text: New Zealand

text: physician

text: occupational medicine

text: hyperbaric medicine

text: anesthesiology

text: neuroprotection

text: embolic

text: medical literature

text: author

text: technical diver

text: University of Auckland

text: South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society

text: Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists

text: Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society

text: The Explorers Club

text: New York

text: Auckland

text: Albert R. Behnke Award

text: rebreather

text: shipwreck

text: ship's bell

text: Robinson 22 helicopter

text: Lake Wanaka

text: Transport Accident Investigation Commission

text: AHS Centaur

text: hospital ship

text: Queensland

text: Australia

text: A Current Affair

text: Queensland Maritime Museum

text: Australian War Memorial

text: gazetted

text: war grave

text: Australian Hydrographic Office

text: wreck diver

text: Trevor Jackson

text: lime

text: newsmagazine

text: 60 Minutes

text: discovery of HMAS "Sydney"

text: tender

text: New Zealand Skeptics

text: The New Zealand Herald

text: Hyperbaric machine

text: Simon Mitchell

text: Overview of decompression models'

text: The problems and pitfalls of off-label use'

text: Anatomy of a CCR Dive'

text: Recommendations and Finding of Rebreather Forum 3'

text: DAN / Rolex Diver Of The Year Award 2015

text: EUROTEK.2014 Discover Award

text: UHMS Albert R. Behnke Award

categories: Australian underwater divers,Australian explorers,New Zealand explorers,1958 births,University of Auckland alumni,New Zealand anaesthetists,Place of birth missing (living people),Living people

paragraph: Simon Mitchell

paragraph: Simon Mitchell (born 1958) is a New Zealand physician specialising in occupational medicine, hyperbaric medicine and anesthesiology. Trained in medicine, Mitchell was awarded a PhD for his work on neuroprotection from embolic brain injury. Mitchell has also published more than 45 research and review papers in the medical literature. Mitchell is an author and avid technical diver. He also wrote two chapters of the latest edition of "Bennett and Elliott's Physiology and Medicine of Diving," is the co-author of the diving textbook "Deeper Into Diving" with John Lippmann and co-authored the chapter on Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine in Harrison's "Principles of Internal Medicine" with Michael Bennett.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Mitchell received a Bachelor of Human Biology (BHB) in 1988 and later a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MB ChB) in 1990 from the University of Auckland. In 2001, he received a Diploma in Occupational Medicine (DipOccMed) from the South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society. Mitchell then went on to complete a Doctor of Philosophy in Medicine (PhD) in 2001 and Diploma in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine (DipDHM) in 1995 from the University of Auckland. Mitchell received his Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (ANZCA) Certificate in Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine in 2003, and became a Fellow of the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists (FANZCA) in 2008. He is currently Associate Professor of Anaesthesiology and Head of the Department of Anaesthesiology at the University of Auckland.

paragraph: Mitchell is a former vice president of the Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS) and currently serves as the chairman of the organisation's diving committee. He became a Fellow of The Explorers Club of New York in 2006.

paragraph: Mitchell has dual Australian and New Zealand citizenship. He lives in Auckland, New Zealand, with his wife Siân.

paragraph: In 2010, Mitchell was awarded the Albert R. Behnke Award by the UHMS for his outstanding scientific contributions to advances in undersea biomedical activity.

paragraph: On 23 August 2017 Mitchell delivered his inaugural lecture (as a full professor) at the Grafton Campus, Auckland, New Zealand.

paragraph: Section::::Diving.

paragraph: Mitchell began diving in 1972. His diving primarily involves the use of rebreather technology to explore shipwrecks at extreme depths.

paragraph: Mitchell was a member of "The Sydney Project" in 2004 and located the letters U, M, and E that helped with the positive identification of the SS "Cumberland". In 2007, Mitchell and Pete Mesley were responsible for identification of the "Port Kembla" including recovery of the ship's bell. Mitchell attempted to recover a Robinson 22 helicopter engine from the poor underwater visibility of Lake Wanaka for use in the Transport Accident Investigation Commission investigation of the death of Morgan Saxton.

paragraph: Section::::Diving.:AHS "Centaur".

paragraph: "AHS Centaur" was a hospital ship which was attacked and sunk by a Japanese submarine off the coast of Queensland, Australia, on 14 May 1943. Of the 332 medical personnel and civilian crew aboard, 268 were killed. Following World War II, several searches of the waters around North Stradbroke and Moreton Islands failed to reveal "Centaur"’s location. It was believed that she had sunk off the edge of the continental shelf, to a depth the Royal Australian Navy did not, and still does not, have the capability to search for a vessel of "Centaur"’s size.

paragraph: In 1995, it was announced that the shipwreck of "Centaur" had been located in waters from the lighthouse on Moreton Island, a significant distance from her believed last position. The finding was reported on "A Current Affair", during which footage of the shipwreck, underwater, was shown. Discoverer Donald Dennis claimed the identity of the shipwreck had been confirmed by the Navy, the Queensland Maritime Museum, and the Australian War Memorial. A cursory search by the Navy confirmed that there was a shipwreck at the given location, which was gazetted as a war grave and added to navigation charts by the Australian Hydrographic Office.

paragraph: Over the next eight years, there was growing doubt about the position of Dennis' wreck, due to the distance from both Second Officer Rippon's calculation of the point of sinking and where USS "Mugford" found the survivors. During this time, Dennis had been convicted on two counts of deception and one of theft through scams. Two wreck divers, Trevor Jackson and Simon Mitchell, used the location for a four-hour world record dive on 14 May 2002, during which they examined the wreck and took measurements, claiming that the ship was too small to be "Centaur". Jackson had been studying "Centaur" for some time, and believed that the wreck was actually another, much smaller ship, the long MV "Kyogle", a lime freighter purchased by the Royal Australian Air Force and sunk during bombing practice on 12 May 1951. The facts gathered on the dive were inconclusive, but the divers remained adamant it was not "Centaur", and passed this information onto Nick Greenaway, producer of the newsmagazine show "60 Minutes".

paragraph: On the 60th anniversary of the sinking, "60 Minutes" ran a story demonstrating that the wreck was not "Centaur". It was revealed that nobody at the Queensland Maritime Museum had yet seen Dennis' footage, and when it was shown to Museum president Rod McLeod and maritime historian John Foley, they stated that the shipwreck could not be "Centaur", as the rudder was incorrectly shaped. Following this story, and others published around the same time in newspapers, the Navy sent three ships to inspect the site over a two-month period; HMA Ships , , and , before concluding that the shipwreck was incorrectly identified as "Centaur". An amendment was made to the gazettal, and the Hydrographic Office began to remove the mark from charts.

paragraph: In April 2008, following the successful discovery of HMAS "Sydney", several parties began calling for a dedicated search for "Centaur". By the end of 2008, the Australian Federal and Queensland State governments had formed a joint committee and contributed $2 million each towards a search, and by February 2009, the tender for the project had received eleven expressions of interest.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: In 2015, Mitchell was awarded a Bravo award by the New Zealand Skeptics for his rebuttal of claims in a "The New Zealand Herald" article about a Hyperbaric machine entitled "”Hope is in the air: Hyperbaric chambers – the real deal or a placebo?".

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Select publications by Simon Mitchell

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Simon J (2015) Radio Interview - 'The Five Minute Prebreathe: Sensitive Test For CO2 Scrubber Problems Or A Waste Of Time' At: Beneath The Sea, New York

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Simon J (2011) Video Presentation - 'Overview of decompression models' At: International Congress on Hyperbaric Medicine, South Africa

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Simon J (2011) Video Presentation - 'The problems and pitfalls of off-label use' At: International Congress on Hyperbaric Medicine, South Africa

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Simon J (2012) Video Presentation - 'Anatomy of a CCR Dive' At: Rebreather Forum 3, Friday 18 May 2012

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Simon J (2012) Video Presentation - 'Recommendations and Finding of Rebreather Forum 3' At: Rebreather Forum 3, Sunday 20 May 2012

paragraph: BULLET::::- Refereed journal articles

paragraph: BULLET::::- SAMES C3, GORMAN D2, MITCHELL SJ, GAMBLE G3. The utility of repetitive medical examinations of occupational divers. Internal Med J, In press, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- GORMAN DF2, SAMES C3, MITCHELL SJ. Routine occupational dive medical examinations (Invited Commentary). Diving Hyperbaric Med 39, 109-110, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, MERRY AF. Lignocaine: neuroprotective or wishful thinking? J Extracorporeal Technol 41, 37-42, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, MERRY AF, FRAMPTON C3, DAVIES E, GRIEVE D1, MILLS BP1, WEBSTER CS, MILSOM FP3, WILLCOX TW, GORMAN DF2. Cerebral protection by lidocaine during cardiac operations: a follow-up study. Ann Thorac Surg 87, 820-825, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, DOOLETTE DJ3. Selective vulnerability of the inner ear to decompression sickness in divers with right to left shunt: the role of tissue gas supersaturation. J Appl Physiol 106, 298-301, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- SAFE SURGERY SAVES LIVES STUDY GROUP. A surgical safety checklist to reduce morbidity and mortality in a global population. N Eng J Med 360, 491-499, 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Treatment of decompression sickness in the 21st century: a review. Diving Hyperbaric Med 37, 73-75, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- BENNETT MH3, LEHM JP3, MITCHELL SJ, WASIAK J3. Recompression and adjunctive therapy for decompression illness (Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, CRONJE F3, MEINTJES WAJ3, BRITZ HC3. Fatal respiratory failure during a technical rebreather dive at extreme pressure. Aviat Space Environ Med 78, 81-86, 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- WILLCOX TW. MITCHELL SJ. Arterial bubbles from the venous line (Invited Commentary). J Extracorporeal Technol 38, 214-215, 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- SMART DR3, BENNETT MH3, MITCHELL SJ. Transcutaneous oximetry, problem wounds and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Diving Hyperbaric Med 36, 72-86, 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. From trash to leucocytes: what are we filtering and why? J Extracorporeal Technol 38, 58-63, 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- TRYTKO B3, MITCHELL SJ. Extreme survival: a deep technical diving accident. SPUMS J 35, 23-27, 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Severity scoring in decompression illness. SPUMS J 35, 199-205, 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- BENNETT MH3, LEHM JP3, MITCHELL SJ, WASIAK J3. Recompression and adjunctive therapy for decompression illness. (Protocol for a Cochrane Review) In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 2, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Children in diving: how young is too young? SPUMS J 33, 81-83, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- BENNETT MH3, MITCHELL SJ, DOMINGUEZ A3. Adjunctive treatment of decompression illness with a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug reduces compression requirement. Undersea Hyperbaric Med 30, 195-205, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- DOOLETTE DJ3, MITCHELL SJ. A biophysical basis for inner ear decompression sickness. J Applied Physiol 94, 2145-2150, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, GORMAN DF2. The pathophysiology of cerebral arterial gas embolism. J Extracorporeal Technol 34, 18-23, 2002

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Immersion pulmonary oedema. SPUMS J 32, 200-204, 2002 MITCHELL SJ. Salt water aspiration syndrome. SPUMS J 32, 205-206, 2002

paragraph: BULLET::::- TAYLOR LT3, MITCHELL SJ. Diabetes and diving: should old dogma give way to new evidence? SPUMS J 31, 44-50, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- DOOLETTE DJ3, MITCHELL SJ. The physiological kinetics of nitrogen and the prevention of decompression sickness. Clin Pharmacokinetics 40, 1-14, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Lidocaine in the treatment of decompression illness: a review of the literature. Undersea Hyperbaric Med 28, 165-174, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, BENSON M3. VADLAMUDI L3, MILLER P3. Arterial gas embolism by helium: an unusual case successfully treated with hyperbaric oxygen and lidocaine. Ann Emerg Med 35, 300-303, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, WILLCOX T, MILSOM FP3, GORMAN DF2. Physical and pharmacological neuroprotection in cardiac surgery. Sem Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 4, 80-85, 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, PELLETT O2, GORMAN DF2. Cerebral protection by lidocaine during cardiac operations. Ann Thorac Surg 67, 1117-1124, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- GORMAN DF2, MITCHELL SJ. A history of cerebral arterial gas embolism research: key publications. SPUMS J 29, 34-39, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- WILLCOX TW, MITCHELL SJ, GORMAN DF2. Venous air in the bypass circuit: a source of arterial line emboli exacerbated by vacuum assisted drainage. Ann Thorac Surg 68, 1285-1291, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- GRINDLAY J3, MITCHELL SJ. Isolated pulmonary oedema associated with scuba diving. Emergency Med 11, 272-276, 1999

paragraph: BULLET::::- RICHARDSON K3, MITCHELL SJ, DAVIS MF3, RICHARDS M3. Decompression illness in New Zealand Divers: the 1996 experience. SPUMS J 28, 50-55, 1998

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, HOLLEY A3, GORMAN DF2. A new system for scoring severity and recovery in decompression illness. SPUMS J 28, 84-94, 1998

paragraph: BULLET::::- MILSOM FP3, MITCHELL SJ. A novel dual vent heart de-airing technique markedly reduces carotid artery microemboli. Ann Thorac Surg; 66, 785-791, 1998

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, WILLCOX T, GORMAN DF2. Bubble generation and venous air filtration by hard- shell venous reservoirs: a comparative study. Perfusion 12, 325-333, 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, PELLETT O2, GORMAN DF2. Open chamber cardiac surgery: a clinical injury model for arterial gas embolism. SPUMS J 27, 230-235, 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, WILLCOX T, MCDOUGALL C3, GORMAN DF2. Emboli generation by the Medtronic Maxima hardshell adult venous reservoir in cardio-pulmonary bypass circuits: a preliminary report. Perfusion 11, 145-155, 1996

paragraph: BULLET::::- GARDNER M3, FORBES C3, MITCHELL SJ. One hundred cases of decompression illness treated in New Zealand during 1995. SPUMS J 26, 222-226, 1996

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. The role of lignocaine in the treatment of decompression illness - A review of the literature. SPUMS J 25, 182-194, 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Assessment of fitness for diving. Practice Nurse 2, 25 – 26, 1995 MITCHELL SJ, GORMAN DF2. Near Drowning. General Practitioner 2, 8-9, 1994

paragraph: BULLET::::- GORMAN DF, DREWRY A, MITCHELL SJ. A progress report on diving medicine studies in the RNZN. SPUMS J 24, 161-163, 1994

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Diving Accidents. Patient Management January, 25 – 30, 1993

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. Near Drowning. Patient Management January, 11 – 13, 1993

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ, GORMAN DF. Diving Accidents. General Practitioner 1, 8 – 9, 1993

paragraph: BULLET::::- MITCHELL SJ. The diet of ling (Genypterus blacodes) from four New Zealand off-shore fishing grounds. NZ J Marine Freshw Res 18, 1984

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: BULLET::::- DAN / Rolex Diver Of The Year Award 2015

paragraph: BULLET::::- EUROTEK.2014 Discover Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- UHMS Albert R. Behnke Award

description: New Zealand physician, author and technical diver

wikidata_label: Simon Mitchell

wikipedia_title: Simon Mitchell


text:
Pomeranian
witchcraft
Szczecin
Poland
femme fatale
von Borcke
Pomeranian
Noble Damsels' Foundation
Marienfließ Abbey
Protestant Reformation
imperial court
Vienna
sub-prioress
Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania
feud
Hauptmann
Philip II
mass
fortune-telling
gypsies
oath
Stettin
Greifswald
Pomeranian dukes
Pomeranian dynasty
maleficium
torture
Magdeburg
burned at the stake
suicide
Philip II
Pomerania-Stettin
Consistorial Counsellor
Judas psalm
Psalm 109
Magdeburg
pliers
beheading
House of Pomerania
femme fatale
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Christian August Vulpius
Gothic romance
Wilhelm Meinhold
Oscar Wilde
Jane Wilde
William Morris
Kelmscott Press
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
Edward Burne-Jones
Medusa-type
mistress
Fanny Cornforth
Theodor Fontane
Pomerania
Wilhelm Meinhold
Witch-hunt
Internet Archive
Google Books
Project Gutenberg

wikipedia_title:
Duchy of Pomerania
Witchcraft
Szczecin
Poland
Femme fatale
Borcke
Duchy of Pomerania
Stift
Marianowo, West Pomeranian Voivodeship
Reformation
Holy Roman Empire
Vienna
Prior
Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania
Feud
Hauptmann
Philip II, Duke of Pomerania
Mass (liturgy)
Fortune-telling
Romani people
Oath
Szczecin
Greifswald
List of Pomeranian duchies and dukes
House of Griffin
Maleficium (sorcery)
Torture
Magdeburg
Death by burning
Suicide
Philip II, Duke of Pomerania
Duchy of Pomerania
Consistory (Protestantism)
Psalm 109
Psalm 109
Magdeburg
Pliers
Decapitation
House of Griffin
Femme fatale
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Christian August Vulpius
Gothic fiction
Wilhelm Meinhold
Oscar Wilde
Jane Wilde
William Morris
William Morris
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
Dante Gabriel Rossetti
Edward Burne-Jones
Medusa
Mistress (lover)
Fanny Cornforth
Theodor Fontane
Pomerania
Wilhelm Meinhold
Witch-hunt
Internet Archive
Google Books
Project Gutenberg

categories: 16th-century women,People from the Duchy of Pomerania,Executed German people,17th-century women,1620 deaths,1548 births,People executed for witchcraft,17th-century German people,16th-century German people,People executed by decapitation

paragraph: Sidonia von Borcke

paragraph: Sidonia von Borcke (1548–1620) was a Pomeranian noblewoman who was tried and executed for witchcraft in the city of Stettin (today Szczecin, Poland). In posthumous legends, she is depicted as a "femme fatale", and she has entered English literature as Sidonia the Sorceress. She had lived in various towns and villages throughout the country.

paragraph: Section::::Alternative spellings.

paragraph: Her name may also be spelled as Sidonie von Bork, Borke, or Borken.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Sidonia von Borcke was born in 1548 into a wealthy noble Pomeranian family. Her father, Otto von Borcke zu Stramehl-Regenwalde, died in 1551, and her mother, Anna von Schwiechelt, died in 1568.

paragraph: After the death of her sister in 1600 she took residence in 1604 in the Lutheran "Noble Damsels' Foundation" in Marienfließ Abbey which, since 1569 and following the Protestant Reformation, was a convent for unmarried noblewomen.

paragraph: Before that she had been involved in several lawsuits concerning support payments which, she claimed, were owed to her. Defendants in the suits were her brother, Ulrich, and Johann Friedrich, Duke of Pomerania (died 1600). One of these suits was even heard in the imperial court in Vienna.

paragraph: While living in Marienfließ, Sidonia engaged in several private and judicial conflicts with her (mostly younger) co-residents and with the administrative staff of the abbey. When in 1606 she was dismissed from her post as an "Unterpriorin" (sub-prioress) by the convent's prioress, Magdalena von Petersdorff, she appealed her dismissal to Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania.

paragraph: Bogislaw sent a Commission, headed by Joachim von Wedel, to investigate the dispute. The interaction between the Commission and Sidonia soon metamorphosed into a major feud. Von Wedel met in private with the Marienfließ Hauptmann (captain), Johannes von Hechthausen, to consider "getting rid of this poisonous snake." The feud ended with the death of Bogislaw XIII in 1606 and the deaths of von Petersdorff, von Wedel, and von Hechthausen (all in 1609).

paragraph: Two years later, Sidonia filed complaints against the new prioress, Agnes von Kleist. These complaints were addressed to Philip II, Bogislaw's successor. Like his predecessor, Philip sent a Commission to investigate the complaints — a Commission headed by Jost von Borcke, a relative of Sidonia's who had already been humiliated when he was involved in prior lawsuits brought by Sidonia.

paragraph: The new Commission did not succeed in calming the dispute, and Jost von Borcke described the situation at Marienfließ as one of chaos, mistrust, name-calling, and occasional violence. Philip II died in 1618 and was succeeded by Duke Francis I. Jost von Borcke was in good standing at Francis's court and remained head of the investigating Commission.

paragraph: In July 1619, a dispute between Sidonia and "Unterpriorin" (sub-prioress) Dorothea von Stettin escalated out of control during a mass, and both women were arrested. Dorothea von Stettin then accused Sidonia of witchcraft, specifically of forcing a former Marienfließ factotum, Wolde Albrechts, to ask the devil about her (Sidonia's) future.

paragraph: Wolde Albrechts made her living from fortune-telling and begging after she lost her position at Marienfließ (this loss was a consequence of the death of Johannes von Hechthausen). She had travelled with gypsies in her youth, was known to have had several unstable sexual relationships, and was unmarried with an illegitimate child.

paragraph: Dorothea von Stettin persuaded Anna von Apenburg, her Marienfließ roommate, to support her accusation of Sidonia. According to contemporary law, the "Constitutio Criminalis Carolina", two eyewitnesses were sufficient to convict both Sidonia and Wolde. Anna, however, withdrew her support of the accusation when she was asked to repeat her statement under oath.

paragraph: Section::::Trials.

paragraph: The trials of Sidonia von Borcke and Wolde Albrechts were held at the court in Stettin. These trials are well documented, with more than a thousand pages of the original trial record available in an archive in Greifswald ("Rep 40 II Nr.37 Bd.I-III"). The recent unexpected deaths of several Pomeranian dukes, along with widespread superstition, had created an atmosphere in which the public was prepared to blame the dukes' deaths on Sidonia's alleged witchcraft. This bias was strengthened when the Pomeranian dynasty became extinct in 1637.

paragraph: Section::::Trials.:Wolde Albrechts.

paragraph: The trial of Wolde Albrechts was a preface to the trial of Sidonia.

paragraph: Albrechts was arrested on 28 July 1619. On 18 August, she was charged with maleficium and "Teufelsbuhlschaft" (i.e., sexual relations with the devil).

paragraph: On 2 September, torture was admitted as a legitimate means of interrogation by the supreme court at Magdeburg.

paragraph: On 7 September, Albrechts confessed under torture and accused Sidonia and two other women of witchcraft. She repeated these confessions in the presence of Sidonia during Sidonia's trial, which began on 1 October 1619.

paragraph: Albrechts was burned at the stake on 9 October 1619.

paragraph: Section::::Trials.:Sidonia von Borcke.

paragraph: Sidonia, who had been imprisoned in the Marienfließ Abbey, attempted to escape but failed. She also attempted suicide, but this also failed.

paragraph: On 18 November 1619, she was transferred to a prison in Stettin.

paragraph: In December, 72 charges were brought against her. The most important of these were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of her nephew, Otto von Borcke

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of a priest, David Lüdecke

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of duke Philip II of Pomerania-Stettin (died 1618)

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of Magdalena von Petersdorff, prioress of Marienfließ

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of Matthias Winterfeld, gatekeeper at Marienfließ

paragraph: BULLET::::- murder of Consistorial Counsellor Dr. Heinrich Schwalenberg

paragraph: BULLET::::- paralyzation of Katharina Hanow, a noblewoman at Marienfließ

paragraph: BULLET::::- consultation with soothsayers

paragraph: BULLET::::- knowledge of future and distant events

paragraph: BULLET::::- sexual contacts with the devil (who allegedly materialized in animals, such as Sidonia's cat, whose name was Chim)

paragraph: BULLET::::- magical practices, such as praying the "Judas psalm" (Psalm 109) and crossing brooms beneath a kitchen table

paragraph: In January 1620, a man named Elias Pauli was appointed as Sidonia's defender. Although he presented a defense showing that those allegedly murdered had died natural deaths, he also dissociated himself from statements of Sidonia which had incriminated Jost von Borcke and other officials.

paragraph: About fifty witnesses were questioned at the trial.

paragraph: On 28 June, the Magdeburg court permitted the Stettin court to use torture. When torture was applied on 28 July, Sidonia confessed. The verdict of death was read to her when she was dragged to the execution site and her body was "ruptured" four times with pliers.

paragraph: When Sidonia recanted her confession, she was tortured anew on 16 August.

paragraph: On 1 September 1620, the final verdict was rendered. Sidonia was sentenced to death by beheading and subsequent burning of her body. The sentence was carried out in Stettin, outside the mill gate. The exact date of her death is not known.

paragraph: Section::::In fiction.

paragraph: After Sidonia's death, her fate became legendary and was even more strongly associated with the extinction of the House of Pomerania.

paragraph: Portrayed as a "femme fatale", she became the subject of several fictional works in German and English, especially during the 19th century. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's brother-in-law, Christian August Vulpius, in 1812 included Sidonia in his book "Pantheon berühmter und merkwürdiger Frauen" ("Pantheon of Famous and Noteworthy Women"). A Gothic romance, "Sidonia von Bork, die Klosterhexe", was written in 1847–1848 by Wilhelm Meinhold, a Pomeranian priest and author. It was published in three volumes in 1848.

paragraph: An English translation of this novel, titled "Sidonia the Sorceress", was published in 1849 by Oscar Wilde's mother, Jane Wilde (later known as Lady Wilde). This translation was also published by William Morris in his Kelmscott Press in 1894.

paragraph: The English translations achieved a popularity in Great Britain that was unmatched by any other German book in British literary history. Especially in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, whose members included William Morris, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Edward Burne-Jones, enthusiasm for Sidonia as a Medusa-type "femme fatale" was widespread. Rossetti is said to have referred to and quoted from the novel "incessantly". Several members created paintings based on the novel, the most famous being "Sidonia Von Bork" and "Clara Von Bork" by Burne-Jones in 1860. For his Sidonia painting, Rossetti's mistress Fanny Cornforth served as the model.

paragraph: Other authors who wrote novels based Sidonia's life were (1824–1878) and (1840–1919). Theodor Fontane (1819-1898) had prepared a novel, "Sidonie von Borcke", since 1879. However, he did not finish it. The fragments of it were published in 1966.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pomerania

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wilhelm Meinhold

paragraph: BULLET::::- Witch-hunt

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-  An article in "Journal von und für Deutschland", 1786.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wilhelm Meinhold: "Sidonia von Bork die Klosterhexe" (1847-48)(downloadable, illustrated, complete transcription of the original German text)

paragraph: BULLET::::- English translations of Wilhelm Meinhold's "Sidonia the Sorceress" at Internet Archive, Google Books, and Project Gutenberg

description: Pomeranian noble executed for witchcraft

wikidata_label: Sidonia von Borcke

wikipedia_title: Sidonia von Borcke


text:
American football
linebacker
Indianapolis Colts
National Football League
Northwestern University Wildcats
2017 NFL Draft
Penn State
AP
Sports Illustrated
Indianapolis Colts
2017 NFL Draft
$
contract
signing bonus
Sean Spence
Antonio Morrison
Jon Bostic
Edwin Jackson
Chuck Pagano
Jon Bostic
hamstring
2017
Frank Reich
Matt Eberflus
3-4 defense
Najee Goode
Darius Leonard
Carson Wentz
Philadelphia Eagles

wikipedia_title:
American football
Linebacker
Indianapolis Colts
National Football League
Northwestern Wildcats football
2017 NFL Draft
Penn State Nittany Lions football
Associated Press
Sports Illustrated
Indianapolis Colts
2017 NFL Draft
United States dollar
Contract
Signing bonus
Sean Spence
Antonio Morrison (American football)
Jon Bostic
Edwin Jackson (American football)
Chuck Pagano
Jon Bostic
Hamstring
2017 NFL season
Frank Reich
Matt Eberflus
3–4 defense
Najee Goode
Darius Leonard
Carson Wentz
2018 Philadelphia Eagles season

categories: Northwestern Wildcats football players,Players of American football from Florida,1995 births,American football linebackers,Sportspeople from Miami,Living people

paragraph: Anthony Walker Jr.

paragraph: Anthony Laron Walker Jr. (born August 8, 1995) is an American football linebacker for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Northwestern University Wildcats and was drafted by the Colts in the 5th round of the 2017 NFL Draft.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: Walker first saw action in his redshirt freshman season when Collin Ellis went down with a series of injuries. In his first career game, Walker returned an interception for a touchdown against Penn State that capped a Northwestern win. In his first full season as a starter, Walker found success as he recorded 122 tackles to lead the team and 20.5 tackles for loss which was fourth in the nation. For his performance that season, Walker received All-American recognition from the AP and Sports Illustrated as well as Consensus First-Team All Big 10 honors. On November 29, 2016, Walker was named Second Team All-Big Ten.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:2017.

paragraph: The Indianapolis Colts selected Walker in the fifth round (161st overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft. Walker was the 20th linebacker drafted in 2017.

paragraph: On May 11, 2017, the Indianapolis Colts signed Walker to a four-year, $2.66 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $265,413.

paragraph: Walker missed organized team activities due to Northwestern's quarters schedule and the league's rules on rookies being unable to join their team until their school's final semester had concluded. Upon entering training camp, Walker competed to be a starting inside linebacker against Sean Spence, Antonio Morrison, Jon Bostic, and Edwin Jackson. Head coach Chuck Pagano named Walker a backup inside linebacker to begin the regular season, behind Jon Bostic and Antonio Morrison.

paragraph: He made his professional regular season debut in the Indianapolis Colts' season-opener at the Los Angeles Rams, but exited in the second quarter of their 46–9 loss after sustaining a hamstring injury. His hamstring injury sidelined him for the next three games (Weeks 2–4). In Week 5, he aggravated his hamstring injury during the third quarter of a 26–23 win against the San Francisco 49ers and was inactive for the next three games (Weeks 6–8). On December 29, 2017, Walker earned his first start after Jon Bostic was ruled inactive due to an injury. He collected a season-high nine combined tackles in the Colts' 23–16 loss at the Baltimore Ravens in Week 16. On December 31, 2017, the Indianapolis Colts fired head coach Chuck Pagano after the Colts finished 4–12 in 2017. He finished his rookie season in 2017 with 22 combined tackles (11 solo) in ten games and two starts.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:2018.

paragraph: On February 11, 2018, the Indianapolis Colts hired former Philadelphia Eagles' offensive coordinator Frank Reich as their new head coach. Defensive coordinator Matt Eberflus opted to change the base 3-4 defense and implemented a base 4-3 defense. Walker entered training camp slated as the starting middle linebacker, but saw competition from Najee Goode. On July 31, 2018, it was reported that Walker had injured his groin in the first week of training camp and was sidelined for the remainder of training camp and all four preseason games. Head coach Frank Reich named Walker the starting middle linebacker to start the regular season in 2018, alongside outside linebackers Najee Goode and rookie Darius Leonard.

paragraph: On September 23, 2018, Walker recorded nine combined tackles and made his first career interception off a pass by Eagles' quarterback Carson Wentz during a 20–16 loss at the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 2.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anthony Walker Jr. Highlights - YouTube

paragraph: BULLET::::- Northwestern Wildcats bio

description: American football linebacker

wikidata_label: Anthony Walker

wikipedia_title: Anthony Walker Jr.


text:
free improvisation
Onkyo
Sachiko M
Toshimaru Nakamura
Otomo Yoshihide
Radu Malfatti
Keith Rowe
Taku Sugimoto's Home Page

categories: Japanese guitarists,Electroacoustic improvisation,Free improvisation,Living people,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: Taku Sugimoto

paragraph: Taku Sugimoto is a Japanese guitarist.

paragraph: He initially gained attention in the late 1990s for his restrained, melodic playing, unusual in the world of free improvisation. Critic Bruce Russell describes this era of Sugimoto's music by writing: "Sugimoto is perhaps the pre-eminent stylist on the guitar ... He brings a golden glow to every session he partakes in, having abandoned amped up noise in favour of a much more introspective and calligraphic style of play."

paragraph: Around 2002 his music became increasingly abstract, all but eliminating melody and featuring extended periods of silence.

paragraph: He has collaborated with other Japanese musicians involved in the Onkyo movement, such as Sachiko M, Toshimaru Nakamura and Otomo Yoshihide. He has also collaborated with musicians from European free improvisation scenes, notably trombonist Radu Malfatti and guitarist Keith Rowe.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Taku Sugimoto's Home Page

description: Japanese musician

wikidata_label: Taku Sugimoto

wikipedia_title: Taku Sugimoto


text:
Canadian
ice hockey
Alfred Næss
Winnipeg Victorias
John K. "Jack" McCulloch
Memorable Manitobans
Jack McCulloch
Canada's Sports Hall of Fame

categories: 1872 births,Canada's Sports Hall of Fame inductees,Winnipeg Victorias players,Canadian male speed skaters,1918 deaths

paragraph: Jack McCulloch

paragraph: John K. "Jack" McCulloch (August 15, 1872 – January 26, 1918) was a Canadian speed skater and ice hockey player. He won several Canadian amateur speed skating championships and one world championship.

paragraph: Section::::Sports career.

paragraph: An amateur skater from 1890 to 1898, during which time he was the dominant speed skater in Canada. In the 1897 world championships in Montreal in the 1,500-meter race, he and Alfred Næss finished in a dead heat, forcing a run-off. McCulloch won by two-fifths of a second.

paragraph: In 1889, McCulloch helped found the Winnipeg Victorias hockey club, one of the first in western Canada. He participated in the first organized ice hockey game in Manitoba, and played for the hockey club for several years afterward. McCulloch was a multi-athlete and outside of speed skating and ice hockey he also excelled in roller skating, figure skating, track and field, rowing, canoeing and gymnastics. He is a member of the Canada and Manitoba Sports Halls of Fame.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John K. "Jack" McCulloch at Memorable Manitobans

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jack McCulloch at Canada's Sports Hall of Fame

description: Canadian speed skater

wikidata_label: Jack McCulloch

wikipedia_title: Jack McCulloch


text: Eastern Orthodox Church

text: Eastern Roman emperor

text: western-half

text: Roman Empire

text: Later Roman empire

text: last Roman

text: historiography

text: Western Roman Empire

text: Belisarius

text: Vandal Kingdom

text: Narses

text: Ostrogothic kingdom

text: Dalmatia

text: Sicily

text: Italy

text: Rome

text: prefect Liberius

text: Iberian peninsula

text: Spania

text: solidi

text: Tzani

text: Black Sea

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Kavad I

text: Khosrow I

text: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: civil law

text: Hagia Sophia

text: Tauresium

text: Dardania

text: Latin

text: peasant

text: Illyro-Roman

text: Thraco-Roman

text: cognomen

text: Justin

text: Justiniana Prima

text: Excubitors

text: Constantinople

text: jurisprudence

text: theology

text: Excubitors

text: John Malalas

text: Procopius

text: Domitian

text: Anastasius

text: consul

text: Theodora

text: courtesan

text: aristocratic

text: Tribonian

text: Peter the Patrician

text: John the Cappadocian

text: Peter Barsymes

text: Belisarius

text: Narses

text: Nika riots

text: plague

text: Justin II

text: Vigilantia

text: Church of the Holy Apostles

text: pillage of the city in 1204

text: Latin States

text: Fourth Crusade

text: Roman law

text: Corpus juris civilis

text: Codex Justinianeus

text: Pandectae

text: Institutiones

text: Novellae

text: quaestor

text: Tribonian

text: Codex Justinianeus

text: Pandectae

text: Institutiones

text: Novellae

text: Greek

text: Canon Law

text: senatorial

text: case law

text: Basilika

text: Basil I

text: Leo VI the Wise

text: Pragmatic Sanction

text: Western Europe

text: Eastern Europe

text: Russia

text: forced into prostitution

text: chariot racing

text: Nika riots

text: Tribonian

text: Hypatius

text: Anastasius

text: Belisarius

text: Mundus

text: Hagia Sophia

text: Roman Empire

text: Belisarius

text: Sassanid Empire

text: Dara

text: Satala

text: Callinicum

text: Axumites

text: Himyarites

text: Kavadh I of Persia

text: Eternal Peace

text: Khosrau I

text: Germanic

text: Western Roman Empire

text: Vandals

text: North Africa

text: Hilderic

text: Catholic

text: Gelimer

text: Belisarius

text: dromon

text: Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia)

text: Tunisia

text: Ad Decimum

text: Tricamarum

text: Carthage

text: Gelimer

text: Numidia

text: triumph

text: Sardinia

text: Corsica

text: Balearic Islands

text: Septem Fratres

text: Gibraltar

text: Procopius

text: African prefecture

text: Moors

text: Ostrogothic Italy

text: Athalaric

text: Theodahad

text: Amalasuntha

text: Theodoric

text: Lake Bolsena

text: Belisarius

text: Sicily

text: Naples

text: Rome

text: Theodahad

text: Ostrogothic

text: Vitigis

text: Rome

text: Narses

text: Milan

text: Narses

text: Ravenna

text: Western Roman Emperor

text: Po River

text: Vitigis

text: Matasuntha

text: Persians

text: Armenia

text: Ostrogothic

text: Khosrau I

text: Beroea

text: Antioch

text: Daras

text: Lazica

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text: plague

text: besieged

text: Edessa

text: Lazic War

text: Fifty Years' Peace

text: Ildibad

text: Eraric

text: Totila

text: victory

text: Faenza

text: Gothic

text: Rome

text: Sicily

text: Visigothic

text: Hispania

text: Narses

text: battle of Busta Gallorum

text: Apennines

text: Mons Lactarius

text: Frankish

text: Casilinum

text: Procopius

text: Visigothic

text: Hispania

text: Athanagild

text: Agila I

text: Jordanes

text: Liberius

text: Cartagena

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text: Balkans

text: Turkic

text: Slavic peoples

text: Danube

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text: Kutrigurs

text: khan

text: Zabergan

text: Hispania

text: Lombards

text: Menander Protector

text: Monophysitism

text: heresy

text: Council of Chalcedon

text: Zeno

text: Anastasius I

text: Aphthartodocetism

text: despotism

text: Trinity

text: Incarnation

text: heretics

text: due process

text: canons

text: ecumenical

text: Second Council of Constantinople

text: Patriarch Anthimus

text: clergy

text: monasticism

text: Hagia Sophia

text: mosaic

text: Eastern Orthodoxy

text: Acacian schism

text: Council of Chalcedon

text: Monophysitism

text: Vigilius

text: Silverius

text: "Three Chapters"

text: Fifth Ecumenical Council

text: Pope Vigilius

text: orthodox (Nicaean)

text: Constantius II

text: statute

text: paganism

text: John Malalas

text: Theophanes

text: John of Ephesus

text: Academy

text: Roman dictator

text: Sulla

text: Neoplatonic Academy

text: Neoplatonism

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text: converted

text: Heruli

text: Huns

text: Don

text: Abasgi

text: Tzanni

text: Caucasia

text: Amun

text: oasis

text: Awjila

text: Libya

text: Isis

text: Philae

text: cataract

text: Nile

text: Presbyter Julian

text: Bishop Longinus

text: Nabataean

text: Christianity

text: Yemen

text: Egypt

text: Jew

text: synagogue

text: Septuagint

text: Samaritan

text: Samaria

text: Manicheans

text: Constantinople

text: drowning

text: San Vitale

text: Hagia Sophia

text: basilica

text: Nika riots

text: Isidore of Miletus

text: Anthemius of Tralles

text: Church of the Holy Apostles

text: Great Palace of Constantinople

text: column topped by a bronze statue

text: Augustaeum

text: Anicia Juliana

text: cisterns

text: Basilica Cistern

text: Dara

text: an advanced arch dam

text: Sangarius Bridge

text: Bithynia

text: Justiniana Prima

text: Thessalonica

text: Illyricum

text: Procopius

text: Agathias

text: Paul the Silentiary

text: Romanus the Melodist

text: Law School of Beirut

text: consuls

text: Cornwall

text: tin

text: Alexandria

text: Tenedos

text: silk

text: Abyssinians

text: smuggling eggs of silk worms

text: Central Asia

text: Justin I

text: prefectures

text: vicariates

text: dioceses

text: Brown

text: Antioch

text: plague

text: famine

text: Rabaul caldera

text: Lake Ilopango

text: Krakatoa

text: Iceland

text: Bubonic Plague

text: Plague of Justinian

text: Black Death

text: 551 Beirut earthquake

text: Paradiso

text: Divine Comedy

text: Dante Alighieri

text: Mercury

text: Heaven

text: Dorothy L. Sayers

text: Count Belisarius

text: Lest Darkness Fall

text: L. Sprague de Camp

text: Pierson Dixon

text: Prince Valiant

text: Procopius

text: Syriac

text: John of Ephesus

text: Theodora

text: Agathias

text: Menander Protector

text: John Malalas

text: Paschal Chronicle

text: Marcellinus Comes

text: Victor of Tunnuna

text: saint

text: Orthodox Christians

text: Lutheran

text: Flavia (gens)

text: List of Byzantine emperors

text: Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge

text: Teubner

text: Edward Walford

text: St Justinian the Emperor

text: The "Anekdota" ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation.

text: Lewis E 244 Infortiatum at OPenn

text: The "Buildings" of Procopius in English translation.

text: "The Roman Law Library" by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev

text: Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian

text: De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

text: Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople

text: Opera Omnia by Migne "Patrologia Graeca" with analytical indexes

text: Preface to the "Digest" of Emperor Justinian

text: Annotated Justinian Code (University of Wyoming website)

text: Mosaic of Justinian in Hagia Sophia)

text: Theodora

categories: 565 deaths,Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles,480s births,Medieval legislators,Roman Catholic royal saints,Illyrian people,Military saints,6th-century Christian saints,Nobilissimi,Pre-Reformation saints of the Lutheran liturgical calendar,Gothicus Maximus,Justinian I,Flavii,Iberian War,Imperial Roman consuls,Eastern Orthodox royal saints,Justinian dynasty,6th-century Byzantine emperors,Christian royal saints,People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars,Last of the Romans,People from Zelenikovo Municipality

paragraph: Justinian I

paragraph: Justinian I (; ; ; 482 14 November 565), traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church, was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western-half of the historical Roman Empire. Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Later Roman empire, and his reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized "renovatio imperii", or "restoration of the Empire".

paragraph: Because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been known as the "last Roman" in mid 20th century historiography. This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi. During his reign, Justinian also subdued the "Tzani", a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I's reign, and later again during Khosrow I's; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west.

paragraph: A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the "Corpus Juris Civilis", which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Justinian was born in Tauresium, Dardania, around 482. A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one), he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origins.

paragraph: The cognomen "Iustinianus", which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace, which today is in South East Serbia. His mother was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was in the imperial guard (the Excubitors) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople, and ensured the boy's education. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence, theology and Roman history. Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown. Chronicler John Malalas, who lived during the reign of Justinian, tells of his appearance that he was short, fair skinned, curly haired, round faced and handsome. Another contemporary chronicler, Procopius, compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian, although this is probably slander.

paragraph: When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin was proclaimed the new emperor, with significant help from Justinian. During Justin's reign (518–527), Justinian was the emperor's close confidant. Justinian showed much ambition, and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on 1 April 527, although there is no conclusive evidence of this. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the "de facto" ruler. Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east. Upon Justin's death on 1 August 527, Justinian became the sole sovereign.

paragraph: As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" on account of his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora, in Constantinople. She was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes. Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire, and later emperors would follow Justinian's precedent in marrying outside the aristocratic class. The marriage caused a scandal, but Theodora would prove to be a shrewd judge of character and Justinian's greatest supporter. Other talented individuals included Tribonian, his legal adviser; Peter the Patrician, the diplomat and longtime head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes, who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses.

paragraph: Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots, and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562. Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life. When he died on 14 November 565, he left no children, though his wife Theodora had given birth to a stillborn son several years into his reign. He was succeeded by Justin II, who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Empress Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Legislative activities.

paragraph: Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law, something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the "Corpus juris civilis". It consists of the "Codex Justinianeus", the "Digesta" or "Pandectae", the "Institutiones", and the "Novellae".

paragraph: Early in his reign, Justinian appointed the "quaestor" Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of the "Codex Justinianeus", a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the "Digesta" (or "Pandectae"), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the "Institutiones", a textbook explaining the principles of law. The "Novellae", a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements the "Corpus". As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the "Novellae" appeared in Greek, the common language of the Eastern Empire.

paragraph: The "Corpus" forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the "leges" (laws) and the other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults ("senatusconsulta"), imperial decrees, case law, and jurists' opinions and interpretations ("responsa prudentum").

paragraph: Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the "Basilika" of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise. The only western province where the Justinian code was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554), from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code. It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia. It remains influential to this day.

paragraph: He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution. Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if a woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Nika riots.

paragraph: Justinian's habit of choosing efficient, but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots. They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius, who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius. While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing the capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus. Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed.

paragraph: The destruction that took place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.

paragraph: One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:War with the Sassanid Empire, 527–532.

paragraph: From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire. In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala, but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum. Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed. When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an "Eternal Peace" (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to the West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:Conquest of North Africa, 533–534.

paragraph: The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa. King Hilderic, who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 A.D. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian.

paragraph: In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons, escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as a number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia. They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage. King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia, but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph. Sardinia and Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign.

paragraph: In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely dispeopled, that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence.”

paragraph: An African prefecture, centered in Carthage, was established in April 534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:War in Italy, first phase, 535–540.

paragraph: As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad, had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha, Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena, where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men, invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city.

paragraph: Justinian sent another general, Narses, to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:War with the Sassanid Empire, 540–562.

paragraph: Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians. Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke the "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged Daras, and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea, exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year.

paragraph: Belisarius arrived in the East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court.

paragraph: The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year 543. The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30,000 men, but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa. Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that the Lazic War in the North continued for several years, until a second truce in 557, followed by a Fifty Years' Peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 "solidi") to be paid by the Romans.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:War in Italy, second phase, 541–554.

paragraph: While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila, the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian peninsula. Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships. During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines.

paragraph: Finally, Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses. The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines, where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum, and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. Procopius estimated "the loss of the Goths at 15,000,000."

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:Other campaigns.

paragraph: In addition to the other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania, when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes, this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius. The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion.

paragraph: During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube. Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Military activities.:Results.

paragraph: Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized. In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area over which the Empire could project its power and eliminated all naval threats to the empire. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa.

paragraph: Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age. In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious activities.

paragraph: Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially Monophysitism, which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature or a synthesis of a divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them.

paragraph: Near the end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism, but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had a genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious activities.:Religious policy.

paragraph: As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law.

paragraph: At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation, and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor's will and command, while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus, reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive "solemnia", or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates.

paragraph: Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was indeed a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the "Codex" and the "Novellae" contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and the administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics, became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious activities.:Religious relations with Rome.

paragraph: From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters.

paragraph: Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism. Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon, which had condemned Monophysitism, which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome. After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favoured Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported.

paragraph: This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve the ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Monophysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the "Three Chapters", three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council, most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius, who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious activities.:Authoritarian rule.

paragraph: Justinian's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodox (Nicaean). Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue. The "Codex" contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism, even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes, and John of Ephesus) tell of severe persecutions, even of men in high position..

paragraph: The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by the Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued.

paragraph: In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli, the Huns dwelling near the Don, the Abasgi, and the Tzanni in Caucasia.

paragraph: The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae, at the first cataract of the Nile. The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans, and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt.

paragraph: The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened. Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople.

paragraph: The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans, who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, but could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. At Constantinople, on one occasion, not a few Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed in the emperor's very presence: some by burning, others by drowning.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Architecture, learning, art and literature.

paragraph: Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. Under Justinian's patronage the San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed. Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia, originally a basilica-style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots, splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. According to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice, "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries.

paragraph: Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy (like Anicia Juliana) might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige.

paragraph: Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara, an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia, securing a major military supply route to the east. Furthermore, Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima, which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum.

paragraph: In Justinian's reign, and partly under his patronage, Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians, including Procopius and Agathias, and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished. On the other hand, centres of learning such as the Neoplatonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Beirut lost their importance during his reign. Despite Justinian's passion for the glorious Roman past, the practice of choosing consuls was allowed to lapse after 541.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Economy and administration.

paragraph: As was the case under Justinian's predecessors, the Empire's economic health rested primarily on agriculture. In addition, long-distance trade flourished, reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat. Within the Empire, convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains. Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople. Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade, which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians.

paragraph: One important luxury product was silk, which was imported and then processed in the Empire. In order to protect the manufacture of silk products, Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541. In order to bypass the Persian landroute, Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians, whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire; the Abyssinians, however, were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India. Then, in the early 550s, two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople, and silk became an indigenous product.

paragraph: Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt and Nubia.

paragraph: At the start of Justinian I's reign he had inherited a surplus 28,800,000 "solidi" (400,000 pounds of gold) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian's rule, measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient. Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces, while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses, of which a number were abolished. The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure. According to Brown (1971), the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life, as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns. It has been estimated that before Justinian I's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5,000,000 "solidi" in AD 530, but after his reconquests, the annual revenue was increased to 6,000,000 "solidi" in AD 550.

paragraph: Throughout Justinian's reign, the cities and villages of the East prospered, although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes (526, 528) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians (540). Justinian had the city rebuilt, but on a slightly smaller scale.

paragraph: Despite all these measures, the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century. The first one was the plague, which lasted from 541 to 543 and, by decimating the Empire's population, probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages. The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of "barbarians" in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s. The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire's resources, and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government-run post service, which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance.

paragraph: Section::::Natural disasters.

paragraph: During the 530s, it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire. There were noxious fumes in the air and the Sun, while still providing daylight, refused to give much heat. This caused famine unlike anything those of the time had seen before, affecting both Europe and the Middle East.

paragraph: The causes of these disasters aren't precisely known, but volcanoes at the Rabaul caldera, Lake Ilopango, Krakatoa, or, according to a recent finding, in Iceland are suspected,

paragraph: Seven years later in 542, a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague, known as the Plague of Justinian and second only to Black Death of the 14th century, killed tens of millions. Justinian and members of his court, physically unaffected by the previous 535–536 famine, were afflicted, with Justinian himself contracting and surviving the pestilence.

paragraph: In July 551, the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake, which triggered a tsunami. The combined fatalities of both events likely exceeded 30,000, with tremors felt from Antioch to Alexandria.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural depictions.

paragraph: In the "Paradiso" section of the "Divine Comedy" by Dante Alighieri, Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury, which holds the ambitious souls of Heaven. His legacy is elaborated on, and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire. However, Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God, which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments. In his introduction, "Cesare fui e son Iustinïano" ("Caesar I was, and am Justinian"), his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul, to emphasize that glory in life is ephemeral, while contributing to God's glory is eternal, according to Dorothy L. Sayers. Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th Century Italy, in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire.

paragraph: Justinian is a major character in the 1938 novel "Count Belisarius", by Robert Graves. He is depicted as a jealous and conniving Emperor obsessed with creating and maintaining his own historical legacy.

paragraph: Justinian appears as a character in the 1939 time travel novel "Lest Darkness Fall", by L. Sprague de Camp. "The Glittering Horn: Secret Memoirs of the Court of Justinian" was a novel written by Pierson Dixon in 1958 about the court of Justinian.

paragraph: Justinian occasionally appears in the comic strip "Prince Valiant", usually as a nemesis of the title character.

paragraph: Section::::Historical sources.

paragraph: Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian's reign. The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus, which survives partially, was used as a source for later chronicles, contributing many additional details of value. Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress, Theodora. Other sources include the histories of Agathias, Menander Protector, John Malalas, the Paschal Chronicle, the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna. Justinian is widely regarded as a saint by Orthodox Christians, and is also commemorated by some Lutheran churches on 14 November.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Flavia (gens)

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::Notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- This article incorporates text from the "Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge".

paragraph: Section::::Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Procopii Caesariensis opera omnia". Edited by J. Haury; revised by G. Wirth. 3 vols. Leipzig: Teubner, 1962–64. Greek text.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Procopius". Edited by H. B. Dewing. 7 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and London, Hutchinson, 1914–40. Greek text and English translation.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Procopius, "The Secret History", translated by G.A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1966. A readable and accessible English translation of the "Anecdota".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elizabeth Jeffreys, Michael Jeffreys, Roger Scott et al. 1986, "The Chronicle of John Malalas: A Translation", Byzantina Australiensia 4 (Melbourne: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward Walford, translator (1846) "The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594", Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, . (According to )

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- – German standard work; partially obsolete, but still useful.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- St Justinian the Emperor Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion (14 November)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The "Anekdota" ("Secret history") of Procopius in English translation.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lewis E 244 Infortiatum at OPenn

paragraph: BULLET::::- The "Buildings" of Procopius in English translation.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Roman Law Library" by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lecture series covering 12 Byzantine Rulers, including Justinian – by Lars Brownworth

paragraph: BULLET::::- De Imperatoribus Romanis. An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reconstruction of column of Justinian in Constantinople

paragraph: BULLET::::- Opera Omnia by Migne "Patrologia Graeca" with analytical indexes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Preface to the "Digest" of Emperor Justinian

paragraph: BULLET::::- Annotated Justinian Code (University of Wyoming website)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mosaic of Justinian in Hagia Sophia)

paragraph: Theodora (527–548)

alias:
Justinian the Great
Iustinianus I

description: Eastern Roman Emperor (Byzantine Emperor)

wikidata_label: Justinian I

wikipedia_title: Justinian I


text:
first-class cricket
Victoria
Australian rules football
Melbourne
Victorian Football League
Sheffield Shield
Plum Warner
Melbourne Cricket Ground
List of Victoria first-class cricketers
Herbert Fry: "Demonwiki".

categories: Melbourne Cricket Club cricketers,Australian cricket umpires,1870 births,Sportspeople from Adelaide,Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia),Cricketers from Adelaide,Australian cricketers,Melbourne Football Club players,Victoria cricketers,1953 deaths,Port Adelaide Football Club players (all competitions),Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL) players,Australian rules footballers from South Australia,Melbourne Football Club (VFA) players

paragraph: Herbert Fry

paragraph: Herbert James Fry (28 October 1870 – 19 January 1953) was an Australian sportsman who played first-class cricket for Victoria and Australian rules football with Melbourne in the Victorian Football League (VFL).

paragraph: Fry played eight first-class cricket matches with Victoria, three of them in the Sheffield Shield. He also umpired a first-class match between Victoria and New Zealand in 1899. When not keeping wicket, Fry bowled right arm off-break and took 4 wickets at 60.00 during his career. The biggest name out of his four scalps was Marylebone Cricket Club captain Plum Warner, whom he dismissed at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1904.

paragraph: In his brief VFL career at Melbourne, Fry was used as a ruckman. He played five games in the league's inaugural season in 1897, including Melbourne's historic first VFL match and their losing semi final. His sixth and last senior game came in the opening round of 1898 before he injured his knee and was forced to retire.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Victoria first-class cricketers

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Herbert Fry: "Demonwiki".

description: Australian rules footballer

wikidata_label: Herbert Fry

wikipedia_title: Herbert Fry


text: George Vicat Cole

text: Eton

text: London

text: Royal Society of British Artists

text: Bolton Abbey

text: King's College London

text: Byam Shaw

text: Byam Shaw and Vicat Cole School of Art

text: Kensington

text: First World War

text: Artists Rifles

text: Special Constabulary

text: Brinkwells

text: Fittleworth

text: Sussex

text: Edward Elgar

text: Perspective

categories: People educated at Eton College,1870 births,English male painters,Academics of King's College London,1940 deaths,19th-century English painters,20th-century English painters,Artists' Rifles soldiers

paragraph: Rex Vicat Cole

paragraph: Reginald Rex Vicat Cole (1870–1940) was an English landscape painter.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Vicat Cole was the son of the artist George Vicat Cole and Mary Ann Chignell. He was educated at Eton and began to exhibit in London in 1890. In 1900 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of British Artists.

paragraph: His preferred subject matter was the landscape of the area surrounding Bolton Abbey in the Yorkshire Dales. In 1900, he married Hannah Gill, the daughter of a Yorkshire farmer. In 1901, an exhibition at Dowdeswell's Gallery collected his work under the title "A Year in Wharfedale". He taught at King's College London with Byam Shaw, and together they opened their own establishment, the Byam Shaw and Vicat Cole School of Art, in Camden Street, Kensington in 1910. At the outbreak of the First World War Vicat Cole and Byam Shaw enlisted in the Artists Rifles although Shaw soon transferred to the Special Constabulary. After Shaw's death in 1919 Vicat Cole was Principal until his retirement in 1926.

paragraph: In 1905, Vicat Cole and his family began to rent the cottage of Brinkwells near Fittleworth in Sussex, where he found the inspiration for many of his paintings and drawings. Between 1917 and 1921, Cole sub-let the property to Edward Elgar, who composed his last major works there.

paragraph: Vicat Cole was especially known for his paintings of trees, and he wrote and illustrated a book on "British Trees" (1907), and another on how to depict trees in art, "The Artistic Anatomy of Trees", published in 1915. He also wrote a book on Perspective, and planned another on "The Streets of London", which was never published, although the manuscript survives, as do over two hundred works intended as illustrations. His one-man show "London Old and New" at Robert Dunthorne's Gallery, Vigo Street, London, in 1935, included panel paintings of nearly all the City churches, and large canvases of "London from Waterlow Park" (now in Southampton Art Gallery), "St Paul's from Bankside" and "St Martin-in-the-Fields". Throughout the first three decades of the twentieth century he exhibited landscapes at the Royal Academy's annual exhibitions.

paragraph: He collapsed and died in 1940 in Sussex whilst helping to rescue a family whose car had become stranded in flood water. The school of art he founded became part of Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design in 2003.

paragraph: Vicat Cole's son, John Cole (1903-1975), trained at the Vicat Cole and Byam Shaw School of became a landscape painter who specialized in representations of old shop-fronts. Like his father, grandfather, and great grandfather (George Cole, 1810-1883), he exhibited at the Royal Academy, and became a member of the Royal Society of British Artists.

alias:
Reginald Cole
Reginald Vicat Cole

description: English artist

wikidata_label: Rex Vicat Cole

wikipedia_title: Rex Vicat Cole


text: Paris

text: surrealism

text: Académie des Beaux-Arts

text: Pierre-Yves Trémois

categories: 20th-century engravers,French male sculptors,French engravers,French etchers,Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres,French male painters,Prix de Rome for painting,1921 births,20th-century French printmakers,Modern printmakers,21st-century French painters,Members of the Académie des beaux-arts,20th-century French sculptors,Living people,20th-century French painters

paragraph: Pierre-Yves Trémois

paragraph: Pierre-Yves Trémois (born 8 January 1921 in Paris) is a French visual artist and sculptor. He is known for evocative works drawing in equal proportions on surrealism and science illustration, and for combining graphic precision and rigor with flamboyant fantasy.

paragraph: He currently holds seat #2 in the engraving section at the Académie des Beaux-Arts.

paragraph: Section::::Decorations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters (2015)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pierre-Yves Trémois website

alias:
Pierre Yves Tremois
Pierre-Yves Tremois
Pierre Yves Trémois
P. Y. Trémois
P. Y. Tremois

description: sculptor from France

wikidata_label: Pierre-Yves Trémois

wikipedia_title: Pierre-Yves Trémois


text:
Venice
Guglielmo
Beppe
Paris
Turin
Leicester Galleries
London
New York
Venice Biennale
Emma Ciardi
Artgate
Fondazione Cariplo

categories: Venetian painters,Italian women painters,20th-century women artists,1933 deaths,20th-century Italian painters,19th-century Italian painters,People from Venice,1879 births

paragraph: Emma Ciardi

paragraph: Emma Ciardi (1879–1933) was an Italian painter.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: She was born in Venice. Following in the footsteps of her father Guglielmo and brother Beppe, Emma Ciardi began painting as an adolescent and exhibited for the first time in 1900 at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, and at the Promotrice in Turin; in 1903 she participated in the Esposizione Internazionale d’Arte di Venezia and took part in it almost every year after that until 1932. In addition to her landscapes and views of Venice, she also soon made a name for herself with neo-18th-century subjects which were particularly well received by the English and American public. In 1910 she organised her first solo exhibition at the Leicester Galleries in London, followed by a second in 1913; she also had other exhibitions mounted in London by the Fine Art Society in 1928 and 1933. In the USA market she received acclaim from 1923 onwards, when she exhibited at the Howard Young Gallery in New York, which obtained exclusive rights to selling her work. She died in Venice in 1933.

paragraph: Two years after her death, Emma Ciardi’s painting was celebrated in a retrospective on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the Venice Biennale.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Laura Casone, Emma Ciardi, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

description: Italian painter

wikidata_label: Emma Ciardi

wikipedia_title: Emma Ciardi


text:
World War I
Parma
Reggio Emilia
Milan
Paris
World War II
Alberto Bazzoni
Artgate
Fondazione Cariplo

categories: 20th-century Italian sculptors,1889 births,1973 deaths,People from the Province of Parma,Italian military personnel of World War I

paragraph: Alberto Bazzoni

paragraph: Alberto Bazzoni (San Nicomede di Salsomaggiore (Parma), 1889 – Milan, 1973) was an Italian sculptor.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: After serving in World War I, Bazzoni settled in Parma, where he attended the Academy of Fine Arts from 1908 to 1913. His public works included a fountain for the barracks in Reggio Emilia and monuments to the fallen in Fidenza and Salsomaggiore. He moved to Milan in 1926 and continued his career as a sculptor there. The influence of his study of Roman sculpture can be seen in the statue of Saint Augustine for Milan Cathedral and the tomb of his wife Bianca in the Cimitero Monumentale. He went to Paris in 1936 and remained there until the outbreak of World War II, producing small bronzes for private collectors. After a second stay in the French capital from 1946 to 1950, he returned to Milan.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Antonella Crippa, Alberto Bazzoni, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

description: Italian artist

wikidata_label: Alberto Bazzoni

wikipedia_title: Alberto Bazzoni