text:
nickname
As-Salih Ayyub
Egyptian sultan
Ayyubid dynasty
Izz al-Din Aybak
Bahri dynasty
Seventh Crusade
sultana
Mamluk
Bedouin
Circassian
Greek
Turkic
Armenian
sultan
Levant
Baibars
Al Karak
Syria
Egypt
Damietta
Louis IX of France
Cyprus
Nile
Al Mansurah
Faris ad-Din Aktai
Hasankeyf
al-Muazzam Turanshah
Atabeg
Alfonso, Count of Poitou
Robert I of Artois
Baibars
Robert of Artois
Izz al-Din Aybak
Qalawun al-Alfi
Battle of Fariskur
Louis IX
Jerusalem
bondmaids
Acre
an-Nasir Yusuf
Aleppo
Abbasid
Caliph
al-Musta' sim
Baghdad
Mediterranean basin
Palestine
Gaza
Jerusalem
Middle
Upper Egypt
Badr ad-Din Lo'alo'a
Emir of al-Mousil
Qutuz
Mosque of Tulun
Islamic
mihrab
Constantinople
kufic
Madrasa
Mongols
Europe
Crusade
Holy Land
Middle East
Ottomans
Sirat al-Zahir Baibars
folkloric
epic
Ottoman
List of rulers of Egypt
al-Muazzam Turanshah
an-Nasir Yusuf
Aybak
Bahri dynasty
Battle of Al Mansurah
Battle of Fariskur
Mamluk
Abu al-Fida
The Concise History of Humanity
Al-Maqrizi
Ibn Iyas
Ibn Taghri
Tarikh Misr al-Islamiyah
Gamal El-Ghitani
Encyclopædia Britannica
Routledge
"web page"
"page 49"
Routledge
"web page"
"Growth of Mamluk armies"
"Shagrat al-Durr"

categories: Turkic female royalty,African women in war,13th-century women rulers,Ayyubid dynasty,Women in war in the Middle East,Muslims of the Seventh Crusade,Year of birth unknown,13th century in the Ayyubid Sultanate,Deaths by beating,Women in 13th-century warfare,Queens regnant,1257 deaths,Women rulers in Africa,Turkic slaves

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr (), also Shajarat al-Durr (), whose royal name was al-Malika ʿAṣmat ad-Dīn ʾUmm-Khalīl Shajar ad-Durr (; from her nickname , 'mother of Khalil'; ? – 28 April 1257), was a ruler of Egypt. She was the wife of As-Salih Ayyub, the last Egyptian sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty, and later of Izz al-Din Aybak, the first sultan of the Bahri dynasty.

paragraph: In political affairs, Shajar al-Durr played a crucial role after the death of her first husband during the Seventh Crusade against Egypt (1249–1250). She became the sultana of Egypt on May 2, 1250, marking the end of the Ayyubid reign and the start of the Mamluk era. There are several theories about the ethnic roots of Shajar al-Durr. Many Muslim historians believed that she was of either Bedouin, Circassian, Greek or Turkic origin and some believed that she was of Armenian origin.

paragraph: Section::::Title.

paragraph: Several sources assert that Shajar al-Durr took the title of sultana ( ), the feminine form of sultan. But "The Cambridge History of Islam" disputes the claim, stating that "a feminine form, sultana, does not exist in Arabic: the title "sulṭān" appears on Shajar al-Durr's only extant coin." Nevertheless, westerners often referred her as "sultana", because in their perspective, "sultana" was used for women and "sultan" for men.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr was of either Armenian or Turkic origin, and described by historians as a beautiful, pious and intelligent woman. She was purchased as a slave by As-Salih Ayyub in the Levant before he became a Sultan and accompanied him and Mamluk Baibars (not the Baibars who became a Sultan) to Al Karak during his detention there in 1239. Later when As-Salih Ayyub became a Sultan in 1240 she went with him to Egypt and gave birth to their son Khalil who was called al-Malik al-Mansour.Ibn Taghri, pp.102-273/vol.6 Some time after the birth, As-Salih Ayyub married her.

paragraph: In April 1249, As-Salih Ayyub, who was gravely sick in Syria, returned to Egypt and went to Ashmum-Tanah, near Damietta after he heard that King Louis IX of France had assembled a crusader army in Cyprus and was about to launch an attack against Egypt. In June 1249, the crusaders landed in the abandoned town of Damietta, at the mouth of the river Nile. As-Salih Ayyub was carried on a stretcher to his palace in the better-protected town of Al Mansurah where he died on November 22, 1249 after ruling Egypt for nearly 10 years. Shajar al-Durr informed Emir Fakhr ad-Din Yussuf Ben Shaykh (commander of all the Egyptian army) and Tawashi Jamal ad-Din Muhsin (the chief eunuch who controlled the palace) of the Sultan's death but as the country was under attack by the crusaders they decided to conceal his death.Al-Maqrizi, p.444/vol.1 The coffined body of the Sultan was transported in secret by boat to the castle on al-Rudah island in the Nile. Although the deceased Sultan had not left any testimony concerning who should succeed him after his death, Faris ad-Din Aktai was sent to Hasankeyf to call al-Muazzam Turanshah, the son of the deceased Sultan. Before he died, the Sultan signed a large number of blank papers which were used by Shajar al-Durr and Emir Fakhr ad-Din in issuing decrees and giving Sultanic orders and together they succeeded in convincing the people and the other government officials that the Sultan was only ill rather than dead. Shajar al-Durr continued to have food prepared for the sultan and brought to his tent. High officials, the Sultan's Mamluks and soldiers were ordered – by the will of the "ill" Sultan – to swear an oath of loyalty to the Sultan, his heir Turanshah and the Atabeg Fakhr ad-Din Yussuf.

paragraph: Section::::Defeat of the Seventh Crusade.

paragraph: The news of the death of as-Salih Ayyub reached the crusaders in Damietta and with the arrival of reinforcements led by Alfonso, Count of Poitou, the brother of King Louis IX, they decided to march on Cairo. A crusader force led by Louis IX's other brother Robert I of Artois crossed the canal of Ashmum (known today as Albahr Alsaghir) and attacked the Egyptian camp in Gideila, two miles (3 km) from Al Mansurah. Emir Fakhr ad-Din was killed during the sudden attack and the crusader force advanced toward the town of Al Mansurah. Shajar al-Durr agreed to Baibars's plan to defend Al Mansurah. The crusader force was trapped inside the town, Robert of Artois was killed and the crusader force was annihilated by an Egyptian force and the townspeople, led by the men who were about to establish the state which would dominate the southern Mediterranean for decades: Baibars al-Bunduqdari, Izz al-Din Aybak, and Qalawun al-Alfi.

paragraph: In February 1250 the dead Sultan's son Al-Muazzam Turanshah arrived in Egypt and was enthroned at Al Salhiyah as he had no time to go to Cairo. With his arrival, Shajar al-Durr announced the death of as-Salih Ayyub. Turanshah went straight to Al Mansurah and on April 6, 1250 the crusaders were entirely defeated at the Battle of Fariskur and king Louis IX was captured.

paragraph: Section::::Conflict with Turanshah.

paragraph: Once the Seventh Crusade was defeated and Louis IX was captured, troubles began between Turanshah on one side and Shajar al-Durr and the Mamluks on the other. Turanshah, knowing he would not have full sovereignty while Shajar al-Durr, the Mamluks and the old guards of his late father were around, detained a few officials and started to replace old officials, including the deputy Sultan, with his own followers who had come with him from Hasankeyf. He then sent a message to Shajar al-Durr while she was in Jerusalem warning her and requesting her to hand over to him the wealth and jewels of his late father. The request and manners of Turanshah distressed Shajar al-Durr. When she complained to the Mamluks about Turanshah's threats and ungratefulness, the Mamluks, particularly their leader Faris ad-Din Aktai, were enraged. In addition, Turanshah used to drink alcohol and when drunk he abused the bondmaids of his father and threatened the Mamluks. Turanshah was assassinated by the Mamluks at Fariskur on May 2, 1250. He was the last of the Ayyubid Sultans.

paragraph: Section::::Rise to power.

paragraph: After the assassination of Turanshah, the Mamluks and Emirs met at the Sultanic Dihliz and decided to install Shajar al-Durr as the new monarch with Izz al-Din Aybak as Atabeg (commander in chief). Shajar al-Durr was informed of this at the Citadel of the Mountain in Cairo and she agreed. Shajar al-Durr took the royal name "al-Malikah Ismat ad-Din Umm-Khalil Shajar al-Durr" with a few additional titles such as "Malikat al-Muslimin" (Queen of the Muslims) and "Walidat al-Malik al-Mansur Khalil Emir al-Mo'aminin" (Mother of al-Malik al-Mansur Khalil Emir of the faithful). She was mentioned in the Friday prayers in mosques with names including "Umm al-Malik Khalil" (Mother of al-Malik Khalil) and "Sahibat al-Malik as-Salih" (Wife of al-Malik as-Salih). Coins were minted with her titles and she signed the decrees with the name "Walidat Khalil". Using the names of her late husband and her dead son attempted to gain respect and legitimacy for her reign as an heir of the Sultanate.

paragraph: After paying homage to Shajar al-Durr, Emir Hossam ad-Din was sent to King Louis IX who was still imprisoned in Al Mansurah and it was agreed that Louis IX would leave Egypt alive after paying half of the ransom imposed on him earlier and surrendering Damietta in exchange for his life. Louis surrendered Damietta and sailed to Acre On May 8, 1250, accompanied by about 12000 freed war prisoners.

paragraph: Section::::Conflict with the Ayyubids.

paragraph: News of the murder of al-Muazzam Turanshah and the inauguration of Shajar al-Durr as the new Sultana reached Syria. The Syrian Emirs were asked to pay homage to Shajar al-Durr but they refused and the Sultan's deputy in Al Karak rebelled against Cairo. The Syrian Emirs in Damascus gave the city to an-Nasir Yusuf the Ayyubid Emir of Aleppo and the Mamluks in Cairo responded by arresting the Emirs who were loyal to the Ayyubids in Egypt. In addition to the Ayyubids in Syria, the Abbasid Caliph al-Musta' sim in Baghdad also rejected the Mamluk move in Egypt and refused to recognize Shajar al-Dur as a monarch. The refusal of the Caliph to recognize Shajar al-Durr as the new Sultana was a great setback to the Mamluks in Egypt as the custom during the Ayyubid era was that the Sultan could gain legitimacy only through the recognition of the Abbasid Caliph.Shayyal, p.115/vol.2 The Mamluks, therefore, decided to install Izz al-Din Aybak as a new Sultan. He married Shajar al-Durr who abdicated and passed the throne to him after she had ruled Egypt as Sultana for about three months. Though the period of Shajar al-Durr's rule as a monarch was of short duration, it witnessed two important events in history: one, the expelling of Louis IX from Egypt, which marked the end of the Crusaders' ambition to conquer the southern Mediterranean basin; and two, the death of the Ayyubid dynasty and the birth of the Mamluk state which dominated the southern Mediterranean for decades .

paragraph: To please the Caliph and secure his recognition, Aybak announced that he was merely a representative of the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad. To placate the Ayyubids in Syria the Mamluks nominated an Ayyubid child named al-Sharaf Musa as a co-sultan. But this did not satisfy the Ayyubids and armed conflicts between the Mamluks and the Ayyubids broke out. The Caliph in Baghdad, preoccupied with the Mongols who were raiding territories not far from his capital, preferred to see the matter settled peacefully between the Mamluks in Egypt and the Ayyubids in Syria. Through negotiation and mediation of the Caliph that followed the bloody conflict, the Mamluks who manifested military superiority reached an agreement with the Ayyubids that gave them control over southern Palestine including Gaza and Jerusalem and the Syrian coast. By this agreement the Mamluks not only added new territories to their dominion but also gained recognition for their new state.

paragraph: In addition to the conflict with the Ayyubids of Syria, the Mamluks successfully countered serious rebellions in Middle and Upper Egypt. Then, Aybak, fearing the growing power of the Salihiyya Mamluks who, with Shajar al-Durr, had installed him as a Sultan, had their leader Faris ad-Din Aktai murdered. The murder of Aktai was followed instantly by a Mamluk exodus to Syria where they joined the Ayyubid an-Nasir Yusuf. Prominent Mamluks like Baibars al-Bunduqdari and Qalawun al-Alfi were among those Mamluks who fled to Syria. Aybak became the sole and absolute ruler of Egypt after the Salihiyya Mamluks who were the supporters of Shajar al-Durr left Egypt and turned against him.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: By 1257 disputes and suspicion had become part of the relations between Aybak,Al-Maqrizi, p.493/vol.1 a Sultan who was searching for security and supremacy, and his wife Shajar al-Durr, a former Sultana who had a strong will and managed a country on edge of collapse during an external invasion.

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr wanted sole rule of Egypt. She concealed Sultanate affairs from Aybak; she also prevented him from seeing his other wife and insisted that he should divorce her. Instead, Aybak, who needed to form an alliance with a strong Emir who could help him against the threat of the Mamluks who had fled to Syria, decided in 1257 to marry the daughter of Badr ad-Din Lo'alo'a the Ayyubid Emir of al-Mousil. Badr ad-Din Lo'alo'a warned Aybak that Shajar al-Durr was in contact with an-Nasir Yusuf in Damascus. Shajar al-Durr, feeling at risk and betrayed by Aybak, the man whom she had made a Sultan, had him murdered by servants while he was taking a bath. He had ruled Egypt for seven years.

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr claimed that Aybak died suddenly during the night but his Mamluks (Mu'iziyya), led by Qutuz, did not believe her and the servants involved confessed under torture. Shajar al-Durr and the servants were arrested and Aybak's Mamluks (the Mu'iziyya Mamluks) wanted to kill her, but the Salihiyya Mamluks protected her and she was taken to the Red Tower where she stayed. The son of Aybak, the 15-year-old al-Mansur Ali, was installed by the Mu'ziyyah Mamluks as the new Sultan. On 28 April, Shajar al-Durr was stripped and beaten to death with clogs by the bondmaids of al-Mansur Ali and his mother. Her naked body was found lying outside the Citadel. According to the historian Ibn Iyas, Shajar al-Durr was dragged from her feet and thrown from the top naked, with a cloth around her waist. She stayed in the moat for three days, unburied, until one night a mob came and took off the cloth around her waist because it was silk with pearls and had a smell of musk. The servants who were involved in the killing of Aybak were executed.

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr was buried in a tomb, not far from the Mosque of Tulun, which is a jewel of Islamic funerary architecture. Inside is a mihrab (prayer niche) decorated with a mosaic of the "tree of life," executed by artists brought from Constantinople specifically for this commission. The wooden kufic inscription that runs around the interior of her tomb, while damaged, is also of extremely fine craftsmanship.

paragraph: Section::::Architecture.

paragraph: Al-Durr was well known for adopting the indigenous architecture of Bahri Mamluk tombs and combining them with "Madrasas" or schools of Islam. She was the first Islamic Sultan of Egypt to use this culturally-syncretized architecture. Al-Durr's burial structures would continue to be adopted by leaders in the Mamluk Sultanate, which shows that madrasas of Islam were embraced, and they remained in use to the Bahri Mamluks long after Islamic rule.

paragraph: Section::::Impact.

paragraph: Before their deaths, Aybak and Shajar al-Durr firmly established the Mamluk dynasty that would ultimately repulse the Mongols, expel the European Crusaders from the Holy Land, and remain the most powerful political force in the Middle East until the coming of the Ottomans.

paragraph: Section::::In Egyptian folklore.

paragraph: Shajar al-Durr is one of the characters of Sirat al-Zahir Baibars (Life of al-Zahir Baibars), a folkloric epic of thousands of pages that was composed in Egypt during the early Mamluk era and took its final form at the early Ottoman era. The tale, which is a mix of fiction and facts, reflects the fascination of Egyptian common people for both Baibars and Shajar al-Durr. Fatma Shajarat al-Durr, as the tale names Shajar al-Durr, was the daughter of Caliph al-Muqtadir whose kingdom in Baghdad was attacked by the Mongols. She was called Shajarat al-Durr (tree of pearls) because her father dressed her in a dress that was made of pearls. Her father granted her Egypt as she wished to be the Queen of Egypt and as-Salih Ayyub married her in order to stay in power as Egypt was hers. When Baibars was brought to the Citadel in Cairo, she loved him and treated him like a son and he called her his mother. Aybak al-Turkumani, a wicked man, came from al-Mousil to steal Egypt from Shajarat al-Durr and her husband al-Salih Ayyub. Shajarat al-Durr killed Aybak with a sword but, while fleeing from his son, she fell from the roof of the citadel and died. In addition, Shajar al-Durr's name actually means Tree of Pearls, which is why, in poetry, her mention shows a fruit tree that is formed by pieces of mother-of-pearl.

paragraph: Section::::In Literature.

paragraph: Tayeb Salih in his story "The Wedding of Zein" mentioned "Shajar ad-Durr" as "the former slave girl who ruled Egypt in the thirteenth century."

paragraph: He has a character in the story say,"A man's a man even though he's drooling, while a woman's a woman even if she's as beautiful as Shajar ad-Durr."

paragraph: Section::::Coins.

paragraph: The following names and titles were inscribed on the coins of Shajar al-Durr: al-Musta'simiyah al-Salihiyah Malikat al-Muslimin walidat al-Malik al-Mansur Khalil Amir al-Mu'minin. (The Musta'simiyah the Salihiyah Queen of the Muslims Mother of King al-Mansur Khalil Emir of the faithful) and Shajarat al-Durr. The names of the Abbasid Chaliph were also inscribed on her coins: Abd Allah ben al-Mustansir Billah.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Egypt

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Muazzam Turanshah

paragraph: BULLET::::- an-Nasir Yusuf

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aybak

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bahri dynasty

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Al Mansurah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Fariskur

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mamluk

paragraph: Section::::Notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Footnotes

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu al-Fida, The Concise History of Humanity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Maqrizi, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, 1997.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Idem in English: Bohn, Henry G., The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades, AMS Press, 1969.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Maqrizi, al-Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar,Matabat aladab,Cairo 1996, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Idem in French: Bouriant, Urbain, Description topographique et historique de l'Egypte,Paris 1895

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Iyas, Badai Alzuhur Fi Wakayi Alduhur, abridged and edited by Dr. M. Aljayar, Almisriya Lilkitab, Cairo 2007,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibn Taghri, al-Nujum al-Zahirah Fi Milook Misr wa al-Qahirah, al-Hay'ah al-Misreyah 1968

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of Egypt, 1382–1469 A.D. by Yusef. William Popper, translator Abu L-Mahasin ibn Taghri Birdi, University of California Press 1954

paragraph: BULLET::::- Asly, B., al-Zahir Baibars, Dar An-Nafaes Publishing, Beirut 1992

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sadawi. H, Al-Mamalik, Maruf Ikhwan, Alexandria.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mahdi,Dr. Shafik, Mamalik Misr wa Alsham ( Mamluks of Egypt and the Levant), Aldar Alarabiya, Beirut 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shayyal, Jamal, Prof. of Islamic history, Tarikh Misr al-Islamiyah (History of Islamic Egypt), dar al-Maref, Cairo 1266,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sirat al-Zahir Baibars, Printed by Mustafa al-Saba, Cairo 1923. Repulished in 5 volumes by Alhay'ah Almisriyah, Editor Gamal El-Ghitani, Cairo 1996,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sirat al-Zahir Baibars, assembled H. Johar, M. Braniq, A. Atar, Dar Marif, Cairo 1986,

paragraph: BULLET::::- The chronicles of Matthew Paris ( Matthew Paris: Chronica Majora ) translated by Helen Nicholson 1989

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville, translated by Ethel Wedgwood 1906

paragraph: BULLET::::- The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropædia,H.H. Berton Publisher,1973–1974

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meri, Josef W. (Editor). "Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia". Routledge, 2006. "web page"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perry, Glenn Earl. "The History of Egypt – The Mamluk Sultanate". Greenwood Press, 2004. "page 49"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Qasim,Abdu Qasim Dr., Asr Salatin AlMamlik ( era of the Mamluk Sultans ), Eye for human and social studies, Cairo 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Irwin, Robert. "The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382". Routledge, 1986. "web page"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Encyclopædia Britannica Online – "Growth of Mamluk armies"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Women in World History – "Female Heroes from the Time of the Crusades:" "Shagrat al-Durr"

description: Sultana of The Mamluk Sultanate

wikidata_label: Shajar al-Durr

wikipedia_title: Shajar al-Durr


text: Providence, Rhode Island

categories: Hydrogeologists,People from Providence, Rhode Island,20th-century American geologists,American women geologists

paragraph: Norah Dowell Stearns

paragraph: Norah Dowell Stearns was an American hydrogeologist from Providence, Rhode Island. She was one of the earliest-known women to contribute to hydrogeology. Even in the early 20th century, she published independently (without co-authors), which was rare for women at the time. Her work continued to be cited in the later 20th century.

paragraph: She frequently collaborated with her husband, Harold Thornton Stearns, who was also a geologist. Although there are few records about her education, she is referred to as Dr. Norah D. Stearns, suggesting that she received a PhD.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meinzer, Oscar E. and Stearns, Norah D. A study of groundwater in the Pomperaug Basin, Connecticut. "US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper", 1927/1929 , vol. 2309. 597-B, p.73-146.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stearns, Norah Dowell. Laboratory tests on physical properties of water-bearing materials. 1927. "US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper", 596

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stearns, Norah D. (1935). "Annotated Bibliography and Index of Geology and Water Supply of the Island of Oahu, Hawaii (Bulletin 3)".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stearns, Norah D.(1935). "An island is born; Oahu roars up from the deep to claim its place in the Hawaiian group of Polynesia; a story of geological genesis". Honolulu, Hawaii: Honolulu Star-Bulletin Co.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stearns, Norah D.; Stearns, Harold Thornton; Waring, Gerald Ashley (1937). "Thermal Springs in the United States". U.S. Government Printing Office.

description: American hydrogeologist

wikidata_label: Norah Dowell Stearns

wikipedia_title: Norah Dowell Stearns


text:
Kingdom of Kongo
Kimpanzu
São Salvador
Daniel I
Kimpanzu
civil war
Kinlaza
King Pedro III
House of Kimpanzu
Pedro III
Pedro IV

categories: Rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo,Manikongo of Kongo,1743 deaths

paragraph: Manuel II of Kongo

paragraph: Manuel II or Manuel II Mpanzu a Nimi (???-1743) was ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo (1718–1743). He ruled in a period of "rotating lineages" as planned by his predecessor and was of the Kimpanzu. He had once fought against Pedro during the recapture of São Salvador.

paragraph: Section::::Rule in Mbamba Lovata.

paragraph: Manuel was the brother of Daniel I, and when he was killed in the Sack of São Salvador, became the main Kimpanzu claimant to the Kongo throne. He retreated to Mbamba Lovata, where he established himself as the Awenekongo which became one of three main post-civil war states, the other two held by separate Kinlaza claimants to the throne of Kongo. In 1680, King Pedro III was ruling the rival kingdom of Lemba, where he claimed the Kongo throne in opposition to the House of Kimpanzu partisans residing in Soyo's southern province of Luvota. Manuel had swore vengeance and orchestrated a plot to kill Pedro III. Under the auspice of a truce, treacherously negotiated by the Prince of Soyo, Pedro III was lured into a trap expecting to make peace through marriage to a Kimpanzu noble. Instead, Manuel emerged from the Soyo wedding train dressed as a bride and shot Pedro III to death before escaping. The particular episode in Kongo's history would become one of the sticking points keeping the nobility from finding a lasting peace.

paragraph: After the assassination of Pedro III, Manuel fought to establish his claim over Kongo, which eventually culminated in a Battle for São Salvador, where he allied with Pedro Constantinho da Silva and his partisans who were once subordinates of Pedro IV. The forces of Pedro and Manuel clashed, but eventually Pedro was victorious, leaving him in control of the capital and therefore de facto Manikongo of Kongo. Manuel did not give up his claim for 6 years, and continued to rule a rival administration in Mbamba Lovata until an agreement between Pedro and Manuel in 1715 led to the reestablishment of the throne alternating between the Kinlaza and Kimpanzu houses.

paragraph: Section::::Rule in São Salvador.

paragraph: When Pedro died in 1718, the agreement between the houses was honored, and Manuel was crowned as Manuel II of Kongo, moving his royal house to the city. He ruled until his death in 1743, when the throne passed to Garcia IV, who was of the Kinlaza house.

wikidata_label: Manuel II du Kongo

wikipedia_title: Manuel II of Kongo


text: sociologist

text: science fiction author

text: Loglan

text: Parker Brothers

text: Careers

text: Doubleday

text: trimaran

categories: Linguists,American science fiction writers,American male novelists,American male short story writers,Board game designers,20th-century American novelists,1921 births,Constructed language creators,American sociologists,2000 deaths,20th-century American short story writers

paragraph: James Cooke Brown

paragraph: Dr. James Cooke Brown (July 21, 1921 – February 13, 2000) was an American sociologist and science fiction author. He is notable for creating the artificial language Loglan and for designing the Parker Brothers board game "Careers".

paragraph: Brown's novel "The Troika Incident" (Doubleday, 1970) describes a worldwide free knowledge base similar to the Internet. The novel begins with the belief that the world is on the eve of self-destruction, but then it presents a world about a century from now which is a paradise of peace and prosperity, all based on ideas, movements, and knowledge presently available in the world. In its metafictional structure, the novel is a call for social change, not through revolution but through free education and the resilience of human ingenuity. Long out of print and relatively rare, an e-book version (Amazon Kindle) of the novel was released in 2012. The novel envisioned all books and periodicals being viewed on portable electronic devices called "readers" in the year 2070, when it is set.

paragraph: Among his other achievements, Brown designed, and had built, a three-hulled sailboat, called a trimaran. He utilized this boat to sail to many parts of the world.

paragraph: While on a South American cruise with his wife, Brown was admitted to a hospital in Argentina, where he died at the age of 78.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Science Fiction.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Emissary, Astounding Science Fiction

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Love Machine" Fantastic Universe

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Troika incident: a tetralogue in two parts - James Cooke Brown, Doubleday, 1970

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Sociology.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cooperative group formation: a problem in social engineering, Univ. of Minnesota., 1951

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Job Market of the Future: Using Computers to Humanize Economies, James Cooke Brown, M.E. Sharpe, 2001,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paternity, Jokes and Song : A Possible Evolutionary Scenario for the Origin of Mind and Language, BROWN J. C. ; GREENHOOD W., 1983, vol. 8, no2, pp. 7–53 (5 p.), Journal of Social and Biological Structures, ISSN 0748-772X

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Loglan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 1: a logical language, James Cooke Brown, Loglan Institute, 1975

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 2: methods of construction, James Cooke Brown, Loglan Institute, University Microfilms, 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 3: speaking Loglan : programmed textbook on the phonology, basic vocabulary, and grammar of the simple Loglan sentence, James Cooke Brown, Lujoye Fuller Brown, Loglan Institute, University Microfilms, 1965

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 4: a Loglan-English dictionary, James Cooke Brown, Lujoye Fuller Brown, Loglan Institute, 1970

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 5: an English-Loglan dictionary, James Cooke Brown, Lujoye Fuller Brown, Loglan Institute, University Microfilms, 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loglan 4 & 5: a Loglan-English/English-Loglan dictionary, James Cooke Brown, Loglan Institute, 1975

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Notes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anderson, Evelyn. James Cooke Brown: A Multitalented Man.

description: sociologist and science fiction author

wikidata_label: James Cooke Brown

wikipedia_title: James Cooke Brown


text:
Penda
King
Mercia
Middle Angles
Bede
Alchflaed
Oswiu of Northumbria
baptism
conversion
Christianity
pagan
Finan
Lindisfarne
Battle of the Winwaed
River Trent
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
monastery
Peterborough
Kings of Mercia family tree

categories: 656 deaths,Converts to Christianity from pagan religions,Anglo-Saxon warriors,7th-century English monarchs,7th-century births,Mercian monarchs,7th-century murdered monarchs

paragraph: Peada of Mercia

paragraph: Peada (died 656), a son of Penda, was briefly King of southern Mercia after his father's death in November 655 until his own death in the spring of the next year.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: In about the year 653 Peada was made king of the Middle Angles by his father. Bede, describing Peada as "an excellent youth, and most worthy of the title and person of a king", wrote that he sought to marry Alchflaed, the daughter of King Oswiu of Northumbria; Oswiu, however, made this conditional upon Peada's baptism and conversion to Christianity, along with the Middle Angles (Peada was, at this time, still a pagan, like his father). Bede says that Peada eagerly accepted conversion:

paragraph: Peada was subsequently baptized by Finan of Lindisfarne, and this was followed by a campaign to convert Peada's people:

paragraph: On 15 November 655 Oswiu defeated and killed Penda at the Battle of the Winwaed, and consequently he came to exercise power in Mercia. According to Bede, Oswiu allowed Peada to rule the southern part of Mercia; southern Mercia consisted of 5,000 families, Bede reports, while northern Mercia was populated by 7,000 families, and the two were divided by the River Trent.

paragraph: According to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Peada helped found the monastery at Peterborough:

paragraph: However, the "Chronicle" continues, "Peada ruled no length of time, because he was betrayed by his own queen at Eastertide"; Bede also reports that Peada was "very wickedly killed" through his wife's treachery "during the very time of celebrating Easter" in 656.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kings of Mercia family tree

description: King of Mercia

wikidata_label: Peada of Mercia

wikipedia_title: Peada of Mercia


text: vice admiral

text: Federal Aviation Administration

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: Pasadena High School

text: Pasadena City College

text: Naval Air Station Los Alamitos

text: Naval Air Station Corpus Christi

text: Naval Air Station Kingsville

text: Bombing Squadron 3 (VB-3)

text: Naval Air Station Daytona Beach

text: Bombing Squadron 19 (VB-19)

text: Ford Island

text: Enewetak Atoll

text: invasion of Guam

text: Battle of Leyte Gulf

text: Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku

text: Navy Cross

text: Japanese cruiser Nachi

text: Manila Bay

text: Naval Air Station North Island

text: Japan surrendered

text: Air Medal

text: Distinguished Flying Cross

text: United States Navy Reserve

text: Consolidated Vultee

text: NAAS Chincoteague

text: Naval Air Missile Test Center

text: University of California, Los Angeles

text: TO-1 Shooting Star

text: Korean War

text: Pyongyang

text: North Korean

text: U.S. Naval Postgraduate School

text: Empire Test Pilots' School

text: Air Development Squadron Three (VX-3)

text: Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River

text: Carrier Air Group 11

text: Naval War College

text: USS Liberty incident

text: Valletta

text: George Washington University

text: Chief of Naval Operations

text: Legion of Merit

text: commander of Carrier Division Four

text: United States Naval Forces Europe

text: US Atlantic Command

text: Piper Aircraft

text: Lakeland, Florida

text: National Transportation Safety Board

text: Minden, Nevada

text: Arlington National Cemetery

text: James H. Doolittle Award

text: Naval Aviation Hall of Honor

text: Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center

text: Naval Intelligence Professionals

categories: Recipients of the Legion of Merit,George Washington University alumni,Accidental deaths in Nevada,American naval personnel of World War II,Aviators from California,Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States,1999 deaths,American test pilots,Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States),American Korean War pilots,Military personnel from California,United States Navy admirals,Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States),American naval personnel of the Korean War,Recipients of the Air Medal,United States Navy pilots of World War II,1924 births,Burials at Arlington National Cemetery,United States Naval Aviators,People from Pomona, California

paragraph: Donald D. Engen

paragraph: Donald D. Engen (May 28, 1924 – July 13, 1999) was a United States Navy vice admiral, former Administrator of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and former Director of the National Air and Space Museum.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: He graduated from Pasadena High School in May 1941 and then attended Pasadena City College until leaving to join the US Navy.

paragraph: Section::::US Navy career.

paragraph: Section::::US Navy career.:World War II.

paragraph: Engen entered Naval Aviation Cadet Program on 9 June 1942, he soloed in August and in September 1942 was sent to naval preflight school. In October 1942, Engen was assigned to Naval Air Station Los Alamitos for primary training and then in February 1943 was sent to Naval Air Station Corpus Christi for further training. He then attended advanced training at Naval Air Station Kingsville, graduating as a Naval Aviator on 9 June 1943. Engen was assigned to Bombing Squadron 3 (VB-3) at Naval Air Station Daytona Beach for operational training in dive-bombing. In August 1943, Engen carrier-qualified by making 8 landings on and he then joined Bombing Squadron 19 (VB-19), flying the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver; nicknamed "the Big-Tailed Beast" by Navy personnel at NAS Los Alamitos.

paragraph: In January 1944, Carrier Air Group 19 (CAG-19) embarked on the for transit to Hawaii, offloading at Ford Island. From January–June 1944, VB-19 underwent further training at bases in Hawaii before deploying with the rest of CAG-19 aboard the to the southwest Pacific arriving at Enewetak Atoll, where they transferred to the USS "Lexington". On 14 July 1944, "Lexington" left Enewetak to support the invasion of Guam and Engen later sank a Japanese freighter. In October 1944, VB-19 fought in the Battle of Leyte Gulf; Engen participated in the sinking of the Japanese aircraft carrier Zuikaku and was one of 32 VB-19 pilots to be awarded the Navy Cross for their role in the battle. On 5 November 1944, Engen and the rest of VB-19 participated in the sinking of the Japanese cruiser Nachi in Manila Bay. On 23 November, CAG-19 was replaced by Carrier Air Group 20 and it embarked for transport to Hawaii and then on to San Diego. In early 1945, Engen was assigned to the newly formed VBF-19 at Naval Air Station North Island and was undergoing further training in Hawaii when the Japan surrendered. In addition to the Navy Cross, Engen was awarded the Air Medal and the Distinguished Flying Cross for his service in the Pacific.

paragraph: Section::::US Navy career.:Korean War.

paragraph: Engen was released from active service on 1 February 1946, but continued to serve in the United States Navy Reserve with VF-716 at NAS Los Alamitos. Engen worked briefly as an engineer for Consolidated Vultee before rejoining the Navy in August 1946. From October 1946 until May 1947, he worked in pilotless aircraft programmes at NAAS Chincoteague and the Naval Air Missile Test Center. He attended University of California, Los Angeles from June 1947 until September 1948. In October 1948, he was assigned to VF-212, serving as operations officer. He subsequently joined VF-52, where he jet-qualified on the TO-1 Shooting Star and then joined VF-51, flying FJ-1s and then F9F-2s. In April 1950, VF-51 embarked on for a western Pacific deployment which saw the start of the Korean War. On 3 July 1950, Engen participated in the first jet combat missions attacking an airfield near Pyongyang and engaging North Korean Yak-9 fighters. Engen would be awarded a further two Air Medals for his service in Korea.

paragraph: Section::::US Navy career.:late 1950s.

paragraph: Engen attended the General Line School, U.S. Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California from January to December 1951. From December 1952 to December 1953 he attended the Empire Test Pilots' School in England as an exchange officer and then served as a test pilot with Air Development Squadron Three (VX-3) from January 1954 to June 1955. From July 1955 to July 1957 Engen was executive officer of VF-121. From August 1957 to September 1959 he was assigned to the Naval Air Test Center, Patuxent River. In October 1959 he was appointed commander of VF-21.

paragraph: Section::::US Navy career.:1960s-70s.

paragraph: In January 1962 Engen was appointed commander of Carrier Air Group 11 and from early 1963 he served as operations officer on the . In April 1964, he received his first command as captain of the . He would command the ship until 31 August 1965 when he left to attend the Naval War College, in preparation for taking command of . On 21 July 1966, Engen became Captain of USS "America". During this command the USS Liberty incident took place and "America" launched aircraft to engage the attackers before being ordered to recall the aircraft. In July 1967, Engen passed command of "America" in Valletta and he returned to the US.

paragraph: In September 1967 he received his Bachelors of Science in Business Administration from the George Washington University. In September 1968 he was assigned to the Chief of Naval Operations and headed the Aviation Plans Branch until February 1970. He then headed the Strategic Plans Branch until June 1971, a service for which he was awarded the Legion of Merit. In July 1971 he was appointed commander of Carrier Division Four and was awarded a Gold Star to the Legion of Merit for his service during this period. In June 1973, he was appointed Deputy Commander in Chief United States Naval Forces Europe, his final command was as Deputy Commander in Chief US Atlantic Command.

paragraph: Engen retired in 1978 with the rank of Vice-admiral.

paragraph: Section::::Private career.

paragraph: Following his retirement from the Navy, Engen managed the Piper Aircraft plant in Lakeland, Florida.

paragraph: Section::::Government career.

paragraph: In 1982 he was appointed to the National Transportation Safety Board. On 10 April 1984 he was appointed Administrator of the FAA and held this role until 2 July 1987. In 1996 he was appointed Director of the National Air and Space Museum, a position which he held until his death.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: He married Mary Baker on 23 September 1943 before being deployed to the Pacific theatre. The couple had four children: 3 sons (Travis, Charles and Christopher) and a daughter (Candace Ellis).

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: He and William S. Ivans died on 13 July 1999 when the glider they were flying broke up in flight near Minden, Nevada. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: BULLET::::- James H. Doolittle Award (1984)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yuri A. Gagarin Gold Medal (1992)

paragraph: BULLET::::- L. Welch Pogue Award for Lifetime Achievement in Aviation (1996)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naval Aviation Hall of Honor (2004)

paragraph: Section::::Memorials.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Donald D. Engen Observation Tower at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center is named after him, while the Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar is named after his wife

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Naval Intelligence Professionals VADM Donald D. Engen Naval Intelligence Foundation Scholarship

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Aero Club Trophy for Aviation Excellence is awarded annually by the Aero Club of Washington, D.C. Renamed the Donald D. Engen Aero Club Trophy for Aviation Excellence. The permanent Trophy resides in the National Air & Space Museum.y The criteria for the trophy include: technological advances; development of aviation policy acts of courage or professionalism; and lifetime achievements in the aviation field.

wikidata_label: Donald D. Engen

wikipedia_title: Donald D. Engen


text:
open-wheel racing
Japanese F3
2016
GP3 Series
ART Grand Prix
Formula Challenge Japan

categories: All-Japan Formula Three Championship drivers,Sportspeople from Tokushima Prefecture,Japanese racing drivers,1997 births,FIA Formula 2 Championship drivers,Living people,GP3 Series drivers

paragraph: Nirei Fukuzumi

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: In 2010, Fukuzumi began karting, starting his racing career. He remained in karting until 2013.

paragraph: In 2014, he began to compete in open-wheel racing, moving up to Japanese F3 the next year.

paragraph: In 2016, Nirei débuted in the GP3 Series with ART Grand Prix, scoring three podium finishes and finishing seventh in the championship.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Career summary.

paragraph: As Fukuzumi was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score championship points.br

paragraph: **The FC class was a class using modified Formula Challenge Japan's FC106 chassis and running with the JAF Formula 4's "C" class, an upper grade class. So, there were neither pole position nor fastest lap.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete FIA Formula 2 Championship results.

paragraph: Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete Super Formula Results.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete Super GT results.

description: Japanese racing driver

wikidata_label: Nirei Fukuzumi

wikipedia_title: Nirei Fukuzumi


text:
House of Kawānanakoa
David Kawānanakoa
Abigail Campbell Kawānanakoa
Honolulu
Oahu
Abigail Kuaihelani Campbell Parker
Samuel Parker
David Kalākaua Kawānanakoa
Lydia Liliʻuokalani Kawānanakoa
Kailua
Punahou School
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
President
Hawaiian Civic Club
Senator
Hawaii State Senate
Edward A. Kawānanakoa
Hale o na Alii o Hawaii
Royal Mausoleum
Oahu Cemetery

categories: Burials at Oahu Cemetery,Hawaiian princesses,House of Kawānanakoa,1903 births,Pretenders to the Hawaiian throne,1961 deaths

paragraph: Abigail Kapiolani Kawānanakoa

paragraph: Abigail Helen Kapiʻolani Kawānanakoa (1903–1961) was a member of the House of Kawānanakoa and the eldest daughter of Prince David Kawānanakoa and Princess Abigail Campbell Kawānanakoa.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: She was born in Honolulu, Oahu, on March 14, 1903, and was adopted by her maternal grandmother, Abigail Kuaihelani Campbell Parker, on February 8, 1908. Her name was changed to Kapiʻolani Campbell after her adoption. Only a few months after her adoption Kapiʻolani would lose both her father and grandmother. After her grandmother's death, her widower Samuel Parker petitioned to be granted Kapiʻolani's guardianship, but her mother was declared as her guardian instead.

paragraph: Her siblings were David Kalākaua Kawānanakoa and Lydia Liliʻuokalani Kawānanakoa.

paragraph: Kapiʻolani married twice: first to Andrew Anderson Lambert (Honolulu, Oahu, March 25, 1900 – Kailua, Honolulu County, Oahu, March 15, 1966) in 1922, whom she divorced, and later to Harry Montague Norman Gooding Field (died Honolulu, Oahu, May 23, 1964), educated at Punahou School, Honolulu, Oahu, and Oregon State University at Corvallis, Oregon, President of the Hawaiian Civic Club from 1952 to 1953 and Senator of the Hawaii State Senate between 1963 and 1964. She had three children by her first husband: Edward A. Kawānanakoa, Virginia Poʻomaikelani Kawānanakoa (1926–98), and Esther Kapiʻolani Kawānanakoa Marignoli (born 1928).

paragraph: Among other things, from 1945 she was the Regent of the Hale o na Alii o Hawaii (House of Chiefs of Hawaii).

paragraph: On the subject of the restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy, she is quoted to have said: "If American wanted do something to restore the monarchy that would be all right. But no Hawaiians would do anything to hurt America. We love America too much." She died on Maui of a stroke, in April 8, 1961.

paragraph: There were plans to bury her at a new burial plot at the Royal Mausoleum, but her widower Harry Field felt uncomfortable about the prospect of being buried at the Royal Mausoleum. Instead he had her buried in the Oahu Cemetery on the Kawānanakoa family plot.

description: Hawaiian princess

wikidata_label: Abigail Kapiolani Kawānanakoa

wikipedia_title: Abigail Kapiolani Kawānanakoa


text:
Ichi-no-Tani
Satō Tsugunobu
Battle of Yashima
Dan-no-ura
Minamoto

paragraph: Taira no Noritsune

paragraph: He also fought in the Ichi-no-Tani, and killed Satō Tsugunobu in the Battle of Yashima.

paragraph: He is supposed to have died by drowning himself, at Dan-no-ura, while holding a Minamoto warrior under each arm. In the play, he is disguised as the priest 'Yokawa no Kakuhan', until he is forced to confess his true identity by Benkei.

description: Japanese warrior

wikidata_label: Taira no Noritsune

wikipedia_title: Taira no Noritsune


text: William Ellery Channing

text: Unitarianism

text: Charles Eliot Norton

text: Calvinism

text: Trinitarianism

text: Unitarian

text: Transcendentalism

text: Pope

text: Hingham, Massachusetts

text: Harvard University

text: Bowdoin College

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: George Ripley

text: Ralph Waldo Emerson

text: Divinity School Address

text: Transcendentalism

text: Biblical

text: miracle

text: virgin birth

text: virgin birth

text: William Ellery Channing

text: Newport, Rhode Island

text: Houghton Library

text: Harvard University

text: Norton page

text: Norton capsule biography

text: Sermons

text: Harvard Divinity School

text: Cambridge, Massachusetts

categories: Harvard University alumni,Harvard University librarians,Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,Harvard Divinity School faculty,Bowdoin College faculty,People from Hingham, Massachusetts,American theologians,1853 deaths,American librarians,American Unitarians,1786 births

paragraph: Andrews Norton

paragraph: Andrews Norton (December 31, 1786 – September 18, 1853) was an American preacher and theologian. Along with William Ellery Channing, he was the leader of mainstream Unitarianism of the early and middle 19th century, and was known as the "Unitarian Pope". He was the father of the writer Charles Eliot Norton.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: In his early career, Andrews Norton helped to establish liberal Unitarianism in New England, and stridently opposed harshly conservative Calvinism and Trinitarianism. Nevertheless, later in life, he became the chief conservative Unitarian opponent of Transcendentalism. As a vocal and well-published theologian, he earned from some the joking title of "the Unitarian Pope".

paragraph: He was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, son of Samuel Norton. Norton graduated from Harvard University in 1804 and continued as a graduate student and lecturer there and at Bowdoin College. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1815. He was named Dexter Lecturer on Biblical Criticism in 1813, and in 1819, Harvard made him the first Dexter Professor of Sacred Literature, a position he held until 1830; he also served as Harvard College Librarian from 1813 to 1821.

paragraph: Norton engaged in vigorous debates with George Ripley in 1836 and Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1838 (over Emerson's "Divinity School Address"). He opposed himself to the rise of Transcendentalism and insisted on the truth of some of the Biblical miracles, while rejecting "most of those in the Old Testament, and a few in the new", including rejecting the virgin birth. In rejecting the virgin birth he went beyond William Ellery Channing.

paragraph: He died in 1853 in Newport, Rhode Island.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guide to Andrews Norton correspondence with Joanna Baillie at Houghton Library, Harvard University

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norton page from early-20th-century "Cambridge History of English and American Literature"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Norton capsule biography from "The Unitarians and the Universalists" by David Robinson

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sermons by Andrews Norton are in the Andover-Harvard Theological Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

description: American theologian

wikidata_label: Andrews Norton

wikipedia_title: Andrews Norton


text: sculptor

text: Royal Academy

text: Codsall

text: Staffordshire

text: Wolverhampton

text: Wolverhampton University

text: Royal College of Art

text: Édouard Lantéri

text: World War I

text: architectural sculpture

text: Royal Academy

text: Leonardo da Vinci

text: National Gallery

text: Royal Fine Art Commission

text: Second World War

text: War Artists' Advisory Committee

text: Lothbury

text: Bank of England

text: Herbert Baker

text: Blackmoor War Memorial Cloister

text: Rhodes House

text: India House

text: South Africa House

text: Trafalgar Square

text: Tower Hill Memorial

text: Lady Wulfrun

text: Ministry of Defence

categories: 1974 deaths,Freemen of Wolverhampton,Alumni of the Royal College of Art,British architectural sculptors,People from Wolverhampton,English male sculptors,World War II artists,English sculptors,Knights Commander of the Royal Victorian Order,Alumni of the University of Wolverhampton,1892 births,British war artists,Royal Academicians,20th-century British sculptors

paragraph: Charles Wheeler (sculptor)

paragraph: Sir Charles Thomas Wheeler (14 March 1892 – 22 August 1974) was a British sculptor who worked in bronze and stone who became the first sculptor to hold the Presidency of the Royal Academy, from 1956 through 1966.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Wheeler was the son of a journalist and was born in Codsall, Staffordshire, and raised in nearby Wolverhampton. He studied at the Wolverhampton College of Art, now Wolverhampton University, under Robert Emerson, between 1908 and 1912. In 1912 he won a scholarship to the Royal College of Art where he studied under Édouard Lantéri until 1917. Throughout the remainder of World War I Wheeler was classified as unfit for active service and instead modelled artificial limbs for war amputees.

paragraph: Wheeler came to specialize in portraits and architectural sculpture. From 1914 until 1970 he exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy and became a Fellow of the Academy in 1940 and became its President in 1956. His tenure as RA president was controversial for the decision by the Academy to sell the most valuable painting in its collection, the Leonardo da Vinci cartoon of "The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist". The possibility that the painting might leave Britain caused a public outcry and eventually it was sold to the National Gallery. From 1942 to 1949, he served as a Trustee of the Tate Gallery and in 1946 was a member of the Royal Fine Art Commission. In 1968 he wrote his autobiography, "High Relief".

paragraph: During the Second World War Wheeler was the only sculptor to be given full-time contracts by the War Artists' Advisory Committee. In both 1941 and 1942, Wheeler was commissioned to produce portrait busts of Admiralty figures. Due to material shortages and other issues, Wheeler produced only three bronze figures during the commission period.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: Notable works include by Wheeler include,

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 20-foot bronze doors and a major program of sculptures, including the "Lothbury Ladies" and the gilded finial figure of "Ariel" for the Bank of England, with architect Sir Herbert Baker, 1922–45

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fountain and memorial plates for Blackmoor War Memorial Cloister by Sir Herbert Baker.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sculptures for Rhodes House, Oxford, with Baker, 1927

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sculptures for India House, Aldwych, with Baker, 1928–30

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sculptures for South Africa House with Baker, 1934

paragraph: BULLET::::- The western fountain figures in Trafalgar Square, 1948

paragraph: BULLET::::- The allegorical figures of the "Seven Seas" at the Tower Hill Memorial

paragraph: BULLET::::- The statue of Lady Wulfrun outside St. Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton

paragraph: BULLET::::- The monumental "Earth" and "Water" figures for the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall

alias:
Charles Thomas,Sir Wheeler
Charles Thomas Wheeler Sir
Charles Wheeler (Sir)
Charles Thomas Wheeler
Charles Thomas Wheeler (Sir)

description: English sculptor

wikidata_label: Charles Wheeler

wikipedia_title: Charles Wheeler (sculptor)


text: Kranjska Gora

text: Slovenia

text: alpine skier

text: Races of Andrej Sporn on Youtube

categories: Alpine skiers at the 2010 Winter Olympics,Competitors at the 2003 Winter Universiade,Universiade silver medalists for Slovenia,1981 births,Universiade medalists in alpine skiing,Alpine skiers at the 2006 Winter Olympics,Slovenian male alpine skiers,Competitors at the 2001 Winter Universiade,People from Kranjska Gora,Living people,Olympic alpine skiers of Slovenia

paragraph: Andrej Šporn

paragraph: Andrej Šporn (born 1 December 1981 in Kranjska Gora) is a former Slovenian alpine skier.

paragraph: Šporn began his career as a competitor in slalom, though he had always shown great talent in both fast disciplines – the downhill and Super-G – and is also good in giant slalom. He was a successful competitor from an early age, having won competitions in his native Slovenia in the junior category. He did very well at the Junior World Ski Championship and finished in the top ten in slalom as well as downhill. In the 2003/04 season, he shined in the European Cup in which he won finished 4th in the slalom standings. One of his early successes at that level was the slalom win at the Universiade in Zakopane, Poland, in February 2001.

paragraph: After having had mainly focused on slalom, after the super combination had been introduced as a new discipline, he started to compete in downhill, too. Good results convinced him to start training fast disciplines as main ones and he had help of top trainers with that.

paragraph: His debut in the Ski World Cup was in a slalom race at Beaver Creek in 2004 in which was he finished 8th. place. In 2006, his best results were 6th place in the classic alpine combination in Kitzbuhel and also 6th place in the super alpine combination in Chamonix. He also had a good season in downhill, finishing 2nd in Kitzbuhel, 5th in Kvitfjell and 6th in Bormio.

paragraph: Šporn participated at two Winter Olympics, in Torino in 2006 and in Vancouver in 2010, but did not achieve any remarkable results.

paragraph: In 2011, at the Ski World Championship in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, he achieved great success by finishing 6th in the downhill race.

paragraph: Following an injury in 2017, Šporn announced his retirement from competitive sport.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Races of Andrej Sporn in Alpine world cup skiing

paragraph: BULLET::::- Races of Andrej Sporn on Youtube

description: Slovenian alpine skier

wikidata_label: Andrej Šporn

wikipedia_title: Andrej Šporn


text:
Sherwood
Nate Henry
Cal Poly
San Luis Obispo, CA
Sherwood
Los Gatos, California
Seattle, Washington
Nate Henry
San Luis Obispo, California
Sherwood
Nate Henry
beard
Sunnyvale, CA
Sherwood
page
Jonathan Jones'
We Shot the Moon
Nate Henry
Mike Leibovich

categories: American rock guitarists,21st-century American guitarists,1983 births,Living people,American male guitarists

paragraph: Dan Koch

paragraph: Dan Koch is an American musician, the lead guitarist, vocalist, and principal songwriter for the rock band Pacific Gold and previous lead guitarist and principal songwriter for Sea of Cortez. He formed the band Sherwood with Nate Henry in 2002 while attending university at Cal Poly in San Luis Obispo, CA. Koch was originally Sherwood's drummer, but when drummer Joe Greenetz joined the band he switched from drums to guitar. Moreover, Koch transitioned into the rhythm guitar player. With the departure of Chris Armstrong, Koch switched into the role of lead guitarist. Dan Koch is a native of Los Gatos, California. He married Jaffrey Bagge on November 29, 2009. The couple resides in Seattle, Washington. While in high school, he was in a punk band called Ignorant Youth.

paragraph: Section::::Band formation.

paragraph: Koch was friends with Nate Henry and Chris Armstrong while they were attending college in San Luis Obispo, California. He began as the principal songwriter of Sherwood, but over the course of three full-length albums, the songwriting duties were shared with bassist/lead singer Nate Henry and keyboard player Mike Leibovich. With the band's addition of Joe Greenetz as the drummer this also inclined Dan to switch to guitar. Koch has a full beard, which led to the nickname "Beardy." He attended The King's Academy in Sunnyvale, CA and graduated in 2001.

paragraph: Section::::Present day work.

paragraph: Dan has been a part of 3 side projects. One titled "More important than Music" being a blog originally set up on blogspot.com but later moved to worldpress.com account. It is mainly devoted to charity organizations. Another project, "I'll Beat You up" was set up by Koch and Sherwood's former guitarist Chris Armstrong. A free EP was released on their page. Koch is a studio member of Jonathan Jones' We Shot the Moon. Koch also started a series of podcasts titled "Beards in a Band" with drummer Joe Greenetz in addition to the "Apples and Oranges" series started by lead singer and bassist Nate Henry and keyboardist Mike Leibovich. He is currently playing for the newly formed act, Pacific Gold (formerly known as Wayfarer).

paragraph: Koch currently hosts a podcast called Depolarize! Podcast that discuss topics such as politics, philosophy, and faith issues. He is often a guest on other podcasts with similar content, such as the Bad Christian Podcast.

description: American musician

wikidata_label: Dan Koch

wikipedia_title: Dan Koch


text:
Málaga
Spanish Texas
Juan Manuel de Salcedo
Spanish governor of Louisiana
governor of Texas
Nemesio Salcedo
Juan Bautista de las Casas
Monclova
Ignacio Elizondo
Miguel Hidalgo
filibusters
Republican Army of the North
Málaga, Spain
Juan Manuel de Salcedo
infantry
Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Canary Islands
Spanish Louisiana
New Orleans
Napoleon
Louisiana Purchase
Spanish Texas
Camino Real
presidio
Nueces
Medina River
Red River
San Antonio de Bexar
Presidio San Antonio de Bexar
La Bahia
Nacogdoches
Nemesio Salcedo
New Bedford, Massachusetts
Providence, Rhode Island
New Haven, Connecticut
New York City
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania
Mississippi River
Natchez
runaway slaves
San Antonio de Bexar
East Texas
Sabine River
Red River
neutral ground
Central Junta of Seville
cabildo
Coahuila
Antonio Cordero
Miguel Hidalgo
revolution in Mexico
New Spain
Ferdinand VII of Spain
San Antonio de Bexar
Erasmo Seguin
Ignacio Allende
Juan Aldama
cavalry
Lipan Apache
Saltillo
Rio Grande
treason
Juan Bautista de las Casas
Nuevo Santander
coup
San Antonio de Bexar
Simón de Herrera
Nuevo Santander
Monclova
Juan Manuel Zambrano
Ignacio Elizondo
San Antonio de Bexar
ciudad
sedition
Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara
Augustus Magee
William Shaler
Natchez
Mississippi Territory
Republican Army of the North
Neutral Ground
fort
filibusters
Guadalupe River
Presidio La Bahia
presidio
San Antonio de Bexar
Salado Creek
Battle of Rosillo Creek
San Antonio
Samuel Kemper
the Alamo
Anglo-American
Gulf
New Orleans
San Fernando Church
Anglo-American
Monterrey
San Antonio de Bexar
José Joaquín de Arredondo
battle of Medina
Neutral Ground
Antonio María Martínez
Manuel María de Salcedo
Handbook of Texas

categories: People from Málaga,1800s in Texas,1776 births,Governors of Spanish Texas,Spanish colonial governors and administrators,1813 deaths

paragraph: Manuel María de Salcedo

paragraph: Manuel María de Salcedo y Quiroga, (Málaga, Spain, (1776 – executed, April 3, 1813), was a governor of Spanish Texas from 1808 until his execution in 1813. Salcedo gained leadership experience helping his father Juan Manuel de Salcedo, the 11th and last Spanish governor of Louisiana, (1801–November 30, 1803, when it was handed back to the French). In 1807, the younger Salcedo was appointed governor of Texas, and he officially assumed that role on November 7, 1808. As governor, he and his uncle Nemesio Salcedo, the Commandant General of the Interior Provinces, often disagreed, especially on immigration issues.

paragraph: Salcedo was overthrown by Juan Bautista de las Casas in January 1811 and imprisoned for several months in Monclova. After he persuaded his captor, Ignacio Elizondo, to switch allegiances, Salcedo assisted in capturing documents detailing the movements of Miguel Hidalgo's army. The rebel army was captured one week later, and Salcedo led the military tribunal which eventually sentenced the rebel leaders to death. After fulfilling his duties with the tribunal Salcedo returned to Texas, but he did not resume his duties for several months as a result of a dispute with his uncle and whether he was at fault for his own capture.

paragraph: In 1812, Salcedo led the Spanish army in Texas against the filibusters calling themselves the Republican Army of the North. He was never able to defeat that army, and he surrendered on April 2, 1813. Despite assurances that he would be imprisoned, extremists of the filibuster forces executed him the following day. To avenge Salcedo's death, the Spanish army quickly reconquered Texas and dealt harshly with any they suspected of treason.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: Manuel María de Salcedo was born in Málaga, Spain, on April 3, 1776, to Juan Manuel de Salcedo and Francisca de Quiroga y Manso. When he was seven, Salcedo enrolled at the Royal Academy of Ocana, later transferring to the Royal Seminary of Nobles, where he trained until he was 17. Salcedo then joined the infantry, where he reached the rank of lieutenant and served under his father at Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands. In 1801, his father became the governor of Spanish Louisiana, and Salcedo accompanied him to New Orleans.

paragraph: In New Orleans, Salcedo served as a boundary commissioner as Spain prepared to transfer the colony back to France. He married in 1803 to a local woman of Spanish and French ancestry, Maria Guadalupe Prietto y la Ronde. They returned to Spain the following year after Napoleon transferred Louisiana to the United States through the Louisiana Purchase.

paragraph: Section::::Appointment as governor.

paragraph: While living in Spain, Salcedo was appointed the governor of Spanish Texas. At this time, Texas was a sparsely populated province consisting of three primary settlements connected by the Camino Real, with a few presidios and over a dozen missions scattered throughout the wilderness. The province was bordered on the south and west by the Nueces and Medina Rivers, with the Red River comprising its northern and eastern border. The capital was the villa of San Fernando, commonly called San Antonio de Bexar after the local presidio, Presidio San Antonio de Bexar. Approximately 2,500 people, including soldiers, lived in San Antonio, with an additional 600 residents at La Bahia and about 770 people in Nacogdoches.

paragraph: As governor, Salcedo would be the representative of the Spanish king in Texas. As a deputy of the Commandant General of the Interior Provinces, at this time his uncle, Nemesio Salcedo, the governor was the military commander for the province and had the power to appoint lieutenants and corporals to oversee the presidios and mission defenses. He would also serve as the civil administrator, and had final approval of the results of all elections.

paragraph: Salcedo took a preliminary oath of office on May 1, 1807, and he and his wife and daughter left for North America. The family traveled by boat to New Bedford, Massachusetts, where they took a stagecoach to Providence, Rhode Island, and New Haven, Connecticut. They also visited New York City, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh, in Pennsylvania, before cruising down the Mississippi River to Natchez and then traveling overland to Texas. Salcedo officially assumed the governorship of the province on November 7, 1808.

paragraph: Section::::Early governorship.

paragraph: In his first year in office, Salcedo faced many issues, often pitting himself against his uncle, Nemesio Salcedo. After visiting with the Americans for so many months, Salcedo warned of "the aggressive spirit of Anglo-American frontiersmen." To minimize the threat to the Spanish borderlands, Salcedo recommended that Texas welcome more settlers and soldiers to the area. He recommended that immigrants who could demonstrate their loyalty to Spain be welcomed into the province, including men deserting from the U.S. Army. His uncle instead ordered the border be closed to all people from Louisiana, regardless of their ethnic background. Despite the order, Salcedo still permitted slave owners from the U.S. to enter Texas in order to reclaim runaway slaves.

paragraph: Money was continually tight in the province, with little coming from the interior provinces. At one point, Salcedo became desperate enough for funds that he asked citizens in the province to donate money to pay the troops who helped protect them. He also continued to receive complaints and reprimands from his uncle, who "commended almost every high-ranking officer in the borderlands except" for Salcedo.

paragraph: After almost eighteen months in office, Salcedo decided to inspect other areas of the province. He left San Antonio de Bexar on March 11, 1810, to tour East Texas. The United States and Spain were contesting the location of the border between Louisiana and Texas, and in response the local military commanders had declared the area between the Sabine River and the Red River to be a neutral ground which neither army would cross. As a result, this section of land became a haven for outlaws. While visiting Nacogdoches, Salcedo recommended that Spanish troops combine with an equal number of American soldiers to mount an offensive against the bandits. He also personally interrogated the heads of new immigrant families to the area to determine whether they would be loyal to Spain.

paragraph: After returning to San Antonio, Salcedo learned that the Central Junta of Seville had issued an edict inviting Hispanic colonists overseas to send representatives to the junta. The people of San Antonio promptly elected Salcedo to represent them. Nemesio Salcedo invalidated the election on the pretext that San Antonio did not have a cabildo, which was a prerequisite for balloting. Salcedo soothed the people of San Antonio by explaining that his primary obligation as governor of Texas required his presence in Texas. Instead, Texas would be represented by Coahuila's representative, Antonio Cordero.

paragraph: Section::::Hidalgo revolution.

paragraph: Section::::Hidalgo revolution.:Revolt.

paragraph: Salcedo left for a tour of the southern part of Texas on September 12, 1810. Four days later, Father Miguel Hidalgo launched a revolution in Mexico. Hidalgo believed that only people born in New Spain knew what was best for the area, and he claimed to also want to govern in the name of deposed king Ferdinand VII of Spain. His goal was to inflame the northernmost provinces, especially Texas, in the hopes that his cause might win the support of the United States. When news of the revolt reached East Texas, many of the colonists fled into Louisiana, afraid the presidio would be unable to protect them. Salcedo offered a blanket amnesty to the settlers if they would return to Texas by November 1.

paragraph: Salcedo returned to San Antonio de Bexar in late October and began making plans to protect Texas. He requested permission to create a militia with 200 local gentry from Texas to help patrol Texas, but this was denied. To guard against the spread of seditious literature, Salcedo instructed the San Antonio postmaster, Erasmo Seguin, to hold all incoming and outgoing mail pouches until they had been inspected by the governor. This privacy infringement was not publicized. When the amnesty for East Texas settlers expired, Salcedo also ordered the borders closed and all settlers in the province confined to the immediate vicinity if their homes. Both the confinement and the mail reading were overturned by Nemesio Salcedo as being too strict. To improve response time, however, Nemesio Salcedo did authorize his nephew to open any correspondence from the United States that was addressed to the commandant general.

paragraph: At the end of November, Salcedo received a message from the viceroy of New Spain instructing him that Hidalgo and his confederates Ignacio Allende and Juan Aldama were expected to invade Texas, and that Salcedo was expected to capture them. This posed difficulty for Salcedo, whose soldiers were operating without needed supplies, some not even having flints for their firearms, and many members of the cavalry were without horses. Eager to find a solution, Salcedo attempted to recruit 200 Lipan Apache warriors to fight with them, but the deal fell through. Further stretching his resources, Salcedo sent 100 soldiers to Saltillo to assist in fending off the insurrectionists fighting in Coahuila.

paragraph: In December, Salcedo sent his wife and daughter from San Antonio to keep them safe. On January 2, he summoned all 300 troops in Bexar and informed them that they would be traveling to the Rio Grande to more effectively defend the province. This ignited rumors that Salcedo was planning to abandon the province. Four days later, Salcedo was forced to publish a proclamation to all inhabitants of the province, appealing for support for the royalists and denying that Spanish authorities intended to abandon New Spain.

paragraph: Within the next several days, Coahuila surrendered to the rebels. On January 15, rebels launched an attempt to seize the Texas government; the plot was uncovered and the conspirators, including a lieutenant in the army, were arrested. Salcedo then canceled his orders to send the troops to the Rio Grande so that they could instead protect the capital. He also issued a declaration to the citizens of San Antonio to warn them that helping the rebels was treason.

paragraph: Section::::Hidalgo revolution.:Capture.

paragraph: On January 21, Juan Bautista de las Casas, a retired militia captain from Nuevo Santander led a group of army sergeants to stage a coup in San Antonio de Bexar. The following morning they arrested Salcedo and his entire military staff. Even as Salcedo was led to detention however, the rebellious soldiers instinctively saluted him. Las Casas chained Salcedo, Simón de Herrera, the governor of Nuevo Santander who was living in San Antonio, and twelve other Spanish officers and humiliated them in front of the town. The prisoners were then transferred to Monclova in Coahuila.

paragraph: The rest of Texas was quickly revolutionized. There was little resistance in Nacogdoches, where the presidio commander was arrested, or in La Bahia. Las Casas promptly confiscated property belonging to Spanish residents, proclaimed himself the head of a provisional government, released political prisoners and jailed royalists. His arbitrary rule disenchanted much of the army, and Juan Manuel Zambrano, the subdeacon of San Antonio, soon led a counter-insurgency against him. On March 2, Zambrano and his royalists marched on the government house. Las Casas surrendered without a fight, just 39 days after taking over. Zambrano reestablished royalist control of the province and sent a messenger to inform those holding Salcedo.

paragraph: Section::::Hidalgo revolution.:Victory.

paragraph: During his captivity, Salcedo had been slowly enticing Ignacio Elizondo (his captor), with promises of a promotion and other rewards if he would renounce his revolutionary tendencies. After receiving Zambrano's message, Salcedo's captor changed sides again. With his help, on March 13, Salcedo and his military officers were able to capture Pedro de Aranda, who held documents detailing the movements of the revolutionary army. One week later, Salcedo led a group which captured much of Hidalgo's army, as well as 27 rebel leaders. Salcedo accompanied the captured leaders from Monclova to Chihuahua, the headquarters of the Commandant General. On April 26, 1811, the Commandant General appointed Salcedo to be president of a seven-member tribunal to try the revolutionaries. The men were quickly sentenced to death by firing squad.

paragraph: Loyalists in Coahuila quickly judged, convicted, and executed the prisoners captured in San Antonio de Bexar. Las Casas's head was shipped to San Antonio and displayed on a pole in the military plaza. With Salcedo still in Chihuahua, Zambrano administered the province. Among his accomplishments during this time was to inaugurate the first primary school in San Antonio.

paragraph: The royalists were amply rewarded for their work. San Antonio was elevated from a villa to a "ciudad". Those who participated in the royalists junta were given either promotions or cash payments. Salcedo was the only one of the royalists to not receive any special awards or honors. He angrily protested to the Commandant General and requested a military inquiry into the events surrounding his capture, hoping to be exonerated. Nemesio Salcedo refused to convene and inquiry, declaring that Salcedo had simply been caught off guard. Although Salcedo returned to San Antonio on September 11, 1811, he refused to assume his duties as governor. Nemesio Salcedo finally told him that the higher authorities trusted him with the assignment or else he would not have been allowed to return to Texas, and thus any other promotions or compensation were superfluous. The lack of that compensation, however, lessened Salcedo's standing in the eyes of many of the residents of the province, with some refusing to follow verbal directives from the governor.

paragraph: Section::::Defeat.

paragraph: Salcedo resumed his command on December 15. Revolutionary tendencies were still high, and on February 12, 1812, Salcedo appointed a military council on public safety to oversee cases of sedition. As usual, there was a shortage of funds and horses within the province. Salcedo ignored protocol and wrote directly to the viceroy of New Spain about troop strength levels in Texas, including copies of documents which had been sent to the Commandant General in previous pleas. At this time, there were only an estimated 1,137 troops in the province.

paragraph: During this time, revolutionary Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara traveled to the United States to try to gain support for overthrowing the royalists in Mexico. With former U.S. Army lieutenant Augustus Magee and William Shaler, Gutiérrez advertised for armed support in Louisiana and Natchez, Mississippi Territory, calling themselves the Republican Army of the North. The Republican Army of the North gathered in the Neutral Ground, and in early August 1812 they crossed the Sabine River into Texas. Most of the soldiers in Nacogdoches were away from the fort, and it fell on August 11 with no resistance. After receiving conflicting information about the size of the rebel army, the Spanish soldiers retreated west. The retreat was disorganized, and many of the enlisted men deserted and returned to Nacogdoches to join the filibusters. By mid-August, the rebels nominally controlled all of the land east of the Guadalupe River.

paragraph: To attract recruits, the filibusters offered $40 per month plus a Spanish league of land (4428 acres) to all volunteers. By September their army numbered 780. The Spanish army in Texas was almost twice as large at this point. On November 2, Salcedo led the majority of these forces to the Guadalupe in the hopes of ambushing the invaders. One of his soldiers was captured, however, and revealed details of the ambush. The invading army turned south to avoid the trap, and instead captured Presidio La Bahia. Salcedo promptly began a siege of the presidio.

paragraph: Unable to win a decisive victory, Salcedo lifted the siege on February 19, 1813, and returned towards San Antonio de Bexar. During the retreat, many of the soldiers defected and joined the Republican Army of the North. The two armies met along Salado Creek at the Battle of Rosillo Creek. After a 15-minute battle, the Spanish Army broke ranks and, in March, once again retreated toward San Antonio. Indians who had allied with the victorious rebels chased down many of the fugitives and slaughtered them. In total, 330 royalists were killed, while only 6 republicans died.

paragraph: Back in San Antonio, Salcedo and the Royalists assumed a defensive position in and around the Alamo and waited for an assault. It was not a long wait. As news of the republican victory reached the east, new recruits began to pour into La Bahia; and, thus reinforced, Samuel Kemper (in command after the death of Magee) soon struck out in pursuit of Salcedo's force.

paragraph: At Bexar, a decisive battle ended with the Royalists being driven back into the Alamo. With the tables turned so that Salcedo was now under siege, he asked for terms. Kemper replied that if they were to surrender, there would be no reprisals, the soldiers would simply be disbanded and the officers would be released "on their own parole."

paragraph: On April 2, Salcedo and 14 members of his staff surrendered. Salcedo tried twice to officially present his sword to Anglo-American officers. Following their own protocol, the Americans refused to accept his surrender and gestured that he must present it to Gutiérrez. Salcedo instead stuck his sword in the ground and stepped back. Gutiérrez declared himself head of a provisional government and appointed a "junta" to deliberate charges against Salcedo and the other royalists.

paragraph: In part due to urging of a certain Captain Antonio Delgado who demanded vengeance against Salcedo for the death of his father, they were quickly found guilty of treachery to the Hidalgo movement and sentenced to death.

paragraph: When Samuel Kemper and the other Americans objected to this as a betrayal of the terms offered the Royalists, Gutiérrez suggested that Salcedo and his Spanish officers be taken to the Gulf coast and from there sent by ship to New Orleans for parole. Kemper agreed to this and so, escorted by a company of rebel soldiers, Salcedo and the officers were dispatched toward the coast. But Gutiérrez had apparently entered into a plot with Delgado, and Delgado was in command of the escort.

paragraph: On the night of April 3 (Salcedo's birthday), some 10 miles southwest of Béxar, near the site of the Rosillo Creek battle, the column was halted. Telling Salcedo that they were about to die, all the prisoners were bound hand and foot. After some taunting, they were made to kneel with their hands tied behind their backs. Then, Delgado himself stepped up behind each of them, and one by one, mercilessly slit their throats.

paragraph: Their bodies were left on the ground for the vultures, but Salcedo's body was retrieved by Father José Dario Zambrano and buried at the San Fernando Church on August 28.

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.

paragraph: The morning after Salcedo's death, the rebels announced what they had done. Most of the Anglo-American leaders of the movement disavowed the murder and many began leaving. Spanish officials decided to reconquer Texas, and to speed their response the viceroy created a new administrative unit, the Commandancy General of the Eastern Interior Provinces, headquartered in Monterrey. San Antonio de Bexar was retaken on August 18. The new commandant general, José Joaquín de Arredondo, entered the city two days later and immediately arrested 700 male residents. The filibuster army was defeated at the battle of Medina, and those rebels who managed to escape the battle fled into the Neutral Ground.

paragraph: Arredondo threatened immediate execution for anyone who crossed into Texas, and for three years few people attempted it. For the next four years, Texas had several "ad interim" governors, until Antonio María Martínez became the last governor of Spanish Texas.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- https://web.archive.org/web/20110721044849/http://www.sos.louisiana.gov/tabid/355/Default.aspx --broken link, April 2015

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ross Phares. "The Governors of Texas", Pelican Publ. Co. 184 pages, (1976). . (1999) edition, 196 pages, .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Manuel María de Salcedo in the "Handbook of Texas"; accessed 3 April 2015.

description: Spanish governor

wikidata_label: Manuel María de Salcedo

wikipedia_title: Manuel María de Salcedo


text:
Hrušov
Slunečná
Czech
Jakob der Lügner
Silver Bear for Best Actor
25th Berlin International Film Festival
TV series
Arabela
The Visitors
Autumn Spring
Czech Lion
Jana Brejchová
actress
Tereza Brodská
suicide

categories: 21st-century Czech male actors,Czech male film actors,Czech male television actors,Recipients of Medal of Merit (Czech Republic),2002 deaths,1920 births,20th-century Czech male actors,Suicides by firearm in the Czech Republic,Czech male stage actors,Czech male actors who committed suicide,People from Ostrava,Silver Bear for Best Actor winners

paragraph: Vlastimil Brodský

paragraph: Vlastimil Brodský (15 December 1920 in Hrušov – 20 April 2002 in Slunečná) was a respected Czech actor. He appeared in more than one hundred films, and is considered a key figure in the postwar development of Czech cinema.

paragraph: One of his best-known roles was as the title character in "Jakob der Lügner" for which won the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 25th Berlin International Film Festival. He also played the king in the hit children's TV series "Arabela" and as Alois Drchlík in "The Visitors".

paragraph: His final film role was as a pensioner named Frantisek in "Autumn Spring". This role earned him his first and only Czech Lion (a prestigious film award), for best actor.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: He was married to Jana Brejchová for 16 years before getting a divorce; together they had a daughter, actress Tereza Brodská. Brodský also had a son, actor Marek Brodský. Brodský committed suicide on 20 April 2002.

description: Czech actor

wikidata_label: Vlastimil Brodský

wikipedia_title: Vlastimil Brodský


text:
Austria
botanist
Laibach (Ljubljana)
University of Graz
Hubert Leitgeb
University of Innsbruck
Innsbruck
botanical garden
Austrian Academy of Sciences
Java
Bogor Botanical Gardens
morphology
physiology
spermatophytes
toothwort
mistletoe
pear tree
phylogenetics
frond
fern
substrate
seed germination
Meinhard Michael Moser
mycologist
Lathraea

categories: University of Graz alumni,People from Ljubljana,Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences,Austrian botanists,1856 births,1934 deaths,University of Innsbruck faculty

paragraph: Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher

paragraph: Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher (November 14, 1856 – July 13, 1934) was an Austrian botanist from Laibach (Ljubljana).

paragraph: In 1879 he received his doctorate from the University of Graz, where after graduation, he served as an assistant to botanist Hubert Leitgeb. In 1889 he became an associate professor of botany, which was followed by a full professorship at the University of Innsbruck in 1891. While at Innsbruck, he created a new botanical garden in nearby Hötting. Through support from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, he took part in a study trip to Java (1903/04). While there, he spent time working at the Buitenzorg Botanical Gardens (now the Bogor Botanical Gardens).

paragraph: He is known for his research pertaining to the morphology, developmental history, ecology and physiology of parasitic spermatophytes. He performed detailed studies of toothwort and mistletoe species, including investigations of pear tree immunity in regards to mistletoe.

paragraph: Heinricher also conducted studies on flower construction anomalies and their importance in understanding its phylogenetics, adventitious buds on the frond lamina of ferns from an evolutionary and morphological perspective, the effects of light and substrate on seed germination and isolateral leaf construction in plants being exposed to strong sunlight.

paragraph: Heinricher's grandson, Meinhard Michael Moser (1924–2002), was an esteemed mycologist.

paragraph: Section::::Selected writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Aufzucht und Kultur der parasitischen Samenpflanzen", 1910 - The development and culture of parasitic seed plants.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Der Kampf zwischen Mistel und Birbaum. Immune, unecht immune und nicht immune Birnrassen; immunwerden für das Mistelgift früher sehr empfindlicher Bäume nach dem Überstehen einer ersten Infektion". 1917 - The struggle between mistletoe and pear trees, etc.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Monographie der Gattung Lathraea", 1931 - Monograph of the genus Lathraea.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Geschichte des Botanischen Gartens der Universät Innsbruck", 1934 - History on the botanical gardens at the University of Innsbruck.

description: Austrian botanist

wikidata_label: Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher

wikipedia_title: Emil Johann Lambert Heinricher


text: Major League Baseball

text: relief pitcher

text: American League

text: National League

text: World Series

text: Anaheim Angels

text: Boston Red Sox

text: 2007 World Series

text: 2003 All-Star Game

text: Chicago White Sox

text: 1992 Major League Baseball Draft

text: Chicago Cubs

text: Ohio Valley Redcoats

text: Cincinnati Reds

text: Spring Training

text: replacement player

text: 1994 Major League Baseball strike

text: Nashua Pride

text: Tampa Bay Devil Rays

text: Pittsburgh Pirates

text: Toronto Blue Jays

text: Chicago Cubs

text: Anaheim Angels

text: goggles

text: setup man

text: Troy Percival

text: 2002 championship season

text: World Series

text: replacement player

text: Shane Spencer

text: New York Yankees

text: Damian Miller

text: Arizona Diamondbacks

text: earned run average

text: closer

text: All-Star

text: spring training

text: bullpen

text: fastball

text: closer

text: Francisco Rodríguez

text: pine tar

text: Jose Guillen

text: Frank Robinson

text: Chicago White Sox

text: Ozzie Guillén

text: middle reliever

text: Boston Red Sox

text: Phil Seibel

text: Tommy John surgery

text: Cleveland Indians

text: Tom Mastny

text: Texas Rangers

text: Houston Astros

text: Florida Marlins

text: Pittsburgh Pirates

text: Mitchell Report

text: Kirk Radomski

text: oxandrolone

text: anabolic steroid

text: nandrolone

categories: Cleveland Indians players,Chattanooga Lookouts players,Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players,Salt Lake Stingers players,Pittsburgh Pirates players,Indianapolis Indians players,Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim players,Nashua Pride players,Rancho Cucamonga Quakes players,Major League Baseball replacement players,Boston Red Sox players,Charleston AlleyCats players,American people of Irish descent,Colorado Mesa Mavericks baseball players,Gulf Coast Indians players,Geneva Cubs players,Durham Bulls players,Syracuse SkyChiefs players,1971 births,Winston-Salem Warthogs players,Major League Baseball pitchers,American League All-Stars,Living people,Altoona Curve players,Iowa Cubs players,Kinston Indians players,Gulf Coast White Sox players,Florida Marlins players,Ohio Valley Redcoats players,Baseball players from Washington, D.C.,Anaheim Angels players,Arkansas Travelers players,Round Rock Express players

paragraph: Brendan Donnelly

paragraph: Brendan Kevin Donnelly (born July 4, 1971) is a former Major League Baseball relief pitcher. A right-hander, Donnelly pitched for twenty-one teams (two of them independents), twelve organizations, two independent leagues, eleven organized minor leagues, and both the American League and the National League.

paragraph: He won the World Series in 2002 with the Anaheim Angels and was on the roster for the Boston Red Sox during their 2007 World Series victory. Donnelly was also the winning pitcher of the 2003 All-Star Game.

paragraph: After ten seasons in minor league baseball and eight seasons in Major League Baseball, he retired in 2011.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Minor leagues.

paragraph: Donnelly was drafted by the Chicago White Sox in the 27th round of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft. The White Sox released him in April 1993. In June 1993, he signed with the Chicago Cubs organization; the Cubs released him before the start of the season. In 1994, he played for the independent Ohio Valley Redcoats.

paragraph: In March 1995, he signed with the Cincinnati Reds and participated in Spring Training as a replacement player during the 1994 Major League Baseball strike. As a result of his participation as a replacement player, Donnelly is permanently barred from joining the Major League Baseball Players Association. Donnelly remained in the Reds organization until he was released in April .

paragraph: He started the 1999 season with the independent Nashua Pride. In May 1999, he was purchased by the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. He was released on August 12, 1999. On August 18, 1999, he was signed by the Pittsburgh Pirates. He was released on August 25, 1999. On August 26, 1999, he was signed by the Toronto Blue Jays. He was released in July 2000. In August 2000, he signed with the Chicago Cubs. He became a free agent after the 2000 season.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Anaheim Angels.

paragraph: In January , he signed with the Anaheim Angels, where he made his major league debut in at 30 years of age. He was an immediate fan favorite because of his intensity, the goggles that he wears, and his effectiveness as the main setup man to Troy Percival. Donnelly would go on to play an integral part of the Angels' bullpen in their 2002 championship season, serving as the winning pitcher in Game 6 of the World Series. He was the third replacement player to win the World Series, behind both Shane Spencer of the 1998 New York Yankees and Damian Miller of the Arizona Diamondbacks.

paragraph: In , in that same role, Donnelly put up a 1.58 earned run average and became a rare example of a non-closer who was selected as an All-Star. Donnelly went on to be the winning pitcher in that mid-summer classic.

paragraph: He suffered a broken nose during spring training , causing him to miss a large portion of the season. Donnelly remained fairly effective throughout 2004 in a very good bullpen for the American League West Champion Anaheim Angels. In , Donnelly began to see a decline in performance, including a decrease in velocity on his fastball as a set-up man for closer Francisco Rodríguez after Percival's departure. In June 2005, Donnelly was suspended ten days for having pine tar on his glove., an incident that caused a scrum and accusations that former teammate Jose Guillen tipped manager Frank Robinson The suspension was the culmination of three weeks of extra scrutiny on Donnelly from opposing managers and umpires, including an accusation from then-Chicago White Sox manager Ozzie Guillén accusing Donnelly of touching his mouth too often. He would later advocate for the legalization of pine tars for pitchers.

paragraph: In , Donnelly continued to drop down the depth chart in the bullpen becoming an inconsistent middle reliever.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Boston Red Sox.

paragraph: On December 15, 2006, Donnelly was traded to the Boston Red Sox for Phil Seibel.

paragraph: On July 31, 2007, it was announced that Donnelly would need Tommy John surgery. During his absence, the Red Sox would eventually go on to win the 2007 World Series. Donnelly became a free agent after the 2007 season.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Cleveland Indians.

paragraph: On February 6, 2008, the Cleveland Indians signed Donnelly to a minor league contract with an invitation to spring training. The Indians hoped Donnelly would provide bullpen help at the end of the season when he recovered from Tommy John surgery.

paragraph: Donnelly was brought up to the Indians in August 2008, as a replacement for Tom Mastny.

paragraph: In February 2009, he was signed by the Texas Rangers. He was released in March 2009. In April 2009, he signed with the Houston Astros. He was released on July 1, 2009. On July 5, 2009, Donnelly signed with the Florida Marlins. He became a free agent after the 2009 season.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Pittsburgh Pirates.

paragraph: On January 16, 2010, Donnelly agreed with the Pittsburgh Pirates on a one-year deal worth $1.5 million. Before he could reach incentives that would have approximately doubled his salary, the Pirates released Donnelly in July 2010 denying that the incentives were the reason for the release. He was the last of the replacement players still in the major leagues, signifying no conciliatory admittance into the MLBPA more than 15 years after His likeness, name, and uniform number were still replaced by fictional players in video games.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Retirement.

paragraph: He announced his retirement on March 9, 2011.

paragraph: Section::::Mitchell Report.

paragraph: Donnelly was named in the December 13, 2007 Mitchell Report regarding the use of performance-enhancing drugs in baseball. According to former clubhouse attendant and admitted steroids distributor Kirk Radomski, Donnelly sought him out in 2004 looking to purchase oxandrolone, an anabolic steroid. Radomski says he made one sale of nandrolone to Donnelly, for which he received $250–$300. In a statement in response to the report, Donnelly admitted contacting Radomski in 2004 regarding oxandrolone, hoping it would help him recover from injuries faster. Donnelly denied ever buying or using the drug because he was made aware that it was considered a steroid.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball replacement players

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball players named in the Mitchell Report

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: Brendan Donnelly

wikipedia_title: Brendan Donnelly


text:
Croatia
Banja Luka
stand-up comedian
Yugoslavia

categories: People from Banja Luka,Croatian film actresses,Croatian comedians,20th-century comedians,2007 deaths,1924 births

paragraph: Nela Eržišnik

paragraph: Nela Eržišnik (18 June 1924 – 14 August 2007) was a Croatian actress. Born in Banja Luka as Nevenka Maras, she appeared in some classic Croatian films of the 1950s and early 1960s. Later, she switched to television and built a reputation as one of the rare female stand-up comedians in Croatia (and the former Yugoslavia). Her most memorable character is Marica Hrdalo.

description: Croatian actress and comedian

wikidata_label: Nela Eržišnik

wikipedia_title: Nela Eržišnik