text: cardiologist

text: zoologist

text: Breslau

text: Wroclaw

text: Poland

text: mathematician

text: Ernst Steinitz

text: Rostock

text: University of Rostock

text: cardiologist

text: zoology

text: World War I

text: thesis

text: humpback whale

text: University of Wroclaw

text: Mediterranean Basin

text: Nazi

text: Jew

text: Palestine

text: Ramot HaShavim

text: Bad Nauheim

text: Heinz Steinitz

text: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

text: Israel Meteorology Service

text: Zionism

text: Basel

text: Indo-Pacific

text: Suez Canal

text: Red Sea

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: Indian Ocean

text: Levant

text: biota

text: Lessepsian migration

text: Albert Einstein

text: Tel Aviv

text: aquarium

text: fauna

text: biochemist

text: Chaim Weizmann

text: Israel Rokach

text: Yarkon

text: World War II

text: Nahariya

text: Heinz Steinitz

text: Eilat

text: Gulf of Aqaba

text: sea anemone

text: Curt Kosswig

text: Fishing in Israel

categories: Israeli Jews,Marine biologists,German Jews,Zionists,Israeli zoologists,1882 births

paragraph: Walter Steinitz

paragraph: Walter Steinitz () (12 February 1882 – 14 December 1963) was a German-born Israeli cardiologist, zoologist, and fisheries research pioneer in Israel.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Walter Steinitz was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland) in 1882. He was the son of Sigismund Steinitz (1845-1889), a merchant, and Augustin Cohn Steinitz (1850-1906); brother of the mathematician Ernst Steinitz (1871–1928); and also brother of the lawyer Kurt Steinitz (1872-1929).

paragraph: He studied medicine in the Universities of Breslau and Rostock, Germany, and obtained his medical doctoral degree (M.D.) from the University of Rostock in 1905. Following his return to Breslau he earned his living as a cardiologist, and at the same time he also studied zoology. These studies were interrupted temporarily during World War I by service as a physician in the German army. After the war, being interested especially in marine organisms, he wrote a doctoral thesis on the development of the eye in the humpback whale and obtained a Ph.D. degree from the University of Breslau (now University of Wroclaw) in 1918. In recognition of his first and leading research of the marine fauna of the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, the Breslau University granted him a position as Privatdozent and lecturer in zoology.

paragraph: Walter Steinitz’s first wife, Marta Schindler (1887-1924), was mother of his three sons. After he became a widower he married Alma Friedlander (1887-1977).

paragraph: The rise at the beginning of 1933 of the Nazi regime brought an end to both his medical and academic career. He immediately recognized there was no future for a reasonable life as a Jew in Germany. Consequently, he emigrated that same year, together with his wife Alma, to Palestine. He joined a group of Jewish German-born settlers who together founded in 1933 Ramot HaShavim, a village organized as an agricultural commune. For five years (1933-1938) he was member of the leading committee of the village. In 1939 he chaired the committee for less than a year. He was a highly educated person, a polymath with wide interests in the fields of life sciences, geology, philosophy and music. With his skills and experience as teacher, he led courses and gave lectures in the village on biological and agricultural topics relevant to farmers, and contributed to the cultural life of the village. Until his death in 1963, he made his living in Ramot HaShavim from a chicken farm, where he attempted to improve egg production by poultry breeding. After his death in Bad Nauheim, Germany, he was buried in Ramot HaShavim.

paragraph: His three sons were born, grew up and studied in Germany before they emigrated to Palestine. He inspired them to study sciences: Ernst Steinitz (1907-1980), was an internist in the private sector; Heinz Steinitz (1909-1971) was a professor of zoology and marine biology in the Department of Zoology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; and Gideon Steinitz (1911-1975) was a mathematician in his academic education, became a meteorologist in Palestine and eventually was head of the Israel Meteorology Service.

paragraph: Section::::Combining scientific investigation with Zionism.

paragraph: Walter Steinitz was a committed Zionist who developed his unique way of combining scientific pursuit with Zionistic activism. He participated the Zionist Congresses in Basel in 1903 and in London (1920); attended the inauguration ceremony of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1925; chose the coast of Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean Sea as the zoogeographic research area he would study while still being affiliated to the Breslau University; and formulated plans for the establishment of a marine research station in Palestine nearly fifteen years prior his decision to move and live in that country. Finally, once he decided to leave Germany, his preference to emigrate to Palestine, and not elsewhere in Europe or America, certainly stemmed from his Zionist convictions.

paragraph: Section::::Pioneering research of fishes in Palestine.

paragraph: Steinitz traveled to Palestine for zoological excursions in the second and third decades of the twentieth century. He explored, documented and analyzed his findings of fishes of the Eastern Mediterranean Basin, commenced scientific collections of fishes, and was the first to publish a comprehensive fisheries research of Palestine. His investigations were pioneering in two scientific respects: First, he discovered new marine organisms in the region, and second, he found fishes of Indo-Pacific origin along the coast of Palestine. The Suez Canal, a man-made connection between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, was opened only a few decades prior to his investigations in Palestine. The presence of Indo-Pacific species along the Mediterranean coast of Palestine revealed to Steinitz an influx of fishes from the Red Sea - a northern branch of the Indian Ocean - into the east Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Canal waterway, and it suggested that changes had occurred in the marine life of the south east Mediterranean Sea due to human intervention. He argued that with the new situation “…it is the only place on earth where two quite different zoological marine provinces have come into direct touch with one another” and that the Canal “…connects two oceans having each different fauna from the other”. Steinitz was among the first to call for monitoring the impact of the opening of the Suez Canal on the Levant biota. Studies of the invasions of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean Sea, and their ecological consequences for the Mediterranean marine biota, have proliferated since then and are ongoing in the twenty first century. The phenomenon of migration of marine species form the Red Sea through the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean Sea is now termed Lessepsian migration.

paragraph: Section::::A marine biology research station in Palestine.

paragraph: As early as 1919 Steinitz published his vision to establish a marine biology research station on the coast of Palestine. He was convinced that a research station located in Palestine would be essential for researching and following changes occurring in the marine biota of the Levant. An exchange of letters on the topic with Prof. Albert Einstein during the period 1919-1937 represent Steinitz’s persistent efforts to raise funds and support for the endeavor. Soon after immigration to Palestine he submitted in 1933 to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem an elaborate proposal for the establishment in Tel Aviv of a biological marine station and aquarium for the study of the Mediterranean marine fauna and as a center for lectures and teaching courses. He received support from the biochemist and Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, and from Tel Aviv’s mayor Israel Rokach. As a result, the Aquarium and Marine Station Tel-Aviv Society Ltd was founded in 1936. Among the group’s founders were the mayor of Tel Aviv, Israel Rokach; Dr. Felix Danziger; Prof. Alfred Klopstock and other scholars. Albert Einstein was Honorary President and Walter Steinitz was the scientific director. The station was supposed to be built on land allocated by the Tel Aviv municipality, on the shore near the Yarkon estuary. The plan included construction of an aquarium, research rooms, a lecture hall and a library, all for the use of local researchers and guests from the international scientific community. The society’s agenda encompassed basic marine biology research of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, research to support fishing as a source of income, and exhibitions of marine animals to the public in the aquarium. The efforts to build the station in Tel Aviv were blocked when World War II broke out. Walter Steinitz made a final, brief and unsuccessful attempt to operate in 1939 a sea laboratory in Nahariya. His dream was ultimately fulfilled three decades later by his son Heinz Steinitz. A marine biology laboratory was inaugurated in 1968 on the coast of the Red Sea, in Eilat, the Gulf of Aqaba, and it is named The Heinz Steinitz Marine Biology Laboratory, in memory of its founder and first director. The laboratory became the basic element in the subsequent development of The Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences near Eilat.

paragraph: Section::::Honors.

paragraph: The sea anemone "Cribrina steinitzi" Pax 1925 was named after Walter Steinitz, while the fish species "Tylognathus steinitziorum" Kosswig (synonym of "Hemigrammocapoeta nana" Heckel 1843, discovered and named by Dr. Curt Kosswig in 1950), was dedicated to Walter Steinitz and his son Heinz Steinitz.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences in Eilat (IUI).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fisheries Research in Fishing in Israel

description: Israeli zoologist

wikidata_label: Walter Steinitz

wikipedia_title: Walter Steinitz


text:
Cignaroli Academy
Verona
Milan
Giuseppe Canella
Ercole Calvi
Artgate
Fondazione Cariplo

categories: Italian male painters,1824 births,Veronese painters,People from Verona,19th-century Italian painters,1900 deaths

paragraph: Ercole Calvi

paragraph: Ercole Calvi (1824 in Verona – 1900) was an Italian painter.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Calvi attended the Cignaroli Academy in Verona before moving to Milan in 1844 and completing his studies at the Brera. Carrying on the Romantic tradition of landscape painting, he made a name for himself at Milanese exhibitions with views of lakes and the area of Brianza based on the then fashionable models of Giuseppe Canella. Calvi’s return to Verona in 1856 was followed by increased commercial success and official recognition. He was appointed professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1859 and director of the Società di Belle Arti in 1866.

paragraph: Urban views, landscapes and subjects drawn from the struggle for national liberation came to predominate in his output in the 1860s. While the adoption of a repetitive and somewhat facile pictorial vocabulary ensured lasting success in terms of sales, the first negative reviews by critics also began to appear in the next decade. The second half of the 1870s saw a determined effort to catch up with the contemporary developments in pictorial realism and the introduction of new subjects drawn from life studies of the Venetian lagoon.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elena Lissoni, Ercole Calvi, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

description: Italian painter

wikidata_label: Ercole Calvi

wikipedia_title: Ercole Calvi


text:
Francesco Hayez
Brera Academy
Milan
Francesco Filippini
Eugenio Gignous
Gignese
Lake Maggiore
Switzerland
Umberto Bazzoli
Museo Cantonale d'Arte
Lugano
Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo
Filippo Carcano
Artgate
Fondazione Cariplo

categories: People from Milan,Italian male painters,Brera Academy alumni,Milanese painters,1840 births,20th-century Italian painters,19th-century Italian painters

paragraph: Filippo Carcano

paragraph: Filippo Carcano (Milan, 1840–1914) was an Italian painter.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: A pupil of Francesco Hayez at the Brera Academy in Milan as from 1855, Carcano won the Canonica Prize with a work on a historical subject in 1862, while experimenting in the same period with painting from life. Carcano became friends with Francesco Filippini and Eugenio Gignous, with whom he would sometimes go to paint in Gignese. His interest in themes connected with reality is confirmed in subsequent works presenting scenes of an immediacy that reflects the contemporary developments in the field of the photography. One example is "Break Time during Work on the Exhibition of 1881" (1887, Galleria d’Arte Moderna, Milan), presented at the Esposizione Nazionale di Belle Arti di Milano in 1881.

paragraph: A leading figure in the school of Lombard Naturalism, he combined scenes of everyday life with numerous landscapes, featuring the surroundings of Lake Maggiore and the Mottarone as from the 1870s and the mountain peaks on the border with Switzerland at the end of the century. It was in the same period that he took up Symbolism, winning the Prince Umberto Prize at the Milan Triennale of 1897. Among his pupils was Umberto Bazzoli. One of his Works is by Museo Cantonale d'Arte of Lugano. The earthen tones and proletarian thematics often recall the works of Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Laura Casone, Filippo Carcano, online catalogue Artgate by Fondazione Cariplo, 2010, CC BY-SA (source for the first revision of this article).

paragraph: Fillipo Carcano Archive:

alias:
Filippo Carcana
Carcano
Fillippo Carcano

description: Italian painter

wikidata_label: Filippo Carcano

wikipedia_title: Filippo Carcano


text:
When You and I Were Young, Maggie
United States
Music Teachers National Association
Chicago, Illinois
Graceland Cemetery

categories: 1837 births,American male composers,1891 deaths,19th-century American composers,19th-century male musicians

paragraph: James Austin Butterfield

paragraph: James Austin Butterfield (May 18, 1837 – July 6, 1891) was an American composer. His best-known composition is "When You and I Were Young, Maggie", first published in 1866 (lyrics by George W. Johnson). Butterfield was born in England in 1837 and emigrated to the United States in 1856.

paragraph: He was also the second president of the Music Teachers National Association, in 1878.

paragraph: James A. Butterfield died in Chicago, Illinois and is buried in Graceland Cemetery.

description: American composer

wikidata_label: James Austin Butterfield

wikipedia_title: James Austin Butterfield


text: cleric

text: jurist

text: mens rea

text: kingship

text: Roman law

text: medieval Roman law

text: Ranulf de Glanvill

text: Devon

text: Bratton Fleming

text: Bratton Clovelly

text: Devon

text: assize

text: Somerset

text: Cornwall

text: coram rege

text: coram ipso rege

text: Mad Parliament

text: Oxford

text: Second Barons' War

text: Martin Pateshull

text: William Raleigh

text: William de Raley

text: Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester

text: Combe-in-Teignhead

text: Bideford

text: Barnstaple

text: Exeter Cathedral

text: Exeter Cathedral

text: chantry

text: Thorverton

text: Ulpian

text: Pandects

text: Roman

text: Ulpian

text: Melchizedek priesthood

text: Martin de Pateshull

text: John of England

text: Falkes de Breauté

text: Norwich Cathedral

text: St. Paul's Cathedral

text: Hubert de Burgh

text: William Raleigh

text: William de Raley

text: Devon

text: Bratton Fleming

text: Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent

text: Exeter Cathedral

text: Winchester

text: William of Valence

text: Norwich

text: Statute of Merton

text: Quare ejecit infra terminum

text: Ranulf de Glanvill

text: Leges Henrici Primi

text: Henry Maine

text: Frederic William Maitland

text: Azo of Bologna

text: England was conquered by the Normans in 1066

text: Pope Adrian IV

text: Irnerius

text: Four Doctors

text: Accursius

text: Glossators

text: Gratian

text: Lombard

text: Libri Feudorum

text: Beaumanoir

text: Ranulf de Glanvill

text: Leges Edwardi Confessoris

text: Edward the Confessor

text: William the Conqueror

text: shire

text: hundred

text: Wessex

text: Danelaw

text: infangthef

text: utfangthef

text: thane

text: dreng

text: sokeman

text: geld

text: wapentake

text: bote

text: wite

text: wer

text: baron

text: count

text: viscount

text: vavasor

text: villein

text: relief

text: homage

text: manor

text: Second Barons' War

text: plea rolls

text: Azo of Bologna

text: Corpus Iuris Civilis

text: Decretum

text: Decretals

text: Tancred of Bologna

text: Isidore of Seville

text: Isidorus Hispalensis

text: Edward I of England

text: Gilbert Thornton

text: epitome

text: palatinate

text: Magna Carta

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: stare decisis

text: Year Books

text: Statute of Merton

text: Statute of Marlborough

text: Henry III of England

text: Court of Chancery

text: Ranulf de Glanvill

text: Pope Innocent III

text: interdict

text: John of England

text: Fourth Lateran Council

text: intestate

text: Henry II of England

text: Thomas Becket

text: writ of prohibition

text: frankalmoign

text: lay fee

text: dower

text: Henry III of England

text: Alfred the Great

text: wer

text: wite

text: wite

text: strict liability

text: tort

text: Cnut the Great

text: Henry I of England

text: wer

text: Henry I of England

text: mens rea

text: animus furendi

text: Edward I of England

text: Cnut the Great

text: Fourth Lateran Council

text: subpoena ad testificandum

text: John of England

text: Magna Carta

text: Pope Innocent III

text: Henry III of England

text: Pope Honorius III

text: Ranulf de Glanvill

text: vi et armis

text: Statute of Marlborough

text: Year Books

text: Magna Carta

text: Coke

text: Littleton

text: due process

text: Queen Elizabeth

text: Parliament

text: stare decisis

text: Year Books

text: Sir Thomas Smith

text: English Reformation

text: Battle of Evesham

text: Cnut the Great

text: Edward I of England

text: Edward the Confessor

text: Elizabeth I of England

text: Exeter Cathedral

text: Henry I of England

text: Henry II of England

text: Henry III of England

text: Isidore of Seville

text: Isidorus Hispalensis

text: John of England

text: Mad Parliament

text: Provisions of Oxford

text: Quia Emptores

text: Richard I of England

text: St. Paul's Cathedral

text: Second Barons' War

text: Statute of Marlborough

text: Trover

text: Selden Society

text: Cambridge University Press

text: Cambridge University Press

text: Bracton Online

categories: English legal writers,Lawyers from Devon,Archdeacons of Barnstaple,English male non-fiction writers,13th-century English writers,Year of birth unknown,1268 deaths,13th-century Latin writers,People from North Devon (district)

paragraph: Henry de Bracton

paragraph: Henry of Bracton, also Henry de Bracton, also Henricus Bracton, or Henry Bratton also Henry Bretton (c. 1210 – c. 1268) was an English cleric and jurist.

paragraph: He is famous now for his writings on law, particularly De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae ("On the Laws and Customs of England") and his ideas on "mens rea" (criminal intent). According to Bracton, it was only through the examination of a combination of action and intention that the commission of a criminal act could be established.

paragraph: He also wrote on kingship, arguing that a ruler should be called king only if he obtained and exercised power in a lawful manner.

paragraph: In his writings, Bracton manages coherently to set out the law of the royal courts through his use of categories drawn from Roman law, thus incorporating into English law several developments of medieval Roman law.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Plucknett describes Bracton in this way: "Two generations after Ranulf de Glanvill we come to the flower and crown of English jurisprudence – Bracton." Bracton was born around 1210 in Devon and had a great deal of preferment in the Church. He either derived from Bratton Fleming or Bratton Clovelly. Both villages are in Devon. It was only after his death that the family name appears as "Bracton"; during his life, he was known as Bratton, or Bretton. This originally may have been Bradton, meaning "Broad Town". Bracton first appeared as a justice in 1245. From 1248 until his death in 1268 he was steadily employed as a justice of the assize in the southwestern counties, especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. He was a member of the coram rege, also called the coram ipso rege, later to become the King's Court. He retired from this in 1257, shortly before the meeting of the Mad Parliament in 1258 at Oxford. It is unknown whether his retirement was related to politics. His leaving coincided with the onset of the notorious Second Barons' War in 1264. At that time Bracton was ordered to restore to the Treasury the large store of plea rolls (case records from previous trials) that had been in his possession. He was also forced to surrender the large number of rolls from his predecessors Martin Pateshull and William Raleigh, also known as William de Raley. It cannot be determined whether he disgraced the King or the barons in this affair, but it is speculated that some kind of political intrigue was involved. The practical result was that his major work, "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae" ("The Laws and Customs of England"), was left unfinished. Even so, it exists in four large volumes today. He continued to follow the assizes in the southwest until 1267. In the last year of his life he filled another prominent role, as member of a commission of prelates, magnates and justices appointed to hear the complaints of the "disinherited" – those who had sided with Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester.

paragraph: Bracton apparently had access to the highest stations of Church and State. He was an ecclesiastic. In 1259 he became the rector of the Devonshire parish of Combe-in-Teignhead and in 1261, the rector of Bideford. In 1264 he was made the archdeacon of Barnstaple and in the same year, chancellor of Exeter Cathedral. In 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He was buried in the nave of Exeter Cathedral, in front of an altar bearing his name. He had established a chantry (a continuous set of prayers in perpetuity) for his soul that was endowed from the revenues of the Manor of Thorverton.

paragraph: Bracton chose the words of Ulpian (Pandects 1.1.1) to describe the legal profession: "Ius dicitur ars boni et aequi, cuius merito quis nos sacerdotes appellat: iusticiam namque colimus et sacra iura ministramus." (Law is called the good and just art, whose priests we are deservedly called: for we worship Justice and minister the sacred laws.) Ulpian was an influential Roman jurist in the second century, whose writings were revered in medieval Europe. Bracton felt himself to be, metaphorically, a priest of the law, "a priest forever in the order of Ulpian," a playful allusion to the Melchizedek priesthood.

paragraph: Section::::Influences on Bracton – Pateshull and Raleigh.

paragraph: Two legal predecessors directly influenced Bracton. The first was Martin de Pateshull, one of John of England's clerks, who became justice of the bench in 1217, and in 1224 was one of the itinerant justices whom Falkes de Breauté attacked. Bracton esteemed Pateshull highly, and remarked, "In any list of regular justices, Pateshull's name so constantly precedes all others that he must have enjoyed some pre-eminence, though perhaps not of a definitive kind." Pateshull was archdeacon of Norwich Cathedral and dean of St. Paul's Cathedral. His capacity for hard work was such that a brother justice asked Hubert de Burgh to excuse him from going on circuit with Pateshull on the ground that he wore out his colleagues by his incessant activity. Of his abilities as a lawyer, Bracton's appreciative citations speak eloquently. He appears to have gained his reputation as a lawyer, pure and simple. He died in 1229.

paragraph: The second great influence on Bracton's thinking was William Raleigh, also known as William de Raley, a native of Devon. He was a resident in and around Bratton Fleming in 1212, when Bracton was born there. Raleigh was a justice of the bench in 1228. In 1234 he pronounced reversal judgment of Hubert de Burgh, 1st Earl of Kent's outlawry. Though he was not a justicier, he was regarded as the chief among judges. In 1237 he was appointed treasurer of Exeter Cathedral. He was elected to the See of Winchester in 1238 and passed from legal history. His election to this position was violently opposed by the King who favoured William of Valence. In 1239 Raleigh was elected to the See of Norwich. In 1244 he was elected to the See of Winchester for a second time. He died in 1250. He had much to do with the passage of the Statute of Merton. Raleigh defended the refusal of the barons to change the law of bastardy and legitimation. He invented the writ Quare ejecit infra terminum and was influential in the writing of several other novel writs. It is from Bracton that we get the majority of the history of the law at this time. Bracton is thought to have had a notebook with 2000 cases from Pateshull and Raleigh.

paragraph: Raleigh granted lands to Bracton in Flemmings of Bratton who held it through his wife's family. Her name was Beaupre. Raleigh was Pateshull's clerk. Later, Bracton became Raleigh's clerk.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton: cosmopolitan outlook.

paragraph: Bracton imbued the courts of his day with a broad, Continental or cosmopolitan outlook. The incorporation of Roman Law began with Ranulf de Glanvill 140 years before. This is demonstrated in "Leges Henrici Primi" (Laws of Henry I). There is some controversy about the true nature of Bracton's Romanism. Henry Maine regarded Bracton as a complete fraud, who tried to pass off sheer Romanism as legitimate English law. For this, in his view, Bracton should be completely dismissed as a figure of substance in the formation of English law. Frederic William Maitland held the opposite view, positing that Bracton had no real knowledge of Roman law, and the portion which he did proclaim was incomplete and shallow. These were of the opinion that most, if not all the Romanism of Bracton was derived directly from Azo of Bologna, written before 1211. It has proven to be difficult to pinpoint the exact nature of Romanism in Bracton.

paragraph: When England was conquered by the Normans in 1066, it came under the influence of the most progressive and best governed system in Europe. It also brought a connection with the entire intellectual life of the Continent that had been absent in the Anglo-Saxon days. Foreigners came to England to study. English youth attended European universities. The only English Pope in history, Pope Adrian IV was elected in 1154. This can be attributed to Norman influence. On the Continent in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there was a renaissance in all learning, especially in legal concepts and writing. In Europe, Irnerius, the Four Doctors and Accursius revived the study of civil law. These established the school of the Glossators (writers of a "gloss" or short description of the case). Gratian systematised canon law. The Lombard "Libri Feudorum" and the French Beaumanoir reduced to some sort of order the customary feudal law of Europe. Ranulf de Glanvill and Bracton did this same thing for England, following the spirit of the Continent.

paragraph: Bracton was influenced by an early 12th-century lawbook entitled "Leges Edwardi Confessoris". It is a collection that purportedly recorded the laws and customs current in the time of Edward the Confessor at the behest of his successor William the Conqueror.

paragraph: William reorganised the land structure in a piecemeal fashion, following the reduction of resistance in various parts of England. His major lords were granted new titles of the land. But the Anglo-Saxon legal structure was left largely intact, including the traditional sheriff (shire reeve) and courts of shire and hundred. Maitland is of the opinion that the law of William I and his successors was biased in favour of all things West Saxon (Wessex) and the Church, while eschewing and denigrating all things Danelaw. Bracton freely intermixes the Middle English terms such as sac (sake), soc (soke), toll and term, infangthef, utfangthef, thane, dreng, sokeman, hide, geld, hundred, wapentake, bote, wite and wer with Norman French terms such as baron, count, viscount, vavasor, villein, relief, homage, manor.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: His written work, "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae" ("The Laws and Customs of England"), was composed primarily before c. 1235. Most of the text was likely written by William of Raleigh and was then passed along to Bracton, who was his clerk. Bracton's contribution was largely to update the text to include, for example, changes made in the provisions of Merton in 1236. However, the true nature of Bracton's work is not clear. Pollock, Maitland, and Plucknett credit the work more to Bracton and less to the influence of Raleigh. These scholars date the work to a later time, closer to 1260. The work was never completed. According to these authors, the Second Barons' War ended the writing. Bracton had access to (or actual possession of) many rolls of recorded law cases from the King's court. These were called plea rolls and were usually not publicly available. It is probable he was forced to surrender these before his book was finished. Even in its unfinished state, it is the most thorough English medieval law book. He also likely had access to the cases of Martin Pateshull and William Raleigh, his mentors in the law. A notebook containing 2000 cases from Pateshull and Raleigh has been deemed to be Bracton's. This book contains notes written in the margin that are in Bracton's handwriting. He incorporated the information from these cases in his book. Bracton also studied noted Italian lawyer Azo of Bologna. He was familiar with Corpus Iuris Civilis (Body of [Latin] Civil Law), the Decretum and the Decretals, as well as the works of the canonist Tancred of Bologna. He became familiar with, and an advocate of the Latin concept of Universal Law or Natural Moral Law, based on his reading of these sources. Bracton would have been familiar with the description of natural moral law applied in the Decretals: "The natural law dates from the creation of the rational creature. It does not vary with time, but remains unchangeable." He also was familiar with Isidore of Seville or Isidorus Hispalensis (c. 570–636) who wrote of law: "In determining the nature of law, there must be three conditions: the fostering of religion, in as much as it is proportionate to the Divine law; that it is helpful to discipline, in as much as it is proportionate to the natural law; and that is further the common weal, in as much as it is proportionate to the utility of mankind." Bracton used these works as a basis for his legal philosophy. Certain Latin terms, such as "corpus et animus" (body and soul) being necessary for possession under the law, are seen in Bracton that would appear to be ecclesiastical in origin.

paragraph: Based on Bracton's notes and writing, Pollock and Maitland believe that he was neither a courtly flatterer nor a champion of despotic monarchy. At other times, he may be accused of distorting: "sed et quod principi placuit."

paragraph: Bracton's work became the basis for legal literature of Edward I of England. Gilbert Thornton, the chief justice of the king's bench made an epitome of it. This has been lost.

paragraph: The earliest mention of Roman Law in the Common Law of England is found in 1237–1238, in which a question of whether a palatinate can be partitioned among co-heirs. The justices could find no precedent for such a thing in English law, nor in the Magna Carta, nor in Roman Law (in iure scripto), therefore, they adjoined (delayed) their decision. In Bracton's time, it had been determined that the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was deemed to be a subject of the King of England while in England: Ricardus Rex Alemanniae (Rex Romanorum semper augustus) was impleaded for novel disseisin.

paragraph: Bracton studied the form of the original writs. He procured, for his own use, complete transcripts of the pleadings in selected cases. These were used to write his treatise on the law. He was also the first to offer commentary on the cases he wrote about. In this way Bracton was modern; he criticised and praised various decisions. He called those who were a generation before him, his "masters". The cases he wrote about were at least twenty years older than his book. His writing is not like a modern legal treatise comparing case results. There is no concept of case law as one would find in a modern text book. He selected cases and wrote a general description of what the law should be in a given set of circumstances. There was no real stare decisis. He gave descriptions of what the decision should be in hypothetical fact situations, without mention of actual cases. He also included many sample writs for various situations. Bracton chose cases based on his admiration for the judges involved, and wanted to make exemplars of their logic. The inclusion of case law was important, because it was the first time this had occurred in English legal writing. Lawyers for two centuries (thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) were introduced to the concept of case law and legal logic by Bracton's book. A new and modern course was set.

paragraph: Later manuals, based on Bracton's example contained actual case law, with the captions removed. The ability to read actual cases and decisions, as well as the logic behind them was revolutionary in Bracton's time. The rolls from the court records would not have been available for inspection to anyone. His treatise changed this, forever. The ability to read cases, even if they were more than twenty years old, proved popular, leading directly to publication of the Year Books The first Year Book (compilations of court cases for the year) extant was published the year that Bracton died, 1268.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Common law and ecclesiastic courts.

paragraph: During Bracton's time the common law was separate from the canon law of the Church. The former had come to mean all that was not exceptional or special. It was distinguished from Church law, as well as peculiar local customs and royal decrees, and represented the general law of the land. There were some legislative acts, such as the Statute of Merton (1236) and the Statute of Marlborough (1267), however the mass of new law introduced during the reign of Henry III of England, was by novel creative writs and new forms of action invented in the Court of Chancery and sanctioned by the common law courts. Bracton knew many writs that were unknown to Ranulf de Glanvill. It was generally perceived that there had to be a limitation on the number of new writs coming out of chancery, or the king would become an uncontrollable law-maker. Chancery was under the control of the Church and ecclesiastic lawyers.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Writs for calling religious clergy to royal courts.

paragraph: Since the time of the Norman Conquest, the relation between church and state was always tendentious. There were two parallel legal systems, one under the aegis of the church, the other under the crown, that continuously vied for jurisdiction and power. Bracton gave samples of writs that could be used in the case of a recalcitrant Bishop who refused to produce a witness for the common law or king's court. These indicate difficulties in defining jurisdiction, as well as recalcitrance on the part of Church officials to partake in civil and common law matters outside the Church court structure.

paragraph: Example 1: "Henry by the grace of God, etc. to the venerable Father in Christ "B", by the same grace bishop of London, greeting. We order you to cause to come before our justices etc. at such a day, such an archdeacon, to answer [the questions proposed in] "C", with respect to such a plea [as stated above], etc. And then let this clause be added: "as to whom our sheriff of Middlesex has sent word to our aforementioned justices that the aforementioned archdeacon (or such other clerk) has refused to find pledges and has no lay fee by which he can be destrained. And have this writ [brought with you]. Witnesses signed, etc. If the bishop does nothing with regard to the king's order, let the enrolment then be as follows: 'A' offered himself on the fourth day against 'B' with respect to such a plea, and 'B' did not come, and at another time the sheriff was ordered to attach him, and the sheriff sent word that he was a clerk, etc., whereupon such a bishop was ordered to cause him to come and to send the writ, who did nothing therein. Therefore let the bishop be summoned to appear on such a day and to have there the aforementioned 'B' to answer the aforementioned 'A' as to why etc. as described in the original writ, and offer an explanation why he ignored the original order to appear."

paragraph: Example 2: "The king to the sheriff, greeting. Summon 'F' bishop of London by good summoners to be before the aforesaid justices on such a day, etc. And show why he did not cause him to come forward [in accord with the order in the previous writ]."

paragraph: Example 3: "The king to the sheriff, greeting, We order you to distrain 'F', bishop of London, by the lands that he holds in barony in your county, to appear before the justices, etc., on such a day and to have there such a clerk to answer to such a one with respect to such a plea etc. and also to have such a clerk to answer to such a one with respect to such a plea, etc., and also to hear his judgment because he did not have the aforesaid clerk on such a day as he was ordered. And have, etc. If neither the bishop nor the clerk come forward on that day, let action be taken against the bishop for contempt, by counsel of the court, and lest the misdeeds remain unpunished, let the king, on the bishop's default, apply his hand, by virtue of his jurisdiction, that the clerk be arrested and held until the bishop claims him, that he either be delivered to him or remain arrested, nor will the sheriff or his bailiffs incur any penalty on that account since execution of the law involves no wrong. For even a bishop and those higher still may be arrested for injuries and crimes. A bishop could expel with impunity a thief who had fled to a church and not be guilty of irregularity, if the thief refused to come out and stand to the judgment of the king and the kingdom. For the sword ought to aid the sword, and thus there are two swords, the spiritual and the temporal."

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Bracton on the King of England.

paragraph: Bracton on the King of England: “The king has a superior, namely, God. Also the law by which he was made king. Also his curia, namely, the earls and barons, because if he is without a bridle, that is without law, they ought to put the bridle on him.”

paragraph: "The king has no equal within his realm. Subjects cannot be the equals of the ruler, because he would thereby lose his rule, since equal can have no authority over equal, not "a fortiori" a superior, because he would then be subject to those subjected to him. The king must not be under man but under God and under the law, because the law makes the king . . . for there is no "rex" where will rules rather than "lex"."

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Papal supremacy asserted.

paragraph: Pope Innocent III represented the absolute zenith of papal power in the Middle Ages. Among the many reforms he established was the banning of any ecclesiastic to have income from more than one church or parish. Bracton had received a dispensation to receive the proceeds from three. This indicates his special position within the Church political structure. Innocent III exercised more power than any of his predecessors, or his successors. He famously placed England under interdict during the reign of John of England. During and after the Fourth Lateran Council, Innocent III proclaimed that all tithes to the Church should take precedence over any taxes imposed by a state. This was controversial. He also excluded all lay interference (including matters of civil and criminal law). He affirmed the right of Rome to review any and all important legal cases. This made appeal to the Pope more attractive and easier to obtain than in previous generations. He gave the Chancery an improved and more efficient organisation. All this occurred in the generation before Bracton, and still was rancorous in his time.

paragraph: It has been argued and unsettled whether any English Churchman in the 13th century would have disputed that the Pope was the head of the Universal Church. It was admitted that the canon law of the great councils was binding upon all members of the Church. Bracton, being both a lawyer and a cleric wrote of the Pope "in spiritualibus super omnibus habet ordinariam jurisdictionem" (In spiritual things he has an ordinary jurisdiction over all men in his realm.) Not only was the Pope a law giver, but he was also a judge, and in his Curia, could enforce his decrees. Papal legislation was defined and circumscribed by "ius divinium et naturale" – law divine and natural.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Dying intestate.

paragraph: The issue of dying intestate (without a will) attracted the attention of Bracton. The Church had long asserted the role of interpreting wills. If a person died without making a last will and testament, it was tantamount to dying without making a last confession. Bracton wrote: "nullam enim meretur poenam quis, quamvis decedat intestatus." There was a notion that dying without a will, while not exactly a sin, was often God's judgment on sin. To die intestate was to die unconfessed. The law of "personal property" became divorced from the law of "real property" by this, and remains so to this day.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Contract and the writ of prohibition.

paragraph: The development of contract law began in the Church courts, following Roman law. These courts claimed (with some validity) to enforce all promises made by oath, or by "pledge of faith". The man who pledges his faith, or on his soul, arguably has pawned his soul, and in so doing, has left his salvation to actions of another. Henry II of England asserted his jurisdiction over such cases. Thomas Becket claimed concurrent jurisdiction for the Church. Henry won. From that time onward, the royal court was always at the ready to prohibit ecclesiastical judges from entertaining a breach of faith, unless both parties were clerks (church clerics) or the matter lay outside the realm of the temporal. The method was to issue a writ of prohibition, prohibiting the church court from hearing and ruling on the case. The practice developed whereby a contractor would seek relief in a church court and renounce all right to a writ of prohibition. Sometimes the litigant would not receive the decision he wanted in the ecclesiastic court, and then would renounce his pledge, and seek a writ of prohibition from the common law court. Bracton explained that it was a terrible sin to seek a writ of prohibition when one had promised not to seek one. This was a crime that deserved imprisonment. Jurisdiction over such matters, as well as marriages and wills remained contentious in Bracton's day.

paragraph: Section::::Bracton on church and state.:Frankalmoign and the writ of prohibition.

paragraph: In Bracton's time, the question frequently arose about land held in frankalmoign (land donated to the Church). Writs were common prohibiting Church courts from meddling into the title of land, even if it were to be held in frankalmoign. The question was that of lay fee, which was the equivalent of secular lands, even though it may have been held in free, pure and perpetual alms. Bracton posited that land which is sacred (housing Churches and the like) was within the jurisdiction of the Church. To this could be added lands donated in the form of a dower. A glance of the plea rolls demonstrates them to be covered with writs of prohibitions directed at ecclesiastical judges in a continuous battle over jurisdiction of Church lands.

paragraph: Despite these problems, Pollock and Maitland comment that by the end of the reign of Henry III of England, the royal and church courts functioned in relative harmony, despite certain disputes over jurisdiction.

paragraph: Section::::Modern liability traced through Bracton.

paragraph: Modern liability can be traced from ancient Anglo-Saxon law through the time of Bracton. From Alfred the Great: "A man acts at his own peril. If a man have a spear over his shoulder, and any man stakes himself upon it, that man will pay the wer but not the wite... if he be accused of wilfulness in the deed, let him clear himself according to the wite, and with that, let the wite abate. And let this be: if the point be three fingers higher than the hindmost part of the shaft; if they both be on the level, the point of the hindmost part of the shaft, be that without danger. If a man leaves his arms about, and another knocks them over so that they kill or injure a man, the owner is liable. If a man lend his horse to another and the borrower is injured, the lender is liable." This is similar to the modern concept of strict liability in tort. Liability, at that time, was not dependent upon negligence, but the act.

paragraph: A Borough Customs proclaimed that a defendant must swear an oath that he had done nothing to a slain person that had put him "nearer to death than from life."

paragraph: Ancient law could not discuss the question of intent because it had no mechanism to do so. Offences that were not criminal could be made the ground for appeal of homicide, if they could be put forward as conducing, however indirectly, to death. This idea persisted to the time of Bracton. An oath was required of a man accused of a homicide.

paragraph: Judge Brian wrote in 1466 (200 years after Bracton): "In my opinion, if a man does a thing he is bound in such a manner that by his deed no injury or damage is inflicted on others. As in the case where I erect a building, and when the timber is being lifted a piece of it falls upon the house of my neighbor and bruises his house, he will have a good action, and that, although the erection of my house was lawful and the timber fell without my intent. Similarly, if a man commits an assault upon me and I cannot avoid him if he wants to beat me, and I lift my stick in self-defense in order to prevent him, and there is a man behind me, although my lifting my stick was lawful to defend myself and I injured him without intent [he would have a cause of action against me]."

paragraph: In the laws of Cnut the Great it was said that concerning stolen property, an infant was as guilty as if he had discretion. Under Henry I of England, "The man whose conduct has only remotely caused death or injury is liable, it is true, but 'in hiis et similibus, ubi homo aliud intendit et aliud evenit, ubi opus accusatur non-voluntas, venialem pocius emendacionem, et honrificenciam judices statuant, sicut acciderit'" The man who has killed by misadventure or in self-defense is liable to pay the wer but his wrong is emenable.

paragraph: Under Henry I of England "who sins unwittingly shall knowingly make amends" though the lunatic and infant were not liable in criminal acts, which was a change from Anglo-Saxon law. Bracton wrote of homicide, "the crime of homicide, be it either accidental or voluntary, does not permit of suffering the same penalty, because on one case the full penalty must be exacted and in the other there should have been mercy." It is the first signs of discrimination in the law leading to the development of the concept of mens rea (a guilty mind being necessary to be guilty of a crime). Bracton stressed the animus furendi in theft, that is the intention to steal. Felony is according to intent, a concept that has its foundations in Bracton.

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.:Sanctuary and abjuration.

paragraph: If a criminal could make it to a church, he was given sanctuary. This was a recognition that the Church was a separate jurisdiction. Some law allowed for the criminal to be housed and fed by the clergy for seven days. Bracton recommends 40 days. After this, the reeve would knock on the door of the church and demand that the criminal surrender himself or take the shortest road to a seaport and leave England never to return. If he did not leave the church, he was to be starved. If the criminal stayed on the road to the seaport, he was to be left unharmed. If he went off the road, he could be killed by the population at large. Condemned criminals and those found with stolen goods were not to be given sanctuary. The wife of such was declared a widow and all lands owned by him were escheated to the Crown.

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.:Bracton on the writ of appeal.

paragraph: "In every criminal case, which embraces a felony, [the writ] must mention on the appeal the year, the place, the day and the hour in which the case is heard. [The defendant] must speak of his own accord, and sight and hearing, and must be consistent in what he says and in all circumstantial details. [It should be written like this]: 'A' appeals 'B', by such words for the death of his brother and should he fail, by such a one, and so on, so that there are several appealing him to one and the same deed."

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.:Equity.

paragraph: Bracton wrote of equity (circa 1258) that it required in equal causes an even-handed justice and a true equality in all things. This appears to have been taken directly from Azo's "Gloss of Roman Law".

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.:Executor of an estate.

paragraph: The executor of an estate could only sue in ecclesiastical courts. At law it was the heir who had to be sued. This was changed in the time of Edward I of England, allowing that he sue in the common law courts.

paragraph: Section::::Other examples from Bracton's book.:Murder fines.

paragraph: The reason for devising the murder-fine was this: in the days of Cnut the Great, King of the Danes, when at the prayer of the English barons he sent his army back to Denmark after he had conquered and pacified England, the barons of England offered themselves as sureties to the said King Cnut that, whatever the force the king kept with him in England they would have form peace in all things so that, if anyone of the English should slay any of the men whom the king kept with him and that man could not make his defence against the charge by the judgment of God, that is by water and iron, justice would be done upon him. If he fled away and could not be arrested they would pay on his behalf sixty-six marks, to be collected in the village where he was slain, because the inhabitants did not produce the slayer. And if the marks could not be collected because of poverty, they would be collected in the hundred for deposit in the king's treasury.

paragraph: This represents a curious anachronism, since trial by ordeal ("water and iron") had been outlawed in England by the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. (See subpoena ad testificandum for details.)

paragraph: Section::::Influence.

paragraph: The reign of King John of England (1199–1216) was a time of great turmoil that produced, among other things, the Magna Carta and the Papal interdict of Pope Innocent III against John. Henry III of England (1216–1272) was a child of nine years when he ascended the throne. A few great nobles, encouraged by Pope Honorius III (1216–1227) spared the nation the turmoil that would have been expected when a child becomes king. Henry de Bracton arose as one of the greatest judges of all time during the middle part of the reign of Henry III. His case books would soon dwarf even the great work of Ranulf de Glanvill in both quantity and quality.

paragraph: The Barons' War against Henry III began in 1258 with similar grievances as the previous revolt against King John in 1215. The Barons aimed to reduce the King's power, but they failed as they also had in 1215. An indirect result of this war was that Bracton failed to complete his great legal treatise. The forms of action in trespass "vi et armis", among other forms of action in trespass and seisin were developed at this time. The phrase of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester was, "Wars are the result of extra-judicial distress." This is an important observation to understand the time of Bracton. The use of war was another tool, beside the rule of law, for the powerful to attain their ends. The barons' grievances resulted in the Statute of Marlborough in 1267.

paragraph: Plucknett writes "It was the mediaevalists in England, armed with Bracton and the Year Books who ended Stuart statecraft. The Constitution of the United States was written by men who had Magna Carta and Bracton, and Coke and Littleton before their eyes. Could anything be more medieval than the idea of due process or the insertion in an instrument of government a contract clause? 'Pacta sunt servanda' (Pacts should be kept) became a motto of Edward I. The result can be traced directly to the work and writings of Bracton.

paragraph: It was Machiavelli who gave us the modern word "state" and fleshed it out to our present conception of it. In Bracton's time a state was defined by a king, based on the rule of law, which ultimately must end in and lead to the will of God. This is different today. The right is based on the will of the state.

paragraph: Bracton was popular in his day. Several contemporaneous copies of his book are still in existence. However, several scholars, including Plucknett and Holdsworth believe that few actually followed Bracton's doctrine as defined by his writings. The growth of procedure overwhelmed the general (and genial) view and wide learning of Bracton. For a time, he fell completely out of favour. The printing press restored Bracton to prominence in English legal literature. The edition published in 1569 was described by Plucknett as "...perhaps the best printed law book we have ever had." Bracton's work appeared at an important time during the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

paragraph: Bracton's liberal interpretation of the law (as expressed in portions of his book) were slow in taking root in English law. The decline of Bracton's influence in the middle of the fourteenth century coincides with Parliament's first assertions of its powers. Already, it had come to be the principal and only legislative body, and the dominant interest in it was that of the common law lawyers. This had become a narrow profession. The Crown adopted the practice of appointing judges from the leading practitioners of the bar. These also controlled legal education. There was no liberal outlook on the law. To these, Bracton's treatise must have seemed impractical and academic. Justice became more centralised.

paragraph: Prior to Bracton, there was little use of stare decisis. This was because the rolls containing the court records were largely unavailable for scrutiny, even by judges sitting on the bench. Bracton's use of the rolls led to promulgation of recorded cases in the form of a gloss. This had been an important innovation based on the glossator's practice from the Continent. The availability of previous decisions, even if 20 or more years old proved to be of great interest to nearly all practitioners of the law. This led directly to the Year Books. A single unique decision did not make precedent. Custom began to be dictated when several cases of similar fact pattern were decided by different courts in the same way. This was the beginning of "stare decisis".

paragraph: Sir Thomas Smith, the Secretary of State for Queen Elizabeth wrote "De Republica Anglorum" in 1583. In it he set forth the truly fearful powers of the Crown and Parliament, which can make and unmake law, change rights and possessions of private men, legitimate bastards, establish religions, condemn or absolve (by attainders) whomever the Prince wills. Smith was no advocate of tyranny, but he clearly enjoyed enumerating an imposing list of powers of the Tudor state. In Bracton, on the other hand, the emphasis was not upon the power of the Crown, but in responsibility. The monarch was subject to God, to the law of the land, and to his feudal court. In Bracton, the king owed some responsibility to listen to his lords. (Recall that Bracton had observed and experienced the turmoil from the Barons' War, and lived in the backwash of the problems of John.) Bracton's writings became a "de facto" antidote to the absolutism of the Tudors and the Stuarts. Bracton brought an air of clarity, from his study of Roman order, to the confusion that followed the English Reformation. The anonymous re-publisher of Bracton recommends him as worthy of emulation, since the other books of the day were "indigesta confusio". The law under Elizabeth was medieval. The trend of the day was toward Romanism. Bracton was popular in the time of Elizabeth because he was available through the printing press. In later times, he was read because he was Roman. He was popular because he was medieval.

paragraph: Bracton was commonly read by lawyers in Great Britain's American colonies in the 18th century, and was occasionally cited in pre-revolutionary colonial argumentation against the mother country.

paragraph: Section::::Sayings.

paragraph: Translation: "Not under man but under God and the law."

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle of Evesham

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cnut the Great

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward I of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward the Confessor

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elizabeth I of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Exeter Cathedral

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry I of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry II of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry III of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isidore of Seville

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isidorus Hispalensis

paragraph: BULLET::::- John of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mad Parliament

paragraph: BULLET::::- Provisions of Oxford

paragraph: BULLET::::- Quia Emptores

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard I of England

paragraph: BULLET::::- St. Paul's Cathedral

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second Barons' War

paragraph: BULLET::::- Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester

paragraph: BULLET::::- Statute of Marlborough

paragraph: BULLET::::- Trover

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bracton, Henry de. "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae", 4 vols., ed. G. E. Woodbine, transl. S. E. Thorne. Publications of the Selden Society, London, 1968–77.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bracton, Henry de. "Bracton's Note Book", 3 vols., ed. and trans. F.W Maitland. Cambridge University Press, 1887. (Reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. )

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bracton Online, Harvard Law School Library

alias:
Henry of Bracton
Henry of Bratton

description: English jurist

enwikiquote_title: Henry de Bracton

wikidata_label: Henry de Bracton

wikipedia_title: Henry de Bracton


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categories: American anti–Vietnam War activists,Annie Award winners,20th-century American actresses,20th-century African-American activists,African-American jazz musicians,20th-century American singers,American stage actresses,Jazz musicians from New York (state),1927 births,People from Weston, Connecticut,Deaths from cancer in Connecticut,People from New Milford, Connecticut,American television actresses,Jazz musicians from Connecticut,People from North, South Carolina,Vocal jazz musicians,American film actresses,21st-century American singers,21st-century American actresses,21st-century American women singers,Deaths from colorectal cancer,African-American actresses,African-American singers,Cabaret singers,African-American female singers,20th-century American women singers,Actresses from South Carolina,20th-century African-American people,American voice actresses,2008 deaths,People from Pound Ridge, New York,RCA Victor artists,American musical theatre actresses,21st-century African-American activists,American jazz singers,American people of Cherokee descent,French-language singers of the United States,Activists from New York (state),LGBT rights activists from the United States,American female singers,People from Harlem,Singers from South Carolina

paragraph: Eartha Kitt

paragraph: Eartha Kitt (born Eartha Mae Keith, January 17, 1927 – December 25, 2008) was an American singer, actress, dancer, comedian, activist, author, and songwriter known for her highly distinctive singing style and her 1953 recordings of "C'est si bon" and the enduring Christmas novelty smash "Santa Baby", which were both US Top 10 hits. Orson Welles once called her the "most exciting woman in the world".

paragraph: Kitt began her career in 1942 and appeared in the 1945 original Broadway theatre production of the musical "Carib Song". In the early 1950s, she had six US Top 30 hits, including "Uska Dara" and "I Want to be Evil". Her other notable recordings include the UK Top 10 hit "Under the Bridges of Paris" (1954), "Just an Old Fashioned Girl" (1956) and "Where Is My Man" (1983). She starred in 1967 as Catwoman, in the third and final season of the television series "Batman".

paragraph: In 1968, her career in America suffered after she made anti-war statements at a White House luncheon. Ten years later, she made a successful return to Broadway in the 1978 original production of the musical "Timbuktu!", for which she received the first of her two Tony Award nominations. Her second was for the 2000 original production of the musical "The Wild Party". Kitt wrote three autobiographies – "Thursday's Child" (1956), "Alone with Me" (1976), and "I'm Still Here: Confessions of a Sex Kitten" (1989). She also played Lady Eloise in the 1992 film "Boomerang", starring Eddie Murphy.

paragraph: Kitt found a new generation of fans through her roles in the Disney films "The Emperor's New Groove" (2000), in which she voiced the villainous Yzma, and "Holes" (2003). She reprised the role as Yzma in the direct-to-video sequel "Kronk's New Groove" (2005), as well as the animated series "The Emperor's New School" (2006–2008). Her work on the latter earned her two Daytime Emmy Awards. She posthumously won a third Emmy in 2010 for her guest performance on "Wonder Pets!".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Eartha Mae Keith was born on a cotton plantation near the small town of North, South Carolina, or St. Matthews on January 17, 1927. Her mother Annie Mae Keith was of Cherokee and African descent. Though she had little knowledge of her father, it was reported that he was a son of the owner of the farm where she had been born, and that Kitt was conceived by rape. In a 2013 biography, British journalist John Williams claimed that Kitt's father was a white man, a local doctor named Daniel Sturkie. Kitt's daughter, Kitt Shapiro, has questioned the accuracy of the claim. Eartha's mother, Annie Mae Keith, (later Annie Mae Riley) soon went to live with a black man who refused to accept Eartha because of her relatively pale complexion; she was raised by a relative named Aunt Rosa, in whose household she was abused. After the death of Annie Mae, Eartha was sent to live with another relative named Mamie Kitt (who may in fact have been her biological mother) in Harlem, New York City, where she attended the Metropolitan Vocational High School (later renamed the High School of Performing Arts).

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Kitt began her career as a member of the Katherine Dunham Company in 1943 and remained a member of the troupe until 1948. A talented singer with a distinctive voice, she recorded the hits "Let's Do It", "Champagne Taste", "C'est si bon" (which Stan Freberg famously burlesqued), "Just an Old Fashioned Girl", "Monotonous", "Je cherche un homme", "Love for Sale", "I'd Rather Be Burned as a Witch", "Kâtibim" (a Turkish melody), "Mink, Schmink", "Under the Bridges of Paris" and her most recognizable hit "Santa Baby", which was released in 1953. Kitt's unique style was enhanced as she became fluent in French during her years performing in Europe. She spoke four languages (she is thought to have learned German and Dutch from her stepfather, English from her mother, and French from the European cabaret circuit) and sang in eleven, which she demonstrated in many of the live recordings of her cabaret performances.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Career peaks.

paragraph: In 1950, Orson Welles gave Kitt her first starring role as Helen of Troy in his staging of "Dr. Faustus". Two years later, she was cast in the revue "New Faces of 1952", introducing "Monotonous" and "Bal, Petit Bal", two songs with which she is still identified. In 1954, 20th Century Fox distributed an independently-filmed version of the revue entitled "New Faces", in which she performed "Monotonous", "Uska Dara", "C'est si bon", and "Santa Baby". Though it is often alleged that Welles and Kitt had an affair during her 1957 run in "Shinbone Alley", Kitt categorically denied this in a June 2001 interview with George Wayne of "Vanity Fair". "I never had sex with Orson Welles," Kitt told "Vanity Fair": "It was a working situation and nothing else." Her other films in the 1950s included "The Mark of the Hawk" (1957), "St. Louis Blues" (1958) and "Anna Lucasta" (1958). Kitt had a minor hit in Sweden 1956 with her record in Swedish, "Rosenkyssar" ("Rose Kisses", RCA FAS 511).

paragraph: Throughout the rest of the 1950s and early 1960s, she recorded; worked in film, television, and nightclubs; and returned to the Broadway stage, in "Mrs. Patterson" (during the 1954–1955 season), "Shinbone Alley" (in 1957), and the short-lived "Jolly's Progress" (in 1959). In 1964, Kitt helped open the Circle Star Theater in San Carlos, California. In the late 1960s, "Batman" featured Kitt as Catwoman after Julie Newmar had left the show in 1967. In 1967, she appeared in a "" episode, "The Traitor," as a contortionist.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:The "White House Incident".

paragraph: In January 1968, during Lyndon B. Johnson's administration, Kitt encountered a substantial professional setback after she made anti-war statements during a White House luncheon. Kitt was asked by First Lady Lady Bird Johnson about the Vietnam War. She replied: "You send the best of this country off to be shot and maimed. No wonder the kids rebel and take pot."

paragraph: During a question and answer session, Kitt stated:

paragraph: Her remarks caused Mrs. Johnson to burst into tears and led to a derailment in Kitt's career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Blacklisting and CIA defamation.

paragraph: Following the incident, Kitt found herself unemployable, so she devoted her energies to performances in Europe and Asia. It is said that Kitt's career in the United States was ended following her comments about the Vietnam War, after which she was branded "a sadistic nymphomaniac" by the CIA. Her government-led blacklisting was enshrined in a false and defamatory CIA dossier about Kitt discovered by Seymour Hersh in 1975. Hersh published an article about the dossier in "The New York Times". The dossier contained comments about Kitt's sex life and family history, along with negative opinions of her that were held by former colleagues. Kitt's response to the dossier was to say "I don't understand what this is about. I think it's disgusting."

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Broadway.

paragraph: In the 1970s, Kitt appeared on television several times on BBC's long-running variety show "The Good Old Days", and in 1987 took over from fellow American Dolores Gray in the London West End production of Stephen Sondheim's "Follies" and returned at the end of that run to star in a one-woman-show at the same Shaftesbury Theatre, both to tremendous acclaim. In both those shows performing the show-stopping theatrical anthem "I'm Still Here". Kitt returned to New York City in a triumphant turn in the Broadway spectacle "Timbuktu!" (a version of the perennial "Kismet", set in Africa) in 1978. In the musical, one song gives a "recipe" for "mahoun", a preparation of cannabis, in which her sultry purring rendition of the refrain "constantly stirring with a long wooden spoon" was distinctive. She was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance. In the late 1990s, she appeared as the Wicked Witch of the West in the North American national touring company of "The Wizard of Oz". In 2000, Kitt again returned to Broadway in the short-lived run of Michael John LaChiusa's "The Wild Party". Beginning in late 2000, Kitt starred as the Fairy Godmother in the U.S. national tour of "Cinderella". In 2003, she replaced Chita Rivera in "Nine". Kitt reprised her role as the Fairy Godmother at a special engagement of "Cinderella", which took place at Lincoln Center during the holiday season of 2004. From October to early December 2006, Kitt co-starred in the off-Broadway musical "Mimi le Duck".

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Voice-over.

paragraph: In 1978, Kitt did the voice-over in a television commercial for the album "Aja" by the rock group Steely Dan. One of her more unusual roles was as Kaa in a 1994 BBC Radio adaptation of "The Jungle Book". Kitt also lent her distinctive voice to Yzma in "The Emperor's New Groove" (for which she won her first Annie Award) and reprised her role in "Kronk's New Groove" and "The Emperor's New School", for which she won two Emmy Awards and, in 2007–08, two more Annie Awards for Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production. Kitt had voiced Vexus in "My Life as a Teenage Robot".

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Later years.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Later years.:1980s.

paragraph: In 1984, she returned to the music charts with a disco song titled "Where Is My Man", the first certified gold record of her career. "Where Is My Man" reached the Top 40 on the UK Singles Chart, where it peaked at No. 36; the song became a standard in discos and dance clubs of the time and made the Top 10 on the US "Billboard" dance chart, where it reached No. 7. The single was followed by the album "I Love Men" on the Record Shack label. Kitt found new audiences in nightclubs across the UK and the United States, including a whole new generation of gay male fans, and she responded by frequently giving benefit performances in support of HIV/AIDS organizations. Her 1989 follow-up hit "Cha-Cha Heels" (featuring Bronski Beat), which was originally intended to be recorded by Divine, received a positive response from UK dance clubs, reaching No. 32 in the charts in that country. In 1988, Kitt replaced Dolores Gray in the West End production of Stephen Sondheim's "Follies" as Carlotta, receiving standing ovations every night for her rendition of "I'm Still Here" at the end of act 1. She went on to perform her own one-woman show at The Shaftesbury Theatre to sold-out houses for three weeks in early 1989 after "Follies" closed.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Later years.:1990s.

paragraph: Kitt appeared with Jimmy James and George Burns at a fundraiser in 1990 produced by Scott Sherman, agent from the Atlantic Entertainment Group. It was arranged that James would impersonate Kitt and then Kitt would walk out to take the microphone. This was met with a standing ovation. In 1991, Kitt returned to the screen in "Ernest Scared Stupid" as Old Lady Hackmore. In 1992, she had a supporting role as Lady Eloise in "Boomerang". In 1995, Kitt appeared as herself in an episode of "The Nanny", where she performed a song in French and flirted with Maxwell Sheffield (Charles Shaughnessy). In November 1996, she appeared in an episode of "Celebrity Jeopardy!".

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Later years.:2000s.

paragraph: Kitt was the spokesperson for MAC Cosmetics' Smoke Signals collection in August 2007. She re-recorded "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" for the occasion, was showcased on the MAC website, and the song was played at all MAC locations carrying the collection for the month. She also appeared in the 2007 independent film "And Then Came Love" opposite Vanessa Williams. In her later years, Kitt made annual appearances in the New York Manhattan cabaret scene at venues such as the Ballroom and the Café Carlyle. In April 2008, just months before her death, Kitt appeared at the Cheltenham Jazz Festival. The performance was recorded. She was also a guest star in "Once Upon a Time in Springfield" of "The Simpsons", where she was depicted as one of Krusty's past marriages.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: After romances with the cosmetics magnate Charles Revson and banking heir John Barry Ryan III, she married John William McDonald, an associate of a real estate investment company, on June 6, 1960. They had one child, a daughter named Kitt McDonald, born on November 26, 1961. They divorced in 1965. A long-time Connecticut resident, Eartha Kitt lived in a converted barn on a sprawling farm in the Merryall section of New Milford for many years and was active in local charities and causes throughout Litchfield County. She later moved to Pound Ridge, New York, but returned in 2002 to the southern Fairfield County Connecticut town of Weston, in order to be near her daughter Kitt and family. Her daughter, Kitt, married Charles Lawrence Shapiro in 1987 and had a daughter, Rachel Shapiro.

paragraph: Section::::Activism.

paragraph: Kitt was active in numerous social causes in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1966, she established the Kittsville Youth Foundation, a chartered and non-profit organization for underprivileged youths in the Watts area of Los Angeles. She was also involved with a group of youths in the area of Anacostia in Washington, D.C., who called themselves "Rebels with a Cause". Kitt supported the groups' efforts to clean up streets and establish recreation areas in an effort to keep them out of trouble by testifying with them before the House General Subcommittee on Education of the Committee on Education and Labor. In her testimony, in May 1967, Kitt stated that the Rebels' "achievements and accomplishments should certainly make the adult 'do-gooders' realize that these young men and women have performed in 1 short year – with limited finances – that which was not achieved by the same people who might object to turning over some of the duties of planning, rehabilitation, and prevention of juvenile delinquents and juvenile delinquency to those who understand it and are living it". She added that "the Rebels could act as a model for all urban areas throughout the United States with similar problems". "Rebels with a Cause" subsequently received the needed funding. Kitt was also a member of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom; her criticism of the Vietnam War and its connection to poverty and racial unrest in 1968 can be seen as part of a larger commitment to peace activism. Like many politically active public figures of her time, Kitt was under surveillance by the CIA, beginning in 1956. After "The New York Times" discovered the CIA file on Kitt in 1975, she granted the paper permission to print portions of the report, stating: "I have nothing to be afraid of and I have nothing to hide."

paragraph: Kitt later became a vocal advocate for LGBT rights and publicly supported same-sex marriage, which she considered a civil right. She had been quoted as saying: "I support it [gay marriage] because we're asking for the same thing. If I have a partner and something happens to me, I want that partner to enjoy the benefits of what we have reaped together. It's a civil-rights thing, isn't it?" Kitt famously appeared at many LGBT fundraisers, including a mega event in Baltimore, Maryland, with George Burns and Jimmy James. Scott Sherman, an agent at Atlantic Entertainment Group, stated: "Eartha Kitt is fantastic... appears at so many LGBT events in support of civil rights." In a 1992 interview with Dr. Anthony Clare, Kitt spoke about her gay following, saying:

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Kitt died from colon cancer on Christmas Day 2008, at her home in Weston, Connecticut. Her daughter, Kitt Shapiro, discussed her last days with her mother:I was with her when she died. She left this world literally screaming at the top of her lungs. I was with her constantly, she lived not even 3 miles from my house, we were together practically every day. She was home for the last few weeks when the doctor told us there was nothing they could do any more. Up until the last two days, she was still moving around. The doctor told us she will leave very quickly and her body will just start to shut down. But when she left, she left the world with a bang, she left it how she lived it. She screamed her way out of here, literally. I truly believe her survival instincts were so part of her DNA that she was not going to go quietly or willingly. It was just the two of us hanging out [during the last days] she was very funny. We didn't have to [talk] because I always knew how she felt about me. I was the love of her life, so the last part of her life we didn't have to have these heart to heart talks.

paragraph: She started to see people that weren't there. She thought I could see them too, but, of course, I couldn't. I would make fun of her like, "I'm going to go in the other room and you stay here and talk to your friends."

paragraph: Section::::Material loss.

paragraph: On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Eartha Kitt among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

paragraph: Section::::Awards and nominations.

paragraph: Kitt won awards for her film, television, and stage work. In 1960, the Hollywood Walk of Fame honored her with a star, which can be found on 6656 Hollywood Boulevard.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walsh, David (December 27, 2008). "Harold Pinter and Eartha Kitt, artists and opponents of imperialist war". World Socialist Web Site.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gent, Helen (May 4, 2009). "Eartha Kitt: The Feline Femme Fatale". "Marie Claire" (Australia).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, John L. (2013), "America's Mistress: the Life and Times of Eartha Kitt", Quercus.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eartha Kitt at TV Guide

paragraph: Section::::External links.:Video / audio footage.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An Evening with Eartha Kitt". "Say Brother". WGBH-TV. September 14, 1979.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Singer And Actress Eartha Kitt Dies". "All Things Considered". NPR. December 25, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Eartha Kitt on Piano Jazz". "Piano Jazz". NPR. May 1, 2009 (recorded February 12, 1993).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Eartha Kitt". National Visionary Leadership Project.

alias:
Eartha Mae Keith
Eartha Mae Kitt

description: American singer, actress, dancer, activist and comedian

wikidata_label: Eartha Kitt

wikipedia_title: Eartha Kitt


text: Kiev

text: Vienna

text: Stanisław Lubomirski

text: Lubomirski Palace

text: Opole Lubelskie

text: Antoni Lubomirski

text: Jozef Lubomirski

text: Rozalia Chodkiewicz

text: espionage

text: Paris

text: Reign of Terror

text: guillotine

text: Alexandra Francis Lubomirska

text: Wacław Seweryn Rzewuski

categories: 1804 deaths,1751 births,Lubomirski family

paragraph: Aleksander Lubomirski (1751–1804)

paragraph: Prince Aleksander Lubomirski (1751 in Kiev – 14 July 1804 in Vienna) was a Polish nobleman, Castellan of Kiev 1785–1790. Son of Stanisław Lubomirski.

paragraph: Inherited Lubomirski Palace, Opole Lubelskie, from his uncle Antoni Lubomirski, son of Prince Jozef Lubomirski. Married in 1787 to Rozalia Chodkiewicz, who was arrested on espionage charges in Paris during the Reign of Terror and guillotined in 1794 aged 23. They had one daughter, Alexandra Francis Lubomirska, (after her mother's death, also called Rozalia, Rosalie etc.) who married the orientalist Count "Emir" Wacław Seweryn Rzewuski in Vienna in 1804.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aleksander ks. Lubomirski z Lubomierza h. Drużyna , Genealogy of the Great Sejm Descendants

description: Polish statesman and French general

wikidata_label: Aleksander Lubomirski

wikipedia_title: Aleksander Lubomirski (1751–1804)


href: France sailor 1900%20Summer%20Olympics

text:
French
sailor
1900 Summer Olympics

categories: French male sailors (sport),Sailors at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Open class,Olympic sailors of France,Olympic silver medalists for France,Sailors at the 1900 Summer Olympics – 2 to 3 ton,1844 births,Olympic medalists in sailing,1910 deaths

paragraph: Léon Susse

paragraph: Léon Susse (23 September 1844 – 16 April 1910) was a French sailor who competed in the 1900 Summer Olympics. He was the helmsman of the French boat "Favorite 1", which won two silver medals in the races of the 2 to 3 ton class. He also participated in the Open class, but did not finish the race.

description: French Olympic sailor

wikidata_label: Léon Susse

wikipedia_title: Léon Susse


text:
Kossuth Prize
Nagysalló
Hungary
Esztergom
Pázmány Péter University
Budapest
University of Szeged
Lower Göd
Baradla cave
Kossuth Prize
János Balogh
Imre Loksa
Coleoptera
taxonomy
Crustacea
hydrobiology
Karst
speleology
Arthropod
Elemér Bokor
Aggtelek
Benno Wolf
Farkasréti Cemetery

categories: Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences,Hydrologists,Karstologists,1895 births,Hungarian academics,Hungarian biologists,Hungarian zoologists,Hungarian entomologists,Recipients of the Kossuth Prize,20th-century Hungarian people

paragraph: Endre Dudich

paragraph: Endre Dudich (20 March 1895 – 5 February 1971) was a Hungarian Kossuth Prize-winning professor, academician, and zoologist, noted for his application of mathematical methods for variational study of insects.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Born in Nagysalló, Hungary, he was educated at grammar school in Esztergom until 1913. His father was a doctor who passed on an interest in zoology to his son. His education was interrupted by the First World War where he served three and a half years at the front. He returned to the natural history and geography faculty of the Pázmány Péter University, Budapest, and obtained a teaching diploma in 1920. He obtained his doctorate at the University of Szeged in 1922.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: From 1919 Dudich worked at the Zoological Department of the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest. He became a university lecturer in 1925 and, in 1934, as associate professor, he established the first Systematic Zoology and Animal Geographical Institute within Pázmány Péter University. In 1936 he was appointed and established as professor.

paragraph: Endre Dudich was commissioned to establish the Institute for Danube Research Station in Lower Göd which he led from 1958 to 1970, and the initiation of the institutional zoological research cave at Baradla cave. His book on Systematic Zoology co-authored with former student, Imre Loksa, became a standard text on the subject.

paragraph: He chaired the Hungarian Academy of Sciences a total of four times; as corresponding member in 1932 and elected full member in 1942. For political reasons he was deprived of academic membership in 1949 but regained the chair in 1951 as corresponding member, and was elected a full member again in 1964.

paragraph: He was awarded the Kossuth Prize in 1957.

paragraph: He remained at the university until his death in February 1971. The Institute was subsequently headed by his former students; János Balogh and Imre Loksa. The Institute's modern successor is the Institute of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Eötvös Loránd University.

paragraph: Section::::Key research areas.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Beetles (Coleoptera) taxonomy and geography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Crustacean taxonomy, anatomy and animal geography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biometric methods for the examination of morphological variability

paragraph: BULLET::::- Local aquatic habitats, hydrobiology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Karst - and speleology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Forest soils Arthropod production, biological testing (Janos Balogh and Imre Loksa)

paragraph: Section::::Key research areas.:Cave and Karst research.

paragraph: His work as a researcher on caves and karst and their fauna started through his friendship with Elemér Bokor. He became a founder and committee member of the Hungarian Speleological Society in 1926.

paragraph: Dudich started research on flora and fauna of the Baradla cave at Aggtelek, often working under very difficult and often miserable conditions. His research went beyond cave fauna, laying the foundation of modern zoology. The Department of Zoology published his results under the title of "The Aggtelek cave flora and fauna food resources" in 1930, and in 1931 the Hungarian Natural History Society awarded him the "" (Margins Award). A more speleological work-related travel book was published in 1932; "The Aggtelek stalactite cave and its surroundings".

paragraph: In 1932 his work was published as part of a series of speleology monographs " (Biology of the Aggtelek stalactite cave Baradla in Hungary). This extensive 246 page work for one of the leading European cave biology societies established his name.

paragraph: In 1934 Benno Wolf invited him to write the introduction of ".

paragraph: In 1958 the world's fourth cave biological laboratory was built at the Baradla cave and laboratory work dominated the rest of Dudich's life. That same year the Hungarian Karst and Cave Research Association re-formed. Dudich chaired the Association's committee from 1961 to 1965 and between 1959 and 1965 Dudich was editor of the Association's Cave and Karst Research journal. His contribution to science was recognised by the award of the Kadić Ottokár medal. In 1968 he was made honorary member and honorary president of the Society and remained in office until his death.

paragraph: Dudich's unstinting efforts revitalised cave biology research, encouraging young researchers to pursue cave fauna studies.

paragraph: Section::::Memorials.

paragraph: The southern block (0-817) of Lágymányosi Eötvös University Campus is named after Endre Dudich. His grave is in the Farkasréti Cemetery (6/1-1-36).

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (obituary)

paragraph: BULLET::::- (obituary)

paragraph: BULLET::::- (English summary, portrait)

description: Hungarian zoologist

wikidata_label: Endre Dudich

wikipedia_title: Endre Dudich


text: Lwów

text: Orientalist

text: Revolutions of 1848

text: November Uprising

text: Partitions of Poland

text: Joachim Lelewel

text: Józef Dwernicki

text: Józef Chłopicki

text: Austro-Hungarian

text: confectioner

text: Academy of Fine Arts Vienna

text: Ferdinand Waldmüller

text: Academy of Fine Arts, Munich

text: Wilhelm Kaulbach

text: Ary Scheffer

text: Léon Cogniet

text: Revolutions of 1848

text: Galician

text: Ossolineum

text: Włodzimierz Dzieduszycki

text: Kraków Academy of Fine Arts

text: Franciszek Żmurko

text: List of Orientalist artists

text: Orientalism

text: Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej

categories: Orientalist painters,1889 deaths,People from Lviv,People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria,1829 births

paragraph: Franciszek Tepa

paragraph: Franciszek Tomasz Tepa (17 September 1829, Lwów - 23 December 1889, Lwów) was a Polish mid-19th century realist painter who specialized in portraits and Orientalist themes. During the Revolutions of 1848 (also known as the Spring of Nations), Tepa became politically involved in the independence movement. He produced a series of portraits of Polish leaders of the November Uprising against the foreign Partitions of Poland including Joachim Lelewel, Józef Dwernicki and Józef Chłopicki among many others; and was jailed as political prisoner while in the Austro-Hungarian capital of Vienna.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: His father was a confectioner. He began his artistic studies at the "Akademia Stanowa" with from 1842 to 1844, later attending the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna from 1847 to 1848, where he studied with Ferdinand Waldmüller; the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich from 1849 to 1852, where his teacher was Wilhelm Kaulbach; and the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts from 1854 to 1860, under Ary Scheffer and Léon Cogniet. While in Vienna, he participated in the Revolutions of 1848.

paragraph: In 1852, together with Galician separatist , his wife, and the journalist Maurycy Mann (1814-1876), Tepa took a trip through Greece, Egypt and Palestine which resulted in some of the first examples of Polish Orientalism. He also brought back some antiquities that were later displayed in the Ossolineum.

paragraph: Upon his return from Paris in 1860, he settled permanently in Lwów, where he produced studies of the local folk-life and landscapes on behalf of Count Włodzimierz Dzieduszycki, a founder of the "State Museum of Natural History". During this time, he was offered a Professorship at the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, but refused because of his desire to remain in Lwów.

paragraph: He specialized in portraits, becoming well known for his miniatures painted on ivory, and gave some lessons. One of his best-known students was Franciszek Żmurko. Many of his works remained in Lwów (Lviv) when the area passed to Ukrainian control after World War II.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Orientalist artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orientalism

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michał Domański, "Franciszek Tomasz Tepa i jego krag" (Tepa and his circle) from "Studies on Painting in Lviv in the Nineteenth Century", Uniwersytet Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej (1985)

description: Polish painter

wikidata_label: Franciszek Tepa

wikipedia_title: Franciszek Tepa


text:
Independence of India
British Empire
Ghadar Party
Lahore Conspiracy Case trial
British Punjab
English
Urdu
Bengali
Hindi
Lahore Conspiracy Case trial
Ghadar Party
Kartar Singh Sarabha
Hindu-German Conspiracy

categories: 1971 deaths,Revolutionary movement for Indian independence,Punjabi people,Indian revolutionaries,Ghadar Party,Indian Sikhs,People from Jalandhar

paragraph: Munsha Singh Dukhi

paragraph: Munsha Singh Dukhi (1 July 1890 – 26 January 1971) was an Indian national revolutionary and poet, who fought for the Independence of India from the British Empire. He belonged to the Ghadar Party. He was tried under third Lahore Conspiracy Case trial.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was born on 1 July 1890 at Jandiala, in Jalandhar district of the British Punjab. He had his education informally, and acquired a good working knowledge of English, Urdu, Bengali, and Hindi.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lahore Conspiracy Case trial

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ghadar Party

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kartar Singh Sarabha

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hindu-German Conspiracy

paragraph: Section::::Other sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ghadar Party Da Itihas, Desh Bhagat Yaadgar Hall Committee, Jullundur

paragraph: BULLET::::- Unpublished Account of Ghadar Party Conspiracy Cases, 1914-1918 by Isemonger and Slattery

wikidata_label: Munsha Singh Dukhi

wikipedia_title: Munsha Singh Dukhi


text:
Admiral
Royal Navy
Cork Station
Royal Navy
fourth-rate
American Revolutionary War
Battle of the Saintes
third-rate
Battle of Copenhagen
Napoleonic Wars
second-rate
rear admiral
Cork Station
Admiral of the White
Scottish representative peer

categories: 1849 deaths,Royal Navy admirals,1768 births

paragraph: Admiral John Colville, 9th Lord Colville of Culross (15 March 1768 – 22 October 1849), was a Royal Navy officer who became Commander-in-Chief, Cork Station.

paragraph: Section::::Naval career.

paragraph: Born the son of John Colville, 8th Lord Colville of Culross, and Amelia Webber, Colville joined the Royal Navy in December 1775 and saw action in the fourth-rate during the American Revolutionary War. He took part in the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782.

paragraph: Colville became commanding officer of the fourth-rate in October 1804, shortly before it was wrecked by incompetent pilots in November 1804 and then became commanding officer of the third-rate in March 1807, in which he took part in the Battle of Copenhagen during the Napoleonic Wars. He went on to be commanding officer of the second-rate in September 1811.

paragraph: Promoted to rear admiral in August 1819, Colville became Commander-in-Chief, Cork Station, in 1821. He was promoted to Admiral of the White on 23 November 1841. He served as a Scottish representative peer.

description: Royal Navy admiral and noble