text:
also known as
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
Byzantine emperor
Byzantine Empire
Battle of Manzikert
Doukas
Constantine Diogenes (died 1032)
Byzantine Greek
Cappadocia
Asia Minor
Basil Argyros
Romanos III
Constantine X
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
Seljuk Turks
Caesarea
Patriarch
of Constantinople, John Xiphilinos
Michael VII
Konstantios
Andronikos Doukas
Doukas
Caesar
John Doukas
Varangian Guard
Mesopotamia
Melitene
Syria
Cilicia
sack of Caesarea
St Basil
Constantine X Doukas
Sclavonia
Armenia
Bulgaria
Frankish
Antioch
Saracens
Aleppo
Lykandos
Pontus
Neocaesarea
Sebaste
Tephrike
Mount Taurus
Germanicia
Emirate
Hierapolis
Alexandretta
Cilician Gates
Podandos
Asia Minor
Amorium
Constantinople
Norman
mercenaries
Robert Crispin
Edessa
Abydos
Armeniac Theme
Euphrates
Melitene
Romanopolis
Akhlat
Lake Van
Philaretos Brachamios
Iconium
Dux
Mopsuestia
Heracleia
Cilicia
Bari
Norman
Roger
Robert Guiscard
Italy
hippodrome
Manuel Komnenos
Isaac I
Alexios
Khroudj
Alp Arslan
Manzikert
Archesh
Hieropolis
Syria
Andronikos Doukas
John Skylitzes
nomismata
Michael Psellos
Dokeia
Tyropoion
Adana
cruelly blinded
Kotyaion
Prote
Sea of Marmara
John Julius Norwich
Alusian of Bulgaria
Constantine Diogenes
Alexios I Komnenos
Anna Dalassena
Antioch
Eudokia Makrembolitissa
Leo Diogenes
Anna Comnena
Alexius I
Nikephoros Diogenes
List of Byzantine emperors
Romanus IV Diogenes
History of Michael Attaliates

categories: Monarchs imprisoned and detained during war,Diogenes family,Byzantine people of Armenian descent,1060s in the Byzantine Empire,Byzantine prisoners of war,11th-century Byzantine emperors,1072 deaths,Year of birth unknown,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars,Doukid dynasty,Eastern Orthodox monarchs

paragraph: Romanos IV Diogenes

paragraph: Romanos IV Diogenes (, "Rōmanós IV Diogénēs"), also known as Romanus IV, was a member of the Byzantine military aristocracy who, after his marriage to the widowed empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, was crowned Byzantine emperor and reigned from 1068 to 1071. During his reign he was determined to halt the decline of the Byzantine military and to stop Turkish incursions into the Byzantine Empire, but in 1071 he was captured and his army routed at the Battle of Manzikert. While still captive he was overthrown in a palace coup, and when released he was quickly defeated and detained by members of the Doukas family. In 1072, he was blinded and sent to a monastery, where he died of his wounds.

paragraph: Section::::Accession to the throne.

paragraph: Romanos Diogenes was the son of Constantine Diogenes (died 1032) and a member of a prominent and powerful Byzantine Greek family from Cappadocia, connected by birth to most of the great aristocratic nobles in Asia Minor. His mother was a daughter of Basil Argyros, brother of the emperor Romanos III. Courageous and generous, but also impetuous, Romanos rose with distinction in the army due to his military talents, and he served on the Danubian frontier. However, he was eventually convicted of attempting to usurp the throne of the sons of Constantine X Doukas in 1067. While waiting to receive his sentence from the regent Eudokia Makrembolitissa, he was summoned into her presence and advised that she had pardoned him and that she had furthermore chosen him to be her husband and the guardian of her sons as emperor. She took this course of action primarily due to her concern that unless she managed to find a powerful husband, she could easily lose the regency to any unscrupulous noble, and also because she was infatuated with the popular Romanos. Her decision was met with little protest as the Seljuk Turks had overrun much of Cappadocia and had even taken the important city of Caesarea, meaning that the army needed to be placed under the command of an able and energetic general.

paragraph: After a written oath promising never to remarry, extracted from Eudokia by Constantine X, had been set aside by the Patriarch of Constantinople, John Xiphilinos, and the approval of the senate obtained, on January 1, 1068 Romanos married the empress and was crowned Emperor of the Romans.

paragraph: Section::::Campaigns against the Turks.

paragraph: Romanos IV was now the senior emperor and guardian of his stepsons and junior co-emperors, Michael VII, Konstantios, and Andronikos Doukas. However, his elevation had antagonised not only the Doukas family, in particular the "Caesar", John Doukas who led the opposition of the palace officials to Romanos' authority, but also the Varangian Guard, who openly expressed their discontent at the marriage of Eudokia. Romanos therefore decided that he could only exercise his authority by placing himself at the head of the army in the field, thereby focusing the whole government's attention on the war against the Turks.

paragraph: By 1067, the Turks had been making incursions at will into Mesopotamia, Melitene, Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, culminating with the sack of Caesarea and the plundering of the Church of St Basil. That winter they camped on the frontiers of the empire and waited for the next year's campaigning season. Romanos was confident of Byzantine superiority on the field of battle, looking on the Turks as little more than hordes of robbers who would melt away at the first encounter. He did not take into account the degraded state of the Byzantine forces, which had suffered years of neglect from his predecessors, in particular Constantine X Doukas. His forces, mostly composed of Sclavonian, Armenian, Bulgarian, and Frankish mercenaries, were ill-disciplined, disorganised, and uncoordinated, and he was not prepared to spend time in upgrading the arms, armour, or tactics of the once-feared Byzantine army. It was soon evident that while Romanos possessed military talent, his impetuosity was a serious flaw.

paragraph: Section::::Campaigns against the Turks.:Campaign of 1068.

paragraph: The first military operations of Romanos did achieve a measure of success, reinforcing his opinions about the outcome of the war. Antioch was exposed to the Saracens of Aleppo who, with help from Turkish troops, began an attempt to reconquer the Byzantine province of Syria. Romanos began marching to the southeastern frontier of the empire to deal with this threat, but as he was advancing towards Lykandos, he received word that a Seljuk army had made an incursion into Pontus and had plundered Neocaesarea. Immediately he selected a small mobile force and quickly raced through Sebaste and the mountains of Tephrike to encounter the Turks on the road, forcing them to abandon their plunder and release their prisoners, though a large number of the Turkish troops managed to escape.

paragraph: Returning south, Romanos rejoined the main army, and they continued their advance through the passes of Mount Taurus to the north of Germanicia and proceeded to invade the Emirate of Aleppo. Romanos captured Hierapolis, which he fortified to provide protection against further incursions into the south-eastern provinces of the empire. He then engaged in further fighting against the Saracens of Aleppo, but neither side managed a decisive victory. With the campaigning season reaching its end, Romanos returned north via Alexandretta and the Cilician Gates to Podandos. Here he was advised of another Seljuk raid into Asia Minor in which they sacked Amorium but returned to their base so fast that Romanos was in no position to give chase. He eventually reached Constantinople by January 1069.

paragraph: Section::::Campaigns against the Turks.:Campaign of 1069.

paragraph: Plans for the following year's campaigning were initially thrown into chaos by a rebellion by one of Romanos' Norman mercenaries, Robert Crispin, who led a contingent of Frankish troops in the pay of the empire. Possibly due to Romanos not paying them on time, they began plundering the countryside near where they were stationed at Edessa, and attacking the imperial tax collectors. Although Crispin was captured and exiled to Abydos, the Franks continued to ravage the Armeniac Theme for some time. In the meantime, the land around Caesarea was again overrun by the Turks, forcing Romanos to spend precious time and energy in expelling the Turks from Cappadocia. Desperate to begin his campaign proper, he ordered the execution of all prisoners, even a Seljuk chieftain who offered to pay an immense ransom for his life. Having brought a measure of peace to the province, Romanos marched towards the Euphrates via Melitene, and crossed the river at Romanopolis, hoping to take Akhlat on Lake Van and thus protect the Armenian frontier.

paragraph: Romanos placed himself at the head of a substantial body of troops and began his march towards Akhlat, leaving the bulk of the army under the command of Philaretos Brachamios with orders to defend the Mesopotamian frontier. Philaretos was soon defeated by the Turks, whose sack of Iconium forced Romanos to abandon his plans and return to Sebaste. He sent orders to the Dux of Antioch to secure the passes at Mopsuestia, while he attempted to run down the Turks at Heracleia. The Turks were soon hemmed in in the mountains of Cilicia, but they managed to escape to Aleppo after abandoning their plunder. Romanos once again returned to Constantinople without the great victory he was hoping for.

paragraph: Section::::Affairs at Constantinople.

paragraph: Romanos was detained at Constantinople in 1070, while he dealt with many outstanding administrative issues, including the imminent fall of Bari into Norman hands. They had been besieging it since 1068, but it had taken Romanos two years to respond. He ordered a relief fleet to set sail, containing sufficient provisions and troops to enable them to hold out for much longer. The fleet was intercepted, however, and defeated by a Norman squadron under the command of Roger, the younger brother of Robert Guiscard, forcing the final remaining outpost of Byzantine authority in Italy to surrender on 15 April 1071.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Romanos was undertaking a number of unpopular reforms at home. He reduced a great deal of unnecessary public expenditure on court ceremonials and beautifying the capital. He reduced the public salaries paid to much of the court nobility, as well as reducing the profits of tradesmen. His preoccupation with the military had also made him unpopular with the provincial governors and the military hierarchy, as he was determined to ensure they could not abuse their positions, especially through corrupt practices. He incurred the displeasure of the mercenaries by enforcing much needed discipline. Romanos was also deeply unpopular with the common people, as he neglected to entertain them with games at the hippodrome, nor did he alleviate the burdens of the peasants in the provinces. All this animosity would help his enemies when the time came that they moved against him.

paragraph: Nevertheless, he did not forget his principal target, the Turks. Being unable to go on campaign himself, he entrusted the imperial army to one of his generals, Manuel Komnenos, nephew of the former emperor Isaac I, and elder brother to the future emperor Alexios. He managed to engage the Turks in battle, but was defeated and taken prisoner by a Turkish general named Khroudj. Manuel convinced Khroudj to go to Constantinople and see Romanos in person to conclude an alliance, which was soon completed. This act motivated the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan to attack the Byzantine Empire, besieging and capturing the important Byzantine fortresses of Manzikert and Archesh. Romanos, in return, offered to officially exchange Manzikert and Archesh for Hieropolis in Syria, which Romanos had taken three years previously.

paragraph: Section::::Battle of Manzikert and capture by Alp Arslan.

paragraph: Early in the spring of 1071, whilst conducting negotiations with Alp Arslan over Manzikert, Romanos marched at the head of a large army with the intent of recovering the fortress. It was soon evident that the army had a serious discipline problem, with soldiers regularly pillaging the area around their nightly camps. When Romanos attempted to enforce some stricter discipline, a whole regiment of German mercenaries mutinied, which the emperor only managed to control with the greatest difficulty.

paragraph: Believing that Alp Arslan was nowhere near Manzikert, he decided to divide his army. One part of the army he dispatched to attack Akhlat, at that time in possession of the Turks. Romanos himself advanced with the main body of the army on Manzikert, which he soon recaptured. At this point his advance guard met the Seljuk army, which was rapidly approaching Manzikert. Romanos ordered the forces attacking Akhlat to rejoin the army, but their portion of the army unexpectedly came across another large Turkish army, forcing them to retreat back into Mesopotamia. Already under strength, Romanos' army was further weakened when his Uzes mercenaries deserted to the Turks.

paragraph: Arslan had no desire to take on the Byzantine army, so he proposed a peace treaty with favourable terms for Romanos. The emperor, eager for a decisive military victory, rejected the offer, and both armies lined up for a battle, which took place on August 26, 1071. The battle lasted all day without either side gaining any decisive advantage, until the emperor ordered a part of his centre to return to camp. The order was misunderstood by the right wing, however, and Andronikos Doukas, who commanded the reserves, and was the son of "Caesar" John Doukas, took advantage of the confusion to betray Romanos. Claiming that Romanos was dead, he marched away from the battle with some 30,000 men, instead of covering the emperor's retreat. The Turks now began to press in on the Byzantine army.

paragraph: When Romanos discovered what had happened, he tried to recover the situation by making a defiant stand. He fought on valiantly after his horse was killed under him, but he received a wound in the hand, which prevented him from wielding a sword, and he was soon taken prisoner.

paragraph: According to a number of Byzantine historians, including John Skylitzes, Arslan at first had difficulty believing the dusty and tattered warrior brought before him was the Roman Emperor. He then stepped down from his seat and placed his foot on Romanos' neck. After this sign of ritual humiliation, however, Arslan raised Romanos from the ground and ordered him to be treated like a king. From then on he treated him with extreme kindness, never saying a cruel word to him during the Emperor's eight-day stay in his camp. He then released the Emperor in exchange for a treaty and the promise of a hefty ransom. At first Alp Arslan suggested a ransom of 10,000,000 "nomismata" to Romanos IV, but he later reduced it to 1,500,000 "nomismata", with a further 360,000 "nomismata" annually.

paragraph: Section::::Betrayal.

paragraph: In the meantime, the opposition faction scheming against Romanos IV decided to exploit the situation. The "Caesar" John Doukas and Michael Psellos forced Eudokia to retire to a monastery, and they prevailed upon Michael VII to declare Romanos IV deposed. They then refused to honor the agreement made between Arslan and the former emperor. Romanos soon returned, and he and the Doukas family gathered troops. A battle was fought at Dokeia between Constantine and Andronikos Doukas and Romanos, in which the army of Romanos was defeated, forcing him to retreat to the fortress of Tyropoion, and from there to Adana in Cilicia. Pursued by Andronikos, he was eventually forced to surrender by the garrison at Adana upon receiving assurances of his personal safety. Before leaving the fortress, he collected all the money he could lay his hands on and sent it to the Sultan as proof of his good faith, along with a message: "As emperor, I promised you a ransom of a million and a half. Dethroned, and about to become dependent upon others, I send you all I possess as proof of my gratitude".

paragraph: Andronikos stipulated that his life would be spared if he resigned the purple and retired into a monastery. Romanos agreed, and this agreement was ratified at Constantinople. However, John Doukas reneged on the agreement and sent men to have Romanos cruelly blinded on 29 June 1072 in Kotyaion. According to Attaleiates, the emperor was lead away, pleading for mercy, to be blinded by an "inexperienced Jew" who required three attempts to blind the emperor while he "bellowed like a bull". Per Attaleiates, "when he arose, his eyes were drenched with blood, a pathetic and pitiable sight that made everyone who saw it cry uncontrollably." He was then sent into exile to Prote in the Sea of Marmara. Without medical assistance, his wound became infected, and he soon endured a painfully lingering death. The final insult was given a few days before his death, when Romanos received a letter from Michael Psellos, congratulating him on the loss of his eyes. He finally died, praying for the forgiveness of his sins, and his widow Eudokia was permitted to honor his remains with a magnificent funeral. "His enemies", wrote John Julius Norwich, "martyred a courageous and upright man."

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: By his first wife, an unnamed daughter of Alusian of Bulgaria, Romanos IV Diogenes had at least one son:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantine Diogenes, who was married to Theodora, sister of Alexios I Komnenos. This marriage was arranged by Anna Dalassena after the death of Romanos IV, but it was short-lived, as Constantine perished under the walls of Antioch in 1073 while serving with his brother-in-law Isaac Komnenos.

paragraph: By his second wife, the Empress Eudokia Makrembolitissa, he had:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leo Diogenes – born in 1069, and according to Anna Comnena was made co-emperor during his father's reign. In the reign of Alexius I, he was taken into the imperial palace and given various high commands. He died in Alexius's campaigns against the Pechenegs in 1087.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nikephoros Diogenes – born in 1070, made Co-emperor upon his birth.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Romanus IV Diogenes

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of Michael Attaliates

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Romanos IV Diogenes

wikipedia_title: Romanos IV Diogenes


text:
Byzantine Empress
Macedonian dynasty
Byzantine Empire
Constantine VIII
Zoë
Michael V
Sea of Marmara
Constantine IX
convent
Constantine VIII
Helena, daughter of Alypius
Porphyrogenita
Basil II
Holy Roman Emperor
Otto III
Zoë
gynaeceum
Romanos Argyros
nun
Presian
blinded
Archon
Sirmium
monastery
Holy Orders
Michael IV
Michael V
Princes' Islands
Constantinople
patrician
Hagia Sophia
Senate
Michael Psellus
John Scylitzes
Constantine IX
John the Eunuch
convent
logothetes tou dromou
doux
Nikephoros Proteuon
Nikephoros Bryennios
tagma
Leo Paraspondylos
Isaac Komnenos
Michael Keroularios
military finance minister
Michael VI
List of Byzantine emperors
Michael Psellus
Theodora coinage

categories: 1056 deaths,Macedonian dynasty,Daughters of Byzantine emperors,11th-century women rulers,Byzantine empresses,11th-century Byzantine emperors,Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles,Porphyrogennetoi,10th-century Byzantine people,11th-century Byzantine women,10th-century Byzantine women,1040s in the Byzantine Empire,Empresses regnant,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,980 births

paragraph: Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)

paragraph: Theodora Porphyrogenita (, "Theodōra"; AD 980 – 31 August 1056) was Byzantine Empress from 19 April 1042 to her death on 31 August 1056. She was sole empress regnant from 11 January 1055. She was born into the Macedonian dynasty that ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost two hundred years.

paragraph: Theodora became involved in political matters only late into her life. Her father Constantine VIII was co-ruler of the Byzantine Empire for 63 years then sole emperor from 1025 to 1028. After he died his older daughter, Zoë, co-ruled with her husbands then her adopted son, Michael V, keeping Theodora closely watched. After two foiled plots, the princess was exiled to an island monastery in the Sea of Marmara in 1031. A decade later, the people of Constantinople rose against Michael V and insisted that she return to rule alongside her sister.

paragraph: After 65 days Zoë married again to Constantine IX, who assumed the imperial responsibilities. Theodora seemingly retired to a convent after the death of Zoë in 1050. When Constantine died, the seventy-four-year-old Theodora returned to the throne in the teeth of fierce opposition from court officials and military claimants. For sixteen months she was a strong empress before being struck down by a sudden illness and dying aged seventy-six. She was the last ruler of the Macedonian line.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Theodora was the third and youngest daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII and Helena, daughter of Alypius. She was "Porphyrogenita", "born into the purple"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. Her father became co-emperor in 962 and sole emperor upon the death of his brother Basil II in 1025. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 15 November 1028.

paragraph: As an eligible imperial princess, Theodora was considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor in the west, Otto III in 996. However, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoë. Otto III died before any marriage could occur. Basil II prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, calculating that such a marriage would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women, Theodora and Zoë were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage. Consequently, Theodora lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial "gynaeceum" (women's quarters).

paragraph: Intelligent and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied by then sole emperor Constantine by refusing to marry the man her father had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, stating that Romanos was already married – his wife having become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family. Theodora further claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Theodora's sister. Zoë married Romanos three days before her father died.

paragraph: With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the "gynaeceum", with its daily religious routines. Still, Zoë persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to marry the Bulgarian prince Presian and usurp the throne with him. Presian was blinded and sent to a monastery; Theodora was not punished. In 1031 she was implicated in a similar conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium. Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. During a visit, Zoë compelled her sister to take Holy Orders. Theodora remained there for the next eleven years, as Zoë managed the empire with her husbands Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV.

paragraph: Section::::Co-empress with Zoë.

paragraph: With Michael IV's death in December 1041, Zoë adopted Michael's nephew, who was crowned as Michael V. Although he promised to respect Zoë, he promptly banished her to a monastery on the Princes' Islands on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople, and on 19 April 1042, the people dethroned Michael V in support of not only Zoë, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoë back from Princes' Island and displayed her to the people, but the population rejected his proposal that he continue to rule alongside Zoë.

paragraph: Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoë needed a co-ruler, and backed the people's demand that it should be Theodora. A delegation, headed by the patrician Constantine Cabasilas, went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress. Theodora, accustomed to a life of religious contemplation, rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia, the people escorted the now furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress with Zoë. After crowning Theodora, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery.

paragraph: Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign. As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was far more strict. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety before ordering that he be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk. With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received a formal invitation from Zoë, some 24 hours after they had been crowned. Officially Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoë's on all public occasions. In practice she was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters administered the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice. Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they conscientiously rectified the abuses of the previous reigns.

paragraph: Although Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Still jealous of Theodora, Zoë had no desire to administer the empire, but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. Court factions formed behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony between them, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence through her obvious talents for governing. She eventually married Constantine IX, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him. Although Theodora and Zoë continued to be recognised as empresses, and although Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless, Theodora exerted influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch, the powerful administrator who had been the chief minister of Romanos III, the brother of Michael IV, and the uncle of Michael V; he had lived in exile after the fall of Michael V.

paragraph: Constantine IX's preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign caused rumours that he was planning to murder Theodora and Zoë. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the mob they were in no danger of assassination.

paragraph: Section::::Return to power.

paragraph: After Zoë's death in 1050, Theodora seems to have retired to a convent, leaving Constantine IX to rule alone until his own death on 11 January 1055. As Constantine lay dying, he was persuaded by his councilors, chiefly the "logothetes tou dromou" John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the "doux" (Duke) of the Byzantine Theme of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora preempted their plans when, despite her advanced age, she vigorously asserted her right to rule. She came out of retirement and convened the Senate, and the imperial guard proclaimed her "emperor" shortly before Constantine's death.

paragraph: A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios, whom the western "tagmata" apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was dismissed and exiled on Theodora's orders, after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court.

paragraph: With her firm administration, Theodora controlled the unruly nobles and checked numerous abuses. She damaged her reputation, however, with excessive severity toward private enemies and undue employment of such menials as Leo Paraspondylos as her advisors. Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and such able commanders as Isaac Komnenos were replaced with minor functionaries. Determined to centralize as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women.

paragraph: Theodora was fit, well and active and disinclined to face her own mortality, despite her age of seventy-six. The patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, something which would have assured the succession, but she refused to consider marriage, no matter how token. She also refused to name an heir to the throne. Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056. On 31 August her advisors, chaired by Leo Paraspondylos, met to decide who to recommend to her as a successor. According to Psellus, they selected Michael Bringas, an aged civil servant and former military finance minister whose main attraction was that "he was less qualified to rule than he was to be ruled and directed by others". Theodora was unable to speak, but Paraspondylos decided that she had nodded at an appropriate moment. Hearing of this the Patriarch refused to believe it. Eventually he was persuaded and Bringas was crowned as Michael VI. Theodora died a few hours later and with her death, the Macedonian dynasty's 189 year rule ended.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Psellus, "Chronographia".

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Finlay, "History of the Byzantine Empire from 716–1057", William Blackwood & Sons, 1853

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodora coinage

description: Byzantine Empire politician

wikidata_label: Theodora

wikipedia_title: Theodora Porphyrogenita (11th century)


text:
Latinized
Anglicized
AD
Byzantine Emperor
Amorian dynasty
iconoclasm
Michael II
Thekla
Leo V the Armenian
John Hylilas
iconoclasm
icon
Timarion
Netherworld
Arab
Sicily
Palermo
Emirate of Sicily
Anatolia
Abbasid
Caliph
Al-Ma'mun
Cilicia
Tarsus
Constantinople
Cappadocia
dinars
Danube
Krum of Bulgaria
Bulgaria
Byzantine Empire
Persian
Theophobos
Mesopotamia
Melitene
Arsamosata
al-Mu'tasim
Anatolia
Battle of Anzen
al-Afshin
Ancyra
Amorium
fell
Baghdad
nomismata
Republic of Venice
Crotone
20-year peace treaty
Isbul
Adrianople
Plovdiv
Khan
Malamir
Serbs
foederati
Bulgars
Vlastimir of Serbia
Peloponnese
Presian I
Serbia
Bulgarian–Serbian Wars
army of Vlastimir
Walls of Constantinople
Theodora
Constantine
Thekla
Augusta
Alexios Mosele
Michael III
List of Byzantine emperors
John Bagot Glubb
Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari

categories: 9th-century Byzantine emperors,813 births,842 deaths,Phrygian dynasty,Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars,830s in the Byzantine Empire,820s in the Byzantine Empire,Byzantine Iconoclasm

paragraph: Theophilos (emperor)

paragraph: Theophilos (; sometimes Latinized or Anglicized as Theophilus; 800-805 20 January 842 AD) was the Byzantine Emperor from 829 until his death in 842. He was the second emperor of the Amorian dynasty and the last emperor to support iconoclasm. Theophilos personally led the armies in his lifelong war against the Arabs, beginning in 831.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early.

paragraph: Theophilos was the son of the Byzantine Emperor Michael II and his wife Thekla, and the godson of Emperor Leo V the Armenian. Michael II crowned Theophilos co-emperor in 822, shortly after his own accession. Unlike his father, Theophilos received an extensive education from John Hylilas, the grammarian, and was a great admirer of music and art. On 2 October 829, Theophilos succeeded his father as sole emperor.

paragraph: Theophilos continued in his predecessors' iconoclasm, though without his father's more conciliatory tone, issuing an edict in 832 forbidding the veneration of icons. He also saw himself as the champion of justice, which he served most ostentatiously by executing his father's co-conspirators against Leo V immediately after his accession. His reputation as a judge endured, and in the literary composition "Timarion" Theophilos is featured as one of the judges in the Netherworld.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:War against the Arabs.

paragraph: At the time of his accession, Theophilos was obliged to wage wars against the Arabs on two fronts. Sicily was once again invaded by the Arabs, who took Palermo after a year-long siege in 831, established the Emirate of Sicily, and gradually continued to expand across the island. The defence after the invasion of Anatolia by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun in 830 was led by the Emperor himself, but the Byzantines were defeated and lost several fortresses. In 831 Theophilos retaliated by leading a large army into Cilicia and capturing Tarsus. The Emperor returned to Constantinople in triumph, but in the autumn he was defeated in Cappadocia. Another defeat in the same province in 833 forced Theophilos to sue for peace (Theophilos offered 100,000 gold dinars and the return of 7,000 prisoners), which he obtained the next year, after the death of Al-Ma'mun.

paragraph: During the respite from the war against the Abbasids, Theophilos arranged for the abduction of the Byzantine captives settled north of the Danube by Krum of Bulgaria. The rescue operation was carried out with success in c. 836, and the peace between Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire was quickly restored. However, it proved impossible to maintain peace in the East. Theophilos had given asylum to a number of refugees from the east in 834, including Nasr, a Persian. He baptized Theophobos, who married the Emperor's aunt Irene and became one of his generals. As relations with the Abbasids deteriorated, Theophilos prepared for a new war.

paragraph: In 837 Theophilos led a vast army of 70,000 men towards Mesopotamia and captured Melitene and Arsamosata. The Emperor also took and destroyed Zapetra (Zibatra, Sozopetra), which some sources claim as the birthplace of Caliph al-Mu'tasim. Theophilos returned to Constantinople in triumph. Eager for revenge, Al-Mu'tasim assembled a vast army and launched a two-pronged invasion of Anatolia in 838. Theophilos decided to strike one division of the caliph's army before they could combine. On 21 July 838 at the Battle of Anzen in Dazimon, Theophilos personally led a Byzantine army of 25,000 to 40,000 men against the troops commanded by al-Afshin. Afshin withstood the Byzantine attack, counter-attacked, and won the battle. The Byzantine survivors fell back in disorder and did not interfere in the caliph's continuing campaign.

paragraph: Al-Mu'tasim took Ancyra, and al-Afshin joined him there. The full Abbasid army advanced against Amorium, the cradle of the dynasty. Initially there was determined resistance. Then a Muslim captive escaped and informed the caliph where there was a section of the wall that had only a front facade. Al-Mu'tasim concentrated his bombardment on this section, and the wall was breached. Having heroically held for fifty-five days, the city now fell to al-Mu'tasim on 12 or 15 August 838.

paragraph: In 838, in order to impress the Caliph of Baghdad, Theophilus had John the Grammarian distribute 36,000 "nomismata" to the citizens of Baghdad. Around 841, the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it failed.

paragraph: During this campaign Al-Mu'tasim discovered that some of his top generals were plotting against him. Many of these leading commanders were arrested and some executed before he arrived home. Al-Afshin seems not to have been involved in this, but he was detected in other intrigues and died in prison in the spring of 841. Caliph al-Mu'tasim fell sick in October 841 and died on 5 January 842.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Relations with Bulgaria and Serbia.

paragraph: In 836, following the expiration of the 20-year peace treaty between the Empire and Bulgaria, Theophilos ravaged the Bulgarian frontier. The Bulgarians retaliated, and under the leadership of Isbul they reached Adrianople. At this time, if not earlier, the Bulgarians annexed Philippopolis (Plovdiv) and its environs. Khan Malamir died in 836.

paragraph: The peace between the Serbs, Byzantine foederati, and the Bulgars lasted until 839. Vlastimir of Serbia united several tribes, and Theophilos granted the Serbs independence; Vlastimir acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation. Malamir or his successor may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation and opted to subjugate them in the midst of the conquest of Slav lands. Another cause might have been that the Byzantines wanted to divert attention so that they could cope with the Slavic uprising in the Peloponnese, meaning they sent the Serbs to instigate the war. It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs prompted the Serbs to unite into a state.

paragraph: Khan Presian I (r. 836–852) invaded Serbian territory in 839 (see Bulgarian–Serbian Wars). The invasion led to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir was victorious; Presian was heavily defeated, made no territorial gains, and lost many of his men. The Serbs had a tactical advantage in the hills, and the Bulgars were driven out by the army of Vlastimir. The war ended with the death of Theophilos, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Death and legacy.

paragraph: The health of Theophilos gradually failed, and he died on 20 January 842. Theophilos strengthened the Walls of Constantinople and built a hospital, which continued to exist until the twilight of the Byzantine Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: By his marriage with Theodora, Theophilos had seven children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantine, co-emperor from c. 833 to c. 835.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thekla (c. 831 – after 867). She was named "Augusta" and her image appears in coinage during the regency of her mother. Later exiled to a monastery by her brother Michael.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anna (born c. 832). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anastasia (born c. 833). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pulcheria (born c. 836). Exiled into the monastery of Gastria. Never recalled.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria (c. 838 - c. 842). Betrothed the Caesar Alexios Mosele. Died at the age of four.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael III (19 January 840 – 23 September/24 September 867), who succeeded as emperor.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Bagot Glubb The Empire of the Arabs, Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1963

paragraph: BULLET::::- Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate", transl. C. E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991

alias:
Emperor of Constantinople Theophilos
Emperor of Constantinople Feofil
Emperor of Byzantium Theophilos
Theophilus

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Theophilos

wikipedia_title: Theophilos (emperor)


text:
Byzantine Emperor
regent
Andronikos IV Palaiologos
Keratsa of Bulgaria
Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria
Theodora
Wallachia
John V Palaiologos
Silivri
Manuel
Republic of Venice
Bayezid I
Ottoman Empire
Constantinople
Western Europe
Timur
Battle of Ankara
civil war in the Ottoman Empire
treaty
Sea of Marmara
Thessalonica
Aegean Sea
Andronikos V
Irene Gattilusio
Andronikos V Palaiologos
List of Byzantine emperors
Franz Dölger
Byzantinische Zeitschrift

categories: 14th-century Byzantine emperors,1408 deaths,1370 births,Byzantine regents,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Ottoman wars,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,Palaiologos dynasty

paragraph: John VII Palaiologos

paragraph: John VII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (, "Iōannēs Z' Palaiologos"; 1370 – 22 September 1408) was Byzantine Emperor for five months in 1390. While he was Emperor, there is evidence showing he used the name Andronikos, after his father, although when he was regent during his uncle's absence in the West, he governed in his birth name.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: John VII Palaiologos was the son of Emperor Andronikos IV Palaiologos and Keratsa of Bulgaria, a daughter of Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria and Theodora of Wallachia. He should not be confused with his cousin John VIII Palaiologos, the son of his uncle Manuel II, who succeeded his father.

paragraph: When his father Andronikos IV usurped the throne from his father John V Palaiologos in 1376, John VII was associated as co-emperor the following year. Both father and son were overthrown and partly blinded in 1379, but Andronikos IV kept his imperial status and was granted Selymbria (Silivri) as his domain by John V. When Andronikos IV died in 1385, John VII perhaps succeeded to his father's position.

paragraph: On 14 April 1390 John VII Palaiologos ousted his grandfather John V and maintained himself on the throne for five months, until John V was restored by his son Manuel with the help of the Republic of Venice

paragraph: John VII sought refuge with Bayezid I of the Ottoman Empire on 17 September 1390. Bayezid confirmed John VII in his father's domain of Selymbria, and relations improved with Manuel II, who may have recognized John VII as his intended heir (at that time his own sons were not yet born).

paragraph: In 1399, after Bayezid I had besieged Constantinople for some five years, Manuel II left to ask for military aid in Western Europe and left John VII as regent to defend the capital. John VII discharged his duties well, hoping for a miracle, which was considered to occur when Bayezid was defeated by Timur at the Battle of Ankara (20 July 1402).

paragraph: The defeat was followed by a civil war in the Ottoman Empire, as rival Ottoman princes sought peace and friendship with the Byzantine Empire. Taking advantage of this time of Ottoman weakness, John VII entered into a treaty that secured the return of much of the Turkish-occupied coast on the European side of the Sea of Marmara, with a special concession of the city of Thessalonica on the Aegean Sea. Thessalonica had been governed by Manuel II before its conquest by the Turks in 1387. On Manuel II's return John VII dutifully returned power to him and was allowed to retire to Thessalonica, which had been recently ceded back to Byzantium. There he governed as a semi-independent ruler for the rest of his life (1403–1408), using the title "Emperor of All Thessaly". John VII was allowed to keep the title of emperor ("Basileus"), and he associated his own young son, Andronikos V (born about 1400), with him at an uncertain date, but Andronikos V predeceased his father in 1407.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: By his wife Irene Gattilusio, John VII Palaiologos had at least one son:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Andronikos V Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (co-emperor)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- George T. Dennis, 'An unknown Byzantine emperor, Andronicus V Palaeologus', "Jahrbuch der Oesterreichischen Byzantinistik" 16 (1967), 175–187.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Franz Dölger, 'Johannes VII., Kaiser der Rhomäer', "Byzantinische Zeitschrift" 31 (1931), 21–36

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan, "The End of Byzantium". Yale University Press, 2010.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eurydice Lappa-Zizicas, 'Le voyage de Jean VII. Paléologue en Italie', "Revue des Études Byzantines" 34 (1976), 139–142.

paragraph: BULLET::::- P. Wirth, 'Zum Geschichtsbild Kaiser Johannes VII.', "Byzantion" 35 (1965), 592–600.

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: John VII Palaiologos

wikipedia_title: John VII Palaiologos


text:
Emperor of Nicaea
Laskaris
Byzantine
Constantinople
Constantine Laskaris
Alexios Laskaris
Bulgars
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Isaakios Laskaris
William Miller
Marco I Sanudo
George Akropolites
eyes differed from one another
Anna Angelina
Byzantine Emperor
Alexios III Angelos
Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera
sebastokratōr
despotēs
Constantinople
Fourth Crusade
Bosphorus
Constantine Laskaris
Bithynia
Nicaea
Patriarch of Constantinople
David Komnenos
Paphlagonia
Manuel Maurozomes
Phrygia
John X Kamateros
Michael IV Autoreianos
Edremit
Kaloyan of Bulgaria
Battle of Adrianople
Henry of Flanders
Kaykhusraw I
Rum
Battle of Antioch on the Meander
defeated
Sea of Marmara
David Megas Komnenos
Alexios I of Trebizond
Paphlagonia
peace treaty
Latin Empire
Nymphaion
Marie de Courtenay
Yolanda of Flanders
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Roman
Asia
Bithynia
Byzantine
Anna Komnene Angelina
Irene Laskarina
Andronikos Palaiologos
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Maria Laskarina
Béla IV of Hungary
Sophia Eudokia Laskarina
Frederick II, Duke of Austria
Anseau de Cayeux
Philippa of Armenia
Leo I, King of Armenia
Maria of Courtenay
Peter II of Courtenay
Yolanda of Flanders
List of Byzantine emperors

categories: 1174 births,Emperors of Nicaea,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars,1222 deaths,13th-century Byzantine emperors,Laskarid dynasty

paragraph: Theodore I Laskaris

paragraph: Theodoros I Komnenos Laskaris (, "Theodōros I Laskaris"; c. 1174/5 – 1221/August 1222) was the first Emperor of Nicaea (reigned 1204/05–1221/22).

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Theodore Laskaris was born in ca. 1174, to the Laskaris, a noble but not particularly renowned Byzantine family of Constantinople. He was the son of Manuel Laskaris (b. c. 1140) and wife Ioanna Karatzaina (b. c. 1148). He had four older brothers: Manuel Laskaris (died after 1256), Michael Laskaris (d. 1261/1271), Georgios Laskaris and Constantine Laskaris (died after March 19, 1205), Emperor of Byzantium (1204–1205); and two younger brothers: Alexios Laskaris, Latin military leader against the Bulgars who fought with the French against John III Doukas Vatatzes and was imprisoned and blinded, and Isaakios Laskaris.

paragraph: William Miller identified the wife of Marco I Sanudo as the sister of Theodore, based on his interpretation of the Italian sources. However, Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza rejected this identification in his "Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople" (1983), based on the silence of Byzantine primary sources.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: The historian George Akropolites left a description of Theodore: "In body he was very small, moderately dark, with a long beard which was divided at the ends", "His eyes differed from one another".

paragraph: In 1198/9, Theodore married Anna Angelina, daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios III Angelos and Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera; she was the widow of her (his?) cousin the "sebastokratōr" Isaac Komnenos. Soon after this, he was raised to the rank of "despotēs".

paragraph: Theodore later distinguished himself during the sieges of Constantinople by the Latins of the Fourth Crusade (1203–1204). He remained in Constantinople until the Latins actually penetrated into the city, at which point he fled across Bosphorus together with his wife. At about the same time his brother Constantine Laskaris was unsuccessfully proclaimed emperor by some of the defenders of Constantinople. In Bithynia Theodore established himself in Nicaea, which became the chief rallying-point for his countrymen.

paragraph: At first Theodore did not claim the imperial title, perhaps because his father-in-law and his brother were both still living, perhaps because of the imminent Latin invasion, or perhaps because there was no Patriarch of Constantinople to crown him Emperor. In addition, his own control over the Anatolian domains of the Byzantine Empire was challenged, by David Komnenos in Paphlagonia and Manuel Maurozomes in Phrygia. It was only after defeating the latter two in 1205 that he was proclaimed Emperor and invited Patriarch John X Kamateros to Nicaea. But John died in 1206 before crowning Theodore. Theodore appointed Michael IV Autoreianos as the new Patriarch and was crowned by him in March 1208.

paragraph: In the meantime, Theodore had been defeated by the Latins at Adramyttion (Edremit), but soon afterwards the Latins were themselves defeated by Kaloyan of Bulgaria at the Battle of Adrianople. This temporarily stalled the Latin advance, but it was renewed by Emperor Henry of Flanders in 1206. Theodore entered into an alliance with Kaloyan and took the offensive in 1209.

paragraph: The situation was complicated by the invasion of Sultan Kaykhusraw I of Rum at the instigation of the deposed Alexios III in 1211; however, the Nicaeans defeated the Seljuk army at the Battle of Antioch on the Meander where Theodore Laskaris killed the sultan in single combat. Although the danger from Rum and Alexios III was thus neutralized, Emperor Henry defeated Theodore in October of the same year, and established his control over the southern shores of the Sea of Marmara. In spite of this defeat, Theodore was able to take advantage of the death of David Megas Komnenos, the brother of Emperor Alexios I of Trebizond in 1212 and to extend his own control over Paphlagonia.

paragraph: In 1214 Theodore concluded a peace treaty with the Latin Empire at Nymphaion, and in 1219 he married Marie de Courtenay, a niece of now deceased Emperor Henry and daughter of the current regent, Yolanda of Flanders. In spite of predominantly peaceful relations, Theodore attacked the Latin Empire again in 1220, but peace was restored. Theodore died in November 1221 and was succeeded by his son-in-law John III Doukas Vatatzes. He was buried in the Monastery of Hyakinthos in Nicaea.

paragraph: At the end of his reign he ruled over a territory roughly coterminous with the old Roman provinces of Asia and Bithynia. Though there is no proof of higher qualities of statesmanship in him, by his courage and military skill he enabled the Byzantine nation not merely to survive, but ultimately to beat back the Latin invasion.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and children.

paragraph: Theodore married three times. His first wife was Anna Komnene Angelina (b. c. 1176), whom he married in 1199. With Anna, Theodore had three daughters and two sons who died young:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nicholas Laskaris (d. c. 1212)

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Laskaris (d. c. 1212)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Irene Laskarina, who married first the general Andronikos Palaiologos and then John III Doukas Vatatzes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria Laskarina, who married King Béla IV of Hungary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophia Eudokia Laskarina (renamed Sophia, born between 1210 and 1212, died between 1247 and 1253), engaged to Robert of Courtenay, married firstly and divorced Frederick II, Duke of Austria, secondly (bef. 1230) Anseau de Cayeux, Governor of Asia Minor

paragraph: After Anna Angelina died in 1212, Theodore took Philippa of Armenia (1183-aft. 1219) as his second wife. She was a niece of Leo I, King of Armenia; this marriage was annulled a year later and they divorced in 1216. Gardiner mentions the theory that Leo wanted to marry his daughter to another, and sent his niece in her place; once Theodore found he had been duped, he sent her and the son born to them, Constantine Laskaris, born in 1214, back to Cilicia.

paragraph: Theodore's third wife was Maria of Courtenay (1204-September, 1222), whom he married in 1219. She was the daughter of Emperor Peter II of Courtenay and Empress Yolanda of Flanders, but they had no children.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jonathan Harris, "Byzantium and the Crusades", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Head, C. (1980) "Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing", Byzantion, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1980), Peeters Publishers, pp. 226-240

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The New Cambridge Medieval History", Vol. V, Cambridge University Press, 1995. , 9780521362894

description: 13th-century emperor of Nicaea

wikidata_label: Theodore I Laskaris

wikipedia_title: Theodore I Laskaris


text: Byzantine emperor

text: Alexios I Komnenos

text: Irene Doukaina

text: Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire

text: battle of Manzikert

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Pechenegs

text: Hungarians

text: Serbs

text: Balkans

text: Turks

text: Asia Minor

text: Maeander

text: Cilicia

text: Tarsus

text: Christian

text: Muslim

text: Syria

text: Crusader states

text: Alexios I

text: Manuel I

text: Latin

text: William of Tyre

text: Moor

text: Marcus Aurelius

text: Irene

text: Caesar

text: Nikephoros Bryennios

text: Anna Komnene

text: Constantine Doukas

text: sebastokratōr

text: Isaac Komnenos

text: Great Palace

text: John Axouch

text: Alexios

text: Siege of Nicaea

text: Grand Domestic

text: mesazon

text: vizier

text: obeisance

text: Eustathios Kamytzes

text: Michaelitzes Styppeiotes

text: George Dekanos

text: Gregory Taronites

text: protovestiarios

text: Manuel Anemas

text: Theodore Vatatzes

text: Mousai

text: Thrakesion

text: Philadelphia

text: Mylasa and Melanoudion

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Roger II of Sicily

text: Lothair III

text: Bari

text: Innocent II

text: Church's

text: Antipope Anacletus II

text: Treaty of Mignano

text: Conrad III

text: Bertha of Sulzbach

text: Iconium

text: Danishmendid

text: Mas'ud

text: Kastamuni

text: Crusader states

text: Principality of Antioch

text: County of Edessa

text: County of Tripoli

text: Kingdom of Jerusalem

text: King Fulk

text: Zeyrek Mosque

text: layman

text: Paulician

text: Bogomil

text: Constantine Chrysomallos

text: Leo Styppes

text: Adrian Komnenos

text: sebastokrator

text: Isaac

text: Archbishop of Bulgaria

text: Seljuq Turks

text: Anatolia

text: Pecheneg

text: Danube

text: Paristrion

text: Kiev

text: Thrace

text: Battle of Beroia

text: Varangian Guard

text: laager

text: Republic of Venice

text: Kerkyra

text: Rhodes

text: Chios

text: Samos

text: Lesbos

text: Andros

text: Kefalonia

text: Ionian Sea

text: Piroska

text: Kingdom of Hungary

text: Stephen II

text: Serbs

text: Nicomedia

text: Belgrade

text: Nish

text: Sofia

text: Philippopolis

text: Danube

text: Serbia

text: Haram

text: Nova Palanka

text: Sirmium

text: Attaleia

text: besieged

text: Laodicea

text: took

text: Sozopolis

text: Danishmendid

text: Malatya

text: Euphrates

text: Kastamonu

text: Gangra

text: Battle of Manzikert

text: Sangarios River

text: Danishmend Turks

text: Black Sea

text: Bithynia

text: Paphlagonia

text: Constantine Gabras

text: Trebizond

text: Chaldia

text: Neocaesarea

text: Crusader State

text: Tarsus

text: Adana

text: Mopsuestia

text: Principality of Armenian Cilicia

text: Levon I of Armenia

text: Principality of Antioch

text: Raymond of Poitiers

text: Joscelin II

text: Count of Edessa

text: Raymond II

text: Count of Tripoli

text: Maarat al-Numan

text: Kafartab

text: dice

text: Shaizar

text: Aleppo

text: Shaizar

text: Homs

text: Hama

text: Zengi

text: German

text: Normans

text: Sicily

text: Antalya

text: Alexios

text: Fulk of Jerusalem

text: Mount Taurus

text: Cilicia

text: poisoned arrow

text: septicaemia

text: Manuel

text: Isaac

text: Neocaesareia

text: AIMA prophecy

text: Manuel I

text: Euphrates

text: Piroska of Hungary

text: Ladislaus I of Hungary

text: Coloman of Hungary

text: Alexios Komnenos

text: John Roger Dalassenos

text: Andronikos Komnenos

text: Stephen Kontostephanos

text: Isaac Komnenos

text: Manuel Anemas

text: Theodore Vatatzes

text: Manuel I Komnenos

text: Byzantium under the Komnenos dynasty

text: Komnenian army

text: List of Byzantine emperors

text: John II Comnenus' Hungarian campaigns

text: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

text: Mosaic of John Komnenos, Eirene and Alexios in Hagia Sophia

text: Niketas Choniates

text: John Kinnamos

text: William of Tyre

text: Latin library

text: Angold, Michael

text: Angold, Michael

text: Runciman, Steven

categories: Hunting accident deaths,Deaths by poisoning,1143 deaths,Family of Alexios I Komnenos,12th-century Byzantine emperors,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars,1087 births,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,Christians of the Crusades,Komnenos dynasty

paragraph: John II Komnenos

paragraph: John II Komnenos or Comnenus (, "Iōannēs II Komnēnos"; 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143) was Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. Also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good" ("Kaloïōannēs"), he was the eldest son of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina and the second emperor to rule during the Komnenian restoration of the Byzantine Empire. John was a pious and dedicated monarch who was determined to undo the damage his empire had suffered following the battle of Manzikert, half a century earlier.

paragraph: John has been assessed as the greatest of the Komnenian emperors. In the course of his twenty-five year reign, John made alliances with the Holy Roman Empire in the west, decisively defeated the Pechenegs, Hungarians and Serbs in the Balkans, and personally led numerous campaigns against the Turks in Asia Minor. John's campaigns fundamentally changed the balance of power in the east, forcing the Turks onto the defensive and restoring to the Byzantines many towns, fortresses and cities right across the Anatolian peninsula. In the southeast, John extended Byzantine control from the Maeander in the west all the way to Cilicia and Tarsus in the east. In an effort to demonstrate the Byzantine ideal of the emperor's role as the leader of the Christian world, John marched into Muslim Syria at the head of the combined forces of Byzantium and the Crusader states; yet despite the great vigour with which he pressed the campaign, John's hopes were disappointed by the evasiveness of his Crusader allies and their reluctance to fight alongside his forces.

paragraph: Under John, the empire's population recovered to about 10 million people. The quarter-century of John II's reign is less well recorded by contemporary or near-contemporary writers than the reigns of either his father, Alexios I, or his son, Manuel I. In particular little is known of the history of John's domestic rule or policies.

paragraph: Section::::Physical appearance and character.

paragraph: The Latin historian William of Tyre described John as short and unusually ugly, with eyes, hair and complexion so dark he was known as 'the Moor'. Yet despite his physical appearance, John was known as "Kaloïōannēs", "John the Good" or "John the Beautiful"; the epithet referred to his character. Both his parents were unusually pious and John surpassed them. Members of his court were expected to restrict their conversation to serious subjects only. The food served at the emperor's table was very frugal and John lectured courtiers who lived in excessive luxury. His speech was dignified, but he engaged in repartee on occasion. All accounts agree that he was a faithful husband to his wife, an unusual trait in a Medieval ruler. Despite his personal austerity, John had a high conception of the imperial role and would appear in full ceremonial splendour when this was advantageous.

paragraph: John was famed for his piety and his remarkably mild and just reign. He is an exceptional example of a moral ruler, at a time when cruelty was the norm. He is reputed never to have condemned anyone to death or mutilation. Charity was dispensed lavishly. For this reason, he has been called the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. By the example of his personal morality and piety he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age. Descriptions of him and his actions indicate that he had great self-control and personal courage, and was an excellent strategist and general.

paragraph: Section::::Accession to the throne.

paragraph: John II succeeded his father as ruling "basileus" in 1118, but had already been crowned co-emperor by Alexios I between 1 September and early November, 1092. Despite this coronation, the accession of John was contested. That Alexios I favoured John to succeed him is made obvious by the elevation of his son to the position of co-emperor. However, Alexios' influential wife, Irene, favoured the "Caesar" Nikephoros Bryennios, the husband of her eldest child Anna Komnene. Anna, who in infancy had been betrothed to her father's first co-emperor Constantine Doukas, herself harboured obvious aspirations to power and the throne. During Alexios' final illness both wife and daughter exploited his physical weakness to apply pressure on him in support of their agenda for the succession. Alexios endured these constant demands without formally changing his intended successor. As Alexios lay dying in the monastery of the Mangana on 15 August 1118, John, relying on trusted relatives, especially his brother the "sebastokratōr" Isaac Komnenos, gained entry into the monastery and obtained the imperial signet ring from his father. He then assembled his armed followers and rode to the Great Palace, gathering the support of the citizenry on the way. The palace guard at first refused to admit John without clear proof of his father's wishes, however, the mob surrounding the new emperor simply forced an entry. In the palace John was acclaimed emperor. Irene, taken by surprise, was unable either to persuade her son to step down, or to induce Nikephoros to contend for the throne.

paragraph: Alexios died the night following his son's decisive move to take power. John refused to attend his father's funeral, despite the pleas of his mother, because he feared a counter-coup. However, in the space of a few days, his position seemed secure. Within a year of his accession, however, John II uncovered a conspiracy to overthrow him which implicated his mother and sister. Anna's husband Nikephoros had little sympathy with her ambitions, and it was his lack of support which doomed the conspiracy. Anna was stripped of her property, which was offered to the emperor's friend John Axouch. Axouch wisely declined and his influence ensured that Anna's property was eventually returned to her and that John II and his sister became reconciled, at least to a degree. Irene retired to a monastery and Anna seems to have been effectively removed from public life, taking up the less active occupation of historian. However, Nikephoros remained on good terms with his brother-in-law. To safeguard his own succession, John crowned his young son Alexios co-emperor in 1122.

paragraph: Section::::Military and civil administration.

paragraph: The family intrigues that challenged his succession to the throne probably contributed to John's approach to rulership, which was to appoint men from outside the imperial family to high office. This was a radical departure from the methods of his father, who had used the imperial family and its many connections to fill almost all senior administrative and military posts.

paragraph: John Axouch was John II's closest adviser and was his only intimate friend. Axouch was a Turk captured as a child at the Siege of Nicaea, who had been given as a gift to John's father. Emperor Alexios had thought him a good companion for his son, and so he had been brought up alongside the prince in the imperial household. Axouch was immediately appointed Grand Domestic (in Greek: μέγας δομέστικος, "megas domestikos"), upon the accession of John II. The Grand Domestic was the commander in chief of the Byzantine armies. It has been suggested that references to Axouch's possession of the imperial seal early in the reign of John's successor Manuel I meant that he was, in addition to his military duties, the head of the civil administration of the Empire. This was an unofficial position known at the time as the "mesazon", and equivalent to a vizier or 'prime-minister.' Such an appointment was remarkable, and a radical departure from the nepotism that had characterised the reign of Alexios I. The imperial family harboured some degree of resentment at this decision, which was reinforced by the fact that they were required to make obeisance to John Axouch whenever they met him.

paragraph: John's unwillingness to allow his family to influence his government to any great extent was to remain constant for the rest of his reign. John appointed a number of his father's personal retainers to senior administrative posts, men such as Eustathios Kamytzes, Michaelitzes Styppeiotes and George Dekanos. These were men who had been politically eclipsed during the ascendancy exercised by John's mother in the later years of the reign of Alexios I. A number of 'new men' were raised to prominence by John II, these included Gregory Taronites who was appointed protovestiarios, Manuel Anemas and Theodore Vatatzes, the latter two also became his sons-in-law. John's marriage policy, of bringing new families into the imperial orbit, may have been directed towards lessening the influence of certain prominent aristocratic clans, such as the Doukas, Diogenes and Melissenos families, some of which had produced emperors themselves in the past.

paragraph: Despite his move away from close reliance on the imperial family and its connections, John's court and government had many similarities to that of his father, not least in its serious tone and piety. Indeed, an extant collection of political advice couched in poetic form, called the "Mousai", are attributed to Alexios I. The "Mousai" are addressed directly to John II and exhort him, amongst other things, to maintain justice during his reign and a full treasury. Alexios' advice on rulership therefore continued to be available to his son, even after the old emperor's death.

paragraph: The increase in military security and economic stability within Byzantine western Anatolia created by John II's campaigns allowed him to begin the establishment of a formal provincial system in these regions. The theme (province) of Thrakesion was re-established, with its administrative centre at Philadelphia. A new theme, named Mylasa and Melanoudion, was created to the south of Thrakesion.

paragraph: Section::::Diplomacy.

paragraph: The central tenet of the foreign policy of John II in the West was to maintain an alliance with the German emperors (Holy Roman Empire). This was necessary to limit the threat posed by the Normans of southern Italy to Byzantine territory in the Balkans. This threat became especially acute after Roger II of Sicily made himself supreme in southern Italy and assumed the title of king. Emperor Lothair III had Byzantine backing, including a large financial subsidy, for his invasion of Norman territory in 1136, which reached as far south as Bari. Pope Innocent II, with the Church's possessions in Italy under threat by Roger II, who supported Antipope Anacletus II, was also party to the alliance of Lothair and John II. However, this alliance proved unable to resist Roger, who extracted by force a recognition of his royal title from the Pope in 1139 (Treaty of Mignano). Lothair's successor Conrad III was approached in 1140 for a royal German bride for John's youngest son Manuel. Bertha of Sulzbach, Conrad's sister-in-law, was chosen and despatched to Byzantium. At much the same time Roger II applied to John II for an imperial bride for his son, but was unsuccessful.

paragraph: John's penchant for interfering with his wife's family, the rulers of Hungary, was problematic. The welcome accorded to ousted claimants of the Hungarian throne in Constantinople was seen by the Byzantines as a useful insurance policy and source of political leverage. However, the Hungarians treated this interference as a fighting matter. A Hungarian alliance with the Serbs produced serious consequences for continued Byzantine dominance in the western Balkans.

paragraph: In the East John attempted, like his father, to exploit the differences between the Seljuq Sultan of Iconium and the Danishmendid dynasty controlling the northeastern, inland, parts of Anatolia. In 1134 the Seljuq sultan Mas'ud provided troops for John's attack on the Danishmend-held city of Kastamuni, however, the alliance proved unreliable as the Seljuq troops abandoned the expedition, decamping during the night.

paragraph: In the Crusader states of the Levant it was generally admitted that the Byzantine claims over Antioch were legally valid, though it was pragmatically viewed that only when the Byzantine emperor was in a position to enforce them militarily were they likely to be recognised in practice. The high point of John's diplomacy in the Levant was in 1137 when he extracted formal homage from the rulers of the Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa and the County of Tripoli. The Byzantine desire to be seen as holding a level of suzerainty over all of the Crusader states was taken seriously, as evidenced by the alarm shown in the Kingdom of Jerusalem when John informed King Fulk of his plan for an armed pilgrimage to the Holy City (1142).

paragraph: Section::::Religious matters.

paragraph: The reign of John II was taken up with almost constant warfare and, unlike his father who delighted in active participation in theological and doctrinal disputes, John appears to have been content to leave ecclesiastical matters to the Patriarch and the church hierarchy. Only when religion impinged directly on imperial policy, as in relations with the papacy and the possible union of the Greek and Latin churches, did John take an active part. He organised a number of disputations between Greek and Latin theologians.

paragraph: John, alongside his wife who shared in his religious and charitable works, is known to have undertaken church building on a considerable scale, including construction of the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator (Zeyrek Mosque) in Constantinople. This monastery, with its three churches, has been described as one of the most important and influential architectural constructions of Middle Byzantine Constantinople. Attached to the monastery was a hospital, of 5 wards, open to people of all social classes. The hospital was staffed by trained layman doctors rather than monks. The monastery also served as the imperial sepulchre for the Komnenian dynasty.

paragraph: Very active persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies characterised the last few years of the reign of Alexios I. No records from the reign of John mention such persecution, though countermeasures against heresy by the Byzantine Church remained in force. A permanent synod in Constantinople investigated the writings of a deceased monk named Constantine Chrysomallos which had been circulating in certain monasteries. These works were ordered to be burnt by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Leo Styppes, in May 1140, on the grounds that they incorporated elements of Bogomil belief and practices.

paragraph: One of the few members of the imperial family to be placed in an important position by John was his cousin Adrian Komnenos (son of John's uncle the "sebastokrator" Isaac). Adrian had become a monk and had accompanied John on his campaigns of 1138. Soon afterwards Adrian was appointed Archbishop of Bulgaria. Bulgaria was an autocephalus see and required a prestigious man as archbishop.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.

paragraph: Though he fought a number of notable pitched battles, the military strategy of John II relied on taking and holding fortified settlements in order to construct defensible frontiers. John personally conducted approximately twenty five sieges during his reign.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:The Pechenegs destroyed (1122).

paragraph: In 1119–1121 John defeated the Seljuq Turks, establishing his control over southwestern Anatolia. However, immediately afterwards, in 1122, John quickly transferred his troops to Europe to counter a Pecheneg invasion across the Danube frontier into Paristrion. These invaders had been auxiliaries of the Prince of Kiev. John surrounded the Pechenegs as they burst into Thrace, tricked them into believing that he would grant them a favourable treaty, and then launched a devastating surprise attack upon their fortified camp. The ensuing Battle of Beroia was hard fought, John was wounded in the leg by an arrow, but by the end of the day the Byzantine army had won a crushing victory. The decisive moment of the battle was when John led the Varangian Guard, largely composed of Englishmen, to assault defensive Pecheneg wagon laager, employing their famous axes to hack their way in. The battle put an effective end to the Pechenegs as an independent people; many of the captives taken in the conflict were settled as soldier-farmers within the Byzantine frontier.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:Conflict with Venice (1124–1126).

paragraph: After his accession, John II had refused to confirm his father's 1082 treaty with the Republic of Venice, which had given the Italian republic unique and generous trading rights within the Byzantine Empire. Yet the change in policy was not motivated by financial concerns. An incident involving the abuse of a member of the imperial family by Venetians led to a dangerous conflict, especially as Byzantium had depended on Venice for its naval strength. After a Byzantine retaliatory attack on Kerkyra, John exiled the Venetian merchants from Constantinople. But this produced further retaliation, and a Venetian fleet of 72 ships plundered Rhodes, Chios, Samos, Lesbos, Andros and captured Kefalonia in the Ionian Sea. Eventually John was forced to come to terms; the war was costing him more than it was worth, and he was not prepared to transfer funds from the imperial land forces to the navy for the construction of new ships. John re-confirmed the treaty of 1082, in August 1126.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:War with the Hungarians and Serbs (1127–1129 – chronology uncertain).

paragraph: John's marriage to the Hungarian princess Piroska involved him in the dynastic struggles of the Kingdom of Hungary. In giving asylum to Álmos, a blinded claimant to the Hungarian throne, John aroused the suspicion of the Hungarians. The Hungarians, led by Stephen II, then invaded Byzantium's Balkan provinces in 1127, with hostilities lasting until 1129; however, an alternative chronology has been suggested with the Hungarian attack and Byzantine retaliation taking place in 1125 with a renewal of hostilities in 1126. John launched a punitive raid against the Serbs, who had dangerously aligned themselves with Hungary, many of whom were rounded up and transported to Nicomedia in Asia Minor to serve as military colonists. This was done partly to cow the Serbs into submission (Serbia was, at least nominally, a Byzantine protectorate), and partly to strengthen the Byzantine frontier in the east against the Turks. The Serbs were forced to acknowledge Byzantine suzerainty once again. The Serbian campaign may have taken place between two distinct phases in the war against Hungary. The Hungarians attacked Belgrade, Nish and Sofia; John, who was near Philippopolis in Thrace, counterattacked, supported by a naval flotilla operating on the Danube. After a challenging campaign, the details of which are obscure, the emperor managed to defeat the Hungarians and their Serbian allies at the fortress of Haram or Chramon, which is the modern Nova Palanka; many Hungarian troops were killed when a bridge they were crossing collapsed as they were fleeing from a Byzantine attack. Following this the Hungarians renewed hostilities by attacking Braničevo, which was immediately rebuilt by John. Further Byzantine military successes, Choniates mentions several engagements, resulted in a restoration of peace. The Byzantines were confirmed in their control of Braničevo, Belgrade and Zemun and they also recovered the region of Sirmium (called Frangochorion in Choniates), which had been Hungarian since the 1060s. The Hungarian pretender Álmos died in 1129, removing the major source of friction.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:War of attrition against the Anatolian Turks (1119–20, 1130–35, 1139–40).

paragraph: Early in John's reign the Turks were pressing forward against the Byzantine frontier in western Asia Minor, and he was determined to drive them back. In 1119, the Seljuqs had cut the land route to the city of Attaleia on the southern coast of Anatolia. John II and Axouch the Grand Domestic besieged and recaptured Laodicea in 1119 and took Sozopolis by storm in 1120, re-opening land communication with Attaleia. This route was especially important as it also led to Cilicia and the Crusader states of Syria.

paragraph: Following the end of hostilities with Hungary, John was able to concentrate on Asia Minor during most of his remaining years. He undertook annual campaigns against the Danishmendid emirate in Malatya on the upper Euphrates from 1130 to 1135. Thanks to his energetic campaigning, Turkish attempts at expansion in Asia Minor were halted, and John prepared to take the fight to the enemy. In order to restore the region to Byzantine control, he led a series of well planned and executed campaigns against the Turks, one of which resulted in the reconquest of the ancestral home of the Komnenoi at Kastamonu (Kastra Komnenon); he then left a garrison of 2,000 men at Gangra. John quickly earned a formidable reputation as a wall-breaker, taking one stronghold after another from his enemies. Regions that had been lost to the empire since the Battle of Manzikert were recovered and garrisoned. Yet resistance, particularly from the Danishmends of the northeast, was strong, and the difficult nature of holding the new conquests is illustrated by the fact that Kastamonu was recaptured by the Turks even as John was in Constantinople celebrating its return to Byzantine rule. John persevered, however, and Kastamonu soon changed hands once more.

paragraph: In the spring of 1139, the emperor campaigned with success against Turks, probably nomadic Turkomans, who were raiding the regions along the Sangarios River, striking their means of subsistence by driving off their herds. He then marched for the final time against the Danishmend Turks, his army proceeding along the southern coast of the Black Sea through Bithynia and Paphlagonia. The breakaway Byzantine regime of Constantine Gabras in Trebizond was ended, and the region of Chaldia brought back under direct imperial control. John then besieged but failed to take the city of Neocaesarea, in 1140. The Byzantines were defeated by the conditions rather than by the Turks: the weather was very bad, large numbers of the army's horses died, and provisions became scarce.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:Campaigning in Cilicia and Syria (1137–1138).

paragraph: In the Levant, the emperor sought to reinforce Byzantine claims to suzerainty over the Crusader States and to assert his rights over Antioch. In 1137 he conquered Tarsus, Adana, and Mopsuestia from the Principality of Armenian Cilicia, and in 1138 Prince Levon I of Armenia and most of his family were brought as captives to Constantinople. This opened the route to the Principality of Antioch, where Raymond of Poitiers, Prince of Antioch, and Joscelin II, Count of Edessa, recognized themselves as vassals of the emperor in 1137. Even Raymond II, the Count of Tripoli, hastened northwards to pay homage to John, repeating the homage that his predecessor had given John's father in 1109. There then followed a joint campaign as John led the armies of Byzantium, Antioch, and Edessa against Muslim Syria. Aleppo proved too strong to attack, but the fortresses of Balat, Biza'a, Athereb, Maarat al-Numan, and Kafartab were taken by assault.

paragraph: Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, his allies Prince Raymond of Antioch and Count Joscelin II of Edessa remained in their camp playing dice and feasting instead of helping to press the siege of the city of Shaizar. The Crusader Princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and neither wanted the other to gain from participating in the campaign. Raymond also wanted to hold on to Antioch, which he had agreed to hand over to John if the campaign was successful in capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, Homs, and Hama. Latin and Muslim sources describe John's energy and personal courage in prosecuting the siege. The city was taken, but the citadel defied assault. The Emir of Shaizar offered to pay a large indemnity, become John's vassal, and pay yearly tribute. John had lost all confidence in his allies, and a Muslim army under Zengi was approaching to try to relieve the city, therefore the emperor reluctantly accepted the offer. The emperor was distracted by a Seljuq raid on Cilicia and developments in the west, where he was pursuing a German alliance directed against the threat posed by the Normans of Sicily. Joscelin and Raymond conspired to delay the promised handover of Antioch's citadel to the emperor, stirring up popular unrest in the city directed at John and the local Greek community. John had little choice but to leave Syria with his ambitions only partially realised.

paragraph: Section::::Military exploits.:Final campaigns (1142).

paragraph: In early 1142 John campaigned against the Seljuqs of Iconium to secure his lines of communication through Antalya. During this campaign his eldest son and co-emperor Alexios died of a fever. Having secured his route, John embarked on a new expedition into Syria determined to reduce Antioch to direct imperial rule. This expedition included a planned pilgrimage to Jerusalem on which he intended to take his army. King Fulk of Jerusalem, fearing that the emperor's presence with overwhelming military force would constrain him to make an act of homage and formally recognise Byzantine suzerainty over his kingdom, begged the emperor to bring only a modest escort. Fulk cited the inability of his largely barren kingdom to support the passage of a substantial army. This lukewarm response resulted in John II deciding to postpone his pilgrimage. John descended rapidly on northern Syria, forcing Joscelin II of Edessa to render hostages, including his daughter, as a guarantee of his good behaviour. He then advanced on Antioch demanding that the city and its citadel be surrendered to him. Raymond of Poitiers played for time, putting the proposal to the vote of the Antiochene general assembly. With the season well advanced John decided to take his army into winter quarters in Cilicia, proposing to renew his attack on Antioch the following year.

paragraph: Section::::Death and succession.

paragraph: Having prepared his army for a renewed attack on Antioch, John amused himself by hunting wild boar on Mount Taurus in Cilicia, where, on April 1, 1143, he accidentally cut himself on the hand with a poisoned arrow. John initially ignored the wound and it became infected. He died a number of days after the accident, on April 8, probably of septicaemia. It has been suggested that John was assassinated by a conspiracy within the units of his army of Latin origins who were unhappy at fighting their co-religionists of Antioch, and who wanted to place his pro-western son Manuel on the throne. However, there is very little overt support for this hypothesis in the primary sources. John's final action as emperor was to choose Manuel, the younger of his surviving sons, to be his successor. John is recorded as citing two main reasons for choosing Manuel over his older brother Isaac: Isaac's irascibility, and the courage that Manuel had shown on campaign at Neocaesareia. Another theory alleges that the reason for this choice was the AIMA prophecy, which foretold that John's successor should be one whose name began with an "M". Fittingly, John's close friend John Axouch, although he is recorded as having tried hard to persuade the dying emperor that Isaac was the better candidate to succeed, was instrumental in ensuring that Manuel's assumption of power was free from any overt opposition.

paragraph: Section::::The legacy of John II.

paragraph: Historian John Birkenmeier argued that John's reign was the most successful of the Komnenian period. In "The Development of the Komnenian Army 1081–1180," he stresses the wisdom of John's approach to warfare, which focused on sieges rather than risking pitched battles. Birkenmeier argues that John's strategy of launching annual campaigns with limited, realistic objectives was a more sensible one than that followed by his son Manuel I. According to this view, John's campaigns benefited the Byzantine Empire because they protected the empire's heartland, which lacked reliable borders, while gradually extending its territory in Asia Minor. The Turks were forced onto the defensive, while John kept his diplomatic situation relatively simple by allying with the Holy Roman Emperor against the Normans of Sicily.

paragraph: Overall, it is clear that John II Komnenos left the empire a great deal better off than he had found it. By the time of his death substantial territories had been recovered, and the goals of the recovery of control over central Anatolia and the re-establishment of a frontier on the Euphrates seemed achievable. However, the Greeks of the interior of Anatolia were becoming increasingly accustomed to Turkish rule and often found it preferable to that of Byzantium. Also, though it was relatively easy to extract submission and admissions of vassalage from the Anatolian Turks, Serbs and Crusader States of the Levant, converting these relationships into concrete gains for the security of the Empire had proven elusive. These problems were left for his gifted and mercurial son, Manuel, to attempt to solve.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: John II Komnenos married Princess Piroska of Hungary (renamed Irene), a daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1104; the marriage was intended as compensation for the loss of some territories to King Coloman of Hungary. She played little part in government, devoting herself to piety and their large brood of children. Irene died on August 13, 1134 and was later venerated as Saint Irene. John II and Irene had 8 children:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Alexios Komnenos, co-emperor from 1122 to 1142

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Maria Komnene (twin to Alexios), who married John Roger Dalassenos

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Andronikos Komnenos (died 1142)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Anna Komnene ( – after 1149), who married the admiral Stephen Kontostephanos, who died in battle in 1149. The couple had four children.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Isaac Komnenos ( – after 1154), raised to "sebastokrator" in 1122, he was superseded in the succession in favour of Manuel in 1143; married twice and had several children.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Theodora Komnene ( – before May 1157), who married the military commander Manuel Anemas, who was killed in action, after which she entered a monastery. The couple had at least four children.

paragraph: BULLET::::7. Eudokia Komnene ( – before 1150), who married the military commander Theodore Vatatzes. She had at least six children, but died early.

paragraph: BULLET::::8. Manuel I Komnenos (28 November 1118 – 21 September 1180), became emperor, and reigned 1143–1180.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Byzantium under the Komnenos dynasty

paragraph: BULLET::::- Komnenian army

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John II Comnenus' Hungarian campaigns

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mosaic of John Komnenos, Eirene and Alexios in Hagia Sophia

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Primary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Niketas Choniates, critical edition and translation by

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Kinnamos, critical edition and translation by

paragraph: BULLET::::- William of Tyre, "Historia Rerum In Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum" ("A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea"), translated by E. A. Babock and A. C. Krey (Columbia University Press, 1943). See the original text in the Latin library.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Secondary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Angold, Michael, (1984) "The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204, a political history", Longman.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Angold, Michael, (1995) "Church and Society in Byzantium under the Comneni, 1081–1261." Cambridge University Press.Poetry and its Contexts in Eleventh-century Byzantium

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bernard, F. and Demoen, K. (2013) "Poetry and its Contexts in Eleventh-century Byzantium", Ashgate Publishing

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bucossi, Alessandra and Suarez, Alex R. (2016) "John II Komnenos, emperor of Byzantium: in the shadow of father and son", Routledge.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dennis, G.T. (2001) "Death in Byzantium", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 55, pp. 1–7, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fine, John, V.A. (1983), The Early Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Finlay, George (1854), "History of the Byzantine and Greek Empires from 1057–1453", Volume 2, William Blackwood & Sons

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan (2014), "Byzantium and the Crusades", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loos, Milan (1974) "Dualist Heresy in the Middle Ages" Vol. 10, Springer, The Hague.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Necipoğlu, Nevra (ed.) (2001) "Byzantine Constantinople", Brill.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norwich, John J. "Byzantium; Vol. 3: The Decline and Fall". Viking, 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- Runciman, Steven (1952) "A History of the Crusades, Vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem," Cambridge University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Urbansky, Andrew B. "Byzantium and the Danube Frontier", Twayne Publishers, 1968

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bucossi, Alessandra and Rodriguez Suarez, (2016) "John II Komnenos, emperor of Byzantium: in the shadow of father and son", Routledge.

description: Byzantine Emperor from 1119 to 1144

wikidata_label: John II Komnenos

wikipedia_title: John II Komnenos