text: Zairian

text: Musumba

text: Lualaba District

text: Lunda

text: Katangan

text: Moise Tshombe

text: President

text: Mobutu Sese Seko

text: Catholic University of Leuven

text: MPR

text: only legal political party

text: African languages

text: Dutch

text: Shaba

text: First State Commissioner of Zaire

text: Brussels

text: U.S. Congress

text: Washington

text: Étienne Tshisekedi

text: Laurent Kabila

text: seized power

text: exile

text: Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: Kinshasa

text: Fernand Kazadi Lupelekese

text: Mervyn M. Dymally

text: IRIN Briefing Part III: Zaire Who's Who

categories: Popular Movement of the Revolution politicians,Democratic Republic of the Congo torture victims,Zaire,Union of Federalists and Independent Republicans politicians,Ambassadors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the United States,2003 deaths,Catholic University of Leuven alumni (pre-1968),Government ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,1938 births,Democratic Republic of the Congo anti-communists,Cold War diplomats,People from Lualaba Province,Democratic Republic of the Congo expatriates in South Africa,Prime Ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

paragraph: Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond

paragraph: Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond (August 4, 1938 – July 27, 2003) was a prominent Zairian politician.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early years and Career in Zaire.

paragraph: Born in Musumba, Lualaba District, a member of the Lunda tribe and a nephew of the Katangan leader, Moise Tshombe, Nguza was a pock-marked child who rose rapidly through government posts and gained the favour of President Mobutu Sese Seko.

paragraph: Nguza received a master's degree in international relations from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium and returned to Zaire to serve as Foreign Minister from 1972–1974 and 1976–1977, as well serving as political director of the MPR, the country's only legal political party. Fluent in six African languages as well as English, French, Dutch, and German, Nguza's stature within Zaire and in the international community was such that he was considered a possible successor to Mobutu as President of Zaire.

paragraph: However, in 1977, he fell out of favor with Mobutu, who accused Nguza of attempting to seduce the first lady while simultaneously plotting high treason, and was imprisoned and sentenced to death. According to Nguza, Mobutu personally threatened to shoot him. Many believe that Nguza's sole crime was having been mentioned in the foreign press (during the first Shaba invasion) as a possible successor to Mobutu. During his interrogation, Nguza was subjected to torture which included the insertion of a metal tube into his penile shaft, through which jets of air were introduced, causing the blood vessels to rupture, and the application of electrical shocks to his testicles. The torture is said to have left him impotent.

paragraph: A year later, following international pressure, Nguza received a presidential pardon and was again named Foreign Minister in 1979. He became First State Commissioner of Zaire in 1980.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Exile.

paragraph: In 1981, while on an official visit to Brussels, Nguza fled into exile, where he attempted to unite the exiled Zairean opposition and testified against Mobutu in front of U.S. Congress hearings, outlining, in graphic detail, Mobutu's theft of hundreds of millions of dollars from the country's treasury and its subsequent deposit in foreign banks.

paragraph: Nguza published "Mobutu ou l'Incarnation du Mal Zairois", which was highly critical of the regime. Even so, Mobutu forgave him, invited him back home, and appointed him as ambassador to Washington in 1986.

paragraph: After the proclamation of the Third Republic, and the subsequent legalization of opposition parties in 1990, Nguza started his own party, the "Union of Federalists and Independent Republicans". He later replaced Étienne Tshisekedi as Prime Minister, after Tshisekedi tried to block Mobutu from accessing cash at the central bank. Nguza was regarded by other members of the Sacred Union (of which his party was a member) as a "traitor" because of this, and he subsequently left the Sacred Union. His party formed a new coalition, the Alliance of Patriotic Forces, which was committed to political reform but rejected "extremist" stances. The relationship between Tshisekedi and Nguza deteriorated considerably, and armed clashes, many taking on ethnic dimensions and resulting in considerable loss of life, broke out between their respective supporters, further contributing to the instability and chaos prevalent in the country.

paragraph: After Laurent Kabila seized power, Nguza fled into exile in South Africa. He suffered a cardiac arrest in 1995 and was forced to undergo medical care for many years. Nguza returned to Zaire (by then renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to die, where he did so at a private clinic in Kinshasa.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fernand Kazadi Lupelekese

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Books.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elliot, Jeffrey M., and Mervyn M. Dymally (eds.). "Voices of Zaire: Rhetoric or Reality." Washington Institute Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harden, Blaine. "Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile Continent." Houghton Mifflin Company.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meredith, Martin. "The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair, a History of Fifty Years of Independence." Public Affairs.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nguza Karl-i-Bond, Jean. " Mobutu ou l'Incarnation du Mal Zairois." Bellew Publishing Co Ltd.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wrong, Michela. "In The Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu's Congo." Perennial.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Young, Crawford, and Thomas Turner. "The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State." University of Wisconsin Press.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Subsequent Political Developments, 1990–1993 (from "Zaire: A Country Study")

paragraph: BULLET::::- IRIN Briefing Part III: Zaire Who's Who

description: Democratic Republic of the Congo politician

wikidata_label: Nguza Karl-i-Bond

wikipedia_title: Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond


text: American

text: Mendon, Massachusetts

text: Brown University

text: Providence, Rhode Island

text: Uxbridge, Massachusetts

text: Massachusetts House of Representatives

text: Massachusetts Senate

text: United States House of Representatives

text: Massachusetts State Senate

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: Phineas Bruce

text: Medal of Honor

text: Corporal Edward Sullivan

text: Capron Mill

text: Bernat Mill

text: Benjamin Adams House

categories: Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts,1837 deaths,Federalist Party members of the United States House of Representatives,Members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives,Massachusetts Federalists,People from Uxbridge, Massachusetts,1764 births,Massachusetts state senators,People from Mendon, Massachusetts,Brown University alumni

paragraph: Benjamin Adams (politician)

paragraph: Benjamin Adams (December 16, 1764 – March 28, 1837) was an American lawyer and politician. Adams was born in Mendon, Massachusetts in 1764. Benjamin Adams grew up in Mendon, which was then a rural agricultural community. He was well educated by existing public schools in that community.

paragraph: Section::::College and practice of law.

paragraph: He graduated from Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island in 1788, where he studied law. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar, and began the practice of the law in Uxbridge, Massachusetts.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: He was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1809, later winning election to the Massachusetts Senate in 1814 through 1815. In 1816, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts, serving in that body until 1821. He was then reelected to the Massachusetts State Senate, and served there through 1825.

paragraph: Section::::Death and afterwards.

paragraph: He died in Uxbridge in 1837. The Benjamin Adams House is on the National Register of Historic Places in Uxbridge. The house is located at 85 North Main Street, near the "Uxbridge Common Historic District". Benjamin Adams is buried in the Prospect Hill Cemetery, next to the historic Capron Mill in downtown Uxbridge. Another elected Congressman is buried there, Phineas Bruce, as well as a Medal of Honor recipient from this town, Corporal Edward Sullivan. Benjamin Adams would have seen the early history and successes of the adjacent Capron Mill, and the beginnings of American industrialization which occurred there. On July 21, 2007, the historic Capron Mill, later known as the Bernat Mill, was burned in a spectacular ten-alarm fire. A housing development and street there is named in his honor today.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Registered Historic Places in Uxbridge, Massachusetts

paragraph: BULLET::::- Benjamin Adams House

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607-1896." Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1963.

description: American politician

wikidata_label: Benjamin Adams

wikipedia_title: Benjamin Adams (politician)


href: Trier Dagobert%20II Austrasia Merovingian Saint%20Boniface Frisia Hesse Thuringia Rome Willibrord Eoban Pope%20Stephen%20II Franks Frisians Bavaria Swabia England Ludger M%C3%BCnster Amalberga%20of%20Maubeuge Susteren Lullus Bishop%20of%20Mainz

text:
Trier
Dagobert II
Austrasia
Merovingian
Saint Boniface
Frisia
Hesse
Thuringia
Rome
Saint Willibrord
Saint Eoban
Pope Stephen II
Franks
Frisians
Bavaria
Swabia
England
Saint Ludger
Münster
Saint Amelberga
Susteren
Saint Lullus
Bishop of Mainz

wikipedia_title:
Trier
Dagobert II
Austrasia
Merovingian dynasty
Saint Boniface
Frisia
Hesse
Thuringia
Rome
Willibrord
Eoban
Pope Stephen II
Franks
Frisians
Bavaria
Swabia
England
Ludger
Münster
Amalberga of Maubeuge
Susteren
Lullus
Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz

categories: Echt-Susteren,Christian missionaries in Germany,Frankish bishops,700s births,People from Trier,Medieval German saints,770s deaths,Bishops of Utrecht,Burials at St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht,8th-century Frankish saints,8th-century bishops

paragraph: Gregory of Utrecht

paragraph: Saint Gregory of Utrecht ( 700/705 – 770s) was born of a noble family at Trier. His father Alberic was the son of Addula, who in her widowhood was Abbess of Pfalzel ("Palatiolum") near Trier. (Because of the similarity of names and also because of a forged will, Addula has been frequently confused with Saint Adela of Pfalzel, daughter of Dagobert II of Austrasia, thus wrongly imputing to Gregory membership of the royal house of the Merovingians).

paragraph: He received his early education at Pfalzel. When, in 722, Saint Boniface passed through Trier on his way from Frisia to Hesse and Thuringia, he stayed at this convent. Gregory was called upon to read the scriptures at the meals. Saint Boniface gave an explanation of them and expanded upon the merits of an apostolic life, by which Gregory was inspired to accompany him.

paragraph: He now became the disciple and later the helper of the Apostle of Germany, accompanying him in all his missionary tours. In 738 Saint Boniface made his third journey to Rome; Gregory went with him and brought back many valuable additions for his library. About 750 Gregory was made Abbot of St. Martin's, in Utrecht. In 744 Saint Willibrord, the first Bishop of Utrecht, had died but had received no successor. Saint Boniface had taken charge and had appointed an administrator, Saint Eoban. In 754 he started on his last missionary trip accompanied by Eoban, who was to share his martyrdom. After this, Pope Stephen II and Pippin the Younger ordered Gregory to look after the diocese. For this reason he is sometimes called "bishop", though he never received episcopal consecration.

paragraph: The school of his abbey, the "Martinsstift", a kind of missionary seminary, was now a centre of learning for many nations: Franks, Frisians, Saxons, even Bavarians and Swabians. England too, though it had splendid schools of its own, sent scholars. Among his disciples, Saint Ludger is perhaps the best known, later to be the first Bishop of Münster and author of the "Life" of Gregory, in which he describes his virtues, his contempt of riches, his sobriety, his forgiving spirit and his deeds of alms [1].

paragraph: Some three years before Gregory's death, paralysis attacked his left side and gradually spread over his entire body. At the approach of death he had himself carried into church, where he died.

paragraph: Section::::Veneration.

paragraph: His relics were kept at Utrecht, and in 1421 and 1597 were examined at episcopal visitations. A large portion of his head is in the church of Saint Amelberga at Susteren, where an official recognition took place on 25 September 1885 under the supervision of the Bishop of Roermond [2]. A letter written by Saint Lullus, Bishop of Mainz, to Saint Gregory is still extant [3].

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- [1] "Acta Sanctorum", Aug., V, 240

paragraph: BULLET::::- [2] "Analecta Bollandiana", V, 162

paragraph: BULLET::::- [3] "Patrologia Latina", XCVI, 821

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Luidgeri vita Gregorii Abbatis Traiectensis", ed. by O. Holder-Egger, Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores (in folio), 15 part 1 (1887), pp. 63–79

description: Frankish bishop and saint

wikidata_label: Gregory of Utrecht

wikipedia_title: Gregory of Utrecht


text:
Finland
Swedish
Charles XI
King of Sweden
senator
Riksdag of the Estates
Baron
Elimäki
Finland
Count
Östanå

wikipedia_title:
Sweden–Finland
Sweden
Charles XI of Sweden
Monarchy of Sweden
Senate
Riksdag of the Estates
Baron
Elimäki
Sweden–Finland
Count
Östanå Castle

categories: Lord Marshals of the Riksdag of the Estates,1641 births,Swedish nobility,17th-century Swedish politicians,1712 deaths,18th-century Swedish politicians

paragraph: Fabian Wrede, Count of Östanå

paragraph: Fabian Wrede (Peippola, Finland, 20 March 1641 – 6 December 1712) was a Swedish politician.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: An advisor to Charles XI, King of Sweden, he was also a Swedish senator ("riksråd") and Lord Marshal of the Riksdag of the Estates.

paragraph: In his birthright Baron of Elimäki in Finland, he was created Count of Östanå as a reward for his service in the financial administration of the king.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-

paragraph: BULLET::::-

description: Swedish Count

wikidata_label: Fabian Wrede, Count of Östanå

wikipedia_title: Fabian Wrede, Count of Östanå


text:
indie
The Servants
indie
the Servants
Hayes, Middlesex
NME
C86
Luke Haines
Westlake
Play Dusty for Me
Captured Tracks
LP
Black Friday
Small Time
Cherry Red Records
Disinterest
Mojo
Cherry Red Records
C86
The Big Takeover
Belle and Sebastian
Stuart Murdoch
Westlake
Creation Records
Sony
Play Dusty for Me
Angular Recording Corporation
Play Dusty for Me
Paperhouse Records
Cherry Red Records
Small Time
Cherry Red Records
Captured Tracks
Glass Records
Glass Records
Paperhouse Records
Cherry Red Records
Small Time
Cherry Red Records

wikipedia_title:
Indie rock
The Servants
Indie rock
The Servants
Hayes, Hillingdon
NME
C86
Luke Haines
Westlake (album)
Play Dusty for Me
Captured Tracks
LP record
Black Friday (shopping)
Small Time (album)
Cherry Red Records
Disinterest (album)
Mojo (magazine)
Cherry Red Records
C86
The Big Takeover
Belle and Sebastian
Stuart Murdoch (musician)
Westlake (album)
Creation Records
Sony Music
Play Dusty for Me
Angular Recording Corporation
Play Dusty for Me
Paperhouse Records
Cherry Red Records
Small Time (album)
Cherry Red Records
Captured Tracks
Glass Records
Glass Records
Paperhouse Records
Cherry Red Records
Small Time (album)
Cherry Red Records

categories: English guitarists,English male guitarists,English male singer-songwriters,1965 births,Living people

paragraph: David Westlake

paragraph: David Westlake is an English singer/songwriter. He led indie band The Servants from 1985 to 1991.

paragraph: Section::::History.

paragraph: Westlake formed indie band the Servants in 1985 in Hayes, Middlesex, England.

paragraph: The Servants appeared on 1986’s "NME"-associated "C86" compilation, and the band was from 1986 to 1991 the original home of Luke Haines.

paragraph: Haines describes David Westlake's first solo album, 1987's "Westlake", as "a minor classic".

paragraph: Westlake's second solo album, 2002's "Play Dusty for Me", was released in a limited issue that quickly sold out but was never re-pressed. Captured Tracks reissued "Play Dusty for Me" in LP format on Black Friday, 2015.

paragraph: Section::::The Servants.

paragraph: The Servants' "Small Time" album was well received on its 2012 Cherry Red Records release, more than twenty years after its 1991-recording. The belated release followed the inclusion of 1990's "Disinterest" in "Mojo" magazine's 2011 list of the greatest British indie records of all time.

paragraph: Westlake and Haines played together for the first time in twenty-three years at the Lexington, London N1 on 4 May 2014. Westlake and band played at an "NME C86" show on 14 June 2014 at Venue 229, London W1; the show marked Cherry Red Records' expanded reissue of "C86".

paragraph: As chronicled in an interview in US music magazine "The Big Takeover" (issue 53, 2004), Belle and Sebastian frontman Stuart Murdoch was a huge Westlake fan and tried to locate him in the early 1990s in hope of forming a band with him, before launching Belle and Sebastian in his school class instead.

paragraph: David Westlake is a solicitor and he lectures part-time at Brunel University.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Albums.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Solo

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Westlake" (Nov 1987, Creation Records, CRELP019 [LP]; reissued on CD by Sony in 2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Play Dusty for Me" (Jun 2002, Mahlerphone, CDA 001 [CD]; reissued Jul 2010 Angular Recording Corporation ARC 018 [digital])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Play Dusty for Me" (Nov 2015, Captured Tracks, CT-220 [LP]) (reissue)

paragraph: BULLET::::- with the Servants

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Disinterest" (Sep 1989, Paperhouse Records, PAPLP005 [LP]/PAPCD005 [CD])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Reserved" (2006, Cherry Red Records, CDMRED297 [CD]) (compilation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Youth Club Disco" (2011, Captured Tracks, CT-111 [LP]) (compilation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Small Time"/"Hey Hey We're the Manqués" (Oct 2012, Cherry Red Records, CDB RED 535 [2CD]; reissued Dec 2013, Captured Tracks, CT-185 [2LP])

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Singles.

paragraph: BULLET::::- with the Servants

paragraph: BULLET::::- "She’s Always Hiding"/"Transparent" (Mar 1986, Head Records, HEAD1 [7"])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Sun, a Small Star"/"Meredith"/"It Takes No Gentleman"/"Funny Business" (Oct 1986, Head Records, HEAD3 [12"])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "It’s My Turn"/"Afterglow" (Sep 1989, Glass Records, GLASS056 [7"])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "It’s My Turn"/"Afterglow"/"Faithful to 3 Lovers"/"Do or Be Done" (Sep 1989, Glass Records, GLASS12 056 [12"])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Look Like a Girl"/"Bad Habits Die Hard" (- 1990, Paperhouse Records, - [7"])

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Derek Sozou, David Westlake site

paragraph: BULLET::::- Luke Haines, "Bad Vibes" (London: William Heinemann, 2009), 5-10.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Luke Haines, sleevenotes to the Servants' compilation "Reserved" (Cherry Red Records CDMRED 297, 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Luke Haines, sleevenotes to the Servants' album "Small Time" (Cherry Red Records CDB RED 535, 2012)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jack Rabid, review of David Westlake's album "Play Dusty For Me" in "The Big Takeover", 17 Jan 2011

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Peel session information

paragraph: BULLET::::- Janice Long session information

paragraph: BULLET::::- PhD

description: British singer/songwriter

wikidata_label: David Westlake

wikipedia_title: David Westlake


text: Arab

text: Azd

text: Rashidun

text: Umayyad

text: Fars

text: Mosul

text: Arminiya

text: Adharbayjan

text: Khurasan

text: Muhallabids

text: Abbasid

text: Persians

text: Ahwaz

text: Sistan

text: Umar

text: Uthman

text: Ali

text: Mu'awiya I

text: Oman

text: Basra

text: Persian conquest

text: Iraq

text: Second Muslim Civil War

text: Azariqa

text: Kharijite

text: Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr

text: Kufa

text: al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi

text: Syria

text: Abd al-Malik

text: al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf

text: Transoxiana

text: Kish

text: Merv

text: Yazid ibn al-Muhallab

text: Azd

text: al-Baladhuri

text: Dibba

text: Abu Ubayda

text: Karachi

text: Oman

text: Basra

text: pre-Islamic era

text: Fars

text: Umar

text: Ahwaz

text: Sistan

text: Uthman

text: Ali

text: al-Tabari

text: Patricia Crone

text: Umayyad

text: Mu'awiya I

text: Sindh

text: Banna

text: Lahore

text: Khurasan

text: Salm ibn Ziyad

text: Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami

text: Banu Tamim

text: Mecca

text: Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr

text: Rabi'a

text: Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad

text: Azariqa

text: Kharijite

text: al-Ahnaf ibn Qays

text: Tigris

text: Mus'ab

text: al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi

text: Kufa

text: mawali

text: Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath

text: Abu Mikhnaf

text: Battle of Harura

text: Mosul

text: Jazira

text: Armenia

text: Adharbayjan

text: Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar

text: Syria

text: Khashabiyya

text: Nisibis

text: Dujayl Canal

text: Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

text: Battle of Maskin

text: Khalid ibn Abdallah

text: kharaj

text: Ramhormoz

text: Bishr ibn Marwan

text: al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf

text: Kerman

text: Jiroft

text: Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a

text: Tabaristan

text: Quraysh

text: Merv

text: Kish

text: Soghdia

text: al-Mada'ini

text: Marw al-Rudh

text: Hugh Kennedy

text: Julius Wellhausen

text: Yazid

text: Makran

text: Muhallabids

text: Sulayman

text: Yazid II

text: Abbasid dynasty

text: overthrown

categories: 702 deaths,People of the Second Fitna,7th-century Arabs,Umayyad governors of Khurasan,Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate,8th-century Arabs,632 births,People of the Muslim conquest of Persia,Muhallabids

paragraph: Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra

paragraph: Abū Saʿīd al-Muhallab ibn Abī Ṣufra al-Azdī (; 702) was an Arab general from the Azd tribe who fought in the service of the Rashidun, Umayyad and Zubayrid caliphs between the mid-640s and his death. He served successive terms as the governor of Fars (685–686), Mosul, Arminiya and Adharbayjan (687–688) and Khurasan (698–702). Al-Muhallab's descendants, known as the Muhallabids, became a highly influential family, many of whose members held high office under various Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, or became well-known scholars.

paragraph: Throughout his early military career, he participated in the Arab campaigns against the Persians in Fars, Ahwaz, Sistan and Khurasan during the successive reigns of caliphs Umar (), Uthman (), Ali () and Mu'awiya I (). By 680, his tribe, the Azd of Oman, had become a major army faction in the Arabs' Basra garrison, the launchpad for the Persian conquest. Following the collapse of Umayyad rule in Iraq and Khurasan in 683–684, during the Second Muslim Civil War, al-Muhallab was pressed by the Basran troops to lead the campaign against the Azariqa, a Kharijite faction which had taken over Ahwaz and threatened Basra. Al-Muhallab landed them a severe blow and drove them into Fars in 685. He was rewarded with the governorship of that province by the anti-Umayyad caliph Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (), whose suzerainty had been recognized in Basra in the wake of the Umayyads' ouster. Al-Muhallab later held a command role in the successful Zubayrid campaign to eliminate the Kufa-based ruler al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi in 686/87. After this victory, he was transferred to the governorship of Mosul, where he was charged with protecting Iraq from a potential invasion from Umayyad-controlled Syria.

paragraph: The resurgence of the Azariqa in Ahwaz in 688/89 saw him transferred once again to that front by the Zubayrids. When the latter were ousted from Iraq by the Umayyads in 691, al-Muhallab switched allegiance to the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (), who kept him in command of the war with the Azariqa. With the key support of the powerful Umayyad governor of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, al-Muhallab decisively defeated the Kharijites in 698. Throughout the thirteen-year conflict with the Kharijites, al-Muhallab was consistently viewed as indispensable by the Basrans and their successive Zubayrid and Umayyad rulers. Al-Hajjaj made al-Muhallab governor of Khurasan in 698. From there, he recommenced the Arab conquests in Transoxiana, leading a two-year-long siege of the fortress of Kish. He was ultimately compelled to withdraw to his capital in Merv and died on the way there. He was succeeded by his son Yazid ibn al-Muhallab.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early life.

paragraph: Al-Muhallab was born in . Most Muslim sources hold that his father, Abu Sufra, was an Arab from the Azd tribe, with 9th-century historian al-Baladhuri asserting that he belonged to one of the tribe's noble households, the Atik of the Dibba coast. However, according to another 9th-century scholar, Abu Ubayda, Abu Sufra was a Persian weaver who migrated from Kharak (Karachi) to Oman before settling in the Arab garrison town of Basra in Iraq. According to this account, he was accepted by the Azd as one of their own by dint of the courage he demonstrated in battle. The Azd had dominated Oman (Uman) since the pre-Islamic era and hence were known as the "Azd Uman" to distinguish them from the "Azd Sarat", who were based in western Arabia. Al-Muhallab and his father were initially settled among the Azd Uman at the Arab military settlement of Tawwaj in Fars. This likely marked the start of al-Muhallab's military career. During the reign of Caliph Umar () al-Muhallab participated in operations against the Persians in Ahwaz. He later fought them in Sistan in 653/54, during the reign of Caliph Uthman (). In 656, during the reign of Caliph Ali (), al-Muhallab and his father were moved to Basra. Though in the reports cited by 9th-century historians al-Tabari and al-Awtabi, Ali declared Abu Sufra the chief of Azd, the modern historian Patricia Crone holds that "neither Abu Sufra nor al-Muhallab ever held" the chieftainship of the Basran Azd. Rather, they gained prestige and power through their military prowess not their tribal status. At some point during Ali's caliphate, al-Muhallab fought again in Ahwaz.

paragraph: Between 662 and 665, during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I (), al-Muhallab led a renewed campaign into Sistan, reaching as far as Sindh. In 664, he attacked Banna and al-Ahwar (Lahore), but was countered by local forces. There, he adopted the Indian tradition of trimming the tails of his war horses. After his Sistan campaign, he was transferred, for an unspecified period, to the Khurasan front in 670, fighting under the command of al-Hakam ibn Amr al-Ghifari. He returned to this front under the governor of Khurasan, Sa'id ibn Uthman, in 676 and then again in 681, in the company of other reputable Basran generals recruited by the newly-appointed governor, Salm ibn Ziyad. This time he remained in the province for a further three years, after which Umayyad authority collapsed in Khurasan and most of the Caliphate. Salm consequently left the province, initially appointing al-Muhallab as his deputy governor, but the latter was quickly edged out by Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami. The latter had the backing of the Banu Tamim, a powerful tribal faction in the Khurasan army, while al-Muhallab lacked tribal support as the Azd presence in the province was negligible at the time.

paragraph: Iraq, and Khurasan with it, ultimately came under the suzerainty of the anti-Umayyad, Mecca-based caliph, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (), who appointed al-Muhallab governor of Khurasan. Meanwhile, a mass wave of Azdi tribesmen from Oman had migrated to Basra between 679 and 680, merged with the Azd Sarat already present in the city and formed a strong alliance with the Rabi'a tribal confederation, a major faction in the Basran garrison. After Yazid's governor in the city, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, was ousted in the aftermath of the caliph's death, the Azdi leader of the Azd–Rabi'a alliance, attempted to gain control of the city and was killed by members of the rival Banu Tamim, the other major faction of the Basran garrison. This precipitated hostilities between the two groups, which spread to Khurasan where troops from both factions were deployed.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:First campaign against the Kharijites.

paragraph: Al-Muhallab was unable to take up his assignment in Khurasan due to the opposition of the Basran troops, who pressed him to lead the campaign against the Azariqa, a Kharijite faction that threatened the city. The conflict between the Azd–Rabi'a alliance and the Tamim had strengthened the Azariqa in Ahwaz and spurred them to assault Basra. The Basran troops sent to engage them were defeated and panic ensued in the city. For many months, the Azariqa pillaged the areas between Basra and Ahwaz, killing those who refused to accept their doctrine. When al-Muhallab reached Basra after arriving from Mecca on his way to Khurasan, the leader of the Tamim, al-Ahnaf ibn Qays, proclaimed to the Basran garrison and its Zubayrid governor, al-Harith ibn Abi Rabi'a al-Makhzumi, that "only al-Muhallab" was capable of defeating the Azariqa. After al-Muhallab refused their initial entreaties, the Basran nobles forged a letter from Ibn al-Zubayr calling on him to abandon his assignment to Khurasan and confront the Kharijites instead, which he accepted after securing assurances of loyalty from the troops and sufficient funds from the provincial treasury. The campaign against the Kharijites "was to occupy him [al-Muhallab], on and off, for the next thirteen years", according to Crone. Under his command, the Zubayrid forces ousted the Azariqa from the Tigris river valley, forcing them to regroup at a place in Ahwaz called Sillabra, where he inflicted a decisive defeat against them in 685, in which 7,000 of their men were killed. The Azariqa consequently retreated east into Fars. Al-Muhallab remained in Ahwaz for a short period until Ibn al-Zubayr's brother, Mus'ab, became governor of Basra. The latter appointed al-Muhallab governor of Fars.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Governor of Mosul.

paragraph: By 686/87, al-Muhallab had dispersed the Azariqa in the regions of Basra and Ahwaz and was called on by Mus'ab to join his campaign against al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi, the ruler of Kufa. With the key backing of the local "mawali", al-Mukhtar had recently suppressed a rebellion by Kufa's Arab nobility, prompting thousands of them to seek refuge and support from Mus'ab in Basra. One of the leading Kufan nobles, Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath, pressed Mus'ab to march against al-Mukhtar, but the former refused unless al-Muhallab agreed to join. After Ibn al-Ash'ath persuaded al-Muhallab to that effect, the latter arrived in Basra "bringing many troops and much money with him, with such troops and in such a state of readiness as none of the people of al-Basrah could match", according to historian Abu Mikhnaf. He was made commander of the Basran army's left wing at the Battle of Madhar, then commander of the right wing at the Battle of Harura, both of which ended in Zubayrid victories over al-Mukhtar's forces. After Kufa was captured and al-Mukhtar killed in early 687, Mus'ab appointed al-Muhallab governor of Mosul, the Jazira, Armenia and Adharbayjan. He replaced al-Mukhtar's governor over these areas, Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar, who joined the Zubayrids after their victory in Kufa and was transferred to that city. As governor over the region wedged between Zubayrid-controlled Iraq and Umayyad-controlled Syria, al-Muhallab was tasked with protecting the former from an Umayyad invasion. He was also charged with ridding his province of al-Mukhtar's surviving loyalists, the Khashabiyya, who remained in control of Nisibis.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Final campaign against the Kharijites.

paragraph: Al-Muhallab was recalled from Mosul to confront the Azariqa's resurgence and renewed raids against Ahwaz, and Ibn al-Ashtar replaced him as governor. Despite the intensified efforts of al-Muhallab, the Azariqa's defense kept him confined to the west bank of the Dujayl Canal. In 690, eight months after he was reassigned to the war against the Azariqa, Mus'ab was defeated and killed by the Umayyad army led by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan at the Battle of Maskin. At the time, al-Muhallab was engaged against the Azariqa in the environs of Ahwaz. Upon hearing news of Abd al-Malik's victory and conquest of Iraq, al-Muhallab had his troops swear allegiance to the Umayyad caliph. Abd al-Malik's kinsman and governor over Basra, Khalid ibn Abdallah, relieved al-Muhallab of command and assigned him to collect the "kharaj" (land tax) of Ahwaz. The governor's brother, Abd al-Aziz, was appointed in al-Muhallab's place, but was routed by the Azariqa. After Abd al-Malik was informed of his forces' defeat, he sent a letter reproaching Khalid for not utilizing al-Muhallab, "who is fortunate in judgment, good in management, skillful and experienced in war—a man of war, and the son of men of war". Afterward, in 693/94, Abd al-Malik directly appointed al-Muhallab commander of the war against the Azariqa, but later that year, his troops deserted the field against them at Ramhormoz following news of the death of Bishr ibn Marwan, Khalid's replacement as governor of Basra.

paragraph: Toward the end of 694, Abd al-Malik appointed al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf governor over Iraq (Kufa and Basra) and the latter strongly backed al-Muhallab's campaign. With al-Hajjaj's support, he drove the Azariqa from Ahwaz into Fars as he had done previously and maintained the momentum against them until they withdrew further, into Kerman. They barricaded themselves in Jiroft and split into two factions, one dominated by "mawali" which remained in Jiroft under the command of a certain Abd Rabbih al-Kabir, and the second, dominated by Arabs led by Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a, which headed north toward Tabaristan. Al-Muhallab defeated Abd Rabbih's faction in Jiroft by 696, killing them in their entirety. During this time, he is credited with introducing iron stirrups on the saddles of his army's war horses, in place of the wooden ones, which could barely withstand a rider's weight. There is no known evidence that the horsemen of the ancient world used stirrups and literary sources indicate al-Muhallab's army was the first to use them during the fighting with the Kharijites in southern Persia. Al-Muhallab's innovation would be used thenceforth by Muslim armies. Qatari and his band were later defeated by Sufyan ibn Abrad al-Kalbi in 698/99.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Governor of Khurasan and death.

paragraph: In 697/98, Khurasan was incorporated into al-Hajjaj's governorship and he appointed al-Muhallab as his deputy governor over the province. The Kharijite rebellions had not taken root in Khurasan and at the time of his appointment, the Tamim formed the strongest army faction in the province. According to historian Muhammad Adnan Shaban, al-Hajjaj viewed the unruly Tamim's dominance as the major impediment to his policies of centralization and expansion in the eastern half of the Caliphate. His solution was to balance the Tamim with the largely Azd–Rabi'a troops of al-Muhallab. The latter's appointment marked a departure from the Umayyad tradition of appointing a member of the Quraysh as governor over Khurasan.

paragraph: By dint of his battlefield reputation and al-Hajjaj's resolute support, al-Muhallab secured the loyalty of the Khurasani troops. He renewed their focus on the Muslim conquests in Transoxiana, which would serve as a means for the Azdi troops he brought from Iraq, and the longer-established Khurasani troops, to acquire war spoils. Al-Muhallab began his term in 698 by preparing an army in the provincial capital of Merv, composed of his men from the campaigns against the Azariqa, Khurasani troops and local forces commanded by the "mawali" brothers Thabit and Hurayth ibn Qutba. In 699, after leaving his son al-Mughira in charge of Merv, he led this army on an expedition to conquer Transoxiana. To that effect, he captured the fortress of Zamm, a crossing point guarding the Oxus river, and recruited its ruler, who converted to Islam.

paragraph: After crossing the Oxus, al-Muhallab reached his main target, the fortress of Kish in Soghdia. He besieged it for two years, despite counsels to abandon it and proceed deeper into Soghdia. From his camp outside Kish, he often dispatched contingents commanded by his sons against neighboring areas, though their gains were negligible. After news of his son al-Mughira's death in Merv in 701, he secured a tributary arrangement with Kish's defenders and withdrew toward the provincial capital. While the traditional Muslim sources generally attribute his withdrawal to heartbreak over al-Mughira's death, al-Mada'ini notes that a conspiracy by troops of the Mudar (the alliance of the Tamim and Qays factions of the Basran and Khurasani armies) in his camp prompted him to abandon the war effort. Shaban surmises that a combination of both factors, in addition to Tamimi infighting in al-Muhallab's camp and tensions emanating from the wide-scale revolt by the governor of Sistan, Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath, in 700, all led al-Muhallab to "return to Merv to put his own house in order before trying to make any advances in Transoxiana". Ibn al-Ash'ath's forces swept westward through Fars and at one point gained control of Kufa and Basra before being stamped out by al-Hajjaj and his Syrian troops in 701. Al-Muhallab remained loyal to the Umayyads during the tumult. He died at Marw al-Rudh, on the way to Merv, in 702.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The historian Hugh Kennedy describes al-Muhallab as "a figure of almost legendary prowess on the battlefield and a man with a great reputation as a commander", which he gained in "hard, unrewarding campaigning" against the Azariqa in the unfavorable terrain of Fars and Ahwaz. According to Julius Wellhausen, though al-Muhallab's career in Khurasan "did not add to his renown in war", it brought about a development of "great importance" in the province: the influx of the Azd. A small number of Azdi tribesmen had already been present, but it was only under al-Muhallab that the Azd gained prominence in Khurasan. Together with their allies from the Rabi'a, they counted 21,000 soldiers out of the 40,000-strong Arab army of Khurasan, and ended the previous dominance of the Tamim–Mudar alliance; a balance of power was thenceforth established, tilted only by support from the governor to either side. Al-Muhallab was succeeded by his son Yazid as governor. During this period, the Muslim conquest of Makran was consolidated and the Azd, the predominant Arab faction in this region, gained considerable wealth. The Azd held al-Muhallab in high esteem and commemorated him and his accomplishments in legendary tales and song.

paragraph: The descendants of al-Muhallab and his father Abu Sufra, known as the Muhallabids, became a prominent family, "famed for their numbers and their remarkable role in early Islamic history" according to Crone. They lost their fortunes with the death of their patron, Caliph Sulayman (), and several of them died during Yazid's abortive revolt against Caliph Yazid II (). They later staged a comeback during the Third Muslim Civil War, during which they rebelled against the Umayyads, and many of their members held high office under various caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, which had overthrown the Umayyads in 750.

description: General and Umayyad governor

wikidata_label: Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra

wikipedia_title: Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra


text: Cuba

text: prima ballerina assoluta

text: choreographer

text: Ballet Nacional de Cuba

text: Giselle

text: the ballet version of "Carmen"

text: Havana

text: Havana

text: Nikolai Yavorsky

text: Tchaikovsky

text: Sleeping Beauty

text: Fernando Alonso

text: Upper West Side

text: Manhattan

text: Riverside Drive

text: School of American Ballet

text: Great Lady

text: Stars In Your Eyes

text: Vera Volkova

text: retina

text: New York City

text: Giselle

text: Ballet Theatre

text: Swan Lake

text: Antony Tudor

text: Fall River Legend

text: Igor Youskevitch

text: Ballet Nacional de Cuba

text: Giselle

text: Paris Opéra Ballet

text: Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo

text: Western Hemisphere

text: Bolshoi

text: Kirov

text: Leningrad

text: Giselle

text: Pas de Quatre

text: Sleeping Beauty

text: Vienna State Opera

text: Naples, Italy

text: La Fille Mal Gardée

text: Prague State Opera

text: La Scala

text: Leningrad Opera Ballet

text: Dance Magazine

text: Fidel Castro

text: Sierra Maestra

text: July 26 Movement

text: Vietnam War

text: Richard Nixon

text: Fidel Castro

text: Ballet Nacional de Cuba

text: American Ballet Theatre

text: Boston Ballet

text: San Francisco Ballet

text: Washington Ballet

text: Cincinnati Ballet

text: Royal Ballet

text: "Horizontes"

text: Giselle

text: Gran Teatro

text: Prix Benois de la Danse

text: University of Havana

text: UNESCO

text: King of Spain

text: Juan Carlos I

text: Madrid

text: George Balanchine

text: Igor Youskevitch

text: Technical University of Valencia

text: Prix Benois de la Danse

text: Order of José Marti

text: Dominican Republic

text: Panama

text: Order of the Aztec Eagle

text: Order Duarte, Sanchez, and Mella

text: Order Vasco Nunez de Balboa

text: Messenger of Peace

text: University of Costa Rica

text: Federation of Cuban Women

text: List of Cubans

text: Alicia Alonso entry

text: Profile

text: ABT Original Theme and Variations

text: Archive footage

text: Erik Bruhn

text: "Witness: The First Lady of Cuban Ballet"

text: BBC World Service

categories: Recipients of the Order of José Marti,1920 births,People from Havana,Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres,Prix Benois de la Danse winners,Cuban ballerinas,Prima ballerina assolutas,UNESCO Goodwill Ambassadors,Living people,Cuban National Ballet dancers

paragraph: Alicia Alonso

paragraph: Alicia Alonso (born Alicia Ernestina de la Caridad Martínez del Hoyo; 21 December 1920) is a Cuban prima ballerina assoluta and choreographer whose company became the Ballet Nacional de Cuba in 1955. She is best known for her portrayals of Giselle and the ballet version of "Carmen".

paragraph: From the age of nineteen, Alonso was afflicted with an eye condition and became partially blind. Her partners always had to be in the exact place she expected them to be, and she used lights in different parts of the stage to guide herself.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Alonso was born in Havana in 1920 and began dancing there as a child. In June 1931 she began studying ballet at Sociedad Pro-Arte Musical in Havana with Nikolai Yavorsky. She was youngest of two sisters, the other named Blanca María Martínez del Hoyo, born in 1918 (nicknamed "Cuca") and two brothers (Elizardo and Antonio).

paragraph: She performed publicly for the first time on 29 December 1931, aged 10. Her first serious debut was in Tchaikovsky's "Sleeping Beauty" at the Teatro Auditorium on 26 October 1932. Early in her career in Cuba, she danced under the name of Alicia Martínez.

paragraph: Rapid progress in her lessons came to an abrupt halt in 1937, when the teenager fell in love with a fellow ballet student, Fernando Alonso, whom she married at age 16. After her marriage, she changed her surname to Alonso. The new couple moved to New York City, hoping to begin their professional careers. There they found a home with relatives on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, near Riverside Drive. She gave birth to a daughter, Laura, in 1938, but continued her training at the School of American Ballet. In 1938, she made her debut in the U.S., performing in the musical comedies "Great Lady" and "Stars In Your Eyes".

paragraph: She arranged to travel to London to study with Vera Volkova. Meanwhile, her husband had joined the newly formed Mordkin Ballet Company in New York.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Vision problems.

paragraph: After seeing the doctor for worsening vision problems, Alonso was diagnosed in 1941 with a detached retina and she had surgery to correct the problem. This surgery consisted of completely removing the eyeball, injecting it with an antibiotic and putting it back in.

paragraph: She was ordered to lie motionless in bed for 3 months so her eyes could completely heal. Unable to comply completely, Alonso practiced with her feet alone, pointing and stretching to, as she put it, ""keep my feet alive"". When the bandages came off, she was dismayed to find that the operation had not been completely successful. The doctors performed a second surgery, but its failure caused them to conclude that the dancer would never have peripheral vision. Finally, she consented to a third procedure in Havana, but this time was ordered to lie completely motionless in bed for an entire year. She was not permitted to play with Laura, chew food too hard, laugh or cry, or move her head. Her husband sat with her every day, using their fingers to teach her the great dancing roles of classical ballet. She recalled of that period, ""I danced in my mind. Blinded, motionless, flat on my back, I taught myself to dance Giselle.""

paragraph: Finally, she was allowed to leave her bed, although dancing was still out of the question. Instead, she walked with her dogs and, against doctor's orders, went to the ballet studio down the street every day to begin practicing again. Then, just as her hope was returning, Alonso was injured when a hurricane shattered a door in her home, spraying glass splinters onto her head and face. Amazingly, her eyes were not injured. When her doctor saw this, he cleared Alonso to begin dancing, figuring if she could survive an explosion of glass, dancing could do no harm.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Back to work.

paragraph: Alonso traveled back to New York City in 1943 to begin rebuilding her skills. However, before she had barely settled, out of the blue she was asked to dance Giselle to replace the Ballet Theatre's injured "prima" ballerina Alicia Markova. Alonso accepted and gave such a performance that the critics immediately declared her a star.

paragraph: She was promoted to principal dancer of the company in 1946 and danced the role of Giselle until 1948, also performing in "Swan Lake", Antony Tudor's "Undertow" (1943), Balanchine's "Theme and Variations" (1947), and in such world premieres as deMille's dramatic ballet "Fall River Legend" (1948), in which she starred as the Accused. By this time in her career, she had developed a reputation as an intensely dramatic dancer, as well as an ultra-pure technician and a supremely skilled interpreter of classical and romantic repertories.

paragraph: The Ballet Theatre's Igor Youskevitch and her other partners quickly became expert at helping Alonso conceal her handicap. To compensate for only partial sight in one eye and no peripheral vision, the ballerina trained her partners to be exactly where she needed them without exception. She also had the set designers install strong spotlights in different colors to serve as guides for her movements.

paragraph: She knew, for instance, that if she stepped into the glow of the spotlights near the front of the stage, she was getting too close to the orchestra pit. There was also a thin wire stretched across the edge of the stage at waist height as another marker for her, but in general she danced within the encircling arms of her partners and was led by them from point to point. Audiences were reportedly never the wiser as they watched her dance.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:A new endeavor in Havana.

paragraph: Alonso's desire to develop ballet in Cuba led her to return to Havana in 1948 to found her own company, the "Alicia Alonso Ballet Company", which she maintained with little financial support, this company eventually became Ballet Nacional de Cuba. Fernando was general director of the company, which was at that time composed mainly of Ballet Theater dancers temporarily out of work due to a reorganization in the New York company. Fernando's brother Alberto, a choreographer, served as artistic director for the company The company debuted briefly in the capital and then departed for a tour of South America. While Alicia was happy with the success of the company, she wanted to showcase more Cuban dancers than non-Cuban dancers. Therefore, she opened a ballet academy in Havana.

paragraph: The performances were a hit with audiences everywhere, but Alonso found herself funding the company with her savings to keep it going despite donations from wealthy families and a modest subsidy from the Cuban Ministry of Education. Meanwhile, she commuted between Havana and New York to recruit the world's best teachers to train her new students. She remained a sought-after prima ballerina during this hectic time, dancing twice in Russia in 1952 and then producing and starring in "Giselle" for the Paris Opéra Ballet in 1953.

paragraph: From 1955-59, she danced annually with the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo as guest star. She was the first dancer of the Western Hemisphere to perform in the Soviet Union, and the first American representative to dance with the Bolshoi and Kirov Theaters of Moscow and Leningrad respectively in 1957 and 1958. During the decades to follow Alicia Alonso had cross-world tours through West and East European countries, Asia, North and South America, and she danced as guest star with the Opera de Paris, the Royal Danish Ballet, the Bolshoi and with other companies.

paragraph: She staged versions of "Giselle", "Pas de Quatre", and "Sleeping Beauty" for the Paris Opera. She staged "Giselle" at the Vienna State Opera and the San Carlo Theater of Naples, Italy, as well as "La Fille Mal Gardée" at the Prague State Opera, and "Sleeping Beauty" at La Scala.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Political change in Cuba.

paragraph: Alonso worked with the Ballet Russe until 1959, during which time she performed in a 10-week tour of the Soviet Union, dancing in "Giselle", the Leningrad Opera Ballet's "Path of Thunder", and other pieces. Her performances earned her the coveted Dance Magazine Award in 1958.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Return to Cuba.

paragraph: Cuba in the 1950s was the center of modern Latin American entertainment and art. When Fidel Castro took power from the Batista government on 1 January 1959, Castro vowed to increase funding to the nation's languishing cultural programs. Encouraged by this sudden change and eager to see her homeland from which she was never exiled, Alonso returned to Cuba and in March 1959 received $200,000 in funding to form a new dance school, the "Ballet Nacional de Cuba", along with a guarantee of annual financial support.

paragraph: Alonso has since described receiving a message from Castro in 1958 sent from the Sierra Maestra inviting her to head the company upon the triumph of the July 26 Movement. Alonso officially founded the school in 1960, and within several years her dancers were winning international dance competitions.

paragraph: Due to Alonso's affiliation with the new regime in Havana, audiences in the USA largely turned their backs on her. The Cuban government from the 1960s through the 1980s did not allow Cubans to perform in the United States, to some extent for fear of defectors, and monitored those with contacts outside Cuba via phone cables and letters. Her company continued to build its powers and achievements in both Eastern and Western Europe. In 1967 and 1971 she performed in Canada, where reviewers noted that Alonso was still the greatest ballerina of her time.

paragraph: When the Vietnam War ended and Richard Nixon left the presidency, Fidel Castro permitted Alonso to perform again in the United States in 1975 and 1976. An American reviewer said of the dancer, then 54 years old and a grandmother, ""she creates more sexual promise than ballerinas half her age.""

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Legacy.

paragraph: Alonso danced solos in Europe and elsewhere well into her 70s. She has continued to serve as the director of the Ballet Nacional de Cuba, and is quoted as saying, she will remain "in charge of the ballet until after she is dead". As director and leading dancer of the Ballet Nacional de Cuba, she taught many now notable dancers in Cuba and beyond. Some of her former students have danced or dance with the American Ballet Theatre, the Boston Ballet, the San Francisco Ballet, the Washington Ballet, the Cincinnati Ballet and the Royal Ballet, among others.

paragraph: Numerous books have been written on the ballerina, including "Alicia Alonso: At Home and Abroad" (1970), "Alicia Alonso: The Story of a Ballerina" (1979), "Alicia Alonso: A Passionate Life of Dance" (1984) and "Alicia Alonso: First Lady of the Ballet" (1993). The 2015 documentary film "Horizontes" features her life, as well as that of a middle-aged and a young dancer in Cuba.

paragraph: Section::::Select awards.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1934 – Dance Magazine Annual Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1958 – Dance Magazine Annual Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1966 – Grand Prix de la Ville de Paris for her role in the ballet, Giselle.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1966 – Anna Pavlova Award of the University of Dance, Paris,

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1970 – Grand Prix de la Ville de Paris, together with her company

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1974 – Order of Work of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1985 – Gold Medal of the Gran Teatro by Premio Gran Teatro de La Habana

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – National Prize for Dance from the Ministry of Culture of Cuba

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – Gold medal from the Circulo de Bellas Artes of Madrid

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – UNESCO Pablo Picasso Medal for her extraordinary contribution to dance

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – Grand Prix de la Ville de Paris

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2000 – Prix Benois de la Danse

paragraph: Section::::Select recognitions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1973 – Honorary doctorate in art from the University of Havana

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1980 – Received an international homage in Paris, organized by UNESCO

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1981 – Council of State of the Republic of Cuba gave her the Order Felix Varela

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1987 – Honorary doctorate in dancing art from the Superior Institute of Arts of Cuba

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1993 – Received the Commendation of Isabel Catholic Order, given by the King of Spain Juan Carlos I

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1996 – Public recognition was given in her honor at the Scientific, Artistic, and Literary Ateneo of Madrid for her valuable artistic and cultural creations

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – The Ballet Nacional de Cuba honored Alicia Alonso on the 50th anniversary of Theme & Variations, a ballet created by George Balanchine for her and Igor Youskevitch

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – Honorary degree from the Technical University of Valencia (Universidad Politecnica of Valencia)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – Art & Letters Order, Commander Degree, from the Ministry of Culture and Communication of France

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2000 – Prix Benois de la Danse for lifetime achievement

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2000 – Order of José Marti by the Council of State of the Republic of Cuba

paragraph: BULLET::::- Received the highest official awards from the countries of Mexico, the Dominican Republic, and Panama: the Order of the Aztec Eagle (Order Aguila Azteca), the Order Duarte, Sanchez, and Mella, and the Order Vasco Nunez de Balboa, respectively

paragraph: BULLET::::- Named "National Hero of Labor" in Cuba

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2011 – Honorary Citizen of Mérida (México) and Messenger of Peace

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2017 – Honorary doctorate from the University of Costa Rica

paragraph: Section::::Select recognitions.:Memberships.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holds membership in the Advisory Council to the Ministry of Culture in the National Committee of Writers and Artists Union of Cuba

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holds membership in the Collaborating Council of the Governing Boards of the Federation of Cuban Women

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Cubans

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Magazine Cuba in the Ballet" (1970);

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Cuba Magazine in the Ballet" . Cultural Publication specialized in the world of the Cuban ballet - includes critical, chronicle, and comments..., as well as a news section.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "National Ballet of Cuba: half a century of glory" - collection of fifty years of the company. Written by Miguel Cabrera (Punta Bava, Havana, 1941), BNC historian, it summarizes the most outstanding aspects in five decades where generations of dancers, choreographers and specialized personnel have given the best. The book provides good information of the NBC, including tours, ballets throughout its history (published by Ediciones Cuba in the Ballet).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "University for All (Tabloid). History and Appreciation of the Ballet" - a cultural publication with texts that support the telelectures delivered by specialists of the National Ballet of Cuba and other guest personalities.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "DIALOGUES WITH THE DANCE" by Alicia Alonso - fourth edition of this title, in which the reader will be able to find memories of the initial moments of her career, brief impressions on some works of her repertoire, testimonies about famous personalities with whom she had worked, as well as points of view concerning the dancer's profession and the art of the dance in general (published by Política).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alicia Alonso entry, Concise Encyclopædia Britannica; accessed 5 May 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile, ABT Original Carmen premiere, abt.org; accessed 5 May 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ABT Original Theme and Variations, abt.org; accessed 5 May 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: Archive footage, Alonso and Erik Bruhn performing "Pas de Deux" from "Giselle", Act II (1955) at Jacob's Pillow

paragraph: BULLET::::- Video: "Witness: The First Lady of Cuban Ballet", interview broadcast on 28 October 2015 from BBC World Service

alias: Alicia Ernestina de la Caridad Martínez Hoya

alias: Alicia Ernestina de la Caridad Martinez Hoya

wikidata_label: Alicia Alonso

wikipedia_title: Alicia Alonso


text: archaeologist

text: Africa

text: Chiltern Hills

text: Buckinghamshire

text: Monkton Combe School

text: B.A.

text: Christ's College, Cambridge

text: Miles Burkitt

text: Grahame Clark

text: Northern Rhodesia

text: Rhodes-Livingstone Museum

text: World War II

text: Horn of Africa

text: Ph.D.

text: Kalambo Falls

text: Lake Tanganyika

text: Zambia

text: Tanzania

text: Acheulean

text: Sangoan

text: Lupemban

text: Magosian

text: Wilton

text: Bantu

text: Ethiopia

text: Somalia

text: Malawi

text: Angola

text: Niger

text: Louis

text: Mary Leakey

text: Anthropology

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: paleoanthropology

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: Gold Medal Award

text: Archaeological Institute of America

text: China

text: pneumonia

text: Oakland

text: OBE

text: CBE

text: FSA

text: FBA

text: American Academy of Arts and Sciences

text: National Academy of Science

text: Society of Antiquaries

text: Archaeological Institute of America

text: British Academy

text: Grahame Clark Medal for Prehistory

text: UC Berkeley obituary

text: Leakey Foundation press release

text: J. Desmond Clark Memorial Page

categories: Paleoanthropologists,Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,People associated with the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute,2002 deaths,Guggenheim Fellows,Deaths from pneumonia,British archaeologists,Infectious disease deaths in California,People educated at Monkton Combe School,1916 births

paragraph: J. Desmond Clark

paragraph: John Desmond Clark (more commonly J. Desmond Clark, April 10, 1916 – February 14, 2002) was a British archaeologist noted particularly for his work on prehistoric Africa.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Clark was born in London, but his childhood was spent in a hamlet in the Chiltern Hills of Buckinghamshire. Clark went to a preparatory boarding school in Buckinghamshire at age 6 1/2, from where he moved on to Monkton Combe School near Bath. Clark graduated with a B.A. from Christ's College, Cambridge, under Miles Burkitt and Grahame Clark.

paragraph: Section::::Archeological and anthropological career.

paragraph: In 1937 Clark became the curator of Northern Rhodesia's Rhodes-Livingstone Museum (now known as the Livingstone Memorial Museum). A year later he married Betty Cable née Baume, who would accompany him on a number of expeditions throughout his life. Clark served in the military during World War II with the East Africa Command forces in Somalia and Ethiopia, being subsequently attached to the British Military Administration, when he managed to find time to carry out archaeological fieldwork in the Horn of Africa. Following the war, he returned to Cambridge, completing his Ph.D. in 1947. In 1948 he founded the Northern Rhodesian National Monuments Commission.

paragraph: Clark then returned to Northern Rhodesia to serve once more as the Museum's director. In 1953, Clark ordered an excavation at Kalambo Falls, a 235m high, single-drop waterfall at the southeast end of Lake Tanganyika, on what is now the border between Zambia and Tanzania. The site would eventually emerge as one of the most important archaeological finds of the twentieth century, providing a record of more than two hundred and fifty thousand years of human history. To date, artifacts of Acheulean, Sangoan, Lupemban, Magosian, Wilton, and Bantu cultures have all been found at the falls. Clark also undertook significant fieldwork in Ethiopia, Somalia, Malawi, Angola, and Niger, some of which led him to collaborate with Louis and Mary Leakey.

paragraph: In 1961, Clark resigned from his post as Director of the Museum (being succeeded by Gervas C.R. Clay), and became Professor of Anthropology (subsequently Emeritus) at the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught until his retirement in 1986. Under his guidance, the programme became one of the world's foremost in paleoanthropology. In 1965, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He received the Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement in 1988 from the Archaeological Institute of America. Clark continued working until his death, including a 1991 dig in China that was the first to be led in that country by foreign archaeologists in more than 40 years. Clark died of pneumonia in Oakland in 2002, having published more than twenty books and over 300 scholarly papers on paleoanthropology and African prehistory in the course of his career. His wife survived him by only two months. He is survived by his children, Elizabeth and John.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: Clark was appointed OBE in 1956 and CBE in 1960. He was elected FSA in 1952 and FBA in 1961. He was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of the National Academy of Science (USA). His Cambridge ScD was awarded in 1975 and honorary doctorates at Witwatersrand and Cape Town universities in 1985, along with the Gold Medals of the Society of Antiquaries of London (1985) and the Archaeological Institute of America (1989). The British Academy awarded him the Grahame Clark Medal for Prehistory in 1997. He became an American citizen in 1993.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prehistoric Cultures of Northeast Angola and Their Significance in Tropical Africa (1963)

paragraph: BULLET::::- with Walter W. Bishop

paragraph: BULLET::::- Background to Evolution in Africa (1967) (Joint Editor)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Atlas of African Prehistory (1967)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Further Palaeo-Anthropological Studies in Northern Lunda (1968)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site (Vol.1, 1969; Vol.2, 1974; Vol. 3, 2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Prehistory of Africa (1970)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Acheulean and the Plio-Pleistocene Deposits of the Middle Awash Valley, Ethiopia (2000)

paragraph: BULLET::::- See also African Archaeological Review 5, 1987; and the Journal of Human Evolution 15(8) and 16(7/8), 1987

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- UC Berkeley obituary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leakey Foundation press release

paragraph: BULLET::::- Journal of Anthropological Research Tribute

paragraph: BULLET::::- National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. Desmond Clark Memorial Page

description: British archaeologist

wikidata_label: J. Desmond Clark

wikipedia_title: J. Desmond Clark


text:
Sendai
ōzeki
Onogawa
Futabayama
dohyō-iri
list of yokozuna
influenza
rikishi
nishikie
List of sumo record holders
List of yokozuna
Glossary of sumo terms
List of past sumo wrestlers
Tanikaze Kajinosuke Tournament Results

categories: Sumo people from Miyagi Prefecture,Infectious disease deaths in Japan,Sportspeople from Sendai,Japanese sumo wrestlers,1750 births,Yokozuna,Deaths from influenza

paragraph: Tanikaze Kajinosuke

paragraph: Section::::Early career.

paragraph: He was born in Sendai with Yoshiro (与四郎) as his infant name. He made his debut in sumo in 1769 when he was 19. With a height of 189 cm and a weight of 169 kg, he was extremely large in comparison with most Japanese men of his era.

paragraph: In this period, local men with a large physique but often little to no sumo background were asked to enter sumo tournaments. They would debut as "kanban" or "guest" "ōzeki" and in most cases their "careers" were short-lived. This is how Tanikaze, due to his size, debuted in 1769. He chose to stay active in sumo however, and would eventually be promoted to a true "ōzeki" outright in March 1781. From October 1777 until February 1786, he lost only one bout. This was to Onogawa in February 1782. He recorded the longest run of consecutive victories in sumo bouts at that time, with 63. This record remained unbroken for about 150 years, until Futabayama in 1938.

paragraph: Section::::Yokozuna.

paragraph: On November 19, 1789, he became one of the first two sumo wrestlers to be allowed to perform a "yokozuna dohyō-iri" (a special ring-entrance ceremony for the "yokozuna" alone, rather than entering as part of a parade of the top ranked wrestlers). Both he and Onogawa were granted a special so-called "yokozuna" license simultaneously in that year. Officially he is recorded as being the 4th Yokozuna in sumo history. However, as the first three (see list of yokozuna), if indeed they existed at all, were awarded the title posthumously, he can be said to be one of the first two real holders of the title.

paragraph: He was still an active wrestler when he died at the age of 44 of influenza. He was on another winning streak of 35 bouts at his death. In the top "makuuchi" division, Tanikaze won 258 bouts and lost only 14 bouts, achieving a winning percentage of 94.9.

paragraph: Tanikaze was a very popular "rikishi." Unlike other wrestlers of his day, many "nishikie" (woodblock print based) portraits and images of him participating in bouts still remain.

paragraph: Section::::Top division record.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The actual time the tournaments were held during the year in this period often varied."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tanikaze's first three tournaments were as a "guest" "ōzeki", see above."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tanikaze's record for the Spring 1776 tournament is unknown."

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of sumo record holders

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of yokozuna

paragraph: BULLET::::- Glossary of sumo terms

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of past sumo wrestlers

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tanikaze Kajinosuke Tournament Results

description: Japanese sumo wrestler

wikidata_label: Tanikaze Kajinosuke

wikipedia_title: Tanikaze Kajinosuke


text: Greek

text: Hellenistic

text: Seleucid Empire

text: Antiochus I Soter

text: Stratonice

text: Demetrius Poliorcetes

text: Ptolemaic Egypt

text: Second Syrian War

text: Asia Minor

text: Thrace

text: Greek

text: Timarchus

text: Andragoras

text: Parthia

text: Justin

text: Pompeius Trogus

text: Bactria

text: Diodotus

text: Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

text: Indo-Greek Kingdom

text: Second Syrian War

text: pharaoh

text: Ptolemy II Philadelphus

text: Berenice

text: Hellespont

text: Cyzicus

text: Ilion

text: Caria

text: Sardis

text: Antioch

text: Belevi Mausoleum

text: Seleucus II Callinicus

text: Antiochus Hierax

text: Stratonice of Cappadocia

text: Laodice

text: Edicts of Ashoka

text: Ashoka

text: Buddhist

text: proselytism

text: herbal medicine

text: Antiochus I Soter

categories: 3rd-century BC Seleucid rulers,Seleucid rulers,3rd-century BC rulers,286 BC births,3rd-century BC Babylonian kings,246 BC deaths,3rd-century BC murdered monarchs

paragraph: Antiochus II Theos

paragraph: Antiochus II Theos (Greek: ; 286 – July 246 BC) was a Greek king of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire who reigned from 261 to 246 BC. He succeeded his father Antiochus I Soter in the winter of 262–61 BC. He was the younger son of Antiochus I and princess Stratonice, the daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: He inherited a state of war with Ptolemaic Egypt, the "Second Syrian War", which was fought along the coasts of Asia Minor, and the constant intrigues of petty despots and restless city-states in Asia Minor. Antiochus also made some attempt to get a footing in Thrace. During the war he was given the title "Theos" (Greek: , "God"), being such to the Milesians in slaying the tyrant Timarchus.

paragraph: During the time Antiochus was occupied with the war against Egypt, Andragoras, his satrap in Parthia, proclaimed independence. According to Justin's epitome of Pompeius Trogus, in Bactria, his satrap Diodotus also revolted in 255 BC, and founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, which would further expand in India in 180 BC to form the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180–1 BC).

paragraph: In 253 BC, in the aftermath of the Second Syrian War, Antiochus II made peace with the pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus. He divorced Laodice and married Ptolemy II's daughter Berenice, with the understanding that any children born from their union would inherit the Seleucid throne. Although no longer queen, Laodice was still a very powerful and political influential figure. Antiochus gave Laodice various land grants throughout Anatolia which are known through inscriptions; she owned a large estate in the Hellespont, other properties near Cyzicus, Ilion and in Caria. In a royal record at Sardis mentions her land titles were to be kept as royal land in disposal in grants or sales.

paragraph: During her stay in Ephesus, Laodice continued numerous intrigues to become queen again. By 246 BC Antiochus had left Berenice and their infant son Antiochus, in Antioch to live again with Laodice I in Asia Minor. Laodice took the occasion to poison Antiochus while her partisans at Antioch murdered Berenice and their infant son. Antiochus was buried in the Belevi Mausoleum.

paragraph: Laodice I then proclaimed Seleucus II as King. With his cousin-wife Laodice I, Antiochus had two sons: Seleucus II Callinicus, Antiochus Hierax and three daughters: Apama, Stratonice of Cappadocia and Laodice.

paragraph: Section::::Relations with India.

paragraph: An uncertain Antiochus is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka, as one of the recipients of the Indian Emperor Ashoka's Buddhist proselytism:

paragraph: Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in the territories of the Hellenistic kings:

paragraph: Alternatively, the Greek king mentioned in the Edict of Ashoka could also be Antiochus's father, Antiochus I Soter, who arguably had more proximity with the East.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Antiochus II entry in 'Seleucid Genealogy'

description: Seleucid ruler

wikidata_label: Antiochus II Theos

wikipedia_title: Antiochus II Theos


text:
Hellenistic
Seleucid Empire
Antiochus III
Antiochus II
Laodice
Ephesos
Antioch
Ptolemy III
Third Syrian War
Ptolemy III
Seleucia Pieria
Babylon
Mithridates II of Pontus
Ariarathes III of Cappadocia
Laodice II
Antiochis
Seleucus III Ceraunus
Antiochus III the Great
Antiochus Hierax
Ephesos
Ainos
Maroneia
Hellespont
Eleutheros river
Seleucia Pieria
Seleucus I
Antiochus Hierax
Sardis
Battle of Ancyra
Mithridates II of Pontus
Galatians
Taurus
Parthia
Andragoras
Arsaces I
Parni
Nisa, Turkmenistan
Diodotus I
Hekatompylos
Diodotus II
Antiochus III
Diodotus II
Pergamon
Attalus I
Thrace
Stratonice
Demetrius II
Seleucus III
Antiochus III the Great

categories: 3rd-century BC Seleucid rulers,225 BC deaths,265 BC births,Deaths by horse-riding accident,Seleucid rulers,3rd-century BC Babylonian kings

paragraph: Seleucus II Callinicus

paragraph: Seleucus II Callinicus Pogon (; "Kallinikos" means "gloriously triumphant"; "Pogon" means "the Beard"; July/August 265 BC – December 225 BC), was a ruler of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, who reigned from 246 BC to 225 BC. Faced with multiple enemies on various fronts, and not always successful militarily, his reign was a time of great turmoil and fragmentation for the Seleucid empire, before its eventual restoration under his second son and eventual successor, Antiochus III.

paragraph: Section::::Accession and invasion.

paragraph: After the death of his father, Antiochus II in July 246 BC, Seleucus was proclaimed king by his mother, Laodice in Ephesos, while his father's second wife, Queen Berenice, declared her son Antiochus king in Antioch. Berenice acted decisively at first, seizing control of most of Syria and Cilicia. However before her brother Ptolemy III, the king of Egypt, was able to land and support to her son's claims, she was murdered by partisans of Seleucus II and Queen Laodice.

paragraph: This dynastic feud began the Third Syrian War. Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and landing at Seleucia Pieria, accepted the surrender of Syria and Cilicia and marched victoriously to the Tigris or beyond (although he did not reach as far as Babylon). Ptolemy remained in Syria during the winter of 246-245 BC, while Seleucus sent an expedition by sea to retake the area, only to have it wrecked by storms; not the last time he was to be defeated by bad luck.

paragraph: Section::::Defeat in the Third Syrian war and Anatolia.

paragraph: Seleucus managed to maintain himself in the interior of Asia Minor and made arrangements to shore up his power there. One of his sisters married Mithridates II of Pontus, another married Ariarathes III of Cappadocia and he married his cousin Laodice II, by whom he had five children including Antiochis, Seleucus III Ceraunus and Antiochus III the Great. Seleucus then appointed his brother Antiochus Hierax as viceroy in Asia Minor and marched against the Ptolemies.

paragraph: Ptolemy III returned to Egypt in 245 BC, reputedly taking with him 40,000 talents of gold and the statues of Egyptian gods which had been looted centuries before by the Persians. Seleucus crossed into Babylonia and Mesopotamia first, receiving the loyalty of the empire's Eastern regions and then marched into Syria where he recovered Antioch by 244 BC. This was followed by the recapture of the other major cities in the area. By 242 BC the interior of Northern Syria had been regained and Seleucus was even able to launch raids into Ptolemaic controlled Syria around Damascus.

paragraph: Elsewhere the Seleucid's were less successful. In the Aegean the Ptolemaic armies were able to seize control of Ephesos, as well as Ainos and Maroneia in Thrace, and several cities on the Asian side of the Hellespont.

paragraph: In 241 BC peace was finally agreed and a treaty signed. Ptolemy recognised Seleucus as king and the Eleutheros river was once again accepted as the boundary between the two empires in Syria. Ptolemy did however retain his conquests in Thrace, Ephesos and, most importantly of all, the vital port of Seleucia Pieria. This city contained the tomb of the Seleucid dynasty's founder, Seleucus I, and controlled much of the trade from Antioch. The Seleucid desire to recover the city would prove to be one of the main causes of the outbreak of the Fourth Syrian war in 219 BC.

paragraph: In the meantime, Antiochus Hierax, had set himself up as a rival in Asia Minor against Seleucus, supported by their domineering mother Laodice. Seleucus appears to have launched an attack against Antiochus Hierax, but was unable to take Sardis. After two years of stalemate, the brothers met at the Battle of Ancyra around 237 BC. With the support of Mithridates II of Pontus and the Galatians Antiochus Hierax was victorious and Seleucus was barely able to escape with his life. After this Seleucus left the country beyond the Taurus to his brother and the other powers of Anatolia and an uneasy peace between the two prevailed.

paragraph: Section::::Fragmentation in the East.

paragraph: Seleucus then turned to the problems which had developed in the Eastern provinces of the empire over the last few decades and undertook an expedition to regain Parthia, the results of which came to nothing.

paragraph: The Parthian satrap Andragoras had taken the opportunity to establish de facto independence and had begun minting his own coins in 245 BC. However, before Seleucus was able to turn his attention eastwards, by 238 BC, Andragoras had been killed by Arsaces I, a chieftain of the nomadic Parni, based in the city of Nissa (modern day Nisa, Turkmenistan). Arsaces had previously attacked Bactria and been driven off by the satrap Diodotus I. Diodotus had also used the opportunity of Seleucid distraction in the West to gain de facto independence and set himself up as an independent ruler.

paragraph: After the defeat at Ancyra, the Seleucid garrisons of the region were further weakened and this allowed the Parthians under Arsaces the opportunity to seize more territory, including the city of Hekatompylos, which became their new capital around 237 BC. Around this time Diodotus was succeeded by his son Diodotus II who agreed to an alliance with Parthia, which now acted as a useful barrier to any Seleucid invasion to recover the East.

paragraph: It was after this that Seleucus attempted to recover Parthia, but the sources indicate he was defeated, or perhaps withdrew in the face of Parthian strength. The recovery of the Seleucid position in the East would have to wait until the reign of his son Antiochus III. Following this defeat Diodotus II declared himself king of Bactria, officially severing any remaining links with the Seleucid court in 235 BC.

paragraph: Section::::The death of Antiochus Hierax.

paragraph: Meanwhile in Asia Minor, Pergamon now rose to greatness under Attalus I. Attalus' ambition to replace Antiochus Hierax as king of Asia Minor led to a major war and several battles during the 230s BC. In short order Attalus defeated the Galatians, Antiochus Hierax and finally an attempt by Seleucus II to reclaim his control of Asia Minor. After being defeated by Attalus in four battles Antiochus Hierax fled to Armenia, whose king gave him refuge. Antiochus Hierax then attempted to invade Mesopotamia. Andromachos, his mother's brother, commanded the Seleucid forces on this occasion and defeated him. Fleeing again, Antiochus finally perished in Thrace where he was killed by robbers in c. 226 BC.

paragraph: Seleucus by this time had his hands full dealing with rebellion in Antioch instigated by his aunt, Queen Stratonice, who had previously been married to King Demetrius II of Macedon. Upon returning to Syria after Demetrius II took another wife, Stratonice of Macedon proposed that she marry her nephew, or possibly demanded he avenge the insult to her honour by attacking Demetrius. In either case Seleucus refused her suggestions and, infuriated, she raised Antioch in rebellion. Seleucus had to besiege the city, which he eventually recaptured. Stratonice fled to Seleucia, hoping to take refuge with Ptolemy III, but was captured en route and executed.

paragraph: In the years after the defeat at Ancyra (237 BC), Seleucus focused on rebuilding his domains, expanding Antioch and suppressing rebellions in Babylon. By 227 BC he had stabilised the situation enough to begin contemplating a new offensive against Attalus to retake Asia Minor.

paragraph: Section::::Death and succession.

paragraph: Before he could launch this invasion Seleucus died unexpectedly in 225 BC as the result of a fall from his horse. He was succeeded firstly by his eldest son Alexander who took the name Seleucus III and later by a younger son Antiochus III the Great in 222 BC.

description: ruler of the Seleucid Empire

wikidata_label: Seleucus II Callinicus

wikipedia_title: Seleucus II Callinicus