text:
Australian rules football
Collingwood
Hawthorn
Victorian Football League
Heidelberg, Victoria
Balwyn, Victoria
Mick
Pat
Bill
David Twomey
athletics
sprinter
Stawell Gift

wikipedia_title:
Australian rules football
Collingwood Football Club
Hawthorn Football Club
Australian Football League
Heidelberg, Victoria
Balwyn, Victoria
Mick Twomey
Pat Twomey
Bill Twomey Jr.
David Twomey
Sport of athletics
Sprint (running)
Stawell Gift

categories: Heidelberg Football Club players,Hawthorn Football Club coaches,1899 births,Stawell Gift winners,Australian Football League umpires,Collingwood Football Club players,Australian male sprinters,Hawthorn Football Club players,Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia)

paragraph: Bill Twomey Sr.

paragraph: William Patrick Twomey Sr. (14 May 1899 - 25 March 1977) was an Australian rules footballer who played for Collingwood and Hawthorn in the Victorian Football League (VFL).

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: The son of Michael Twomey and Annie Twomey, née Carey, William Patrick Twomey was born in Heidelberg, Victoria on 14 May 1899.

paragraph: He married Rose Ellen Lovett (1893-1984) in 1926.

paragraph: He died in Balwyn, Victoria on 25 March 1977.

paragraph: Three of his four sons Mick, Pat, and Bill, and his grandson, David Twomey — the son of his fourth son, Peter — all played league football with Collingwood.

paragraph: Section::::Football.

paragraph: Twomey possessed exceptional pace and was thus used mainly as a wingman although he also played occasionally as a centreman and half back. In five seasons with Collingwood he played 54 games, including their 1919 premiership as well as in three losing grand finals. He represented Victoria in an interstate match against South Australia in 1921.

paragraph: After leaving Collingwood at the end of the 1922 season to concentrate on an athletics career, Twomey had success as a sprinter winning the 1924 Stawell Gift. He later turned to football, joining Hawthorn in 1933 as captain-coach. Hawthorn finished in 11th position for both of his seasons in charge, the latter in a non playing capacity although he did appear in one match that year.

paragraph: He was also briefly a boundary umpire, officiating in three league games.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holmesby, Russell and Main, Jim (2007). "The Encyclopedia of AFL Footballers". 7th ed. Melbourne: Bas Publishing.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ross, J. (ed), "100 Years of Australian Football 1897–1996: The Complete Story of the AFL, All the Big Stories, All the Great Pictures, All the Champions, Every AFL Season Reported", Viking, (Ringwood), 1996.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coaching record at AFL Tables

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile at Collingwood Forever

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Boyles Football Photos": Bill Twomey b1899.

description: Australian rules footballer

wikidata_label: Bill Twomey, Sr.

wikipedia_title: Bill Twomey Sr.


text:
prelate
Roman Catholic Church
Bishop of Natchez
Fivemiletown
County Tyrone
Dundalk
Marist
Paignton
Pontifical Gregorian University
profession
Society of Mary
ordained
Patriarch
Iulius Lenti
moral theology
Marist House of Studies
The Catholic University of America
Atlanta
Sacred Heart Church
debt
ledger
stained glass
confessional
furnace
choir
towers
rectory
president
Marist College
parochial school
Bishop of Natchez
Mississippi
Pope Pius X
episcopal consecration
James Blenk
SM
Edward Patrick Allen
John Baptist Morris
co-consecrators
missions
Catholic Church Extension Society
incorporated
George Mundelein
German
arsenic
World War I
Archbishop of New Orleans
Louisiana
Thomas Heslin
will

categories: Catholic University of America faculty,American Roman Catholic bishops,Pontifical Gregorian University alumni,Irish Roman Catholic bishops,Roman Catholic Diocese of Jackson,1863 births,Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923),People from Fivemiletown,1924 deaths

paragraph: John Edward Gunn

paragraph: John Edward Gunn (15 March 1863 – 19 February 1924) was an Irish-born prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Natchez from 1911 until his death in 1924.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life and ordination.

paragraph: The oldest of eleven children, John Gunn was born in Fivemiletown, County Tyrone, to Edward and Mary (née Grew) Gunn. From 1875 to 1880, he studied at St. Mary's College in Dundalk. He then attended the Marist House of Studies in Paignton, England (1880–1882) before furthering his studies in Rome at the Pontifical Gregorian University (1885–1890). While in Rome, he made his profession in the Society of Mary on 23 August 1884, and was ordained to the priesthood by Patriarch Iulius Lenti on 2 February 1890.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Professor.

paragraph: Gunn then taught at St. Mary's in Dundalk until 1892, when he became professor of moral theology at the Marist House of Studies at The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. In 1898 he was assigned to Atlanta, Georgia, where he served as pastor of the newly erected Sacred Heart Church. The parish was already in debt when he arrived, as evidenced by an entry he made in his ledger upon is arrival: "September 25, 1898. Cash on hand $0.00. Advanced by Father Gunn, $150." In February 1899 it was necessary for him to advance $360 more to meet current expenses. He there purchased an organ and 21 stained glass windows; installed confessionals, furnace, carpeting, and a choir and organ gallery; covered the two towers with copper; and added a second story to the rectory. During his pastorate at Sacred Heart, he also founded and served as the first president of the Marist College, and established a parochial school.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Bishop.

paragraph: On 29 June 1911, Gunn was appointed the sixth Bishop of Natchez, Mississippi, by Pope Pius X. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 29 August from Archbishop James Blenk, SM, with Bishops Edward Patrick Allen and John Baptist Morris serving as co-consecrators, at Sacred Heart Church. Upon Gunn's arrival that September, the diocese contained 75 churches, 46 priests, and 17,000 Catholics. He then began extensive pastoral visits to all the parishes and missions throughout the diocese, which covered nearly 47,000 square miles.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Chapel builder.

paragraph: He received significant assistance from the Catholic Church Extension Society, and incorporated the diocese in 1918. He became known as the "Chapel Builder," and by the time of his death, there were 149 churches and over 31,000 Catholics in the diocese. In 1915, while attending the installation of Archbishop George Mundelein at Detroit, a German spy laced the soup at a banquet with arsenic, poisoning Gunn and four others, but the Bishop survived. Following the end of World War I, he was considered for the Archbishop of New Orleans, Louisiana, but he refused the efforts.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: By January 1924, his failing health left him in critical condition. Gunn later died from a heart attack, aged 60. He is buried beside his predecessor, Bishop Thomas Heslin. In his will he states, "In life and in death I am proud of three things: My Irish birth, my Catholic faith, and my American citizenship. I tried to translate my love for all three into service and sacrifice."

description: Catholic bishop

wikidata_label: John Edward Gunn

wikipedia_title: John Edward Gunn


text: street team

text: Army of Toy Soldiers

text: The Tonight Show

text: Dr. Horrible

text: steampunk music

text: busking

text: Land of the Lost

text: 2009 movie version

text: The Clockwork Cabaret

text: Gilded Age Records

text: industrial

text: European folk

text: jazz

text: hip-hop

text: swing

text: Duck and Cover

text: Rue Morgue Magazine

text: Igor Stravinsky

text: Tom Waits

text: Pink Floyd

text: Queen

text: Mike Patton

text: Nine Inch Nails

text: Danny Elfman

text: Beck

text: John Zorn

text: mad scientist

text: buzzsaws

text: back-story

text: conspiracy theories

text: mind control

text: mad scientist

text: internet personality

text: Agamemnon Tiberius Vacuum

text: public service announcement

text: transhumanism

text: freedom of thought

text: subjective reality

text: Veronique Chevalier

text: Joss Whedon

text: Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog

text: "Wired" magazine

text: Maurissa Tancharoen

text: fan club

text: street team

text: Kate Lambert

text: dieselpunk

text: cyberpunk

text: Toys for Tots

text: Light the Night Walk

text: Adopt a Highway

text: Disney theme parks

text: Pixar

text: WWII

text: worldview

text: San Diego Comic Con

text: MCM Expo

text: Doo Dah Parade

text: Route 66

text: Professor Elemental

text: Child's Play

text: Minecraft

text: Alzheimer's Society

text: List of YouTube personalities

text: Doctor Steel's MySpace

categories: American hip hop musicians,American Internet celebrities,Steampunk music,Bands with fictional stage personas,American industrial metal musical groups,Internet memes,Fictional emperors and empresses,American industrial musicians,Gothic rock musicians,Musical groups from Los Angeles,Songwriters from California

paragraph: Doctor Steel

paragraph: Rion Vernon, known by his stage name Doctor Steel (full name, Doctor Phineas Waldolf Steel) is an American musician and internet personality from Los Angeles. He performed on rare occasions with a "backup band", claiming that a fictitious robot band had malfunctioned. Shows incorporated puppetry, multimedia and performances by female members ("Nurses" and "Scouts") of his street team, The Army of Toy Soldiers. Steel made a brief appearance on "The Tonight Show" and has had numerous interviews. He was the subject of an article in "Wired" magazine regarding allegations that "Dr. Horrible" had copied his style. Steel has frequently been cited as an example of steampunk music.

paragraph: Section::::Musical career.

paragraph: Steel began publicly performing in 1999, essentially busking on the streets of Los Angeles. A few years later, he began performing at venues like The Key Club and the California Institute of Abnormalarts. His live shows combined music with puppetry and video projection that reflect the stories and meanings of the songs.

paragraph: The albums "Dr. Steel" and "Dr. Steel II: Eclectic Boogaloo" were released digitally in 2001, followed by "People of Earth" in 2002. "The Dr. Steel Collection" (2004) was Steel's first CD release, featuring several previously released tracks, some slightly altered. "The Dr. Steel Collection" also features the track "Land of the Lost," about the 1970s version of the show by the same name. Some attempts were made to get the song into the soundtrack of 2009 movie version of "Land of the Lost", but they were unsuccessful.

paragraph: Steel's second CD release was "The Dr. Steel Read-A-Long Album" (2006). It was a limited distribution and quickly sold out. The album art included a recreation of the sleeve of read-along records, and the disc design resembled that of a vinyl record. In 2007, Steel re-released the first three albums, once again in digital format.

paragraph: Steel's music can often be heard on a number of steampunk radio broadcasts that stream worldwide, such as The Clockwork Cabaret. His song "Boogieman Boogie" was also included in a compilation of steampunk music released by Gilded Age Records.

paragraph: Section::::Musical career.:Musical style.

paragraph: Steel's music is eclectic in genre, often combining the noise and distortion of industrial with aspects of European folk, classical, and even jazz, as well as hip-hop, opera and swing. Many songs feature samples from vintage public service announcements and educational films, such as Duck and Cover. "Rue Morgue Magazine" described the sound as "Industrial Hip-Hop Opera". Steel cited, as some of his musical influences, Igor Stravinsky, Tom Waits, Pink Floyd, Queen, Mike Patton, Nine Inch Nails, Danny Elfman, Beck, and John Zorn.

paragraph: Section::::Musical career.:Stage persona.

paragraph: On stage, and in all public performances and interviews, Steel maintained the appearance of a mad scientist bent on conquering the world and becoming the future World Emperor. He claimed to be a former toymaker who, in a fit of rage over being fired for creating drastic designs such as babies with buzzsaws for hands, burned down the factory he worked at and was committed to a psychiatric institution. This back-story relates that Steel escaped the sanitarium and retreated to a deserted island laboratory, where he became bent on world conquest in order to create a "Utopian Playland" where his toy designs could be enjoyed. As a mad scientist, Steel is obsessed with conspiracy theories, giant robots, baking cupcakes and "mind control cookies", and experimenting with hamsters.

paragraph: In appearance, Steel drew on the mad scientist archetype, dressing in a white PVC lab coat (with comically large black buttons), black PVC gloves, black boots, shaved head, sinister goatee, and antique welder's goggles. When not in his "mad scientist" costume, Steel typically dressed in a very aristocratic neo-Victorian steampunk style, while still retaining his goggles. He was never seen without the goggles.

paragraph: Section::::Musical career.:Retirement.

paragraph: In 2010, Dr. Steel announced plans to begin work on a new album, entitled "Toymonger." However, in July 2011, after a long period of silence from him, it was announced that Doctor Steel had retired from the music industry, and a personal letter from Steel to the current head of the Army of Toy Soldiers in January 2012 confirmed this. (However, there was no other "official" or public announcement.) The Army of Toy Soldiers have decided to continue on as an organization, switching their focus from promoting the entertainer to promoting the philosophy he presented, such as the importance of creativity and building one's own Utopian Playland.

paragraph: Section::::Promotional videos and web videos.

paragraph: Doctor Steel appeared in numerous short videos released on his website and on his YouTube channel. One such is a six-minute "propaganda" film called "Building a Utopian Playland", which ostensibly outlined his plans for world domination. Another is a series called "The Dr. Steel Show", set in his fictitious lab on his fictitious private island. Episode 3, which is the official music video for his song, "Back and Forth", and featured video clips sent in by Toy Soldiers, was showcased on MTV's website as a part of their online video series, "Steampunk Infiltrates The Mainstream". Steel also appeared in a video with fellow internet personality Agamemnon Tiberius Vacuum.

paragraph: Steel also released what he called "public service announcements" covering philosophical subjects such as transhumanism, freedom of thought, and subjective reality. (As a transhumanist, Dr. Steel has also been interviewed on his views by the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, and has even published a paper on the subject.) Finally, the Toy Soldiers Unite website features a series of videos called "Ask Dr. Steel", in which Steel himself answered questions asked by Toy Soldiers. In May 2010, Doctor Steel's videos were featured in one of Veronique Chevalier's Red Velvet Variety Shows.

paragraph: In May 2010, Dr. Steel released a music video to his song, "Childhood Don't a-Go-Go", directed by Tony Leonardi III.

paragraph: Section::::Dr. Horrible controversy.

paragraph: In 2008, Joss Whedon released a short musical film online entitled "Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog". Fans of Steel, and Steel himself, noted the similarities between Dr. Steel and Dr. Horrible:

paragraph: BULLET::::- both featured singing mad scientists who produced web videos;

paragraph: BULLET::::- both had an "Ask Dr. ___" segment;

paragraph: BULLET::::- the name of the production was similar to the title of one of Steel's albums, "Dr. Steel Read-A-Long".

paragraph: This attracted the attention of national media and was reported in Coilhouse and also "Wired" magazine, in which Dr. Horrible co-writer Maurissa Tancharoen responded, "All we have to say on the subject is we've never heard of Dr. Steel before." "There's room for everyone in this party," she added.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dr. Steel" (2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dr. Steel II: Eclectic Boogaloo" (2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "People of Earth" (2002)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Dr. Steel Collection" (2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dr. Steel Read-A-Long" (2006)

paragraph: Section::::Army of Toy Soldiers.

paragraph: The Army of Toy Soldiers (formerly Dr. Steel's Army of Toy Soldiers; also known as Toy Soldiers Unite after the name of their website) was originally Dr. Steel's fan club and street team, and played into the Dr. Steel fiction, in that it was allegedly a tool in his plan for global domination. The Army considers itself a movement for social change, and since Steel's retirement it has begun to distance itself from Steel, but continue as an organization dedicated to promoting fun and its members' creative endeavors.

paragraph: The website for the organization, referred to playfully as the "digital bunker", was created by the then head of Dr. Steel's fan club, steampunk model and fashion designer Kate Lambert, aka "Sergeant Kato", in 2006. After Steel's retirement, Kato turned over the site to its current administrators, and most information regarding Steel was moved to an archive site.

paragraph: The Toy Soldier Army has four main regiments: Toy Soldiers, Nurses, Toy Scouts and Engineers. (Originally, the Nurse and Scout regiments were reserved for females within the Army, whereas people of any gender could belong to the Toy Soldier regiment, but after Dr. Steel's retirement this was changed, and Nurses and Scouts became open to anyone.) The Army is further divided into divisions based upon geographical location as well as divisions based on creative interests ("Special Ops").

paragraph: The Army is currently led by the admin of the website. There are no ranks – all Toy Soldiers are considered equal – although Toy Soldiers often give themselves fanciful "ranks" as part of the fun. However, Toy Soldiers who go "above and beyond" may be awarded the honorary title of "Yellow Jacket". Originally this title was given personally by Doctor Steel, but since Dr. Steel's retirement this award has been given out by the admins of the official website. To date, only 51 have achieved the status of Yellow Jacket.

paragraph: Section::::Army of Toy Soldiers.:Structure.:Uniforms.

paragraph: Toy Soldiers wear paramilitary "uniforms" with patches and color schemes, but are encouraged to design their own uniform so long as the required patches and colors are used. The basic color scheme for soldiers is black with yellow trim, although red trim may also be used sparingly. Female nurses generally wear white nurse uniforms with red trim, although a brown military uniform with garrison cap is also worn (see inset image). Scouts generally wear beige tops and black skirts or slacks. Engineers generally wear black overalls or coveralls, or black or white lab coats.

paragraph: The original "traditional" uniforms designed by Kato were dieselpunk inspired. A new set of uniform concepts released on the Army's website in 2013, designed by Sgt. Grinner, have a decidedly more cyberpunk appearance.

paragraph: Toy Soldiers continue to promote Dr. Steel's philosophy, individually through "missions", while larger group events are known as "operations" or "invasions". Some Soldiers use their connections and access to the media for promotion, while others may choose to "propagandize" their school or workplace. Toy Soldiers frequently do charity and volunteer work in uniform, such as starting local clothing or toy drives and even donating to drives such as Toys for Tots, Light the Night Walk and Adopt a Highway. The Toy Soldiers have their own holiday, "Toy Soldier Day," which is observed every year on March 4 (a play on "march forth"), and simultaneous invasions of Disney theme parks worldwide take place on the nearest Saturday to this day. (Without directly naming TSU, Disney•Pixar referenced the TSU-created holiday on March 4, 2015 in a tweet on their official Twitter page.)

paragraph: Section::::Army of Toy Soldiers.:Structure.:Operations.:Promotional material ("Propaganda").

paragraph: Promotional material for the Toy Soldiers is referred to as "propaganda". The decision to use a term with such charged connotations was a deliberate satirical allusion to famous groups in the past who had plans for world domination, in order to spotlight or "hang a lampshade" on the tricks of mass manipulation. Some of the material was designed and created by Steel himself (such as the "propaganda posters", designed to resemble WWII propaganda posters), but Steel encouraged his fans to design their own propaganda as well.

paragraph: Section::::Army of Toy Soldiers.:Structure.:Operations.:Motto and Philosophy.

paragraph: The Army's motto, "Building a Utopian Playland", comes from the title of Dr. Steel's "Propaganda Video" of the same name, and expresses the group's core philosophy. Originally, it related to Steel's alleged plans to "take over the world", but also meant a metaphorical altering of one's own worldview through making having fun one's first priority and realizing one's creative potential, and the belief that if everyone did this, the world could be transformed. Steel called this concept a "world "make"over".

paragraph: Section::::Army of Toy Soldiers.:Current activities.

paragraph: Since the announcement of Dr. Steel's retirement, the Army of Toy Soldiers have continued on as an organization dedicated to spreading the philosophy Dr. Steel presented. The Dr. Steel "angry face" logo (and uniform patch) has been dropped, having been replaced with Steel's grinning robot head logo.

paragraph: As an artistic network, the Army strongly encourages and supports independent artists and entertainers. The Army also continues to "invade" comic and steampunk conventions; they have had a regular fan tables at San Diego Comic Con and MCM Expo in London for several years now. Since 2010, the Toy Soldiers have participated yearly in the Doo Dah Parade in Pasadena, CA and have become "veteran crowd favorites." (In 2016, "Route 66 Magazine" ran a story on the Doo Dah parade, featuring a member of the Toy Soldiers on the front cover.) And in 2012, several members of the UK division were invited to participate in the filming of Professor Elemental's music video, "I'm British." The Army also has several semi-regular podcasts, which are released under the umbrella of the Toy Soldiers' YouTube channel, "TSU-TV", and its own recording label, "TSU Audio Labs".

paragraph: In keeping with its nonprofit status in the UK, in 2013 the Army donated its surplus budget over operating expenses to the children's charity Child's Play. In 2014, the Army teamed with MPserv.net to run a 48-hour livestreamed Minecraft marathon called "Operation: Dig Deep", raising over $1000 for Child's Play. In 2015 they repeated their gaming marathon, raising over $1500 for the Alzheimer's Society, and in 2016 the marathon raised over $2000 for e-NABLE, a grassroots community that creates 3-D printed prosthetics for children.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of steampunk works: Steampunk musicians

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of YouTube personalities

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Doctor Steel's MySpace

description: stage persona of an anonymous American musician

enwikiquote_title: Doctor Steel

wikidata_label: Doctor Steel

wikipedia_title: Doctor Steel


text:
Oakland, California
Scrubs
My New Role
Santa Clara, California
Pro Tools
Scrubs

categories: Songwriters from California,American musicians,1979 births,American male musicians,Living people

paragraph: Quinn Walker

paragraph: Quinn Malachi Walker (born October 3, 1979, Oakland, California), also known as "Mighty Quinn Walker," is an American musician and songwriter. He is best known for his song "My Road" which aired on ABC television network's "Scrubs" on February 3, 2009. Season 8 Episode 7 "My New Role".

paragraph: The online magazine, Digizine, ran a story on Walker in the summer 2007 issue, page 41, as a featured graduate of the Future Rhythm program in Santa Clara, California. It explained Walker's music production experiences with the software Pro Tools.

paragraph: In 2010 Walker released "My Road"(EP), a collection of 5 songs including the title track which appeared on ABC's "Scrubs" in 2009 and subsequent reruns.

description: American musician

wikidata_label: Quinn Walker

wikipedia_title: Quinn Walker


text:
United States Supreme Court
Bankhead-Jones Act
London, England
Chicago
North Division High School
LL.B.
Bankhead–Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937
League of Women Voters
Cook County Bar Association
Zeta Phi Beta
Zeta Phi Beta
Lambda Zeta chapter
Divine nine
Mason-Dixon line

categories: Zeta Phi Beta,African-American women lawyers,Lawyers from Chicago,American women lawyers,1926 in Washington, D.C.,1882 births,African-American lawyers

paragraph: Violette Neatley Anderson

paragraph: Violette Neatley Anderson (July 16, 1882 – December 24, 1937)she became the first African-American woman to practice law before the United States Supreme Court on January 29, 1926. She was one of the most prominent advocates of a landmark piece of legislation that helped secure rights and economic mobility for sharecroppers in the South, the Bankhead-Jones Act.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Violette Neatley Anderson was born in London, England, in 1882, to a German mother and a West Indian father. She moved to Chicago with her family as a small child.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: Anderson graduated from North Division High School in 1899 and attended Chicago Athenaeum. Her interest in law began when she worked as a court reporter from 1905 to 1920. She attended Chicago Seminar of Sciences between 1912 and 1915 and went on to receive her LL.B. from Chicago Law School in 1920.

paragraph: Section::::Married life.

paragraph: Violette Neatley Anderson first married Albert Johnson, however this marriage ended in divorce. Then, Ms. Anderson married Dr.Daniel H. Anderson in 1906. Which was her second husband, and this is where she landed her last name.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Anderson opened her own private practice after graduating. She went on to serve as the first female City Prosecutor for Chicago from 1922 to 1923. On January 29, 1926, she was the first Black woman to be admitted to practice for the Supreme Court of the United States.

paragraph: She also operated a court reporting agency, as an assistant prosecuting attorney, and became vice-president of the Cook County Bar Association (1920-1926). Additionally, by becoming one of the first Black woman to graduate from law school in Illinois, she also became the first African-American woman admitted to practice by examination by the state board of examiners, the African-American woman admitted to practice before the Supreme Court, the first woman to engage in her own active law practice in the state of Illinois, the first African American woman admitted to the United States District Court, Eastern Division of Illinois, the African American woman appointed to the position of assistant prosecuting attorney in Chicago, and the first African American Vice-president of the Cook County Bar Association (1920-1926).

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Bankhead–Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937.

paragraph: Violette Neatly Anderson was an instrumental force in testifying in favor of The Bankhead-Jones Act. Additionally, Anderson was an active force in lobbying the US Congress for support of the Bankhead-Jones Act in 1936. This Act aimed to provide sharecroppers and tenant farmers with low-interest loans to buy small farms, and was designed to transform poor agriculturalists farm workers to farm owners. This Act was eventually signed into law in 1937 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

paragraph: Section::::Group membership.

paragraph: Anderson was a member of the Federal Colored Women's Clubs and the League of Women Voters. She served as president of Friendly Big Sisters League of Chicago, the first vice-president of Cook County Bar Association, and secretary of the Idlewild Lot Owners Association. She also served as an executive board member of the Chicago Council of Social Agencies.

paragraph: Section::::Group membership.:Zeta Phi Beta.

paragraph: She is known for her work with the sorority Zeta Phi Beta. Before becoming the 8th Grand Basileus, she was a member. Before she died, she donated her summer home in Idlewild to the sorority. The organization recognizes her every year in the month of April on "Violette Anderson Day."

paragraph: As National President, Violette Anderson asked Lambda Zeta chapter in 1937 to host an upcoming national convention in Houston, Texas. No other black Greek-lettered organization (one of the Divine nine) had ever held a national convention south of the Mason-Dixon line . This was a notable success, acknowledging the fact that the meeting was held in the black business sector of downtown Houston. Meals had to be provided by the YWCA cafeteria, as there were no restaurants available to blacks in downtown Houston. She also helped house various delegates, members, and friends during the conference.

wikidata_label: Violette Neatley Anderson

wikipedia_title: Violette Neatley Anderson


text:
Whitechapel
Lewis
Sarah Hallam Douglass
William
Juliet
Covent Garden company of actors
Double Falsehood
Robert Bensley
Miles Peter Andrews
Thomas Dibdin
Kensington

categories: 1746 births,1826 deaths,People from Whitechapel

paragraph: Isabella Mattocks

paragraph: Isabella Mattocks (1746 – June 25, 1826) was a British actress and singer.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Hallam (later Mattocks) was baptised in Whitechapel in 1746 by Lewis and Sarah Hallam Douglass. Her father and her uncle William were also actors. When her father and William decided to try acting in America they took three of Isabella's siblings, but she was left in the care of her aunt, Ann, and her husband John Barrington in England.

paragraph: In 1762 she made her debut in the adult role of Juliet. For most of her childhood except for a few years at school she played small parts in the productions of the Covent Garden company of actors. When she was sixteen she joined the company and in 1765 she married her leading man George Mattocks. Hallam's guardians who she said treated her like true parents opposed the match for reasons that are not certain.

paragraph: In 1767 she appeared in a revival of Double Falsehood which is play that claims links to William Shakespeare.

paragraph: The couple would appear together taking leading roles although Isabella was considered too short for some roles. By the time younger actresses were competing for her roles she was established as a character actor. She was believed to have had an affair with Robert Bensley but her marriage to George survived.

paragraph: She was known for performing epilogues and these were sometimes written for her by the politician and playwright Miles Peter Andrews. Mattocks was to remain with the Covent garden acting company for 46 years. Thomas Dibdin noted that her last part was on 7 June 1808, noting how long she had amused her audiences. She only daughter who married Nathaniel Huson in 1801. Huson was a barrister who swindled Mattocks out of £6000. However a benefit was staged for her and this replaced over £1000 of what had been lost.

paragraph: Mattocks died in Kensington in 1826.

description: English actress and singer

wikidata_label: Isabella Mattocks

wikipedia_title: Isabella Mattocks


text:
Roman Emperor
Constantius Chlorus
Flavia Maximiana Theodora
Constantine the Great
Licinius
Mediolanum
Valerius Licinianus Licinius
Thessalonica
Christianity
Arian
First Council of Nicaea
Constanţa
Romania
Constantia

categories: 4th-century Roman women,Converts to Christianity from pagan religions,Ancient Roman women,Flavii,Roman empresses,290s births,4th-century Romans,330s deaths,4th-century Arian Christians,4th-century deaths,Julii,Constantinian dynasty

paragraph: Flavia Julia Constantia

paragraph: Flavia Julia Constantia (after 293 – c. 330) was the daughter of the Roman Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife, Flavia Maximiana Theodora.

paragraph: In 313, Emperor Constantine the Great, who was the half-brother of Constantia, gave her in marriage to his co-emperor Licinius, on occasion of their meeting in Mediolanum. She bore a son, Valerius Licinianus Licinius, in 315, and when the struggle between Constantine and Licinius began in 316, she stayed on her husband's side. A second war started between the two emperors in 324; after Licinius' defeat, Constantia interceded with Constantine for her husband's life. Constantine spared Licinius' life, and obliged him to live in Thessalonica as a private citizen, but the following year (325), he ordered that Licinius be killed. A second blow for Constantia was the death, also by order of Constantine, of her son Valerius.

paragraph: In the following years, Constantia lived at her brother's court, receiving honors (her title was "nobilissima femina"). Constantia was her brother's favourite sister and proof of such favour is that he minted coins with her image and with the title "Constantia Soror Constantini AVG," or, "Constantia, Sister of Constantine Augustus" ("AVG" is an abbreviation of "Augustus," the center consonant being a "manuscript U," not a "V"). She converted to Christianity, supporting the Arian party at the First Council of Nicaea (325).

paragraph: The city of Constanţa, Romania is named after her.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantia, at "De Imperatoribus Romanis"

description: Roman empress

wikidata_label: Flavia Julia Constantia

wikipedia_title: Flavia Julia Constantia


text: Walter Aston, 7th Lord Aston of Forfar

text: Lord Aston of Forfar

text: peerage of Scotland

text: Representative Peers

text: In 1769 King George III

text: The Gentleman's Magazine

text: Grosvenor Chapel

text: Bath Abbey

text: 9th Lord Aston of Forfar

text: Lord Aston of Forfar

paragraph: Walter Aston, 8th Lord Aston of Forfar

paragraph: Walter Aston, 8th Lord Aston of Forfar (10 October 1732 – 29 July 1805) was the son of Edward Aston and Anne Bayley.

paragraph: In 1763, Walter succeeded his childless cousin Walter Aston, 7th Lord Aston of Forfar, as Lord Aston of Forfar in the peerage of Scotland.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Before inheriting the barony, Aston worked as a watchmaker.

paragraph: Scottish Peers were entitled to vote to elect 16 Representative Peers to the House of Lords. In 1768 Lord Aston's right to vote in these elections raised objections as he was not listed on the Union Roll as right to the title Lord Aston of Forfar was not confirmed.

paragraph: In 1769 King George III awarded Lord Aston an annual pension of £300. In this award King George refers to Walter as "Walter, Lord Aston, Baron of Forfar".

paragraph: The Gentleman's Magazine referred to him as "an inoffensive man of rather a convivial turn".

paragraph: Lord Aston of Forfar died in London on 29 July 1805 at the age of 72. He was buried at the Grosvenor Chapel in London.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Walter married Anne Hutchinson on 28 May 1766. Anne was the daughter of Peter Hutchinson. She died in 1808 and was buried at Bath Abbey. They had three children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elizabeth Jane, who died young

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walter, a Church of England Clergyman who succeeded his father as 9th Lord Aston of Forfar.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Bailey, who was lost at sea, and elder son Walter Aston,

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Courthope, William (editor). (1836.) "Debrett's Complete Peerage of The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, 21st edition". Printed for J. G. & F. Rivington and others by G. Woodfall: London, page 400. Retrieved 2007-10-11.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lord Aston of Forfar

description: British noble

wikidata_label: Walter Aston, 8th Lord Aston of Forfar

wikipedia_title: Walter Aston, 8th Lord Aston of Forfar


text:
rooster
bullfighter
José Gómez Ortega
Juan Belmonte
Pastora Imperio
Joe Frank
El Gallo's Biography (in Spanish)

categories: 1882 births,Spanish bullfighters,1960 deaths

paragraph: Rafael Gómez Ortega

paragraph: Rafael Gómez Ortega, (July 16, 1882 – May 25, 1960) also known as "El Gallo" ("the rooster") was an early twentieth century bullfighter. He came from a family of famous bullfighters, including his matador father, Fernando Gómez García and matador younger brother, José Gómez Ortega. He is today remembered for several of his unique fighting techniques such as the "espantada" - or "sudden flight", which simply consisted of him fleeing when the bull entered the ring. Other techniques included fighting bulls from a chair. He is remembered by the phrase, "all of us artists have bad days." His fights were considered amusement to the audience, and he was brought out of retirement seven times because of this "sportsmanship". In his last fight, in October 1918, he claimed he spared the bull because it "winked" at him. The audience again felt this was hilarious, but Ortega's brother, José (also known as "Joselito El Gallo"), concerned about the family honor, hopped into the ring and killed the bull.

paragraph: One of his sentences made it to be a common phrase in Spanish: "Lo que no pue ser no pue ser y ademas es imposible" which can be translated into "what can't be, can't be and moreover it is impossible".

paragraph: Ortega later wasted his fortune, and was supported by Juan Belmonte. He was married to Pastora Imperio, a famous flamenco dancer.

paragraph: Radio artist Joe Frank briefly tells Gómez's story in 'The Eighty-Yard Run'

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- El Gallo's Biography (in Spanish)

description: Spanish bullfighter

wikidata_label: Rafael Gómez Ortega

wikipedia_title: Rafael Gómez Ortega


text: Mexican

text: archaeologist

text: pre-Columbian

text: Mesoamerica

text: Maya

text: Palenque

text: Pakal

text: Paris

text: France

text: Havana

text: Cuba

text: Karl Marx

text: citizenship

text: Palace

text: K'inich Janaab' Pakal

text: Temple of the Inscriptions

text: Montreal, Quebec

text: Canada

text: Fotobiografía de Alberto Ruz Lhuillier

categories: Mexican people of Cuban descent,Mayanists,Mexican archaeologists,20th-century Mesoamericanists,Mexican Mesoamericanists,1979 deaths,Mexican people of French descent,Mesoamerican archaeologists,French emigrants to Mexico,1906 births

paragraph: Alberto Ruz Lhuillier

paragraph: Alberto Ruz Lhuillier (27 January 1906 – 25 August 1979) was a Mexican archaeologist. He specialized in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeology and is well known for leading the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) excavations at the Maya site of Palenque, where he found the tomb of the Maya ruler, Pakal. Ruz Lhuillier is sometimes referred to as the "Hitchcock of Archaeology".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Ruz Lhuillier was born in Paris, France to a Cuban father and a French mother. He went to college in Havana, Cuba, where he learned about the impact of American interference in Cuban affairs and he became deeply involved in the socialist revolution to oust Cuba’s US puppet dictators and to free his country from ‘yanqui’ imperialism. In addition, these early student life experiences exposed him to other students who espoused the theories and ideas of Karl Marx. Later Ruz would use some of these theories to explain the development and fall of ancient Maya civilization. He moved to Mexico in 1936, later acquiring Mexican citizenship.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: After the unexpected death of Miguel Ángel Fernández in 1945, Ruz Lhuillier took charge of the INAH's investigations at Palenque. While he served as the INAH's southern Director of Pre-Hispanic Monuments, Ruz Lhuillier excavated much of the city and restored and conserved such edifices as the Palace. In 1948, he discovered the entrance to the tomb of the Maya ruler, K'inich Janaab' Pakal, hidden beneath the Temple of the Inscriptions. After four seasons of clearing the rubble-filled stairway, he found Pakal's sarcophagus and body. Ruz Lhuillier's team also found the Tablet of the Palace, which served as the back to a throne, and the Tablet of the Slaves which depicts a "cahal" amid bound captives. Ruz Lhuillier continued working at the site until 1958.

paragraph: Ruz Lhuillier died in Montreal, Quebec, Canada on 25 August 1979. Several of his books on the Maya, including "Los Antiguos Mayas", were published posthumously.

paragraph: Honoring his works, the Mexican Government permits that his remains rest in peace in front of the Necropolis that was discovered by him at the maya site of Palenque, Chiapas.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Los Antiguos Mayas, Una Antologia" () - (January 1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "El Pueblo Maya" () - (January 1982)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Frente Al Pasado De Los Mayas" () - (January 1987)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "El Templo De Las Inscripciones, Palenque" () - (January 1992)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Palenque 1947-1958" - (January 2007)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fotobiografía de Alberto Ruz Lhuillier short biography in Spanish with many photos

description: Mexican mesoamericanist

wikidata_label: Alberto Ruz Lhuillier

wikipedia_title: Alberto Ruz Lhuillier


text: KG

text: Earl Marshal

text: magnate

text: Wars of the Roses

text: John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Katherine Neville

text: minor

text: ward

text: Henry VI

text: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: Normandy

text: Hundred Years' War

text: warden of the east march

text: Anglo-Scottish border

text: East Anglia

text: the Crown

text: Tower of London

text: factional

text: Richard, Duke of York

text: Edward

text: Battle of Towton

text: Duke of Norfolk

text: John

text: John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk

text: Katherine Neville

text: Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland

text: magnate

text: northern England

text: Henry V

text: minor

text: Henry VI

text: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester

text: farm

text: marks

text: exchequer

text: Hundred Years' War

text: wardship

text: arrange his marriage

text: Eleanor Bourchier

text: Earl Marshal

text: encumbered

text: dowager

text: dower

text: John, Lord Maltravers

text: grandfather

text: Maltravers' father

text: Elizabeth Fitzalan, Duchess of Norfolk

text: Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel

text: Parliament

text: Midlands

text: Lincolnshire

text: Calais

text: Philip the Good

text: Duke of Burgundy

text: livery

text: patronage

text: Warden of the Eastern March

text: Guînes

text: Oye

text: Archbishop John Kemp

text: peace conference

text: East Anglia

text: William de la Pole

text: parliamentary representation

text: Robert Wingfield

text: bound over

text: commissions

text: oyer and terminer

text: Norwich

text: Gladman's Insurrection

text: pilgrimage

text: Tower of London

text: Exchequer

text: John Fastolf

text: Chancery

text: Helen Castor

text: John Heydon

text: Hoo

text: R. L. Storey

text: bounty

text: arbitration

text: John, Baron Scrope of Masham

text: presentment

text: Ipswich

text: J.P

text: William Brandon

text: King's peace

text: Melton

text: gaol

text: Chancery

text: letters patent

text: mile

text: km

text: Framlingham

text: John de Vere, the Earl of Oxford

text: Jack Cade's Rebellion

text: Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk

text: affinity

text: outlaw

text: forfeited

text: gaoler

text: Bury St Edmunds

text: Lord Scales

text: Queen Margaret

text: Howards

text: John Fastolf

text: Richard of York

text: Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset

text: John Paston

text: Earl of Devon

text: Blackfriars

text: for his own protection

text: Dartford

text: protector

text: parliament

text: council

text: Ralph Griffiths

text: Leicester

text: pre-emptive strike

text: first Battle of St Albans

text: herald

text: Earl of Northumberland

text: Lord Clifford

text: Royal Standard bearer

text: Sir Philip Wentworth

text: Walsingham

text: Amiens

text: Jerusalem

text: Earl of Salisbury

text: Battle of Blore Heath

text: Battle of Ludford

text: a parliament

text: Coventry

text: attainted

text: Lancastrian

text: Edmund, Earl of Rutland

text: Dublin

text: Battle of Northampton

text: Colin Richmond

text: Christine Carpenter

text: Act of Accord

text: Warwick

text: Sandal

text: Battle of Wakefield

text: John Neville, Lord Montagu

text: were defeated

text: great council

text: Baynard's Castle

text: Edward, Earl of March

text: Battle of Towton

text: Charles Ross

text: Paston letters

text: Cambridge

text: rearguard

text: council of war

text: Doncaster

text: mustering

text: Pontefract

text: Philip A. Haigh

text: battle fatigue

text: flank

text: rout

text: Earls Marshal

text: coroner

text: Thomas Denys

text: gentry

text: Sheriff

text: Thetford Priory

text: John

text: William Bourchier, Count of Eu

text: Justice in Eyre

text: Henry Bourchier

text: tryst

text: John

text: Elizabeth

text: John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury

text: J. R. Lander

text: Michael Hicks

text: chivalry

text: King Henry VI, Part 3

text: William Shakespeare

text: BBC

text: An Age of Kings

text: Jeffry Wickham

text: The Wars of the Roses

text: Edward IV

text: David Hargreaves

text: Elizabethan

text: The Merry Devil of Edmonton

text: King Henry VI

text: Queen Elizabeth I's

text: W. W. Greg

text: Thomas Fuller

text: Sir John Falstaff

text: Henry IV, Part 2

text: Justice Shallow

text: page

text: John Oldcastle

text: John Fastolf

categories: FA-Class Middle Ages articles,People of the Wars of the Roses,Earls Marshal,1415 births,1461 deaths,Knights of the Garter,FA-Class biography articles,Earls of Nottingham,FA-Class military history articles,Barons Segrave,15th-century English people,Earls of Norfolk (1312),Barons Mowbray,Dukes of Norfolk

paragraph: John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk

paragraph: John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, KG, Earl Marshal (12 September 14156 November 1461) was a fifteenth-century English magnate who, despite having a relatively short political career, played a significant role in the early years of the Wars of the Roses. Mowbray was born in 1415, the only son and heir of John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, and Katherine Neville. He inherited his titles upon his father's death in 1432. As a minor he became a ward of King Henry VI and was placed under the protection of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, alongside whom Mowbray would later campaign in France. He seems to have had an unruly and rebellious youth. Although the details of his misconducts are unknown, they were severe enough for the King to place strictures upon him and separate him from his followers. Mowbray's early career was spent in the military, where he held the wartime office of Earl Marshal. Later he led the defence of England's possessions in Normandy during the Hundred Years' War. He fought in Calais in 1436, and during 1437–38 served as warden of the east march on the Anglo-Scottish border, before returning to Calais.

paragraph: Mowbray's marriage to Eleanor Bourchier in the early 1430s drew him into the highly partisan and complex politics of East Anglia, and he became the bitter rival of William de la Pole, Earl (later Duke) of Suffolk. Mowbray prosecuted his feuds with vigour, often taking the law into his own hands. This often violent approach drew the disapproving attention of the Crown, and he was bound over for massive sums and imprisoned twice in the Tower of London. His enemies, particularly de la Pole, also resorted to violent tactics. As a result, local gentry looked to Mowbray for leadership, but often in vain; De la Pole was a powerful local force and favourite of the King, while Mowbray was neither.

paragraph: As law and order collapsed in eastern England, national politics became increasingly factional, with popular revolts against the King's councillors. Richard, Duke of York, who by the 1450s felt excluded from government, grew belligerent. He rebelled twice, and both times Mowbray defended King Henry. Eventually Mowbray drifted towards York, with whom he shared an enmity towards de la Pole. For much of the decade, Mowbray was able to evade direct involvement in the fractious political climate, and aligned with York early in 1460 until York's death later that year. In April 1461, Mowbray was instrumental in Edward's victory at the Battle of Towton, bringing reinforcements late in the combat. He was rewarded by the new regime but did not live to enjoy it. He died in November 1461, and was succeeded as Duke of Norfolk by his only son, John.

paragraph: Section::::Background and youth.

paragraph: John Mowbray was the only son of John de Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, and his wife Katherine Neville, who was a daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, a powerful magnate in northern England. The younger Mowbray was born on 12 September 1415 while his father was in France campaigning with Henry V. Mowbray was seventeen at his father's death and still legally a minor. During his minority, his estates were granted by Henry VI to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester for a farm of 2000 marks (approximately £1,667). Until his majority, the Mowbray lands were administered by the English exchequer to the benefit of the crown, at a time when the government was in dire need of cash, due to the Hundred Years' War. Mowbray's wardship, and the right to arrange his marriage, was sold to Anne of Gloucester, Countess of Stafford for £2,000. By March 1434, Anne had arranged for Mowbray's marriage to her daughter Eleanor Bourchier.

paragraph: As a young adult, Mowbray appears to have been raucous and troublesome, and surrounded himself with equally unruly followers. This seems to have drawn the King's attention: Mowbray had only recently—with the other lords—sworn an oath in parliament not to recruit or welcome villains and wrong-doers into his affinity, nor to maintain them. He was summoned before the King and his council. Mowbray was instructed in how to conduct himself henceforth, and a precise regimen was imposed upon him. Exactly which aspects of Mowbray's behaviour were viewed as problematic is unknown, but since it resulted in unprecedented council-imposed restrictions upon him, his conduct must have been viewed as "abnormal". The ordinances not only dictated the time he should go to bed at night and rise in the morning, The conditions addressed his demeanour; his unruly followers were dismissed, to be replaced with those deemed suitable by Henry VI. Their stated role was to turn Mowbray towards "good reule and good governaunce," and they were not just to guide Mowbray but to report any disobedience of the council's instructions back to that body.

paragraph: Section::::Background and youth.:Inheritance.

paragraph: On his father's death in 1432, Mowbray inherited the office of Earl Marshal, but not yet his father's lands or titles. Mowbray's father lacked full control of his estates, as they were encumbered by two Mowbray dowagers, the elder Mowbray's mother Elizabeth Fitzalan (until her death in 1425), and his sister-in-law, Constance Holland. They each held a third of the inheritance as their dower, a situation which repeated itself on the elder Mowbray's death in 1432, leaving Constance and Katherine as the two dowagers. Constance died in 1437, but Mowbray's mother survived until around 1483. Because of this, the historian Rowena Archer—who made one of the few full-length studies of the Mowbray family—described Mowbray as inheriting a "hopeless" and "onerous" legacy. It also had political consequences for the future. As he never held much property in the counties where his inheritance was (only holding, for example, seven of the twenty-six manors held by the Mowbrays in Norfolk and Suffolk), his influence was thus restricted there.

paragraph: Immediately after his father's death, Mowbray made claim to the earldom of Arundel, setting him against John, Lord Maltravers, who had also made claim. This was an old dispute. Mowbray's father and grandfather had also sought the earldom, blocking Maltravers' father's claim. Mowbray based his right through his grandmother Elizabeth Fitzalan, Duchess of Norfolk; Maltravers through his great-grandfather Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel. In July 1433 Mowbray presented a petition to Parliament (receiving special permission to attend as a minor). Mowbray—"in a rather remarkable decision," says Archer—lost the case. Maltravers, though, died in May 1435 and so was never summoned to parliament under his new title.

paragraph: Mowbray's ancestors had been largely Midlands magnates based around Lincolnshire estates. Even his father—after he became duke of Norfolk and inheritited his mother's East Anglian dower lands—was often an absentee lord. Mowbray's father was thus never able to establish a sizeable (or "particularly coherent") regional following there, and this was the situation Mowbray inherited.

paragraph: Section::::Royal service.

paragraph: In August 1436 Mowbray accompanied the Duke of Gloucester on a campaign to relieve Calais, then under siege by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. The expedition, in which Mowbray provided a contingent, was "one of the largest English armies assembled during the fifteenth century." The campaign was a success, and Burgundy was forced to withdraw. On 13 September that year, Mowbray received livery of his inheritance, and immediately began a busy period devoted to royal service. In 1437, possibly because of Gloucester's patronage, Mowbray was appointed Warden of the Eastern March for a one-year term. He had little experience of the north of England, yet was paid wartime wages of £5,000 to campaign against the Scots.

paragraph: Mowbray returned to Calais and Guînes in 1438, leading an expedition to strengthen their defenses as Burgundy still presented a threat. Although he shortly after returned to England, in June 1439 he was again back in Calais, at Oye, escorting Archbishop John Kemp's diplomatic mission to the peace conference. Possibly Mowbray disapproved of royal foreign policy, which was then aimed at making peace with the French.

paragraph: For much of the 1430s, Mowbray had problems in East Anglia, where the bulk of his estates now lay. William de la Pole become increasingly powerful, both at court and in the region, and was Mowbray's biggest rival. Mowbray had enough political clout in the 1430s to control parliamentary representation in Suffolk, but the local importance of the duke weakened his grasp. Mowbray clashed with de la Pole, and committed many illegalities doing so. These included damaging property of rivals, assaults, false allegations of outlawry (with confiscation of goods), and even murder.

paragraph: For Mowbray, East Anglia as the locus of his landed authority was forced upon him since this was where the majority of his estates were located: much of his Lincolnshire inheritance was held by his mother as dower. He was then a newcomer to political society in the region, and had to share influence with others. By the time of his majority, de la Pole—with his links to central government and the King—was an established power in the region. He hindered Mowbray's attempts at regional domination for over a decade, leading to a feud that stretched from the moment Mowbray became Duke of Norfolk to the murder of de la Pole in 1450. The feud was often violent, and lead to fighting between their followers. In 1435, Robert Wingfield, Mowbray's steward of Framlingham, led a group of Mowbray retainers who murdered James Andrew, one of de la Pole's men. When local aldermen attempted to arrest Wingfield's party, the latter rained arrow fire upon the aldermen, but Mowbray secured royal pardons for those responsible.

paragraph: By 1440, de la Pole was a royal favourite. He instigated Mowbray's imprisonment on at least two occasions: in 1440 and in 1448. The first saw him bound over for the significant amount of £10,000, and confined to living within the royal Household, preventing him from returning to seek revenge in East Anglia. Likewise, apart from an appointment to commissions of oyer and terminer in Norwich in 1443 (after the suppression of Gladman's Insurrection), he received no other significant offices or patronage from the crown. A recent biographer of Mowbray's, the historian Colin Richmond, has described this as Mowbray's "eclipse". Richmond suggests that soon after his last imprisonment in 1449, Mowbray undertook a pilgrimage to Rome; a licence for him to do so had been granted three years earlier.

paragraph: De la Pole fought back with what one contemporary labelled "greet hevyng an shoving." He was successful in doing so. Within a couple of years, Mowbray could not protect his retainers as he had previously done. A Paston letter tells how Robert Wingfield, who was involved in a bitter dispute with one Robert Lyston, "procured and exited the wurthi prince the Duke of Norffolk to putte oute ageyn the seid Robert Lyston" from the latter's Suffolk manors. Lyston, with de la Pole's support, repeatedly sued Wingfield until in 1441 Wingfield was imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1440, Mowbray was able to influence the Exchequer to quash Wingfield's fines; but Mowbray's success was fleeting. Mowbray was more successful in his support of John Fastolf—in one of the latter's many lawsuits 1441, and was able to impose an advantageous settlement (for Fastolf) in Chancery. Generally, though, says Helen Castor, Mowbray's influence "proved woefully inadequate" to protect and defend his retainers and tenants to the degree they could reasonably expect from their lord. It was his supporters' misfortune, one historian has said, that "Norfolk's power never matched the status attributed to him".

paragraph: Mowbray's personal and political situation did not improve over the following decade. Between 1440 and 1441 he was imprisoned in the Tower following a dispute with John Heydon, who was close to de la Pole. Mowbray was bound over on 2 July 1440 for the "enormous" sum of 10,000 marks, had to reside in the King's household, while swearing no further  harm to Heydon.

paragraph: Section::::Feud with William de la Pole.:Crime and disorder in East Anglia.

paragraph: In 1443 Mowbray and Wingfield fell out over Hoo manor. Wingfield had received Hoo from Mowbray's father, but Mowbray wanted it returned. The dispute fell into violence; R. L. Storey described Mowbray's "methods of argument" as exceptionally belligerent. According to Storey the duke "brought a force of men, with cannon and other siege engines, battered Wingfield's house at Letheringham, forced an entry, ransacked the building and removed valuables amounting to nearly £5,000."

paragraph: Wingfield deserted Mowbray in light of the continuing attacks over Hoo, and offered a bounty of 500 marks for the head of a Mowbray retainer. In November 1443 Mowbray was bound over for £2,000 to keep the peace with Wingfield and instructed to appear before the royal council the following April. The council ordered them to seek arbitration. This found against Mowbray, who had to pay Wingfield 3,500 marks as compensation for the damage the duke caused to Letheringham. He also had to recompense Wingfield for Hoo before he could get it back. It was presumably as part of these proceedings that Mowbray suffered his second bout of imprisonment in the Tower, which commenced on 28 August 1444; he was released six days later.

paragraph: In June 1446 Henry Howard, one of Mowbray's father's retainer, was murdered. He was visiting his sister-in-law (and Mowbray's aunt), Margaret Mowbray, at the time, as her house was only five miles (8.0 km) away. Howard's killers appear to have been retainers of John, Baron Scrope of Masham; who may have actively abetted the killing.  On 18 June 1446 Mowbray oversaw the presentment of an Ipswich jury to examine the murder, but the case stalled. Scrope petitioned the King on the basis that Mowbray's proceedings were "inaccurate and inherently malicious," and as a result, the King ordered that proceedings against Scrope's men cease. At least five of the thirteen jurors were Mowbray retainers. This may have been the only occasion on which Mowbray personally sat on a local King's Bench commission as the hearing J.P.

paragraph: The arbitration did not resolve their feud, and in 1447 Wingfield returned to the attack. Along with another ex-Mowbray retainer, William Brandon, he assaulted, robbed and threatened Mowbray's staff. Mowbray—as Justice of the Peace for Suffolk—ordered him to keep the King's peace but was ignored. Wingfield was then committed to Melton gaol, but three hours later Brandon broke him out of prison. Mowbray successfully applied to Chancery for letters patent ordering Brandon and Wingfield to not come within 7 miles (11 km) of Mowbray. This order too was ignored, and they stayed at Letheringham (only five miles from Mowbray's castle at Framlingham), and started breaking into Mowbray's retainers' houses in the area. Mowbray requested that a commission of oyer and terminer be organised to investigate Wingfield and Brandon, which was issued in late December 1447.

paragraph: By the early 1450s Mowbray believed that East Anglia was his to rule, and described himself as the "princypall rewle and governance throw all this schir" (i.e. that his was the "principal rule and governance through all this shire"). In the late 1440s, John de Vere, the Earl of Oxford, another enemy of de la Pole, sought Mowbray's "good Lordship". In 1451 Mowbray and de Vere collaborated in the county of Suffolk while investigating suspected participatants in Jack Cade's Rebellion, which had broken out the previous year. The region continued to experience disorder, and Mowbray's men were responsible for much of it. The unrest included the destruction of properties belonging to Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk. The Duke of Suffolk himself fell from power and was murdered in April 1450. In the following years, Mowbray's affinity, according to Richmond, committed "one outrage after another [and] the duke was either unable to control them, or chose not to do so". Mowbray used any means to defeat his opponents, including charging them with outlawry in another county without their knowledge, and then seizing their goods as forfeited to himself.

paragraph: Mowbray also forced the gaoler of Bury St Edmunds to release a man charged with murder into Mowbray's custody. According to the gaoler's later report, he had done so but only out of "fear and terror" of the Duke of Norfolk. Mowbray spent much of the early 1450s hunting down de la Pole's affinity.

paragraph: The removal of de la Pole did not advance Mowbray's power in East Anglia. He still had rivals in the region with wealth and court connections. The Earl of Oxford in particular wished to extend his landholdings from Essex into Suffolk, while Lord Scales had been granted the remnants of de la Pole's affinity by Queen Margaret. It was this lack of political connections (specifically, his exclusion from the King's council) that lead to his defeat against de la Pole. Mowbray was unsuccessful in influencing local commissions and in nominating parliamentary candidates for shire elections. In any case, the county of Norfolk already possessed a strong and relatively independent layer of wealthy gentry, including the Pastons, the Howards and those around John Fastolf. They were eager to augment their positions at the expense of a neighbour, even if a lord.

paragraph: During the 1450s, English politics become increasingly partisan and factional, with intermittent rises in violence and local disorder. Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450—directly aimed at royal favourites like de la Pole—explicitly named Mowbray as one of the King's "natural counsellors" necessary to reform the realm. Even so, Mowbray was part of a major royal army which eventually defeated the rebels.

paragraph: During the next crisis—the near-rebellion of Richard of York in Autumn 1450—Mowbray took York's side against the new royal favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. York canvassed Mowbray for support, as he was one of the few nobles openly critical of the court. For the former, this was a logical alliance as Mowbray was as bitter an enemy of Somerset as York was. Mowbray gathered his forces at Ipswich on 8 November (having ordered John Paston to meet him there "with as many clenly people as ye may get"), and may have travelled into London with York, who had also recruited locally. Thus, when he arrived for the parliament it was with a large, heavily armed force. Mowbray was appointed, with the Duke of York and Earl of Devon, to maintain law and order in the City of London for the duration of the parliament, though his retinue caused as much trouble as it prevented. On 1 December, they joined with York's force and attacked Somerset's house in Blackfriars. The battle lead to the beleaguered duke seeking refuge in the Tower of London in for his own protection. Two days later the King and his magnates rode through London with up to 10,000 men; Mowbray rode ahead with a force of 3,000. The display was carefully designed to quell any remnants of support for Cade's rebels.

paragraph: Mowbray's alliance with York was intermittent. York again rebelled in 1452, confronting a royal army at Dartford when Mowbray was with the King. For his service he received £200 and a gold cup. York may have abandoned the alliance because of his objection to Mowbray's violent behaviour in East Anglia at a time when York was presenting himself as a candidate of law and order. Mowbray's campaign against Somerset, meanwhile, continued unabated. In 1453, with the King incapacitated and York protector, Mowbray presented charges against Somerset in parliament, attacking his failure to prevent the loss of the "two so noble Duchies of Normandy and Guyenne" in France. Somerset was imprisoned in the Tower for the next year. In April 1454, Mowbray was asked to join the York's regency council, and although he swore to York's government, claimed to be too ill to attend.

paragraph: The King recovered his health early in 1455 and the protectorate came to an end. Somerset was released from the Tower and as a result, according to historian Ralph Griffiths, Mowbray may have ("quite rightly" he says) feared for his own safety.

paragraph: Section::::Later career and political crisis.:Wars of the Roses.

paragraph: Following the collapse of the 1454–55 protectorate, the Yorkist lords retreated to their estates, and Mowbray distanced himself from factional politics. An uneasy peace existed between the court and the Yorkists until April 1455, when the King summoned a Great Council to meet at Leicester the following month. The Duke of York feared that the purpose of this council was to destroy him; several chroniclers of the day suggest that Somerset was poisoning the King's mind against York. The duke and his Neville allies proceeded to raise an army from their northern estates. The King and a small force left London on 20 May; the Yorkists approached from the north with a speed calculated to surprise. In a pre-emptive strike, York and his allies intercepted the King at the first Battle of St Albans. Mowbray managed to avoid involvement in the fighting, even though, as Earl Marshal, his heralds were used during negotiations between the two camps. It is uncertain at what point Mowbray joined the battle, or if he even reached the King in time to take part. The fighting lasted only a short time, and though there were very few fatalities among the soldiery, the Earl of Northumberland, the Duke of Somerset and Lord Clifford were killed. They were not the only three of the King's most loyal supporters, but Percy and Somerset at least were bitter enemies of the Nevilles and York.

paragraph: After the battle, Mowbray threatened to hang the Royal Standard bearer, Sir Philip Wentworth, on hearing that Wentworth "cast it down and fled" the battlefield. Whatever part, if any, Mowbray played in the fighting, by now contemporaries viewed him as being sympathetic to York. It is likely that Mowbray was deliberately vacillating. He did not attend York's victory parliament in 1455, and might have gone on pilgrimage: he is known to have walked to Walsingham in 1456, and over the next two years may have travelled to Amiens, Rome or even Jerusalem.

paragraph: After four years' peace, civil war resumed in September 1459 when the Yorkist Earl of Salisbury fought off a royal ambush at the Battle of Blore Heath. Salisbury won that battle but was defeated soon after with the Duke of York at the Battle of Ludford. The Yorkists escaped into exile. Mowbray had taken neither side, but with the Yorkists exiled, when a parliament was called at Coventry, Mowbray attended. Here the Yorkists were attainted, and on 11 December 1459 Mowbray took an oath of loyalty to keep Henry VI on the throne. He received several royal commissions in the final months of Lancastrian rule.

paragraph: The Nevilles and Earl of March spent their exile in Calais, while York and his other son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, retired to Dublin. The Nevilles returned to England in June 1460. They were admitted into London, where they could plan an assault on the King's army, then based in Northampton. On 10 July the Yorkist army under Warwick and March defeated the royalist army at the Battle of Northampton, and once again the King was captured. Colin Richmond describes Mowbray as "more likely to have observed from a safe distance than participated" in it.

paragraph: York returned from exile in October 1460, and much to the frustration of his allies, made claim to the throne. Mowbray's reaction is uncertain as the chroniclers omit mention of him, but some historians note how Mowbray sided with them during the Yorkists' return from exile. The exact cause of his change of loyalty is unknown. Colin Richmond argues that the Lancastrian defeat at Northampton in June 1460 was fundamental, and Mowbray lost friends and colleagues. It is possible that King Henry's capture there encouraged him to desert the King. Christine Carpenter puts it down almost solely to Mowbray's failure to improve his position in Norfolk under Henry, while Castor points to the October 1460 Yorkist parliament being the turning point for Mowbray: possibly he believed that the attempted settlement contained in the Act of Accord was the best possible outcome.

paragraph: The King and Queen still had the support of much of the nobility and withdrew to the north to commence a campaign of ravaging York and the Nevilles' estates. This forced York, Salisbury and Rutland to move north on 9 December to suppress the Lancastrians. Mowbray remained in London with Salisbury's and York's sons, the Earls of Warwick and March. York and Salisbury's expedition ended in disaster. Choosing to engage a Lancastrian army outside the duke's castle at Sandal, the Yorkists were crushed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December. York Rutland and Salisbury, died in or soon after the battle. The Queen's army made its way south towards London. Mowbray, Warwick and his brother John Neville, Lord Montagu, marched north to intercept the approaching Lancastrians. Mowbray brought King Henry with them. The armies clashed on 17 February 1461 outside St Albans, where the Yorkists were defeated. Mowbray and Warwick abandoned the King to his wife and her supporters, and retreated to London before the victorious Lancastrian army could reach the city.

paragraph: Section::::Later career and political crisis.:Battle of Towton.

paragraph: The Lancastrian army marched on London, but were refused entry. On 3 March 1461 Mowbray attended a great council at Baynard's Castle, organised small group of Yorkist loyalists, and agreed to offer Edward, Earl of March the throne. The following day—indicating the urgency for resolution felt by the Yorkists by this stage— Mowbray was sent to East Anglia to "prepare for the war on the party of King Edward". The Lancastrian army had returned to the north where, on 29 March 1461, York and Lancaster met at the Battle of Towton. It was to be one of the longest and bloodiest battles fought on British soil, and "fought in bitter Yorkshire weather and no less bitter spirit", according to historian Charles Ross. On Mowbray's advice, Edward followed the Lancastrian army north with a new army.

paragraph: Mowbray seems to have recruited successfully; one of the Paston letters mentions that "every town hath waged and sent forth." He left East Anglia via Cambridge on 17 March 1461, where Sir John Howard, his cousin and retainer, and his forces joined Mowbray's. Mowbray's army may have constituted elements of the Yorkist rearguard, as such not part of the main army, and were intending to join with it later. He was still not with Warwick's and March's council of war at Doncaster in late March. There are different explanations for the delay. He may have faced difficulty in mustering troops; the army recently raised to fight at St Albans had been dispersed and this would require re-mustering. It is likely that—since he died only a few months later—Mowbray was too ill to keep up with the main Yorkist force.

paragraph: At Pontefract Mowbray transferred command to Howard, knowing that time was of the essence for the Yorkists and while he was with them, his soldiers could only march as quickly as he could. If Mowbray was ill, then it is unlikely that he fought personally; Boardman observed that "a sick man would never have survived such a strength-sapping ordeal, especially a noble in armour-plate." If his contingent was tasked with bringing up Yorkist artillery, which would have further slowed them down and they may have abandoned armoury en route to increase their speed.

paragraph: Mowbray arrived late but at a crucial point of the battle. His prolonged absence after a day's bitter fighting must have been a worry for the Yorkists, especially as they may have thought him up to a day's march away. Mowbray's absence presented an acute problem for them; Philip A. Haigh describes them, by four o'clock in the afternoon, as doomed without him. There must have been much messaging between Edward and Mowbray throughout the day, but battle fatigue had almost certainly set in on both sides by the time Mowbray's troops arrived on the eastern edge of the

paragraph: battlefield. A contemporary chronicler described the situation thus

paragraph: Mowbray launched a decisive attack on the Lancastrian flank, turning them left. His arrival both reinvigorated the Yorkist army and crushed Lancastrian morale with his surprise attack and led rapidly to a Lancastrian rout to give the victory to Edward IV.

paragraph: Section::::Under the Yorkists.

paragraph: Earls Marshals played an important role in coronations. Like his predecessors, as Earl Marshal Mowbray officiated the coronation of Edward IV on 28 June 1461. Within two months he received several lucrative offices. Public order was a problem from the beginning of the King's reign, and East Anglia was no exception. Mobs rampaged during that year's parliamentary elections. Norfolk may have encouraged this; he is certainly a candidate for ordering the murder of coroner Thomas Denys that August.

paragraph: Even though Mowbray supported the Yorkist regime, he met with strong opposition from the East Anglian gentry in the first year of the reign. This was despite the support of the King, and the backing of John Howard in the shires. Howard was by now one of Mowbray's senior retainers —described as Mowbray's "right well-beloved cousin and servant"— and Sheriff of Norfolk. By November, however, he had been arrested by the new Yorkist regime.

paragraph: Section::::Under the Yorkists.:Death.

paragraph: Mowbray did not live long enough to benefit from the Yorkist victory. He died on 6 November 1461, aged 45, and was buried at Thetford Priory. He was succeeded by his only son, John. His mother, Katherine Duchess of Norfolk lived until 1484. She had already taken two more husbands during Mowbray's lifetime, and took another after his death.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and issue.

paragraph: Mowbray married Eleanor Bourchier, daughter of William Bourchier, Count of Eu, and Anne of Gloucester, Countess of Buckingham. Eleanor was the sister of his successor as Justice in Eyre, Henry Bourchier. The couple appears to have shared a close bond: while travelling in 1451, Mowbray supposedly dispensed with his retinue to enjoy, according to Colin Richmond, "a private tryst" with his wife. The couple had one child, also John, who in 1448 married Elizabeth, daughter of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. The son was seventeen when his father died in 1461, and inherited the estate four years later.

paragraph: Section::::Character and legacy.

paragraph: Ralph Griffiths has suggested that when Archbishop John Kemp died in 1453, it may have been in part because of the bullying and threats he had been subjected to, most "notably by Norfolk himself". One modern historian has attributed much of Suffolk's success in the region, which antagonised Mowbray, to Mowbray's "crass incompetence" and that he was "ineffectual" in assisting those who expected to rely on the protection of a lord of his stature. J. R. Lander described Mowbray as a "disreputable thug", while Richmond concludes that he was "cavalier with the rights of others to a safe life and a secure livelihood". Richmond writes that while "many medieval aristocrats were irresponsible men ... Mowbray's individuality lay in the thoroughness of his irresponsibility." In contrast, Michael Hicks believes that honour was clearly important to Mowbray, as his pursuit of Somerset (for that duke's abject performance in France) shows. Likewise, as Earl Marshal, he must have possessed a firm understanding of chivalry and its application, as it was fundamental to the office.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural depictions.

paragraph: Mowbray, as "Duke of Norfolk", is a minor figure in the play "King Henry VI, Part 3" by William Shakespeare. He appears in act I, scene i, and act II, scene ii as a supporter of the Duke of York; the first time just after the Battle of St Albans, and is portrayed "conspicuously associated with opposition." This is ahistorical, as Mowbray was still loyal to King Henry at this point. His second appearance in the play is at the Battle of Towton. The play has been adapted for the screen several times. In the 1960 BBC TV serial "An Age of Kings", the character appears in the episode "" portrayed by Jeffry Wickham. In 1965 the BBC again adapted the history plays for television, this time based on the 1963 theatre production "The Wars of the Roses". Mowbray appears in the episode "Edward IV" portrayed by David Hargreaves.

paragraph: In the Elizabethan play "The Merry Devil of Edmonton", Mowbray does not appear as a character on stage, but the comical figure Blague repeatedly claims that: "I serve the good Duke of Norfolk." Exactly what period the play is set is the subject debate among scholars. Suggestions range from the reign of King Henry VI (1421–1471) to the 1580s (in Queen Elizabeth I's reign). The 20th-century Shakespeare scholar W. W. Greg places it in the reign of Henry VI, basing his conclusion in part on Thomas Fuller's posthumously published "History of the Worthies of England" (1662). If this is the case then the "Duke of Norfolk" referred to in the play would be Mowbray. According to J. M. Bromley, the play evokes "the similarities between poaching and treason", and the anonymous author deliberately links this Duke of Norfolk to both. Rudolph Fiehler noted how Blague's service to the duke was very much based upon the unsavoury characteristics of "cowardice, poaching and thievery". It has further been suggested that his comic catchphrase was deliberately intended to invoke Sir John Falstaff, one of Shakespeare's best known characters, for the audience. In Shakespeare's "Henry IV, Part 2", Justice Shallow refers to Falstaff as having once been a page to "Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk", Mowbray's grandfather. Falstaff is commonly considered to be a fictional representation of either Sir John Oldcastle or Sir John Fastolf—or possibly an amalgamation of the two—both of whom are variously associated with Mowbray.

description: English noble

wikidata_label: John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk

wikipedia_title: John Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk


text:
Soto de la Marina
Cantabria
Spain
New Spain
New Spain
Nuevo Santander
Pánuco River
Mexican state
Veracruz
Guadalupe River
Texas
Mérida
Querétaro
Apache
Celaya
San Miguel el Grande
Tehuacán
Tamaulipeco
Nuevo León
Llera
Camargo
Reynosa
Rio Grande
Laredo
Tacubaya
Ciudad Victoria
Alice, Texas
Blas María de la Garza Falcón
Handbook of Texas Online

categories: 1700 births,People from the Bay of Santander,1770 deaths,Counts of Spain,Colonial Mexico,Cantabrian military personnel

paragraph: José de Escandón, 1st Count of Sierra Gorda

paragraph: José de Escandón, conde de Sierra (May 19, 1700, Soto de la Marina, Cantabria, Spain – 1770, New Spain) was a Spanish Indian-fighter in New Spain and the founder and first governor of the colony of Nuevo Santander, which extended from the Pánuco River in the modern-day Mexican state of Veracruz to the Guadalupe River in the modern-day U.S. state of Texas.

paragraph: Section::::Military career before Nuevo Santander.

paragraph: Escandón was one of three sons of Juan de Escandón and Francisca de la Helguera. He arrived in New Spain as a child in 1715. He volunteered to serve as a cadet in the cavalry of the city of Mérida, Aadi where he fought against the English at Laguna de Términos. For his valor, he was promoted to lieutenant and posted to Querétaro. There he fought in the wars against the Apaches. In Querétaro he learned to treat the Indians "como amigos, con mano suave, y como enemigos, con rigor implacable" (as friends, with a soft hand, and as enemies, with implacable rigor).

paragraph: In 1727 he pacified the Pames, who had revolted in Celaya, and was promoted to sergeant mayor of the regiment. In 1732 he subdued rebels at the mines in Guanajuato, and the following year he did the same at Irapuato. In 1734 he pacified 10,000 Indian rebels at San Miguel el Grande. For these accomplishments, he was promoted to colonel and assigned as an aide to the captain general of the Sierra Gorda.

paragraph: In 1742 he was transferred from Querétaro to Veracruz, which was threatened by the English, but upon his arrival he received orders to return to Tehuacán. In 1749 he pacified disturbances in Querétaro that resulted from a famine following a drought. Several times he visited the missions in the Sierra Gorda, introducing reforms in the administration. He also fought against the Tamaulipecos who were devastating the region of Nuevo León.

paragraph: Section::::Colonization of Nuevo Santander.

paragraph: In the 1760s Spain, because of encroachments of the French from Louisiana and the English along the Gulf coast, decided that they would have to complete the conquest of the Seno Mexicano (the Gulf coast, especially Tamaulipas and Texas). A council of war meeting was held to consider this project, from May 8, 1748 to May 13. Various officers presented plans, and that of José de Escandón was chosen as the most comprehensive.

paragraph: Escandón had already financed an expedition to the region and thus was in a position to choose sites for settlement. He proposed the name "Nuevo Santander". He also proposed a budget of 115,000 pesos for the new expedition, plus 500 pesos for each colonist. Upon the acceptance of Escandón's plan, it was advertised in Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Charcas, Huasteca, Nuevo León and Coahuila, and very quickly attracted the intended number of colonists.

paragraph: Between December 25, 1748, the date of the foundation of Llera, and 1755, he founded over twenty towns or villages and a number of missions in the colony, including Santander, Soto la Marina, Güemes, Camargo, Reynosa, Mier, and Revilla south of the Rio Grande, and Laredo and Nuestra Señora de los Dolores hacienda north of the Rio Grande. Escandón is sometimes referred to as the "father of the lower Rio Grande Valley".

paragraph: Section::::As governor of Nuevo Santander.

paragraph: For his firmness and energy, he was also known as the "Exterminator of the Pames of Querétaro". In Nuevo Santander he was accused of murdering the Indians and taking slaves. He faced a court case where he was charged with illegally using Indian labor in his textile mills and using the port of Santander to bring in English contraband. However, in the period 1770-1775 there were more than twice as many deaths among the Indians as in the 22 years he governed.

paragraph: Among his enemies in the region were the Jesuits, the French and the secular clergy.

paragraph: He accumulated vast wealth during his stay in Querétaro, San Miguel and Nuevo Santander from the work of badly paid Indians and slaves, as well as large land grants from the viceroys. The livestock and other products of his lands, as well as what he bought from the colonists, were shipped from the port of Soto la Marina along the coast to Veracruz in a frigate he owned.

paragraph: He was considered one of the great statesmen of New Spain in the eighteenth century, superior to many of the viceroys. He assigned activities and crops to each settlement, stimulated irrigation and constructed roads and bridges. He built a grand mansion in Santander, capital of the colony, known as the "Palace of the Count". He also built the church at Santander and a reservoir for drinking water. He brought in masons, carpenters and blacksmiths from Tacubaya and established kilns, sugar mills and flour mills.

paragraph: To reward him for his services, the Crown granted him the title of "conde de Sierra Gorda", free of lanzas (duty imposed on noblemen in lieu of military service) and media anata (tax paid on assuming office).

paragraph: He died forgotten in 1770, probably on September 10, in Quetétero or Mexico City. Five years later he was exonerated of the legal charges against him, and rehabilitated. The title passed to his eldest son, Manuel. Manuel died without descendants, and the second son of José, Mariano, became count.

paragraph: Ciudad Victoria, now the capital of the state of Tamaulipas, erected a statue to his memory in 1975. There are also streets named for him there and in Querétaro. In Laredo, Texas the Festival de Música José de Escandón is celebrated annually in November. There is also a statue dedicated to him in Alice, Texas.

paragraph: A statue was dedicated to Jose de Escandon in 2014. It’s located at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley in Edinburg, Texas.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blas María de la Garza Falcón

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Escandón, José de," "Enciclopedia de México", v. 5. Mexico City, 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tamaulipas," "Enciclopedia de México", v. 13. Mexico City, 1988.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Handbook of Texas Online

description: Count of Spain


text: Southern Africa

text: Matabeleland

text: British South Africa Company

text: Rhodesia

text: Zimbabwe

text: Matshobana

text: Mkuze

text: Zululand

text: KwaZulu-Natal

text: South Africa

text: Ingama

text: Bulawayo

text: Zulu

text: Shaka

text: David Livingstone

text: Shaka

text: Mozambique

text: Transvaal

text: Ndzundza

text: Mfecane

text: Griqua people

text: scorched earth

text: Voortrekkers

text: Highveld

text: Limpopo River

text: Botswana

text: Zambia

text: tsetse fly

text: Zimbabwe

text: regiment

text: kraal

text: Boer

text: South African Republic

text: Europe

text: Henry Hartley

text: Robert Moffat

text: David Hume

text: Andrew Smith

text: William Cornwallis Harris

text: David Livingstone

text: Zulu Kingdom

text: Bakwena

text: Transvaal

text: Rustenburg

text: impi

text: Kop

text: Bulawayo

categories: 1868 deaths,Zulu kings,People from Jozini Local Municipality,1790 births,19th-century monarchs in Africa

paragraph: Mzilikazi

paragraph: Mzilikazi Khumalo ( 1790 – 9 September 1868) was a Southern African king who founded the Matabele Khumalo Kingdom now known as Matabeleland, in what became British South Africa Company-ruled Rhodesia and is now Zimbabwe. His name means "the great road". He was born the son of Matshobana near Mkuze, Zululand (now known as KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa), and died at Ingama, Matabeleland (near Bulawayo, Zimbabwe). Many consider him to be the greatest Southern African military leader after the Zulu king Shaka. In his autobiography, David Livingstone referred to Mzilikazi as the second most impressive leader he encountered on the African continent.

paragraph: Section::::Leaving Zululand.

paragraph: Mzilikazi was originally a lieutenant of Shaka but had a quarrel with him in 1823 and rebelled. Rather than face ritual execution, he fled northwards with his followers. He first travelled to Mozambique but in 1826 he moved west into the Transvaal due to continued attacks by his enemies. He absorbed many members of other tribes as he conquered the Transvaal, where he established a military despotism. He attacked the Ndzundza kraal at Esikhunjini, where the Ndzundza king Magodongo and others were kidnapped and subsequently killed at Mkobola river.

paragraph: For the next ten years Mzilikazi dominated the Transvaal. This period, known locally as the "Mfecane" ["crushing"] was characterised by devastation and murder on a grand scale. Mzilikazi eliminated all opposition and reorganised the captured territory to suit the new Matabele order. In 1831, after winning a battle against the Griqua people, Mzilikazi occupied the Griqua lands near the Ghaapse mountains. He used scorched earth methods to maintain a safe distance from all surrounding kingdoms. The death toll has never been satisfactorily determined, but it is believed that the region was so depopulated that the Voortrekkers were able to occupy and take ownership of the Highveld area without opposition in the 1830s.

paragraph: Section::::Meeting the Boers.

paragraph: Voortrekkers began to arrive in Transvaal in 1836, resulting in several confrontations over the next two years during which the Matabele suffered heavy losses. By early 1838, Mzilikazi and his people were forced northwards out of Transvaal altogether and across the Limpopo River. Further attacks caused him to move again, at first westwards into present-day Botswana and then later northwards towards what is now Zambia. He was unable to settle the land there because of the prevalence of tsetse fly which carried diseases fatal to oxen. Mzilikazi therefore travelled again, this time southeastwards into what became known as Matabeleland (situated in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe) and settled there in 1840.

paragraph: After his arrival, he organised his followers into a militaristic system with regimental kraals, similar to those of Shaka; under his leadership the Matabele became strong enough to repel the Boer attacks of 1847–1851 and persuade the government of the South African Republic to sign a peace treaty with Mzilikazi in 1852.

paragraph: Section::::Matabele Kingdom.

paragraph: While Mzilikazi was generally friendly to European travellers, he remained mindful of the danger that they posed to his kingdom. In later years he refused some visitors access to his realm. The Europeans who met Mzilikazi include Henry Hartley, hunter and explorer; Robert Moffat, missionary; David Hume, explorer and trader; Andrew Smith, medical doctor, ethnologist and zoologist; William Cornwallis Harris, hunter; and the missionary explorer David Livingstone.

paragraph: During the tribe's wanderings north of the Limpopo, Mzilikazi became separated from the bulk of the tribe. They gave him up for dead and hailed his young heir Nkulumane as his successor. However, Mzilikazi reappeared after a traumatic journey through the Zambezi Valley and reasserted control. According to one account, his son and all the chiefs who had chosen him were put to death on his orders. A popular belief is that they were executed by being thrown down a steep cliff on the hill now called Ntabazinduna ["hill of the chiefs"].

paragraph: Another account claims that Nkulumane was not killed with the chiefs, but was sent back to the Zulu Kingdom with a sizeable delegation which included warriors. During his journey south, he passed through the Bakwena territory in the northwestern Transvaal, near Rustenburg. At the time the Bakwena were struggling to repel repeated attacks from a neighbouring king, who laid claim to the territory that they occupied. Nkulumane assisted the Bakwena by leading his impi ["regiment"] in a battle in which Nkulumane himself killed the neighbouring chief.

paragraph: Following this victory the Bakwena convinced Nkulumane to settle in their territory, arguing that it would be futile to return to the Zulu kingdom as his father's enemies would probably kill him. Nkulumane settled and lived with his family in that area until his death in 1883. His grave, covered in a concrete slab, is on the outskirts of Rustenburg in Phokeng. The site of Nkulumane's grave is incongruously referred to as Mzilikazi's Kop ["hill"], even though it is his son who is buried there.

paragraph: After resuming his role as chief, Mzilikazi founded his capital from Ntabazinduna and named it ko-Bulawayo ["place of slaughter"]. Shaka's capital was also called Bulawayo.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- History profile of Mzilikazi: King of Matabele

description: ndebele king

wikidata_label: Mzilikazi

wikipedia_title: Mzilikazi