucid Empire.

paragraph: According to Posidippus, she won three chariot races at the Olympic Games, probably in 272 BC.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: After her death, Ptolemy II continued to refer to her on official documents, as well as supporting her coinage and cult. In establishing her worship as a goddess he justified his own cult.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arsinoitherium

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- H. Bengtson, Griechische Geschichte von den Anfängen bis in die römische Kaiserzeit, C.H.Beck, 1977

paragraph: BULLET::::- R.A. Billows, Kings and colonists: aspects of Macedonian imperialism, BRILL, 1995

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- S.M. Burstein, "Arsinoe II Philadelphos: A Revisionist View", in W.L. Adams and E.N. Borza (eds), "Philip II, Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Heritage" (Washington, 1982), 197-212

paragraph: BULLET::::- P. McKechnie and P. Guillaume (eds) "Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World". Leiden, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Nilsson, "The Crown of Arsinoë II: The Creation of an Image of Authority". Oxford, 2012.

paragraph: BULLET::::- D. L. Selden, Daniel L. "Alibis". "Classical Antiquity" 17 (2), October 1998.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coin with her portrait

paragraph: BULLET::::- Encyclopædia Britannica

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arsinoe II entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith

description: Ptolemaic Greek Princess of Ancient Egypt and Queen of Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedonia

wikidata_label: Arsinoe II

wikipedia_title: Arsinoe II


text: Roman Emperor

text: Roman Senate

text: Rhine

text: Agri Decumates

text: Sirmium

text: Sremska Mitrovica

text: Pannonia Inferior

text: military tribune

text: Valerian

text: Sarmatia

text: Illyria

text: Claudius

text: Aurelian

text: Gaul

text: Franks

text: Rhaetia

text: Alemans

text: Thrace

text: Mediterranean

text: Goths

text: Shapur I

text: Egypt

text: Zenobia

text: Tacitus

text: Asia Minor

text: Florianus

text: Cilicia

text: Rome

text: Gaul

text: Alamanni

text: Longiones

text: Neckar

text: Franks

text: Gaul

text: Franks

text: Burgundians

text: Lugii

text: Rhine

text: Hadrian

text: Danube

text: Swabia

text: Aurelian

text: Zosimus

text: Raetia

text: Illyricum

text: Lycia

text: Vandals

text: Blemmyes

text: Egypt

text: Julius Saturninus

text: Proculus

text: Bonosus

text: triumph

text: Joannes Zonaras

text: Praetorian Guard

text: Marcus Aurelius Carus

text: Gibbon

text: Carus

text: Diocletian

text: Illyria

text: Claudius Gothicus

text: crisis of the third century

text: Aurelius Victor

text: Epitome de Caesaribus

text: Eutropius

text: Breviarium ab urbe condita

text: Historia Augusta

text: Life of Probus

text: Joannes Zonaras

text: Zosimus

text: Historia Nova

text: Probus

categories: 3rd-century murdered monarchs,232 births,3rd-century Roman emperors,Imperial Roman consuls,Deified Roman emperors,Gothicus Maximus,282 deaths,Crisis of the Third Century,Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard

paragraph: Probus (emperor)

paragraph: Probus (; ; c. 19 August 232 – September/October 282), was Roman Emperor from 276 to 282.

paragraph: Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated inundations of hostile barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.

paragraph: After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts, but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible. In his reign the facade of the constitutional authority of the Roman Senate was fastidiously maintained, and the conqueror who had carried his arms to victory over the Rhine professed himself dependent on the sanction of the Senate.

paragraph: Upon defeating the Germans Probus re-erected the ancient fortifications of emperor Hadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the Agri Decumates, and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers. Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor Carus.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior, the son of Dalmatius. According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.

paragraph: Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very young age, in recognition of his latent ability, he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian frontier. During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks, Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east by Shapur I. Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier. Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.

paragraph: Section::::As emperor.

paragraph: Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia. In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions. Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of "Gothicus".

paragraph: However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.

paragraph: In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory. Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of "Gothicus Maximus" and "Germanicus Maximus". Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.

paragraph: After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.

paragraph: The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.

paragraph: One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts, in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.

paragraph: In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals. In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.

paragraph: In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain). In 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.

paragraph: Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west. He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.

paragraph: Section::::As emperor.:Assassination.

paragraph: Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.

paragraph: Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282). According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes. Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army. Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the "Augustan History"), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome. While his successor Carus (Imp. 281-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita

paragraph: BULLET::::- Historia Augusta, Life of Probus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zosimus, Historia Nova

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", "DIR"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 The Celator November, 1995.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jones, A.H.M., Martindale, J.R. "The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I: AD260-395", Cambridge University Press, 1971

paragraph: BULLET::::- Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gibbon. Edward "Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire" (1888)

paragraph: Attribution:

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Probus, article at NumisWiki

description: 3rd-century Roman Emperor

wikidata_label: Marcus Aurelius Probus

wikipedia_title: Probus (emperor)


text: Roman emperor

text: Diocletian

text: Sassanid Empire

text: Ctesiphon

text: Danube

text: Carpi

text: Christianity

text: Diocletianic Persecution

text: Edict of Toleration

text: Serdica

text: Serdica

text: Dacia Ripensis

text: Felix Romuliana

text: Gamzigrad

text: Thracian

text: Dacian

text: Dacia

text: Carpians

text: Aurelian

text: Probus

text: Tetrarchy

text: Caesar

text: Constantius Chlorus

text: Diocletian

text: Galeria Valeria

text: Illyria

text: Sarmatians

text: Goths

text: Danube

text: Busiris

text: Coptos

text: Narseh

text: Shapur I

text: Bahram III

text: Ardashir

text: Shapur

text: Valerian

text: a severe defeat

text: Harran

text: Raqqa

text: Battle of Satala

text: Media

text: Adiabene

text: Theodosiopolis

text: Nisibis

text: Tigris

text: Ctesiphon

text: Babylon

text: Euphrates

text: Alexander

text: Darius III

text: Peace of Nisibis

text: Caucasian Iberia

text: Ingilene

text: Sophene

text: Aghdznik

text: Corduene

text: Zabdicene

text: Hakkâri

text: Anti-Taurus

text: Bitlis

text: Tur Abdin

text: Constantius I

text: Maximinus Daia

text: Severus

text: Milan

text: York

text: Constantine

text: Nicomedia

text: Maxentius

text: Valeria Maximilla

text: Maximian

text: Illyricum

text: Narni

text: Carnuntum

text: Licinius

text: Danube

text: Lake Pelso

text: Diocletian

text: Roman Empire

text: Christians

text: Nicomedia

text: Edict of Toleration by Galerius

text: Lactantius

text: Roman Empire

text: Licinius

text: Edict of Milan

text: Eusebius

text: Lactantius

text: bowel cancer

text: gangrene

text: Fournier gangrene

text: mausoleum

text: Gamzigrad-Romuliana

text: Zaječar

text: Serbia

text: World Heritage List

text: Lactantius

text: Trajan

text: conquered Dacians

text: Galerius Peak

text: Antarctica

text: Arch and Tomb of Galerius

text: Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324)

text: Iulianus (c. 286–293 AD)

text: Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 AD)

text: Galerius (305–311 AD)

text: Maximianus Herculius (286–305 AD)

text: Diocletian (284–305 AD.)

text: Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)

text: Medieval Sourcebook

text: Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus

text: Catholic Encyclopedia

categories: People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars,Valerii,4th-century Roman emperors,Constantinian dynasty,Imperial Roman consuls,Deified Roman emperors,250s births,Caesar emperors,3rd-century Roman emperors,Galerius,311 deaths,Galerii

paragraph: Galerius

paragraph: Galerius (; ; "circa" 250 – April or May 311) was Roman emperor from 305 to 311. During his reign, he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid Empire, sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution when he issued an Edict of Toleration in Serdica in 311.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Galerius was born near Serdica, in Dacia Ripensis, later named Dacia Mediterranea, though some modern scholars consider the strategic site where he later built his palace named after his mother – Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad) – his birth and funeral place. His father was a Thracian and his mother Romula was a Dacian woman, who left Dacia because of the Carpians' attacks. He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he got his surname of Armentarius (Latin: "armentum", herd).

paragraph: He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, was designated "Caesar" along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), and at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.

paragraph: Section::::War with Persia.

paragraph: Section::::War with Persia.:Invasion, counterinvasion.

paragraph: In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I, who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 226–41) and Shapur (r. 241–72), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian.

paragraph: In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320-395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia. Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title "Persici Maximi" was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria). Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was to take all the blame for the affair. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. The message conveyed was clear; the loss at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted. Galerius' position at the head of the caravan possibly was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a Caesar's deference to his Augustus.

paragraph: Galerius's army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, to Narseh's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and, in two successive battles, Galerius secured victories over Narseh.

paragraph: During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory. Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum), and securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. He moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and gazing onwards to the ruins of Babylon before returning to Roman territory via the Euphrates. No source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked, but it is assumed to have been, primarily due to the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem.

paragraph: Section::::War with Persia.:Peace negotiations.

paragraph: Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian. The Romans, in any case, treated Narseh's captured family well perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his beneficent conduct towards the family of Darius III. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their "magister memoriae" (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.

paragraph: The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region. Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.

paragraph: Section::::Rule as Augustus.

paragraph: After the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of "Augustus", two new Caesars were required to take their place. The two persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Caesar were very much his creatures, and he hoped to enhance his authority throughout the empire with their elevation.

paragraph: First was Maximinus Daia, whose mother was Galerius' sister. An inexperienced youth with little formal education, he was invested with the purple, exalted to the dignity of Caesar, and assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Second was Severus, Galerius' comrade in arms; he was sent to Milan to receive the possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate countries from the confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly established his power over three-quarters of the empire.

paragraph: His hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306 and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who informed him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiastic violence of his troops had not allowed him to obtain the imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.

paragraph: Later, however, when he had time to reconsider his position, he inevitably saw that his chances of winning a war against Constantine were doubtful at best. Galerius was well aware of Constantine’s strengths – Constantine had been his guest for some time at Nicomedia – and knew that Constantius' legions were wildly devoted to his son. Therefore, without either condemning or ratifying the choice of the Roman army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite Severus.

paragraph: The ambitious spirit of Galerius was only just over this disappointment when he beheld the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, who was married to his daughter Valeria Maximilla. Galerius’ need for additional revenue had persuaded him to make a very strict and rigorous examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of a general taxation. A very minute survey was taken of their real estates and, wherever there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this precedent, and the officers of the revenue already began to number the Roman people, and to settle the proportion of the new taxes. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, in the full confidence that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion. Severus was captured after his troops deserted to their old commander Maximian, who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius. Severus was later executed.

paragraph: The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy, determined to avenge Severus and to punish the rebellious Romans. But due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his control in Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp.

paragraph: Seeing that he was facing ever-greater difficulties, Galerius made the first advances towards reconciliation, and dispatched two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal regard for Maxentius, reminding them that they would obtain much more from his willing generosity than anything that might have been obtained through a military campaign. The offers of Galerius were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused, and it was not long before he discovered that, unless he retreated, he would share Severus' fate. It was not a moment too soon; large monetary gifts from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions. When Galerius finally began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.

paragraph: In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

paragraph: With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, together with the retired emperor Diocletian and the now active Maximian, called an imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube to rectify the situation and bring some order back into the imperial government. Here it was agreed that Galerius’ long-time friend and military companion Licinius, who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

paragraph: Galerius’ plan soon failed. The news of Licinius’ promotion was no sooner carried into the East, than Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar, and, notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, six emperors administered the Roman world. Though the opposition of interest, and the memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their mutual fears and the fading authority of Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.

paragraph: The last years of Galerius saw him relinquishing his aspirations towards being the supreme ruler of the empire, though he managed to retain the position of first among equals. He spent the remainder of his years enjoying himself and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests that encompassed it.

paragraph: Section::::Persecution of Christians.

paragraph: Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of February 24, 303, were credited by Christians to Galerius' work, as he was a fierce advocate of the old ways and old gods. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of sedition in secret gatherings.

paragraph: Diocletian was not anti-Christian during the first part of his reign, and historians have claimed that Galerius decided to prod him into persecuting them by secretly burning the Imperial Palace and blaming it on Christian saboteurs. Regardless of who was at fault for the fire, Diocletian's rage was aroused and he began one of the last and greatest Christian persecutions in the history of the Roman Empire.

paragraph: It was at the insistence of Galerius that the last edicts of persecution against the Christians were published, beginning on February 24, 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance of the general edict of toleration, issued from Nicomedia in April 311, apparently during his last bout of illness (see "Edict of Toleration by Galerius"). Galerius's last request, that Christians should pray for him as he suffered with a painful and fatal illness, was in vain for he died six days later.

paragraph: Initially one of the leading figures in the persecutions, Galerius later admitted that the policy of trying to eradicate Christianity had failed, saying: "wherefore, for this our indulgence, they ought to pray to their God for our safety, for that of the republic, and for their own, that the republic may continue uninjured on every side, and that they may be able to live securely in their homes." Lactantius gives the text of the edict in his moralized chronicle of the bad ends to which all the persecutors came, "De Mortibus Persecutorum". This marked the end of official persecution of Christians. Christianity was officially legalized in the Roman Empire two years later in 313 by Constantine and Licinius in the Edict of Milan.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Galerius died in late April or early May 311 from a horribly gruesome disease described by Eusebius and Lactantius, possibly some form of bowel cancer, gangrene or Fournier gangrene.

paragraph: Galerius was buried in his mausoleum at Gamzigrad-Romuliana, which was part of the palace he built at his birthplace, today's Zaječar in Serbia. Several lumps composed of corroded iron ring mail (lorica hamata) have been found at the site. This mail armour may have been worn by the wax ﬁgure of the emperor that was burned during the imperial funeral and apotheosis ceremony. The entire site has been inscribed into the World Heritage List in June 2007.

paragraph: Section::::Anti-Roman accusations.

paragraph: According to Lactantius, Galerius affirmed his Dacian identity and avowed himself the enemy of the Roman name once made emperor, even proposing that the empire should be called, not the Roman, but the Dacian Empire, much to the horror of the patricians and senators. He exhibited anti-Roman attitude as soon as he had attained the highest power, treating the Roman citizens with ruthless cruelty, like the conquerors treated the conquered, all in the name of the same treatment that the victorious Trajan had applied to the conquered Dacians, forefathers of Galerius, two centuries before.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: Galerius Peak in Antarctica is named after Emperor Galerius.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arch and Tomb of Galerius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Ancient sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Codex Theodosianus".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Epitome de Caesaribus".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eusebius of Caesarea.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Festus. "Breviarium".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lactantius. "De Mortibus Persecutorum" ("On the Deaths of the Persecutors").

paragraph: BULLET::::- "XII Panegyrici Latini" ("Twelve Latin Panegyrics").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zosimus. "Historia Nova" ("New History").

paragraph: Section::::References.:Modern sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Banchich, Thomas M. "Iulianus (c. 286–293 AD)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1997). Accessed March 8, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. "Lactantius and Constantine." "The Journal of Roman Studies" 63 (1973): 29–46.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. "Constantine and Eusebius". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, Timothy D. "The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bleckmann, Bruno. "Diocletianus." In "Brill's New Pauly, Volume 4", edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmut Schneider, 429–38. Leiden: Brill, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bowman, Alan K., Peter Garnsey, and Averil Cameron. "The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire". Cambridge University Press, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brown, Peter. "The Rise of Western Christendom". Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Burgess, R.W. "The Date of the Persecution of Christians in the Army". "Journal of Theological Studies" 47:1 (1996): 157–158.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Corcoran, Simon. "The Empire of the Tetrarchs: Imperial Pronouncements and Government, AD 284–324". Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Corcoran, "Before Constantine", Simon. "Before Constantine." In "The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine", edited by Noel Lenski, 35–58. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Constantius I Chlorus (305–306 AD)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1996a). Accessed March 8, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Galerius (305–311 AD)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1996b). Accessed March 8, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- DiMaio, Jr., Michael. "Maximianus Herculius (286–305 AD)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1997). Accessed March 8, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elliott, T. G. "The Christianity of Constantine the Great". Scranton, PA: University of Scranton Press, 1996.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gibbon, Edward, ‘Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire’, Chapter 14

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harries, Jill. "Law and Empire in Late Antiquity". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helgeland, John. "Christians and the Roman Army A.D. 173–337." "Church History" 43:2 (1974): 149–163, 200.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jones, A.H.M. "The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leadbetter, Bill. "Galerius and the Will of Diocletian", London and New York, Routledge, 2010. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lenski, Noel. "The Reign of Constantine." In "The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine", edited by Noel Lenski, 59–90. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006b. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mackay, Christopher S. "Lactantius and the Succession to Diocletian." "Classical Philology" 94:2 (1999): 198–209.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mathisen, Ralph W. "Diocletian (284–305 AD.)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (1997). Accessed February 16, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Odahl, Charles Matson. "Constantine and the Christian Empire". New York: Routledge, 2004. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pohlsander, Hans. "The Emperor Constantine". London & New York: Routledge, 2004a. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pohlsander, Hans. "Constantine I (306 – 337 AD)." "De Imperatoribus Romanis" (2004b). Accessed December 16, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Potter, David S. "The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395". New York: Routledge, 2005. Hardcover Paperback

paragraph: BULLET::::- Southern, Pat. "The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine". New York: Routledge, 2001.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rostovtzeff, Michael. "The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Treadgold, Warren. "A History of the Byzantine State and Society". Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, Stephen. "Diocletian and the Roman Recovery". New York: Routledge, 1997.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Medieval Sourcebook: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lactantius about Galerius in his ""De Mortibus Persecutorum"" chapter XXIII & XXVII

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Encyclopedia

alias: Gaius Galerius Valerius, Emperor of Rome Maximianus

alias: Caius Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Caesar

alias: Caius Galerius Valerius, Emperor of Rome Maximianus

alias: Gaius Galerius Valerius, Emperor of Rome Maximinus

alias: Caius Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus Augustus

alias: Gaios Galerios Oualerios, Emperor of Rome Maximianos

description: Roman emperor

wikidata_label: Galerius

wikipedia_title: Galerius