text: Roman emperor

text: Julio-Claudian dynasty

text: Drusus

text: Antonia Minor

text: Lugdunum

text: Roman Gaul

text: Italy

text: consulship

text: Caligula

text: Tiberius

text: Praetorian Guard

text: conquest of Britain

text: invasions of Britain by Caesar

text: senators

text: Nero

text: Domitian

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text: Gaius Octavius

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text: Julia Minor

text: Julia Antonia

text: Claudii Nerones

text: Nero Claudius Drusus

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text: Augustus

text: Tiberius

text: Germanicus

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text: Nero

text: Mark Antony

text: Lugdunum

text: Lyon

text: Germanicus

text: Livilla

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text: Augustus

text: Gaius Julius Caesar

text: Livia

text: Tiberius Claudius Nero

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text: Drusus

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text: Cassius Dio

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text: Cassius Chaerea

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text: Gratus

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text: Judaean

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text: wills

text: Pliny the Elder

text: Loeb Classical Library

text: Macedonia

text: Achaea

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text: Thrace

text: Noricum

text: Lycia

text: Judea

text: annexed

text: Mauretania

text: that of Britannia

text: Aulus Plautius

text: legions

text: Gallic

text: Britons

text: Camulodunum

text: Colchester

text: colonia

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text: Temple was dedicated in his honour

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text: Chrestus

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text: Robert Graves

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text: book on dice-playing

text: Cicero

text: Asinius Gallus

text: Latin alphabet

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text: Appius Claudius Caecus

text: Appius Claudius Caecus

text: the letter "R"

text: Agrippina

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text: Xenophon

text: Locusta

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text: Mausoleum of Augustus

text: Princeps

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text: Golden House

text: Flavians

text: Britannicus

text: Titus

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text: Temple of Claudius

text: Maximinus Thrax

text: Feriale Duranum

text: steer

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text: Suetonius

text: Cassius Dio

text: Pertinax

text: I, Claudius

text: Claudius the God

text: Robert Graves

text: first-person

text: autobiography

text: Josef von Sternberg

text: I, Claudius

text: Charles Laughton

text: Merle Oberon

text: Scott Rudin

text: I, Claudius

text: BBC

text: Derek Jacobi

text: BAFTA

text: Masterpiece Theatre

text: Robin Brooks

text: Jonquil Panting

text: BBC Radio 4

text: Tom Goodman-Hill

text: Derek Jacobi

text: Harriet Walter

text: Tim McInnerny

text: Samuel Barnett

text: Rome

text: Demetrius and the Gladiators

text: Barry Jones

text: Messalina

text: Mino Doro

text: Freddie Jones

text: television

text: The Caesars

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text: Up Pompeii!

text: Cyril Appleton

text: Caligula

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text: miniseries

text: Richard Kiley

text: Imperium: Nero

text: Massimo Dapporto

text: Netflix

text: Roman Empire

text: Caligula

text: Kelson Henderson

text: Gladiator

text: Mika Waltari

text: A. E. van Vogt

text: Empire of the Atom

text: The Wizard of Linn

text: Linda Proud

text: Julio-Claudian family tree

text: List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources

text: Temple of Claudius, Colchester

text: Temple of Claudius

text: Life of Claudius

text: Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11

text: Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12

text: Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I

text: Cassius Dio's account, part II

text: The works of Josephus

text: The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius

text: Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians

text: Lyons tablet

text: Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet

text: Second half of the Lyons Tablet

text: Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech

text: Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent

text: Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis

text: Claudius Page

text: Claudius I

text: BBC History

categories: Claudii,Ancient Romans in Britain,People from Lugdunum,1st-century murdered monarchs,Claudius,Creators of writing systems,Characters in works by Geoffrey of Monmouth,Royalty and nobility with disabilities,54 deaths,10 BC births,Poisoned Romans,People with cerebral palsy,1st-century Roman emperors,Imperial Roman consuls,Deified Roman emperors,Julio-Claudian dynasty,Latin historians,1st-century historians,Murdered Roman emperors

paragraph: Claudius

paragraph: Claudius (; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was Roman emperor from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Roman Gaul, the first Roman emperor to be born outside Italy. Because he was afflicted with a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, his family ostracized him and excluded him from public office until his consulship, shared with his nephew Caligula in 37.

paragraph: Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges of Tiberius's and Caligula's reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last man of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire began the conquest of Britain (if the earlier invasions of Britain by Caesar and Caligula's aborted attempts are not counted).

paragraph: Having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position; this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 (at the age of 63), his grand-nephew, step-son, and adopted son Nero succeeded him as emperor. His 13-year reign (slightly longer than Nero's) would not be surpassed by any successors until that of Domitian, who reigned for 15 years.

paragraph: He was a descendant of the Octavii Rufi (through Gaius Octavius), Julii Caesares (through Julia Minor and Julia Antonia), and the Claudii Nerones (through Nero Claudius Drusus). He was a step-grandson (through his father Drusus) and great-nephew (through his mother Antonia Minor) of Augustus. He was a nephew of Tiberius through his father, Tiberius's brother. Through his brother Germanicus, Claudius was an uncle of Caligula and a great uncle of Nero. Through his mother Antonia Minor he was a grandson of Mark Antony.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.

paragraph: Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two other children who died young.

paragraph: His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus' sister, and he was therefore the great-great grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather.

paragraph: In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, possibly from illness. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years.

paragraph: Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver" to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests.

paragraph: In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Expectations about his future began to increase.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.:Public life.

paragraph: His work as a budding historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian—then reigning as Augustus Caesar. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the existing party line.

paragraph: When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the wars of the Second Triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honor the Imperial clan in 8 AD, Claudius' name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to paterfamilias of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius, and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all.

paragraph: When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius—then aged 23—appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the "cursus honorum". Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new Emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.

paragraph: Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the "equites", or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained.

paragraph: During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility.

paragraph: After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius' brother Germanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress. A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.:Assassination of Caligula (AD 41).

paragraph: On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a broad-based conspiracy involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several senators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot—particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family.

paragraph: In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him "princeps". A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection.

paragraph: The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new "princeps". When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus, claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judaean King Herod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.

paragraph: Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as "paterfamilias" of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary "Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet" ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon").

paragraph: While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus' sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.

paragraph: Since Claudius was the first Emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign.

paragraph: Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor."

paragraph: Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea as senatorial provinces.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Expansion of the Empire.

paragraph: Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Lycia, and Judea were annexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces. The most far-reaching conquest was that of Britannia".

paragraph: In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain ("Britannia") after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth – particularly mines and slaves. It was also a haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must have made an impression on the Britons when they were displayed in the large tribal centre of Camulodunum, modern day Colchester. The Roman "colonia" of "Colonia Claudia Victricensis" was established as the provincial capital of the newly established province of Britannia at Camulodunum, where a large Temple was dedicated in his honour.

paragraph: He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the Briton general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander.

paragraph: Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens (adult males with Roman citizenship; women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Judicial and legislative affairs.

paragraph: Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system.

paragraph: He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool.

paragraph: Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of Alexandria sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to Josephus, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the Empire.

paragraph: One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modern Trento) were not in fact citizens. The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the "Tabula clesiana", that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of the Roman equestrian order were sold back into slavery.

paragraph: Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting yew juice as a cure for snakebite. Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health. One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius on Tiber Island to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Public works.

paragraph: Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city in 52 and met at the Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo.

paragraph: He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just north of Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome.

paragraph: The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine.

paragraph: The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century, producing over of new arable land. He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Claudius and the Senate.

paragraph: Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of Tribune (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a Patrician, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control.

paragraph: Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:

paragraph: In 47 he assumed the office of "censor" with Lucius Vitellius, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyon Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even jokes about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond Gallia Narbonensis (Lyons, France), i.e. himself. He also increased the number of Patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar.

paragraph: Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial Procurator after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Claudius and the Senate.:Plots and coup attempts.

paragraph: Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of Dalmatia, and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators.

paragraph: Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo.

paragraph: In 46, Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.

paragraph: Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' term as Censor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in the section discussing Claudius' third wife, Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius' reign. Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate–emperor relations.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Secretariat and centralization of powers.

paragraph: Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the "princeps" became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers.

paragraph: The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain.

paragraph: Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius.

paragraph: He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, Felix. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.

paragraph: Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer than Crassus, the richest man of the Republican era.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Religious reforms.

paragraph: Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language.

paragraph: Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the Eleusinian mysteries which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as haruspices) as a replacement. He was especially hard on Druidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its proselytizing activities.

paragraph: Claudius forbade proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship freely.

paragraph: It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the Jews within the city caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.

paragraph: Section::::As Emperor.:Public games and entertainments.

paragraph: According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters. Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday. Annual games were also held in honour of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor.

paragraph: Claudius organised a performance of the Secular Games, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine Lake, as well as many other public games and shows.

paragraph: At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought a killer whale which was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder:

paragraph: Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At the Circus Maximus, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track. Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. Claudius rebuilt Pompey's Theatre after it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and personal life.

paragraph: Suetonius and the other ancient authors accused Claudius of being dominated by women and wives, and of being a womanizer.

paragraph: Claudius married four times, after two failed betrothals. The first betrothal was to his distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to Livia Medullina, which ended with Medullina's sudden death on their wedding day.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and personal life.:Plautia Urgulanilla.

paragraph: Plautia Urgulanilla was the granddaughter of Livia's confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to Junilla, the daughter of Sejanus.

paragraph: Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was allegedly one of his own freedmen. This action made him later the target of criticism by his enemies.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and personal life.:Aelia Paetina.

paragraph: Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relative of Sejanus, if not Sejanus's adoptive sister. During their marriage, Claudius and Paetina had a daughter, Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability, although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Paetina.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and personal life.:Valeria Messalina.

paragraph: Some years after divorcing Aelia Paetina, in 38 or early 39, Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter, Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession.

paragraph: This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a nymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius—Tacitus states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have the most sexual partners in a night—and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius Silius in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia.

paragraph: Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the Emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Under Roman law, the spouse needed to be informed that he or she had been divorced before a new marriage could take place; the sources state that Claudius was in total ignorance until after the marriage. Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children. The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point. Whatever the case, the result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and personal life.:Agrippina the Younger.

paragraph: Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen put forward three candidates, Caligula's third wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia Paetina and Claudius's niece Agrippina the Younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles.

paragraph: The truth is probably more political. The attempted coup d'état by Silius and Messalina had probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not yet have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy.

paragraph: Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the future Emperor Nero) was one of the last males of the Imperial family. Coup attempts could rally around the pair and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage, to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus (Claudius's brother), actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son.

paragraph: Nero was married to Claudius' daughter Octavia, made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, and promoted; Augustus had similarly named his grandson Postumus Agrippa and his stepson Tiberius as joint heirs, and Tiberius had named Caligula joint heir with his grandson Tiberius Gemellus. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome, when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable as was the case during Britannicus' minority. Claudius may have previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign.

paragraph: Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix, who was married to Claudius's daughter Claudia Antonia, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side – not close enough to the Imperial family to prevent doubts (although that did not stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half-brother of Valeria Messalina and at this time those wounds were still fresh. Nero was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.

paragraph: Section::::Claudius' affliction and personality.

paragraph: The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in relatively good detail. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his "Apocolocyntosis" that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well.

paragraph: However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of "dignitas". When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne. Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his life.

paragraph: Modern assessments of his health have changed several times in the past century. Prior to World War II, infantile paralysis (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in Robert Graves' Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates cerebral palsy as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon. Tourette syndrome has also been considered a possibility.

paragraph: As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the plebeians. They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of gladiatorial combat and executions, and very quick to anger; Claudius himself acknowledged the latter trait, and apologized publicly for his temper. According to the ancient historians he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused.

paragraph: Claudius' extant works present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his "Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.

paragraph: Section::::Scholarly works and their impact.

paragraph: Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano states that during the reign of Tiberius – which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career – it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both.

paragraph: Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included "Tyrrhenica", a twenty-book Etruscan history, and "Carchedonica", an eight-volume history of Carthage, as well as an Etruscan dictionary. He also wrote a book on dice-playing. Despite the general avoidance of the Republican era, he penned a defense of Cicero against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history.

paragraph: He proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of three new letters, two of which served the function of the modern letters "W" and "Y". He officially instituted the change during his censorship but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between successive words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste. Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) harshly criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches, it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge.

paragraph: None of the works survive but live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's "Natural History".

paragraph: The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The speech is meticulous in details, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies.

paragraph: His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly Appius Claudius Caecus, and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect, and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans did) that his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus had used the censorship to introduce the letter "R" and so used his own term to introduce his new letters.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison—possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather—and died in the early hours of 13 October 54.

paragraph: Nearly all implicate his final wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on Britannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power.

paragraph: Some implicate either his taster Halotus, his doctor Xenophon, or the infamous poisoner Locusta as the administrator of the fatal substance. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. Among contemporary sources, Seneca the Younger ascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors on his poisoning.

paragraph: In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age. Some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime. Claudius' ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus on 24 October 54, after a funeral similar to that of his great-uncle Augustus 40 years earlier.

paragraph: Section::::After death.

paragraph: Section::::After death.:Divine honours.

paragraph: Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a living Princeps and was worshipped in Britannia in his own temple in Camulodunum.

paragraph: Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been "hated", as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. Claudius' will had been changed shortly before his death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would have been considered an adult man according to Roman law only a few months later.

paragraph: Section::::After death.:Views of the new regime.

paragraph: Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence—most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor and many of Claudius' laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them.

paragraph: Seneca's Apocolocyntosis mocks the deification of Claudius and reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius' temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's Golden House.

paragraph: Section::::After death.:Flavian and later perspectives.

paragraph: The Flavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus, who had been a friend of the Emperor Titus (Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero's Golden House was burned, the Temple of Claudius was finally completed on the Caelian Hill.

paragraph: However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all such cults of dead Emperors by Maximinus Thrax in 237–238. The "Feriale Duranum", probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of a steer on his birthday, the Kalends of August. And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century.

paragraph: Section::::After death.:Views of ancient historians.

paragraph: The main ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or "equites". They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue.

paragraph: Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing. He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and often in public life. During his censorship of 47–48 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.23–25), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius' writings and to have omitted Claudius' character from his works. Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the Emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.

paragraph: As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century, Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.

paragraph: Section::::In modern literature, film and radio.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The best known fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius was contained in the books "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God" (published in 1934 and 1935, respectively) by Robert Graves, both written in the first-person to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius' autobiography. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. Claudius' extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, "Claudius the God"), to add authenticity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In 1937, director Josef von Sternberg attempted a film version of "I, Claudius", with Charles Laughton as Claudius. However, the lead actress, Merle Oberon, suffered a near-fatal car accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were featured in the BBC documentary "The Epic That Never Was" (1965). The motion picture rights for a new film eventually passed to producer Scott Rudin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Graves's two books were the basis for a British television adaptation "I, Claudius", produced by the BBC. The series starred Derek Jacobi as Claudius and was broadcast in 1976 on BBC2. It was a substantial critical success, and won several BAFTA awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on "Masterpiece Theatre" in 1977. The 1996 7-VHS release and the later DVD release of the television series, include "The Epic That Never Was" documentary.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A radio adaptation of the Graves novels by Robin Brooks and directed by Jonquil Panting, was broadcast in six one-hour episodes on BBC Radio 4 beginning 4 December 2010. The cast featured Tom Goodman-Hill as Claudius, Derek Jacobi as Augustus, Harriet Walter as Livia, Tim McInnerny as Tiberius and Samuel Barnett as Caligula.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In 2011, it was announced rights for a miniseries adaptation passed to HBO and BBC Two. Anne Thomopoulos and Jane Tranter, producers of the popular HBO–BBC2 "Rome" miniseries, were attached to the "I, Claudius" project. However, as of 2018, it has yet to be produced, and no release date is pending.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1954 film "Demetrius and the Gladiators" also portrayed him sympathetically, played by Barry Jones.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In the 1960 film "Messalina", Claudius is portrayed by Mino Doro.

paragraph: BULLET::::- On television, Freddie Jones portrayed Claudius in the 1968 British television series "The Caesars".

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1975 TV Special "Further Up Pompeii!" (based on the Frankie Howerd sit-com "Up Pompeii!") featured Cyril Appleton as Claudius.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In the 1979 motion picture "Caligula", where the role was performed by Giancarlo Badessi, Claudius is depicted as an idiot, in contrast to Robert Graves' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man, who is perceived by others to be an idiot.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1985 made-for-television miniseries "A.D." features actor Richard Kiley as Claudius. Kiley portrays him as thoughtful, but willing to cater to public opinion as well as being under the influence of Agrippina.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In the 2004 TV film "Imperium: Nero", Claudius is portrayed by Massimo Dapporto.

paragraph: BULLET::::- He is portrayed in Season 3 of the Netflix documentary series "Roman Empire", which focused on the reign of Caligula, by Kelson Henderson. The series concludes with Claudius's accession.

paragraph: BULLET::::- There is also a reference to Claudius' suppression of a coup in the movie "Gladiator", though the incident is entirely fictional.

paragraph: In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel "The Roman" by Mika Waltari. Canadian-born science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt reimagined Robert Graves' Claudius story, in his two novels, "Empire of the Atom" and "The Wizard of Linn".

paragraph: The historical novel "Chariot of the Soul" by Linda Proud features Claudius as host and mentor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome. When Togidubnus returns to Britain in advance of the Roman army, it is with a mission given to him by Claudius.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Julio-Claudian family tree

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Temple of Claudius, Colchester

paragraph: BULLET::::- Temple of Claudius, Rome

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Baldwin, B. (1964). "Executions under Claudius: Seneca's Ludus de Morte Claudii". "Phoenix" 18 (1): 39–48.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Griffin, M. (1990). "Claudius in Tacitus". "Classical Quarterly" 40 (2): 482–501.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Levick, B.M. (1978). "Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?" "American Journal of Philology", 99 (1): 79–105.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Levick, Barbara (1990). "Claudius". New Haven: Yale University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leon, E.F. (1948). "The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius", "Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association", 79 79–86.

paragraph: BULLET::::- McAlindon, D. (1957). "Claudius and the Senators", "American Journal of Philology", 78 (3): 279–286.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Major, A. (1992). "Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power", "Ancient History", 22 25–31.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Malloch, S. J. V. (2013). "The Annals of Tacitus, book 11". Cambridge University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Minaud, Gérard, "Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain – Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés", Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 2, " La vie de Messaline, femme de Claude", p. 39–64; ch. 3, " La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude", p. 65–96. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Momigliano, Arnaldo (1934). "Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement" Trans. W.D. Hogarth. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oost, S.V. (1958). "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas", "American Journal of Philology", 79 (2): 113–139.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Renucci, Pierre (2012). "Claude, l'empereur inattendu", Paris: Perrin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ryan, F.X. (1993). "Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47–48", "American Journal of Philology", 114 (4): 611–618.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). "The Emperor Claudius" Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stuart, M. (1936). "The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum" "American Journal of Archaeology" 40 (3): 314–322.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vessey, D.W.T.C. (1971). "Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" "American Journal of Philology" 92 (3) 385–409.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: Section::::External links.:Ancient Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suetonius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Life of Claudius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tacitus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cassius Dio's account, part II

paragraph: BULLET::::- Josephus

paragraph: BULLET::::- The works of Josephus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Seneca

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Claudius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lyons tablet

paragraph: BULLET::::- Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second half of the Lyons Tablet

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent. Full Latin text .

paragraph: Section::::External links.:Modern Biographies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis

paragraph: BULLET::::- Claudius Page

paragraph: BULLET::::- Claudius I at BBC History

alias: Emperor of Rome Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus

alias: Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus

description: 4th Emperor of Ancient Rome, member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty

wikidata_label: Claudius

wikipedia_title: Claudius


text:
Centrica Plc.
Oxford Said Business School
Order of the British Empire

categories: 1934 births,Fellows of St John's College, Oxford,Knights Bachelor,Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire,Living people,Businesspeople awarded knighthoods

paragraph: Michael Sydney Perry

paragraph: Sir Michael Sydney Perry (born 26 February 1934) is a British businessman who was Chairman of Centrica Plc. from 1997 until 10 May 2004. He is currently on the Business Advisory Forum of Oxford Said Business School.

paragraph: Perry is the son of Lt Cdr Sydney Albert Perry and Jessie Kate Brooker. He married Joan Mary Stallard and has a son and two daughters.

paragraph: He was knighted in 1977. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1978, a Commander of the order (CBE) in 1990 and a Knight Grand Cross of the order (GBE) in 2002.

paragraph: Section::::References.

description: British businessman

wikidata_label: Michael Sydney Perry

wikipedia_title: Michael Sydney Perry


text:
composer
music producer
Charles University
The Beatles
Supraphon
synthesizers
Panton Records
Supraphon
BBC Radiophonic Workshop
Romantic Robot
Videoface
Multiface
Amstrad CPC
Atari ST
concentration camp
Brundibár
Hans Krása
Stabat Mater
The Song of Songs
BBC Young Musician
French horn

wikipedia_title:
Composer
Record producer
Charles University
The Beatles
Supraphon
Synthesizer
Panton Records
Supraphon
BBC Radiophonic Workshop
Romantic Robot
Videoface
Multiface
Amstrad CPC
Atari ST
Internment
Brundibár
Hans Krása
Stabat Mater
Song of Songs
BBC Young Musician
French horn

categories: Musicians from Prague,1950 births,Czech composers,Male composers,Czech expatriates in the United Kingdom

paragraph: Alexander Goldscheider

paragraph: Alexander Goldscheider (born June 22, 1950) is a British composer, music producer, and computer specialist.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: He read music at Charles University in Prague, and received a PhD for his analysis of the music of "The Beatles". Initially a music writer, critic, and radio/club DJ (1968–73), he moved into songwriting and music production, becoming a staff producer at Supraphon (1976–79), where he produced a number of pop, rock, and jazz LPs of Czech singers and bands. He pioneered the use of synthesizers in Czechoslovakia and his music was released by Panton Records and Supraphon, used on TV and in films.

paragraph: He moved to London in 1981, recorded two solo albums (""Themes for a One-Man-Band Vol. 1 & 2""), and in 1983 worked at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop producing his own music for radio, TV, and films. Goldscheider then co-founded a music and computer company "Romantic Robot", which initially designed and sold hardware (Multiprint, Videoface, Multifaces 1, 2, 3, 128 and ST) and published software (Music Typewriter, Trans-Express, Genie, Wriggler) for Sinclair Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, and Atari ST computers.

paragraph: Romantic Robot became a recording label in 1991, when Goldscheider produced and released a 2-CD set of music written and performed in a Czech concentration camp —"". The set included children's opera ""Brundibár"" by Hans Krása, which has since been staged, recorded, and filmed all over the world. In addition to producing another CD ("An American in Prague – Aaron Copland conducts the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra"), Goldscheider has since concentrated on writing, performing, and producing his own compositions, recording classical singers, large choruses, and the Romantic Robot Orchestra on CDs such as ""Stabat Mater"" and ""The Song of Songs"", with occasional detours into web design. In June 2018, British record company Little Beat Different released his eponymous vinyl LP.

paragraph: Alexander Goldscheider's grandson Ben is also a musician. He won the Brass Category Final of the 2016 BBC Young Musician competition, playing the French horn.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Themes for a One-Man-Band Vol. 1"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Themes for a One-Man-Band Vol. 2"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Undercurrents"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "" (produced)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An American in Prague" (produced)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Stabat Mater"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Song of Songs"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alexander Goldscheider"

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Romantic Robot

paragraph: BULLET::::- Last.fm

paragraph: BULLET::::- MusicBrainz

paragraph: BULLET::::- Discogs

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Mluví k vám robot (A Robot is Talking to You)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Ave Maria"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Kol Nidre"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Kdo ví to"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Shabbat Blessing"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "From Shtetl to Jerusalem"

description: Czech composer, entrepreneur and publicist

wikidata_label: Alexander Goldscheider

wikipedia_title: Alexander Goldscheider


text:
racing
rallying
Dakar Rally
Munich
Sweden
Formula 3
Formula Vee
Formula 2
Ronnie Peterson
Torsten Palm
rallies
Mikaela Åhlin-Kottulinsky
Dakar Rally
VW Iltis
Audi
Jean Ragnotti
Quattro
Audi Quattro
Görkwitz
Thüringen
Schleizer Dreieck
Datsun 240Z
AvD
Nordschleife
Nürburgring
Karlstad
Freddy's story
Interview
WRC Driver Profile - Freddy Kottulinsky

categories: Sportspeople from Munich,German racing drivers,1932 births,Swedish racing drivers,2010 deaths,World Sportscar Championship drivers,Dakar Rally winning drivers,Counts of Germany,Dakar Rally drivers,Racing drivers from Bavaria

paragraph: Freddy Kottulinsky

paragraph: Winfried Philippe Adalbert Karl Graf Kottulinsky Freiherr von Kottulin, better known as Freddy Kottulinsky (20 July 1932 – 4 May 2010), was a German-Swedish racing and rallying driver who won the Paris-Dakar Rally in 1980. He was born in Munich.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: A member of old Austrian-Silesian nobility, in 1953 he went to Sweden, where he set up a repair shop. In the 1960s and mostly with a Swedish racing licence, Kottulinsky competed in Formula 3, Formula Vee and Formula 2. In F3 he became Swedish champion in 1966 on a Lotus 35 Cosworth. Together with Ronnie Peterson and Torsten Palm he in 1970 scored a Swedish win in the F3 European Cup for nations. In 1974 he won Formel Super V's European Gold Cup on a Lola T320.

paragraph: He also entered rallies, as did his daughter Susanne Kottulinsky who had been born in 1960. His granddaughter Mikaela Åhlin-Kottulinsky is also a racing driver in Audi Sport TT Cup. In 1980 he won the Paris-Dakar Rally together with Gerd Löffelmann in a 4WD VW Iltis prepared by Audi. When asked for the first time to drive one of three cars that were supposed to support Jean Ragnotti, Kottulinsky, who had neither experience nor desire to race in a desert, declined indirectly by asking for a high salary. Shortly before the race began, the team hired him anyway, and Kottulinsky entered the race with hardly any preparation. He did not have tent nor sleeping bag, but enough spare parts to keep the car running without having to wait for support. The design of this four wheel drive system provided the basis for Audi's Quattro system, which debuted later in 1980 on the original Audi Quattro. In that time, Kottulinsky also trained the mechanics to drive the team's service vehicles quickly and safely. This developed into Audi Fahrsicherheitstraining (driving safety lessons), for which Kottulinsky worked 25 years until retirement.

paragraph: Kottulinsky lived in Görkwitz in Thüringen for several years, promoting the local race track Schleizer Dreieck. At over 70 years of age, he was still entering motorsport events, e.g. on 11 August 2006 with a Datsun 240Z in the AvD-Historic-Marathon-400 on the Nordschleife of the Nürburgring. He died in May 2010 in Karlstad.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Freddy's story

paragraph: BULLET::::- Interview

paragraph: BULLET::::- WRC Driver Profile - Freddy Kottulinsky

description: Race und Rally driver

wikidata_label: Freddy Kottulinsky

wikipedia_title: Freddy Kottulinsky


text:
United States Army
Medal of Honor
11th Pennsylvania Cavalry
Battle of Staunton River Bridge
American Civil War
Columbiana County, Ohio
Greene County, Missouri
Springfield, Missouri
Long Beach, California
Long Beach, California
Quartermaster Sergeant
Medal of Honor
Battle of Staunton River Bridge
List of Medal of Honor recipients

categories: 1837 births,People from Long Beach, California,People from Springfield, Missouri,United States Army Medal of Honor recipients,Union Army soldiers,People from Columbiana County, Ohio,1929 deaths

paragraph: Nelson W. Ward

paragraph: Nelson W. Ward (November 20, 1837 – February 5, 1929) was a United States Army Medal of Honor recipient, honored for his actions while a private in the 11th Pennsylvania Cavalry during the Battle of Staunton River Bridge of the American Civil War. He also was the author of one book.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Ward was born in Columbiana County, Ohio, on November 20, 1837. He was married to Emily "Emma" Jane Hall on September 14, 1865. The couple moved to Greene County, Missouri shortly after their marriage. Nelson and Emma had two children: Joseph Edgar, born September 22, 1866; and Virginia, born 1869.

paragraph: In the late 1890s, he bought the Grundie Hotel in Springfield, Missouri, which he operated until about 1904. In the early 1900s, his family moved to Long Beach, California, where he lived for the rest of his life.

paragraph: Ward published the book, " 'The Master Key' to the Problems of Passion Week and the Resurrection According to the Scriptures" in 1915.

paragraph: His first wife, Emma, died on September 9, 1916, in Long Beach. He married Minnie Zurada Souder between Emma's death and 1920.

paragraph: He is interred at Sunnyside Cemetery in Long Beach, California.

paragraph: Section::::Military service.

paragraph: Ward enlisted in the 11th Pennsylvania Cavalry on August 5, 1861, and eventually attained the rank of Quartermaster Sergeant in that regiment. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Staunton River Bridge on June 25, 1864. Ward led a charge from land without meaningful cover onto a railroad bridge that was secured on both sides by Confederate troops. Although his commanding officer had been killed, he led a successful assault of the bridge despite the Union forces suffering heavy casualties.

paragraph: Section::::Medal of Honor citation.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: Voluntarily took part in a charge; went alone in front of his regiment under a heavy fire to secure the body of his captain, who had been killed in the action.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients

wikidata_label: Nelson W. Ward

wikipedia_title: Nelson W. Ward


text:
potter
jasperware
Wedgwood
Staffordshire
Tunstall
Staffordshire
James Brindley
Josiah Wedgwood
Wedgwood Group
William Adams, an old English potter

categories: 1740s births,Date of birth unknown,1805 deaths

paragraph: William Adams (potter)

paragraph: William Adams (baptised 1746; died 1805) was an English potter, a maker of fine jasperware shortly after its development and introduction to the English market by Wedgwood.

paragraph: Adams was one of three north Staffordshire William Adamses who were potters working at the time: all were cousins in an extended Adams family of potters of very many generations. This Adams founded the Greengates Pottery in 1779, producing fine jasperware table sets, plaques, medallions and other products stamped "Adams & Co". He is said to have been a friend and confidant of Josiah Wedgwood.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Adams was baptised in Tunstall, Staffordshire, the son of a potter. Born after the death of his father, he was raised by his grandfather, also a potter, who, according to the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography", placed him as an apprentice with John Brindley (brother of James Brindley, notable as a pioneer of canals). Other sources make him a "favourite pupil" of Josiah Wedgwood. Some 300 of his works have been identified, but he is nowadays mainly known only to those with an interest in 18th century English ceramics.

paragraph: Adams died in 1805, and his prosperous business was taken over by his younger son Benjamin; the business closed in 1820 in part due to Benjamin's ill health and was sold in 1826 to John Meir, but in 1897 was sold back to another branch of the Adams family, and was finally absorbed into the Wedgwood Group in 1966.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wood, Frank L., "The World of British Stoneware: Its History, Manufacture and Wares", 2014, Troubador Publishing Ltd, , 9781783063673

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A history of the Adams family of North Staffordshire, & of their connection with the development of the potteries,: With numerous pedigree charts & notes on allied families", 1914, by Percy W. L Adams

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Turner, "William Adams, an old English potter", Chapman & Hall 1904, from the Internet Archive

description: English potter, born 1746

wikidata_label: William Adams

wikipedia_title: William Adams (potter)


text:
Fado
Lisbon
Portugal
Lisbon
Europe
Paris
Rome
Madrid
Mário Barroso
O Milagre Segundo Salomé
Eurovision Dance Contest 2008
João Tiago
Raquel Tavares
Bairro
Raquel Tavares
Facebook

categories: Portuguese fado singers,Singers from Lisbon,1985 births,21st-century women singers,21st-century Portuguese singers,Portuguese female singers,Living people

paragraph: Raquel Tavares

paragraph: Raquel Tavares (born 11 January 1985) is a singer of Fado. She was born in Lisbon. She had a normal route on her education, but finally decided she could not leave music behind.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Raquel Tavares won the biggest song contest dedicated to fado in Portugal: “Grande Noite do Fado”.

paragraph: She sings regularly at “Bacalhau de Molho”, one of the most famous fado houses in Lisbon, and has made shows all around Europe, in cities like Paris, Rome or Madrid.

paragraph: Raquel sings what she sees, feels and smells around her, what she lives from day to day. And nothing suits her purposes better than the tangible, real-life stories written by Linhares Barbosa, the fado poet who best told the tales of the people.

paragraph: Her first album was released in 2006 and this was also the year when she was the winner of the Amália Rodrigues Revelation Prize.

paragraph: Her second album, "Bairro", just came out in May 2008.

paragraph: She has been named one of the most representative fado singers of the new generation and no longer just a promising voice.

paragraph: Section::::Curiosities.

paragraph: In 2004, Raquel played a small part, as a Fado singer, in Mário Barroso's film "O Milagre Segundo Salomé" ("The Miracle According to Salomé").

paragraph: She entered in the Eurovision Dance Contest 2008 with João Tiago. They took the 8th place.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Albums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 - "Porque Canto Fado"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006 - "Raquel Tavares"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008 - "Bairro"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2016 - "Raquel"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Raquel Tavares on Facebook

description: Portuguese singer

wikidata_label: Raquel Tavares

wikipedia_title: Raquel Tavares


text: American

text: Harry Donenfeld

text: National Allied Publications

text: DC Comics

text: Proskurov

text: Ukraine

text: Jewish

text: New York

text: Lower East Side

text: New York University

text: The Bronx

text: Manhattan

text: Union Square

text: stock market

text: Wall Street Crash of 1929

text: Harry Donenfeld

text: Eastern News

text: Charles Dreyfus

text: Paul Sampliner

text: bankruptcy

text: Independent News Company

text: Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson

text: comic book

text: New Fun

text: Detective Comics

text: Detective Comics Incorporated

text: Vin Sullivan

text: Sheldon Mayer

text: Golden Age of Comic Books

text: Jerry Siegel

text: Joe Shuster

text: Superman

text: Max Gaines

text: comic book publisher

text: All-American Publications

text: Educational Comics

text: movie serials

text: Kirk Alyn

text: animated short

text: Gerard Jones

text: Whitney Ellsworth

text: syndicated

text: Adventures of Superman

text: DC Comics

text: Kinney National Services

text: Warner Bros.

text: Warner Communications

text: Comics Code Authority

text: John Goldwater

text: American News Company

text: restraint of trade

text: George Delacorte

text: Dell Comics

text: Martin Goodman's

text: Marvel Comics

text: Bill Gaines

text: Mad

text: Hugh Hefner

text: Playboy

text: Long Island Jewish Hospital

text: Federation of Jewish Philanthropies

text: Fifty Who Made DC Great

text: Irwin

categories: American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent,American book publishers (people),Ukrainian Jews,20th-century American businesspeople,1900 births,People from Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine,Comic book publishers (people),American centenarians,American accountants,People from Podolia Governorate,2000 deaths,Imperial Russian emigrants to the United States

paragraph: Jack Liebowitz

paragraph: Jacob S. "Jack" Liebowitz (; born Yacov Lebovitz October 10, 1900 – December 11, 2000) was an American accountant and publisher, known primarily as the co-owner with Harry Donenfeld of National Allied Publications (later DC Comics).

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Jack Liebowitz was born Yacov Lebovitz in Proskurov, present-day Ukraine in October 1900, to a Jewish family. His mother, Mindl, never identified his biological father, her first husband (who had left the family), but married Yulyus Lebovitz when her son was three. Yacov soon adopted his stepfather's surname, and in 1910 the family emigrated to the United States. They arrived in the Jewish neighborhood of New York's Lower East Side and, as was common at the time, adopted Anglicized names: His parents became Julius and Minnie Liebowitz, while he became Jacob, soon shortened to Jack. Jack was a hardworking child and became a newsboy amongst other small jobs. In high school, he became adept at accountancy, a career he thought would help him escape his poor background.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Career and partnership with Harry Donenfeld.

paragraph: By age 24, Liebowitz had earned his accounting degree from New York University, and by 1927 had married (Rose) and moved to The Bronx. Liebowitz set himself up as an accountant based in Manhattan's Union Square area, with one client, the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU); his father had been a steward for that union since the early 1910s. By 1925, Liebowitz was in charge of the union's strike fund, and a year later managed to keep the fund solvent in the wake of a six-month, 50,000-worker strike. His business acumen placed Liebowitz in a position of high standing with the union officials. Toward the end of the decade, Liebowitz had taken on more clients and begun studying the stock market. His initial dealings worked well for the union, but after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, funds plummeted and Liebowitz and the ILGWU parted company.

paragraph: In 1929, Julius Liebowitz approached Harry Donenfeld, whom he had befriended through ILGWU ties, and sought work for his son. Donenfeld, a rising businessperson who felt a sense of loyalty to those from the old neighborhood, took Jack on as his personal accountant. Although a chance meeting, the two men complemented each other very well — Donenfeld was a social, chance-taking high-flyer, while Liebowitz was cautious and had a logical mind that ensured Donenfeld's fiscal mistakes were small, and that his business promises were binding only in favor to himself.

paragraph: When Liebowitz first worked for Donenfeld, the latter's empire was little more than a publishing house for "sex pulp" and art nudie magazines distributed by Eastern News, a company run by Charles Dreyfus and Paul Sampliner. In 1931, Eastern News faced bankruptcy and could no longer pay its publishers; the company owed Donenfeld alone $30,000. A compromise was called for, and Donenfeld, not wanting to find himself hamstrung by a distributor again, approached Sampliner with the idea of creating the Independent News Company, a publishing house with its own distribution system. As a publisher, Donenfeld had managed to dodge creditors and break deals, but as a distributor, he came to rely more on Liebowitz to ensure that the company ran smoothly. Liebowitz ensured bills were paid on time and began to build a trust with clients that Donenfeld's enterprises had never experienced.

paragraph: Section::::National/DC.

paragraph: In 1935, Major Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson came to Independent News seeking a new distributor for the comic book projects his company, National Allied Publications, was producing. Although comic books were not Donenfeld's main field, he took on Wheeler-Nicholson, and Independent News began printing and distributing comic books. Wheeler-Nicholson brought out two comics, "New Fun" and "New Comics"—the former of historical note as the first modern comic book with all-original material, as opposed to newspaper-comic reprints with occasional, tangential new material—but it would be his third publication, "Detective Comics", that would prove key. Already in considerable debt with Independent, Wheeler-Nicholson could only fund publication of "Detective Comics" by creating a subsidiary company — Detective Comics Incorporated—in partnership with Liebowitz.

paragraph: In 1938, Donenfeld managed to remove Wheeler-Nicholson from the equation, pushing Detective Comics, Inc. into bankruptcy and buying its assets. As part of the bankruptcy action, Liebowitz—now sole owner of Detective Comics Inc.—bought up Wheeler-Nicholson's National Allied Publications, and Donenfeld and Liebowitz assumed control over the entire, growing comic-book publisher.

paragraph: Liebowitz, now in control of the fledgling company, devised the title for what was to become National/DC's most important comic book: "Action Comics". He asked editor Vin Sullivan to find material to fill the new title, and Sullivan, Liebowitz and Sheldon Mayer ultimately created comics history and kickstarted what historians and fans call the Golden Age of Comic Books by selecting writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster's character Superman to star in the new title.

paragraph: Section::::National/DC.:All-American Publications.

paragraph: In the late 1930s, Max Gaines, who had past experience as a comic book publisher, approached Donenfeld for finances and distribution to set up his own publishing company. Donenfeld agreed, on the condition that Gaines take Liebowitz on as partner. Donenfeld arranged this not only to reward Liebowitz for his work with Independent News, but also as a hook to keep Liebowitz with the company and to ensure Gaines would not act outside the interests of Donenfeld's business. By the end of 1938, Gaines and Liebowitz were principal and minority owner, respectively, of All-American Publications, an independent sister-company to National/DC.

paragraph: In 1945/46, Gaines left All-American to found his own company — initially called Educational Comics, later known as EC — allowing Liebowitz to buy his interest in the company. Liebowitz promptly merged All-American with DC/National, and he and Donenfeld continued publishing the best of both companies' titles.

paragraph: Section::::National/DC.:New media.

paragraph: As the years went by, Liebowitz stayed at the forefront of new technologies and entertainment media, helping oversee Superman's transition to movie serials starring Kirk Alyn; to radio; and to theatrical animated shorts.

paragraph: Comics historian Gerard Jones described Liebowitz as the only comics publisher who "made any real effort to make the new medium [Television] work for him" when in 1951 producer Whitney Ellsworth brought the syndicated series "Adventures of Superman" to television.

paragraph: Section::::National/DC.:Company changes.

paragraph: DC Comics went public in 1961, and became officially known as National Periodical Publications with Liebowitz remaining president of what was by then America's foremost comics publisher. Six years later, Kinney National Services acquired the company; the following year, Kinney also bought Warner Bros. to form Warner Communications.

paragraph: Liebowitz continued to be an active member of the Warner Communications board, visiting his office daily even into his 91st year, finally relinquishing his place in 1991.

paragraph: Section::::1950s acquisitions.

paragraph: In the 1950s the comics industry suffered a massive shrink in sales, credited by many to the newly introduced Comics Code Authority, which banned publications that printed scenes of what was described as of a horrific, violent or sexual nature. This not only affected the popular horror and crime comics, but even the teen romance market. Liebowitz, who had pushed for a moral code in his own publications earlier in his career, was made vice-president of the organization under John Goldwater, and unsurprisingly was least affected by the new code, as his own comics were in-line with the code before it was introduced.

paragraph: In 1956 the comics market had shrunk by fifty percent compared to its early 1950 levels. When the American News Company was found guilty of restraint of trade in 1957 it was forced to divest itself of its newsstands. This caused George Delacorte of Dell Comics to a find a new distributor, and this in turn spelled the end of American News. Of those companies that had survived the early 1950s only half remained after the loss of such a large distributor. Liebowitz made three notable distribution acquisitions during this turmoil. The first was Martin Goodman's publishing company (whose staff would later form Marvel Comics), Bill Gaines's "Mad" magazine and Hugh Hefner's "Playboy".

paragraph: Section::::Non-publishing work and life.

paragraph: A founding trustee of the Long Island Jewish Hospital (renamed North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System), Liebowitz served on the board for over 50 years, beginning 1949, acting as honorary chairman, and was also the medical center's second president, from 1956 to 1968. In addition, he was a trustee of the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies in New York.

paragraph: In 1985, DC Comics named Liebowitz as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication "Fifty Who Made DC Great".

paragraph: Liebowitz died December 11, 2000, survived by his second wife, Shirley (his first wife, Rose, died in 1956), his two daughters, Linda and Joan, his stepson Robert, and his great grandchildren Eliana, Alex, Josh, Ben, Leo, Harry, and Ariana. Liebowitz's niece Carole was married for many years to Harry Donenfeld's son, Irwin, a long-time DC executive (and co-owner).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Comics Journal" obituary excerpt at TCJ.com

alias:
Jack S. Liebowitz
Yacov Lebovitz

description: Ukrainian born American accountant and publisher

wikidata_label: Jack Liebowitz

wikipedia_title: Jack Liebowitz


text: Turkic

text: Muslim

text: Tughlaq Dynasty

text: Sultanate of Delhi

text: Ghazi Malik

text: Muhammad bin Tughlaq

text: Thatta

text: Sindh

text: Bengal

text: Sultan of Delhi

text: Gujarat

text: Warangal

text: Jaunpur

text: Firozpur

text: Hissar

text: Firozabad

text: Fatehabad

text: spolia

text: Ulema

text: Cuttack

text: Jagannath Temple, Puri

text: Orissa

text: Kangra Fort

text: Thatta

text: jagir

text: Tughluq tombs

text: madrasas

text: Unani medicine

text: Delhi

text: Firoz Shah Palace Complex

text: Hisar

text: Prithviraj Chauhan

text: Western Yamuna Canal

text: Malik Maqbul

text: Warangal fort

text: Sanskrit

text: Persian

text: Arabic

text: Arabic

text: Ashokan Pillar

text: Meerut

text: Yamunanagar district

text: Haryana

text: Qutb Minar

text: Teen Murti Bhavan

text: Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II

text: Timur

text: tomb

categories: 1309 births,14th-century Turkic people,14th-century Indian monarchs,Indian Muslims,1388 deaths,Tughluq sultans

paragraph: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

paragraph: Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1309 – 20 September 1388) was a Turkic Muslim ruler of the Tughlaq Dynasty, who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title "Sipahsalar". He succeeded his cousin Muhammad bin Tughlaq following the latter's death at Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had gone in pursuit of Taghi the ruler of Gujarat. For the first time in the history of Delhi Sultanate, a situation was confronted wherein nobody was ready to accept the reins of power. With much difficulty, the camp followers convinced Firoz to accept the responsibility. In fact, Khwaja Jahan, the Wazir of Muhammad bin Tughlaq had placed a small boy on throne claiming him to the son of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who meekly surrendered afterwards. Due to widespread unrest, his realm was much smaller than Muhammad's. Tughlaq was forced by rebellions to concede virtual independence to Bengal and other provinces.

paragraph: Section::::Rule.

paragraph: We know of Firoz Shah Tughlaq in part through his 32-page autobiography, titled "Futuhat-e-firozshahi.". He was 45 when he became Sultan of Delhi in 1351. He ruled until 1388. At his succession, after the death of Muhammad Tughlaq, he faced many rebellions, including in Bengal, Gujarat and Warangal. Nonetheless he worked to improve the infrastructure of the empire building canals, rest-houses and hospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and digging wells. He founded several cities around Delhi, including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hissar, Firozabad, Fatehabad. Most of Firozabad was destroyed as subsequent rulers dismantled its buildings and reused the spolia as building materials, and the rest was subsumed as New Delhi grew.

paragraph: Section::::Moderation.

paragraph: Tughlaq was a fervent Muslim. He made a number of important concessions to theologians. He tried to ban practices that the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic, an example being his prohibition of the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the graves of saints. He persecuted a number of Muslim sects which were considered heretical by the theologians.

paragraph: Tughlaq took to heart the mistakes made during his cousin Muhammad's rule. He decided not to reconquer areas that had broken away, nor to keep further areas from taking their independence. He was indiscriminately benevolent and lenient as a sultan. He decided to keep nobles and the Ulema happy so that they would allow him to rule his kingdom peacefully.

paragraph: "The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh", while "Bengal asserted its independence." The Sultan led expeditions to against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. The Sultan captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute. Most of the Jajnagar raid has been disproved by KC Panigrahi. The Original Muslim chroncilers refer to a raid, which, demolished Jagannath Temple and destroyed stone Idols. Subsequent Archaeological evidence disproves the complete demolition to the Temple even though structural superficial damages have been seen. Also, Jagannath Mandira does not have stone Idols. The "Daru Brahma" is a wooden Idol which is replaced after every Nabakalabera that happens once every 14–16 years based on an Odia Panchanga. This implies the raid while true , does not sound like a large scale invasion, but, more of a Hit and run incident. This is not uncommon for Medieval chroniclers.

paragraph: He laid siege to Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute, and did the same with Thatta.

paragraph: Rather than awarding position based on merit, Tughlaq allowed a noble's son to succeed to his father's position and jagir after his death. The same was done in the army, where an old soldier could send his son, son-in-law or even his slave in his place. He increased the salary of the nobles. He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments such as cutting off hands. He also lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised. Tughlaq's reign has been described as the greatest age of corruption in medieval India: he once gave a golden tanka to a distraught soldier so that he could bribe the clerk to pass his sub-standard horse.

paragraph: Section::::Infrastructure and education.

paragraph: Tughlaq instituted economic policies to increase the material welfare of his people. Many rest houses ("sarai"), gardens and tombs(Tughluq tombs) were built. A number of madrasas were opened to encourage literacy. He set up hospitals for the free treatment of the poor and encouraged physicians in the development of Unani medicine. He provided money for the marriage of girls belonging to poor families under the department of Diwan-i-khairat. He commissioned many public buildings in Delhi. He built Firoz Shah Palace Complex at Hisar in 1354 CE, over 300 villages and dug five major canals, including the renovation of Prithviraj Chauhan era Western Yamuna Canal, for irrigation bringing more land under cultivation for growing grain and fruit. For day-to-day administration, Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq heavily depended on Malik Maqbul, previously commander of Warangal fort, who was captured and converted to Islam. When Tughlaq was away on a campaign to Sind and Gujarat for six months and no news was available about his whereabouts Maqbul ably protected Delhi. He was the most highly favoured among the significant number of the nobles in Tughlaq's court and retained the trust of the sultan. Sultan Feroze Shah Tughlaq used to call Maqbul as 'brother'. The sultan remarked that "Khan-i-Jahan" (Malik Maqbul) was the real ruler of Delhi.

paragraph: Hindu religious works were translated from Sanskrit to Persian and Arabic. He had a large personal library of manuscripts in Persian, Arabic and other languages. He brought 2 Ashokan Pillars from Meerut, and Topra near Radaur in Yamunanagar district of Haryana, carefully cut and wrapped in silk, to Delhi in bullock cart trains. He re-erected one of them on the roof of his palace at Firoz Shah Kotla.

paragraph: Transfer of capital was the highlight of his reign. When the Qutb Minar struck by lightning in 1368 AD, knocking off its top storey, he replaced them with the existing two floors, faced with red sandstone and white marble. One of his hunting lodges, Shikargah, also known as Kushak Mahal, is situated within the Teen Murti Bhavan complex, Delhi. The nearby Kushak Road is named after it, as is the Tughlaq Road further on.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: His eldest son, Fath Khan, died in 1376. The Sultan then abdicated in August 1387 and made his other son, Prince Muhammad, king. A slave rebellion forced the Sultan to confer the royal title to his grandson, Tughluq Khan.

paragraph: Tughlaq's death led to a war of succession coupled with nobles rebelling to set up independent states. His lenient attitude had strengthened the nobles, thus weakening the Sultan's position. His successor Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq II could not control the slaves or the nobles. The army had become weak and the empire had shrunk in size. Ten years after his death, Timur's invasion devastated Delhi. His tomb is located in Hauz Khas (New Delhi), close to the tank built by Alauddin Khalji. Attached to the tomb is a madrasa built by Firoz Shah in 1352-53.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Dargah Qadam Sharif or Shrine of the Holy Foot, Delhi

description: 19th Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate and 3rd from the Tughlaq dynasty

enwikiquote_title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

wikidata_label: Firuz Shah Tughlaq

wikipedia_title: Firuz Shah Tughlaq