text: Anabaptist

text: Germany

text: Netherlands

text: Schwäbisch Hall

text: Livonia

text: Luther

text: lay preacher

text: Wolmar

text: Dorpat

text: Reval

text: iconoclastic

text: Wittenberg

text: Stockholm

text: Sweden

text: Lübeck

text: Denmark

text: Frederick I

text: Kiel

text: Zwinglian view of the Eucharist

text: Flensburg

text: John Campanus

text: Strasbourg

text: Anabaptist

text: East Frisia

text: Schwenkfeld

text: Karlstadt

text: Emden

text: Apocalypse

text: John Hus

text: New Jerusalem

text: synod

text: Münster Rebellion

text: Jan van Matthijs

text: Jan van Leiden

text: Münster

text: Claus Frey

text: Mennonite

text: Kaspar Schwenkfeld von Ossig

text: Jesus

text: Menno Simons

text: Obbe

text: Dirk Philips

text: Book of Daniel

text: Bock

text: antitrinitarian

text: Robert Wallace

text: Trechsel

text: Servetus

text: Melchior Hoffman

categories: 1543 deaths,German Anabaptists,Christian radicals,1490s births,16th-century apocalypticists,German Protestant Reformers

paragraph: Melchior Hoffman

paragraph: Melchior Hoffman (or Hofmann; byname: "Pel(t)zer" "furrier"; c. 1495c. 1543) was an Anabaptist prophet and a visionary leader in northern Germany and the Netherlands.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Hoffman was born at Schwäbisch Hall in southwest Germany before 1500. His biographers usually give his surname as "Hofmann"; in his printed works it sometimes appears as "Hoffman", and in his manuscripts as "Hoffmann".

paragraph: He was without scholarly training, and first appeared as a furrier in Livonia. Attracted by Luther's teachings, he came forward as a lay preacher, combining business travels with a religious mission. He worked as a lay preacher in the cities of Wolmar (from 1523), Dorpat and Reval. In Dorpat he became involved in an iconoclastic revolt, and the magistrates obliged him to go to Wittenberg to obtain Luther's approval of his preaching. After his return to Dorpat he was involved in more controversy and forced to leave the city.

paragraph: After the same thing happened in Reval, he decided to go to Stockholm, Sweden, where he arrived in the autumn of 1526. Here too he was involved in religious disturbances and so left Sweden again.

paragraph: After a short stay in Lübeck he made his way to Denmark, where he found favour with King Frederick I, and was appointed by royal ordinance to preach the Gospel at Kiel. He was probably the first printer in the city. He was extravagant in his denunciations, and developed a Zwinglian view of the Eucharist.

paragraph: Luther himself was alarmed at this. At a colloquy of preachers in Flensburg on (April 8, 1529), Hoffman, John Campanus and others were put on their defence. Hoffman maintained (against the "magic" of the Lutheran interpretation) that the function of the Eucharist, like that of preaching, is nothing more than an appeal for spiritual union with Christ. Refusing to retract, he was banished.

paragraph: Making his way to Strasbourg, he was well received, until his Anabaptist tendencies became apparent. He joined with the Anabaptists of the city, and, according to Estep, was rebaptized in April 1530.

paragraph: In May he travelled to East Frisia, where he established churches and baptized about 300 people. He was in relations with Schwenkfeld and with Karlstadt, but assumed a prophetic role of his own. In 1532 he founded a community at Emden, securing a large following of artisans.

paragraph: Because of the prophecy of an old man foretelling six months in prison for him, he returned in the spring of the following year to Strasbourg, where there is reference to his wife and child. He gained from his study of Apocalypse the belief that the Lord would return there in 1533 and received a vision of "resurrections" of apostolic Christianity, first under John Hus, and now under himself. The year 1533 was to inaugurate the new era; Strasbourg was to be the seat of the New Jerusalem.

paragraph: When however he prophesied that the return of Christ would be preceded by a purging of the ungodly, Hoffman was seen as a revolutionary. Under examination, he denied that he had made common cause with the Anabaptists and claimed to be no prophet but a mere witness of the Most High, but nevertheless refused the articles of faith proposed to him by the provincial synod.

paragraph: Hoffman's failed prophecy of the return of Christ contributed significantly to the Münster Rebellion (1533–1534), of which he is seen as one of the authors. Two of his followers, Jan van Matthijs and Jan van Leiden, proclaimed that Hoffman was wrong on the questions of the exact time and place, where Christ would return and reign, and named Münster as the correct location.

paragraph: As a consequence of the terror inspired by the rebellion and its savage suppression, Hoffman, together with Claus Frey, another Anabaptist, was detained in prison. Although the synod made a further effort to reclaim him in 1539, he stayed there for the rest of his life, until his death in 1543.

paragraph: Section::::Teachings and influence.

paragraph: Hoffman was important in at least one aspect of the development of the Mennonites. He adopted the views of Kaspar Schwenkfeld von Ossig concerning the incarnation of Jesus, and taught what has been called the "heavenly flesh of Christ". Menno Simons accepted this view, probably received from the "peaceful Melchiorites" Obbe and Dirk Philips, and it became the general belief of Dutch Anabaptists in the first century of their existence.

paragraph: Hoffman wrote a commentary on the Book of Daniel in 1526. Two of his publications with similar titles from 1530""Weissagung aus heiliger gotlicher geschrift"" ("Prophecy from Holy and Divine Scripture") and ""Prophecey oder Weissagung vsz warer heiliger gotlicher schrifft"" ("Prophecy from True, Holy and Divine Scripture")are noteworthy as having influenced Menno Simons and David Joris. Bock treats him as an antitrinitarian, on grounds which Robert Wallace deems inconclusive. Trechsel includes him among pioneers of some of the positions of Servetus.

paragraph: His followers were known as Hoffmanites or Melchiorites.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Deppermann, Klaus. "Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest & Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Estep, W Roscoe. "The Anabaptist Story"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lundström, Kerstin: "Polemik in den Schriften Melchior Hoffmans. Inszenierungen rhetorischer Streitkultur in der Reformationszeit." Stockholm 2015 (online at "Stockholm University Press").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Snyder, Arnold C. "Anabaptist History and Theology"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, G.H. "The Radical Reformation"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Melchior Hoffman in "Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online"

description: Anabaptist prophet

wikidata_label: Melchior Hoffman

wikipedia_title: Melchior Hoffman


text:
Tang dynasty
An Lushan Rebellion
Sogdia
Göktürk
Khitan
Chang'an
Li Linfu
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Geshu Han
Yang Guozhong
Yan
Göktürk
Ashide
Old Turkic
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
An Sishun
Chaoyang, Liaoning
Sogdia
Samarkand
Kangju
Bukhara
Kumo Xi
Khitan people
Sinicized
Parthia
Sogdian
Alexander
Roxana
posthumously named
Shi Siming
Chinese
horses
silk
Shi Sugan
Beijing
sheep
An Qingxu
Khitan
Xi
Chang'an
chancellor
Zhang Jiuling
Yellow River
Balhae
Heishui Mohe
jiedushi
imperial examination
Miao Jinqing
Li Heng
Crown Prince
After my death, he will be your emperor
concubine
Yang Guifei
Li Linfu
heqin
Song Dynasty
Sima Guang
Wang Zhongsi
Lady Duan
ladies-in-waiting
Taiyuan
Shanxi
Yang Guozhong
Tian Chengsi
Shuofang
Yinchuan
Ningxia
Geshu Han
Wuwei
Gansu
Haidong
Qinghai
Gao Lishi
Huige
Wei Jiansu
Feng Changqing
Luoyang
Gao Xianzhi
Sanmenxia
Henan
Yellow River
Kaifeng
Henan
Zhengzhou
Henan
Tong Pass
eunuch
Yan Zhenqing
Dezhou
Shandong
Lunar New Year
Yan
Baoding
Hebei
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Li Guangbi
Chengdu
Sichuan
Chen Xilie
Li Heng
Lingwu
Taishang Huang
Taihang Mountains
ulcer
empress
posthumous name
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Empress Duan
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
An Qingxu
Emperor Suzong of Tang
An Sishun
Li Baoyu
Beckwith, Christopher I.
Bo Yang
An Lushan
Chinese Encyclopedia
Liu Xu
Old Book of Tang
vol. 200, part 1
Ouyang Xiu
New Book of Tang
vol. 225, part 1
Pulleyblank, E. G.
Perry
Sima Guang
Zizhi Tongjian
Schafer, Edward H.
Xue, Zongzheng
Encyclopedia of China
Yu, Taishan

categories: Tang dynasty rebels,Tang Xuanzong,Tang dynasty jiedushi of Hedong Circuit,700s births,8th-century Chinese monarchs,757 deaths,Sogdian people,Date of birth unknown,Tang dynasty jiedushi of Lulong Circuit,Tang dynasty jiedushi of Pinglu Circuit,Chinese warlords,Tang dynasty nonimperial princes

paragraph: An Lushan

paragraph: An Lushan ( 703 – 29 January 757) was a general in the Tang dynasty and is primarily known for instigating the An Lushan Rebellion.

paragraph: An Lushan was of Sogdian and Göktürk origin, at least by adoption. He rose to military prominence by defending the northeastern Tang frontier from the Khitans and other threats. He was summoned to Chang'an, the Tang capital, several times and managed to gain favor with Chancellor Li Linfu and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. This allowed An Lushan to amass significant military power in northeast China. After the death of Li Linfu, his rivalry with General Geshu Han and Chancellor Yang Guozhong created military tensions within the empire.

paragraph: In 755, An Lushan, following 8 or 9 years of preparation, instigated the An Lushan Rebellion, proclaiming himself the ruler of a new dynasty, Yan.

paragraph: Section::::Background and name.

paragraph: An Lushan's mother was a Göktürk of the Ashide clan and served as a sorceress. His original name might have been Aluoshan or Galuoshan, which meant "war" in Old Turkic. His father died early, and his mother Lady Ashide married a Turkic general An Yanyan (安延偃), who was a brother of the general An Bozhi (安波至). An Lushan therefore took the name of An. Early in Emperor Xuanzong of Tang's "Kaiyuan" era, 713–741, there was a disturbance among the Göktürk tribe that An Yanyan belonged to, and An Lushan fled to Tang with An Yanyan and An Yanyan's nephew, An Sishun. He later settled in Ying Prefecture (營州, roughly modern Chaoyang, Liaoning).

paragraph: Section::::Background and name.:Paternity.

paragraph: Sources conflict about An Lushan's biological father's origin and surname; for example, as to whether An Lushan's father had the surname Kang or not: he took the name of An from his stepfather An Yanyan. The surnames Kang and An suggest that they were respectively from the Iranic Sogdian kingdoms of Samarkand (康國; cf. Kangju) and Bukhara (安國). The An are not to be confused with Anxi, which had been established as a prefecture by the Chinese in 661.

paragraph: On his side, Matsui Hitoshi, noting that nothing in the historical records provides hard evidence of Sogdian origin and that An Lushan was living at Yingzhou, a settlement of Kumo Xi and Khitan people, suggests that "Perhaps [An Lushan's father] might have been of Khitan origin." Edward H. Schafer, however, maintains that An Lushan is probably the Sinicized version of a name derived from "Anxi" (安息 "Parthia(n)") and the common Sogdian name ܪܘܚܫܐܢ "Roxshan" meaning "the Bright", related to the Sogdian female name "Roxana", also borne by Alexander's Sogdian wife, Roxana. His name has also been transcribed as "Āluòshān" (阿犖山) or "Yàluòshān" (軋犖山), and he was posthumously named Prince La of Yan (燕剌王) by his deputy Shi Siming.

paragraph: Section::::Youth.

paragraph: It was said that An Lushan knew six non-Chinese languages, and, after he grew older, served as an interpreter in one of the military markets, which were set up by the Chinese government largely to obtain horses in exchange for silk through foreign trade. Serving with him was Shi Sugan (later named Shi Siming), who was one day older than he was and who became a good friend of his. In 732, when the general Zhang Shougui (張守珪) was governing You Prefecture (幽州, roughly modern Beijing), it was discovered that An Lushan had stolen sheep. Zhang was set to execute An Lushan by caning, when An Lushan yelled out, "Is it that you, Lord, do not wish to destroy the two barbarian tribes? Why do you want to cane An Lushan to death?" Zhang, seeing that he had a large body and impressed by his plea, released him and had him serve as a police officer, along with Shi, and both of them were said to be capable at catching criminals. Later, Zhang promoted him to be a military officer. As Zhang believed that he was obese, he did not dare to eat too much while in Zhang's presence, and this drew Zhang's favor. Zhang took him in and treated him like a son. At a time that was not recorded in history, he married a Lady Kang as his first wife, and she bore him at least one son, An Qingxu, who, however, was not his oldest son.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:Rise through the ranks (736–742).

paragraph: By 736, An Lushan carried a general title and was serving under Zhang Shougui as an officer of the Pinglu Army (平盧軍, based in modern Chaoyang). In 736, after An disobeyed Zhang's orders and made an overly aggressive attack against the Khitan and the Xi, he was defeated. According to army regulations, he was supposed to be executed. Zhang allegedly sent him to the capital, Chang'an, and recommended execution, although he was hoping that Emperor Xuanzong would pardon An. The chancellor Zhang Jiuling, arguing that An's death would be necessary to preserve military discipline and further believing that An had the appearance of a rebel, advocated An's death, but Emperor Xuanzong believed An to be able and did not want to execute him, and therefore spared him but stripped him of titles, returning him to serve under Zhang.

paragraph: In 740, An became the "Bingmashi" (兵馬使) of Pinglu Army. In 741, when the deputy chief imperial censor Zhang Lizhen (張利貞) was sent to survey the Hebei (河北, i.e., the region north of the Yellow River) and visited Pinglu Army, An ingratiated himself with Zhang, so much so that he even bribed Zhang's servants. When Zhang returned to Chang'an and praised An, Emperor Xuanzong promoted An to be the commandant at Ying Prefecture and the commander of Pinglu Army, to defend against the Khitan, the Xi, Balhae, and the Heishui Mohe. In 742, Xuanzong further promoted Pinglu Army to be a military circuit, making An its military governor ("jiedushi").

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:At Chang'an (743).

paragraph: In 743, An visited Chang'an to pay homage to Emperor Xuanzong. Emperor Xuanzong treated him well and allowed him to visit the palace at all times. He began to inject himself into court politics—as the official Su Xiaoyun (蘇孝韞) complained to him that the imperial examinations that year was unfair and that Zhang Shi (張奭), the son of the deputy chief imperial censor Zhang Yi (張倚), had been given top grade despite having no abilities. An reported this to Emperor Xuanzong, who ordered a retesting before him personally. Zhang Shi was not able to even write one character in response to Emperor Xuanzong's reexamination. As a result, the deputy ministers of civil service, Song Yao (宋遙) and Miao Jinqing were demoted.

paragraph: An often pleased Emperor Xuanzong by offering Emperor Xuanzong tributes of rare items, such as rare animals or jewels. By this time, he was even more obese than before, and Emperor Xuanzong, on one occasion, jokingly asked him, "What does this barbaric belly contain?" He responded, "Other than a faithful heart, there is nothing else." On another occasion, when Emperor Xuanzong's son Li Heng the Crown Prince was in audience, he refused to bow to Li Heng, stating, "I am a barbarian, and I do not understand formal ceremony. What is a crown prince?" Emperor Xuanzong responded, "He is the reserve emperor. After my death, he will be your emperor." An apologized, stating, "I am foolish. I had only known about Your Imperial Majesty, and not that there is such a thing as a reserve emperor." He bowed, but Emperor Xuanzong, believing him to be honest, favored him even more. As he was allowed to enter the palace, he asked that he become an adoptive son of Emperor Xuanzong's favorite concubine Consort Yang Guifei, and Emperor Xuanzong agreed. Thereafter, on one occasion, he bowed to Consort Yang first before bowing to Emperor Xuanzong, stating, "Barbarians bow to mothers first before fathers." Xuanzong, now believing An was as submissive to him as a son to a father, showed him even greater favors.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:Return to the north front.

paragraph: In 744, with further praises from the powerful chancellor Li Linfu and Pei Kuan, An was, in addition to Pinglu, made the military governor of Fanyang Circuit (范陽, headquartered in modern Beijing). Wanting to show his military abilities, he often pillaged the Khitan and the Xi. His actions led to two princesses of the royal clan, who were married to Khitan and Xi leaders as part of the heqin policy, being executed in retaliation, and both groups rebelled in 745, though An defeated them.

paragraph: According to the Song Dynasty historian Sima Guang, it was said that An was attempting to increase his own strength and planning a rebellion, and in 747, he claimed to be building Fort Xiongwu (雄武城) and asked fellow military governor Wang Zhongsi to contribute troops, hoping to hold onto the troops that Wang would send and not return them. Wang, instead, led the troops himself to Xiongwu in advance of the rendezvous date and, after participating in the building project, returned with the soldiers, and submitted reports to Emperor Xuanzong that he believed An was planning treason. Li Linfu, who was at this point apprehensive of Wang as a potential rival, used this as one of the reasons to indict Wang, and Wang was, later in 747, removed from his post. Also in 747, An Lushan was given the honorary title as chief deputy imperial censor (御史大夫, "Yushi Daifu"), and Lady Duan, now described as his wife, although Lady Kang was still alive, was created a lady.

paragraph: In 748, Emperor Xuanzong awarded An Lushan an iron certificate promising that he would not be executed, except for treason, and in 750, he created An Prince of Dongping, setting a precedent for generals not of the imperial Li clan to be created princes.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:New period in Chang'an.

paragraph: By this point, a friendship had developed between An Lushan and the Emperor. When An went to Chang'an later that year to pay homage to Emperor Xuanzong, he presented Emperor Xuanzong with 8,000 Xi captives. In 751, Xuanzong had a magnificent mansion built for An in Chang'an, sparing no expenses, using jade, gold, and silver in many different places. On An's birthday, 20 February 751, Emperor Xuanzong and Consort Yang awarded him with clothing, treasures, and food. On 23 February, when An was summoned to the palace, Consort Yang, in order to please Emperor Xuanzong, had an extra-large infant wrapping made, and wrapped An in it, causing much explosion of laughter among the ladies-in-waiting and eunuchs. When Emperor Xuanzong asked what was going on, Consort Yang's attendants joked that Consort Yang gave birth three days ago and was washing her baby Lushan. Emperor Xuanzong was pleased by the comical situation and rewarded both Consort Yang and An greatly. Thereafter, whenever An visited the capital, he was allowed free admittance to the palace, and there were rumors that he and Consort Yang had an affair, but Emperor Xuanzong discounted the rumors. At An's request, Emperor Xuanzong also gave him the governorship of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), in addition to Pinglu and Fanyang. Two of his sons, An Qingzong and An Qingxu, were given ministerial level positions, and An Qingzong was given an imperial clan member's daughter, the Lady Rongyi, in marriage.

paragraph: An was arrogant toward other officials, including Consort Yang's second cousin Yang Guozhong. However, carrying the honorary title of deputy chief imperial censor (御史大夫) at this point, he was respectful of his colleague Wang Hong (王鉷), an associate of Li Linfu's, although initially not Li Linfu—and therefore, on one occasion, Li Linfu intentionally summoned Wang Hong in An's presence, and when Wang Hong arrived, he was paying Li Linfu great respect, causing An to be surprised and apprehensive, and thereafter An carefully cultivated his relationship with Li Linfu as well.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:Pondering Emperor Xuanzong's death & Northward campaign.

paragraph: It was also said that, by this point, An began to be apprehensive of what would happen once Emperor Xuanzong died—as he remembered how he had refused to bow to Li Heng—and he began to plan an eventual rebellion, which was further encouraged by his observation that the heart of the empire was without defenses. He selected some 8,000 soldiers among the surrendered Khitan, Xi, and Tongluo (同羅) tribesmen, organizing them into an elite corps known as the "Yeluohe" (曵落河), which meant "the brave". He retained Gao Shang (高尚), Yan Zhuang (嚴莊), Zhang Tongru (張通儒), and Sun Xiaozhe (孫孝哲) as his strategists; and Shi Siming, An Shouzhong (安守忠), Li Guiren (李歸仁), Cai Xide (蔡希德), Niu Tingjie (牛廷玠), Xiang Runrong (向潤容), Li Tingwang (李庭望), Cui Qianyou (崔乾祐), Yin Ziqi (尹子奇), He Qiannian (何千年), Wu Lingxun (武令珣), Neng Yuanhao (能元皓), Tian Chengsi, Tian Qianzhen (田乾真), and Ashina Chengqing (阿史那承慶) as his generals.

paragraph: Late in 751, An launched a major attack against the Khitan, advancing quickly to the heart of Khitan territory, but, hampered by rains, was defeated by the Khitan, and the general He Side (何思德) was killed. An himself was almost killed, and, after retreating, blamed the defeat on Ge Jie (哥解) and Yu Chengxian (魚承仙), executing them. He subsequently had Shi defend against the Khitan counterattack, and Shi was able to repel the Khitan. In 752, he wanted to launch a major counterattack against the Khitan, requesting that the ethnically Tujue general Li Xianzhong (李獻忠) accompany him. Li Xianzhong was afraid of An; when An ordered Li to attack the Khitan, Li rebelled, thus putting a halt to An's campaign.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:Rivalry with Geshu Han.

paragraph: Later that year, when Emperor Xuanzong, seeing that both An Lushan and An Sishun (who by this point was the military governor of Shuofang Circuit (朔方, headquartered in modern Yinchuan, Ningxia)) had poor relations with Geshu Han, the military governor of Hexi (河西, headquartered in modern Wuwei, Gansu) and Longxi (隴西, headquartered in modern Haidong prefecture, Qinghai) Circuits, and wanted to improve relations between these three key border troop commanders, he summoned all three to the capital and had the powerful eunuch Gao Lishi host a feast for the three of them, trying to get them to resolve their unpleasantries. At the conference, however, Geshu and An Lushan got into an argument, which only stopped after Gao gazed at Geshu, stopping him from responding to An Lushan's insults.

paragraph: Section::::Service in Tang armies.:Death of Li Linfu and rivalry with Yang Guozhong.

paragraph: In 753, with Li Linfu's death and replacement by Yang Guozhong, Yang Guozhong, intending to posthumously dishonor Li Linfu, had An Lushan corroborate his accusations that Li Linfu was involved in Li Xianzhong's rebellion. An agreed, and subsequently, with further corroboration from Li Linfu's son-in-law Yang Qixuan (楊齊宣), Li Linfu was posthumously dishonored, and his family members were exiled. Also in 753, Li Xianzhong's troops were defeated by the Huige, and they surrendered to An, further enhancing his strength.

paragraph: Despite their cooperation in posthumously accusing Li Linfu, a rivalry soon developed between An and Yang Guozhong, as An did not fear Yang Guozhong the way he did Li Linfu. Yang Guozhong made repeated accusation against An to Emperor Xuanzong that he was plotting a rebellion, but the accusation were dismissed by Emperor Xuanzong. Yang Guozhong, instead, entered into an alliance with Geshu against An. In spring 754, Yang asserted, to the Emperor, that An was set on rebelling, an accusation Yang had made before. Yang predicted that if Emperor Xuanzong summoned An to Chang'an, he would surely not come. However, when Emperor Xuanzong tested Yang's hypothesis by summoning An, he immediately showed up in Chang'an and claimed that Yang was making false accusations. Thereafter, Emperor Xuanzong refused to believe any suggestions that An was plotting rebellion, despite Li Heng agreeing with Yang's assessment on this issue. The Emperor even considered promoting An to be chancellor; however, Yang opposed, and the promotion did not occur. An subsequently returned to Fanyang. At An's request, Emperor Xuanzong allowed him to award his soldiers with high ranks without first receiving imperial approval. (Geshu, hearing this, made the same request, and Emperor Xuanzong also granted this privilege to Geshu.) Later in 754, An defeated Xi forces, capturing their chieftain Li Riyue (李日越). Meanwhile, Yang Guozhong viewed the official Wei Zhi (韋陟) as a threat and accused Wei of corruption. Yang Guozhong later accused Wei of bribing An's associate Ji Wen (吉溫), and Wei and Ji were both demoted. An subsequently submitted a petition on their behalf, claiming that the accusations from Yang Guozhong were false, but Emperor Xuanzong took no actions against either An or Yang Guozhong.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.

paragraph: The An Lushan Rebellion spanned from 16 December 755 to 17 February 763. This rebellion involved the death of some 13–36 million people, making it one of the deadliest wars in history.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Initial stage.

paragraph: In the spring of 755, matters were beginning to come to a head. When An Lushan submitted a petition to have 32 non-Han generals under him replace Han generals, this was accepted by Emperor Xuanzong, despite opposition from Yang Guozhong and his fellow chancellor Wei Jiansu who took An's use of non-Han generals as a sign of impending rebellion. Yang and Wei then suggested that An be promoted to be chancellor, and that his three commands be divided between his three deputies.

paragraph: Emperor Xuanzong initially agreed, but after the edict was drafted, Xuanzong tabled it and instead sent the eunuch Fu Qiulin (輔璆琳) to send fresh fruits to An and to observe him—upon which An was alleged to bribe Fu into submitting a favorable report. Yang, however, persisted in his reports against An. Yang then attacked some of An's staff and associates, including having the mayor of Jingzhao arrest An's friend Li Chao (李超) and others, and executing them secretly. An Qingzong, who was then at Chang'an, reported Yang's attack to An Lushan, causing considerable concern to An Lushan, who, thereafter, refused to attend the funeral of an imperial prince in summer 755, and did not offer to send a large number of horses to Chang'an that autumn, which aroused the suspicions of Emperor Xuanzong. Allegations of An's bribes to Fu also reached the Emperor, who then had Fu executed, and sent another eunuch, Feng Shenwei (馮神威) to Fanyang to again summon An Lushan, who ignored the summons.

paragraph: In winter 755, An launched his rebellion on 16 December, claiming he had received a secret edict from Emperor Xuanzong to advance on Chang'an to remove Yang. The imperial officials were all apprehensive, because An had the strongest troops of the realm at the time, except for Yang, who believed that An could be suppressed easily. Emperor Xuanzong commissioned the general Feng Changqing as military governor of Fanyang and Pinglu, intending to have him replace An after An's rebellion was defeated. The Emperor also sent Feng to the eastern capital, Luoyang, to build up the defense there; another general, Gao Xianzhi, was ordered to command a secondary defense at Shan Commandery (陝郡, roughly modern Sanmenxia, Henan). He executed An Qingzong and An's first wife Lady Kang, and forced An Qingzong's present wife, Lady Rongyi, to take her own life.

paragraph: On 8 January 756, An Lushan crossed the Yellow River, quickly capturing Chenliu (陳留, roughly modern Kaifeng, Henan) and Yingyang (滎陽, roughly modern Zhengzhou, Henan) Commanderies. He approached Luoyang, where he encountered an ill-prepared army commanded by Feng, defeating Feng quickly and forcing Feng to flee and concede Luoyang to him. Feng joined forces with Gao and urged a retreat to Tong Pass; Gao agreed, and they took up defensive positions there, and An did not proceed quickly, but remained at Luoyang, planning to declare himself emperor there. (Soon, due to accusations of the eunuch Bian Lingcheng (邊令誠), Emperor Xuanzong executed Feng and Gao, and replaced Gao with Geshu Han.) Some Tang officials north of the Yellow River resisted An Lushan under the leadership of Yan Zhenqing, the governor of Pingyuan Commandery (平原, roughly modern Dezhou, Shandong).

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:As emperor of Yan.

paragraph: On Lunar New Year's day, 756 (5 February), An Lushan declared himself Emperor at Luoyang, establishing a new state of Yan, making Zhang Tongru and the surrendered Tang official Daxi Xun (達奚珣) his chancellors. He created An Qingxu the Prince of Jin and another son, An Qinghe (安慶和), the Prince of Zheng. Meanwhile, Yan Zhenqing's cousin Yan Gaoqing (顏杲卿), who initially submitted to An, rose against An at Changshan Commandery (常山, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei) but was quickly defeated and delivered to An in Luoyang; An executed him and sent An Qingxu to make an initial attack against Tong Pass, and Geshu Han repelled the attack.

paragraph: By this time, the Tang generals Guo Ziyi and Li Guangbi had fought their way into Emperor An's territory north of the Yellow River, cutting off the communication between Luoyang and Fanyang, causing much fear in An's troops. An considered withdrawing north of the Yellow River to secure the territory, but meanwhile, suspicions had begun to rise between Yang Guozhong and Geshu, each believing that the other had designs on himself. Yang therefore persuaded Emperor Xuanzong to order Geshu to attack the Yan general Cui Qianyou, who was then stationed at Shan Commandery. (This order was against the advice of Geshu, Guo, and Li Guangbi that the proper strategy was to secure Tong Pass and let Guo and Li Guangbi capture the Yan territory to the north.) Geshu, with Emperor Xuanzong repeatedly ordering him to attack, was forced to do so, and was defeated by Cui. Geshu's subordinate Huoba Guiren (火拔歸仁) seized him and surrendered to Yan forces. Subsequently, An induced Geshu to write letters to several Tang generals, urging them to surrender, but they all refused.

paragraph: When Yan forces captured Tong Pass, Emperor Xuanzong and Yang, in panic, abandoned Chang'an and fled toward Shu Commandery (蜀郡, roughly modern Chengdu, Sichuan). On the way, at a small village, Mawei Station, prompted by general Chen Xuanli who believed that Yang Guozhong had provoked this rebellion, the imperial guards assassinated Yang Guozhong, and demanded the death of Yang Guifei, to which the Emperor reluctantly consented. An, caught by surprise of the Emperor's retreat, had Cui advance slowly into Chang'an, even though the Tang mayor of Chang'an, Cui Guangyuan (崔光遠), offered to surrender. Also surrendering to Yan forces were the former chancellor Chen Xilie and the key officials Zhang Jun (張均) and Zhang Ji (張垍), and An made Chen and Zhang Ji chancellors as well.

paragraph: Meanwhile, An had Emperor Xuanzong's sister, Princess of Huo, as well as a number of other imperial relatives, executed, and sacrificed their organs to An Qingzong. At this point, a new person became the Tang Emperor, Li Heng, or Emperor Suzong. Due to the slowness of the Yan advance, the Yan forces were unable to capture either Emperor Xuanzong, who eventually reached Shu Commandery, or Li Heng, who fled to Lingwu and took imperial title there (as Emperor Suzong). (Xuanzong recognized Li Heng's actions and subsequently took the title "Taishang Huang" ("retired emperor").) Hearing news of Chang'an's fall, Guo and Li Guangbi withdrew to Lingwu, allowing Shi to again pacify the region north of the Yellow River and east of the Taihang Mountains with exception of pockets held by Yan Zhenqing and other Tang officials under his command.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Death.

paragraph: An Lushan's chronic eye problems led to blindness, and he suffered from ulcers. As a result, he became ill-tempered, and would whip, cane or even sometimes execute his servants, if they had caused him any displeasure. Yan Zhuang and a favorite eunuch of An, Li Zhu'er (李豬兒), were also said to be hit frequently. Once he declared imperial title, he spent most of his time inside the Luoyang palace, and his generals rarely saw him, with most important matters going through Yan Zhuang.

paragraph: An favored his son An Qing'en (安慶恩), the son of his second wife, Lady Duan (who might have carried the title of empress by this point). An considered letting An Qing'en be his crown prince, instead of An Qingxu, who was otherwise considered in order to receive that honor. An Qingxu often feared that An Lushan would put him to death; this fear drove him to assassinate An Lushan. He, Yan, and Li Zhu'er therefore plotted the assassination. On the night of 29 January 757, with Yan and An Qingxu watching outside, Li Zhu'er took a sword into the palace and attacked An Lushan; An Lushan tried to fight back, but could not locate a sword that he put under his bed, and Li Zhu'er killed him. The next morning, Yan first announced to the Yan officials that An Lushan was seriously ill and was creating An Qingxu crown prince, and then An Qingxu took the throne, before announcing An Lushan's death. After Shi Siming killed An Qingxu in 759 and took imperial title himself, he buried An Lushan with ceremony due an imperial prince, not an emperor, and gave him the rather unflattering posthumous name of La (剌, meaning "unthinking").

paragraph: Section::::Personal information.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Father

paragraph: BULLET::::- may be surnamed Kang (康) (personal name unknown)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mother

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady Ashide

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stepfather

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Yanyan (安延偃)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wives

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady Kang, mother of Prince Qingxu (executed by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang 756)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress Duan, mother of An Qing'en

paragraph: BULLET::::- Children

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Qingzong (安慶宗) (executed by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang 756)

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Qingxu (安慶緒), the Prince of Jin (created 756), later emperor

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Qingzhang (安慶長)

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Qinghe (安慶和), the Prince of Zheng (created 756, executed by Emperor Suzong of Tang 758)

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Qing'en (安慶恩)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Six other sons, names unrecorded in history

paragraph: BULLET::::- Other

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Sishun (relationship uncertain)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Li Baoyu (another Sogdian general, who fought for the Tang against An Lushan)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009): "Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present". Princeton: Princeton University Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Benn, Charles. 2002. "China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty". Oxford University Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bo Yang, "Bo Yang Edition of the Zizhi Tongjian", vols. 51, 52, 53.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Denis Twitchett (ed.), "The Cambridge History of China", Volume 3, "Sui and T'ang China", Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1979)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ebrey, Walthall, Palais (2006)." East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lin, Tianwei, "An Lushan". "Chinese Encyclopedia" (Biography Edition), 1st ed.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Liu Xu et al., "Old Book of Tang", vol. 200, part 1.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ouyang Xiu et al., "New Book of Tang", vol. 225, part 1.

paragraph: BULLET::::- MATSUI, Hitoshi 松井等 (Japan). "Qidan boxing shi 契丹勃興史 (History of the rise of the Khitan)". Mamden chiri-rekishi kenkyu hokoku 1 (1915).Translated into Chinese by Liu, Fengzhu 劉鳳翥. In Minzu Shi Yiwen Ji 民族史譯文集 (A Collection of Translated Papers on Ethnic Histories) 10 (1981). Repr. in: Sun, Jinji et al. 1988 (vol. 1), pp. 93–141.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mu, Weisheng (2000). "The Critical Biography of Guo Ziyi". .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pulleyblank, E. G., "The Background of the Rebellion of An Lu-Shan", London: Oxford University Press (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pulleyblank, E. G. "The An Lu-Shan Rebellion and the Origins of Chronic Militarism in Late T'ang China", in Perry & Smith, "Essays on T'ang Society", Leiden: E. J. Brill (1976).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sima Guang et al., "Zizhi Tongjian", vols. , , , , , .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schafer, Edward H. "The Golden Peaches of Samarkand". Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Xu, Daoxun et al. (1993). "The Biography of Tang Xuanzong". Beijing: People's Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Xue, Zongzheng (1992). "A History of Turks". Beijing: Chinese Social Sciences Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yang, Zhijiu, "An Lushan". "Encyclopedia of China" (Chinese History Edition), 1st ed.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yu, Taishan (2nd Edition 2003). "A Comprehensive History of Western Regions". Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhong, Han. "Ah Lushan Dengzahu De Neiya Wenhua Beijing" ("The Cultural Background on An Lushan, etc in Inner Asia——With the Discussion on the Inner Asia-ized of Sute or Sogdian")". Journal of Chinese Historical Studies. 2005.1. ISSN 1002-7963.

alias:
安禄山
安祿山
Ān Lùshān
Rokhshan
On Luk Shan
On Look Shan

description: Chinese general and emperor of Yan

wikidata_label: An Lushan

wikipedia_title: An Lushan


text: engineer

text: mathematician

text: remote-control

text: Santa Cruz de Iguña

text: Cantabria

text: Bilbao

text: Madrid

text: Carlist

text: Third Carlist War

text: Athenæum of Madrid

text: cinematography

text: X-ray

text: spectrograph

text: Esperanto

text: Alfonso XIII of Spain

text: Royal Spanish Academy

text: Benito Pérez Galdós

text: Paris Academy of Science

text: Sorbonne

text: League of Nations

text: Spanish Civil War

text: Google Doodle

text: arithmometer

text: dirigible

text: Alfredo Kindelán

text: Guadalajara

text: Astra

text: Astra-Torres airship

text: Emilio Herrera Linares

text: John Alcock

text: Arthur Brown

text: Atlantic

text: Newfoundland

text: Ireland

text: Vickers Vimy

text: El Ajedrecista

text: cable cars

text: Switzerland

text: mount Ulía

text: San Sebastián

text: Chamonix

text: Rio de Janeiro

text: Spanish Aerocar

text: Niagara Falls

text: Canada

text: whirlpool

text: Niagara Gorge

text: robot

text: remote control

text: port of Bilbao

text: Technical University of Madrid

text: Antonio Pérez Yuste

text: Academy of Sciences

text: complex variable

text: logarithmic scale

text: Logarithmic Number System

text: Technical University of Madrid

categories: 1936 deaths,Spanish inventors,1852 births,Spanish engineers,People from the Besaya Valley,Polytechnic University of Madrid alumni,Cantabrian scientists,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,Spanish Esperantists,Members of the Royal Spanish Academy

paragraph: Leonardo Torres y Quevedo

paragraph: Leonardo Torres y Quevedo (; 28 December 1852 – 18 December 1936) was a Spanish civil engineer and mathematician of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. With his "Telekine", Torres-Quevedo created wireless remote-control operation principles.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Torres was born on 28 December 1852, on the Feast of the Holy Innocents, in Santa Cruz de Iguña, Cantabria, Spain. The family resided for the most part in Bilbao, where Leonardo's father worked as a railway engineer, although they also spent long periods in his mother's family home in the Cantabria's mountain region. In Bilbao he studied to enter an advanced high school program, and later spent two years in Paris to complete his studies. In 1870, his father was transferred, bringing his family to Madrid. The same year, Torres began his higher studies in the Official School of the Road Engineers' Corps. He temporarily suspended his studies in 1873 to volunteer for the defense of Bilbao, which had been surrounded by Carlist troops during the Third Carlist War. Returning to Madrid, he completed his studies in 1876, fourth in his graduating class.

paragraph: He began his career with the same train company for which his father had worked, but he immediately set out on a long trip through Europe to get to know the scientific and technical advances of the day firsthand, especially in the incipient area of electricity. Upon returning to Spain, he took up residence in Santander where he financed his own work and began a regimen of study and investigation that he never abandoned. The fruit of these investigations appeared in his first scientific work in 1893.

paragraph: He married in 1885 and had eight children. In 1899 he moved to Madrid and became involved in that city's cultural life. From the work he carried out in these years, the Athenæum of Madrid created the Laboratory of Applied Mechanics of which he was named director. The Laboratory dedicated itself to the manufacture of scientific instruments. That same year, he entered the Royal Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences in Madrid, of which entity he was president in 1910. Among the works of the Laboratory, the cinematography of Gonzalo Brañas and the X-ray spectrograph of Cabrera and Costa are notable.

paragraph: In the early 1900s, Torres learned the international language Esperanto, and was an advocate of the language throughout his life.

paragraph: In 1916 King Alfonso XIII of Spain bestowed the Echegaray Medal upon him; in 1918, he declined the offer of the position of Minister of Development. In 1920, he entered the Royal Spanish Academy, in the seat that had been occupied by Benito Pérez Galdós, and became a member of the department of Mechanics of the Paris Academy of Science. In 1922 the Sorbonne named him an Honorary Doctor and, in 1927, he was named one of the twelve associated members of the Academy. From 1922 to 1926, he participates to the works of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations.

paragraph: Torres died in Madrid, in the heat of the Spanish Civil War on 18 December 1936, ten days shy of his eighty-fourth birthday.

paragraph: Google celebrated his 160th birthday on 28 December 2012 with a Google Doodle.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Analytical machines.

paragraph: Torres Quevedo demonstrated twice, in 1914 and in 1920, that all of the cogwheel functions of a calculating machine like that of Babbage could be implemented using electromechanical parts. His 1914 analytical machine used a small memory built with electromagnets; his 1920 machine, built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, used a typewriter to receive its commands and print its results.

paragraph: Torres 1913 paper, "Essays on Automatics," also introduced the idea of floating point arithmetic, which historian Randell says was described "almost casually," apparently without recognizing the significance of the discovery.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Aerostatics.

paragraph: In 1902, Leonardo Torres Quevedo presented to the Science Academies of Madrid and Paris the project of a new type of dirigible that would solve the serious problem of suspending the gondola by including an internal frame of flexible cables that would give the airship rigidity by way of interior pressure.

paragraph: In 1905, with the help of Alfredo Kindelán, Torres directed the construction of the first Spanish dirigible in the Army Military Aerostatics Service, created in 1896 and located in Guadalajara. It was completed successfully, and the new airship, the "España", made numerous test and exhibition flights. As a result, a collaboration began between Torres and the French company Astra, which managed to buy the patent with a cession of rights extended to all countries except Spain, in order to make possible the construction of the dirigible in its country. So, in 1911, the construction of dirigibles known as the Astra-Torres airships was begun. Some were acquired by the French and British armies at the beginning of 1913, and were used during the First World War for diverse tasks, principally naval protection and inspection.

paragraph: In 1918, Torres designed, in collaboration with the engineer Emilio Herrera Linares, a transatlantic dirigible, which was named "Hispania", aiming to claim the honor of the first transatlantic flight for Spain. Owing to financial problems, the project was delayed and it was the Britons John Alcock and Arthur Brown who crossed the Atlantic without stop from Newfoundland to Ireland in a Vickers Vimy twin-engine plane, in sixteen hours and twelve minutes.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Chess automaton.

paragraph: In early 1910, Torres began to construct a chess automaton he dubbed El Ajedrecista (The Chessplayer) that was able to automatically play a king and rook endgame against king from any position, without any human intervention. This device was first publicly demonstrated in Paris in 1914, and is considered the world's first computer game. Mechanical arms moved the pieces in the prototype, but by 1920, electromagnets under the board were employed for this task.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Cableways.

paragraph: Torres's experimentation in the area of cableways and cable cars began very early during his residence in the town of his birth, Molledo. There, in 1887, he constructed the first cableway to span a depression of some 40 metres. The cableway was some 200 metres across and was pulled by a pair of cows, with one log seat. This experiment was the basis for the request for his first patent, which he sought in the same year: an aerial cable car with multiple cables, with which it obtained a level of safety suitable for the transport of people, not only cargo. Later, he constructed the "cableway of the Río León", of greater speed and already with a motor, but which continued to be used solely for the transport of materials, not of people.

paragraph: In 1890 he presented his cableway in Switzerland, a country very interested in that transport owing to its geography and which was already coming to use cable cars for bulk transport, but Torres's project was dismissed, allowing certain ironic commentary from the Swiss press. In 1907, Torres constructed the first cableway suitable for the public transportation of people, in the mount Ulía in San Sebastián. The problem of safety was solved by means of an ingenious system of multiple support cables. The resulting design was very strong and perfectly resisted the rupture of one of the support cables. The execution of the project was the responsibility of the Society of Engineering Studies and Works of Bilbao, which successfully constructed other cableways in Chamonix, Rio de Janeiro, and elsewhere.

paragraph: But it is doubtless the Spanish Aerocar in Niagara Falls in Canada which has gained the greatest fame in this area of activity, although from a scientific point of view it was not the most important. The cableway of 580 meters in length is an aerial cable car that spans the whirlpool in the Niagara Gorge on the Canadian side, constructed between 1914 and 1916, a Spanish project from beginning to end: devised by a Spaniard, constructed by a Spanish company with Spanish capital (The Niagara Spanish Aerocar Co. Limited); a bronze plaque, located on a monolith at the entrance of the access station recalls this fact: "Spanish aerial ferry of the Niagara. Leonardo Quevedo Torres (1852–1936)". It was inaugurated in tests on 15 February 1916 and was officially inaugurated on 8 August 1916, opening to the public the following day; the cableway, with small modifications, continues to run to this day, with no accidents worthy of mention, constituting a popular tourist and cinematic attraction.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Radio control: the "Telekino".

paragraph: In 1903, Torres presented the "Telekino" at the Paris Academy of Science, accompanied by a brief, and making an experimental demonstration. In the same year, he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States.

paragraph: The "Telekino" consisted of a robot that executed commands transmitted by electromagnetic waves. It constituted the world's second publicly demonstrated apparatus for radio control, after Nikola Tesla's Patented "Teleautomaton", and was a pioneer in the field of remote control. In 1906, in the presence of the king and before a great crowd, Torres successfully demonstrated the invention in the port of Bilbao, guiding a boat from the shore. Later, he would try to apply the "Telekino" to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing. In 2007, the prestigious Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) dedicated a Milestone in Electrical Engineering and Computing to the "Telekino", based on the research work developed at Technical University of Madrid by Prof. Antonio Pérez Yuste, who was the driving force behind the Milestone nomination.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Analogue calculating machines.

paragraph: Analogue calculating machines seek solutions to equations by translating them into physical phenomena. Numbers are represented by physical magnitudes such as may be done with certain rotational axes, potentials, electrical or electromagnetic states, and so on. A mathematical process is thereby transformed by these machines into an operative process of certain physical magnitudes which leads to a physical result corresponding with the sought mathematical solution. The mathematical problem therefore is solved by a physical model of itself. From the mid 19th century, various such mechanical devices were known, including integrators, multipliers, and so on ; it is against this background that Torres's work is defined. He began with a presentation in 1893 at the Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences of the Memory on algebraic machines. In his time, this was considered an extraordinary success for Spanish scientific production. In 1895 the machines were presented at a congress in Bordeaux. Later on, in 1900, la Memoria would present the calculating machines at the Paris Academy of Sciences. These machines examined mathematical and physical analogies that underlay analogue calculation or continuous quantities, and how to establish mechanically the relationships between them, expressed in mathematical formulae. The study included complex variables and used the logarithmic scale. From a practical standpoint, it showed that mechanisms such as turning disks could be used endlessly with precision, so that variables' variations were limited in both directions.

paragraph: On the practical side, Torres built a whole series of analogue calculating machines, all mechanical. These machines used certain elements known as arithmophores which consisted of a moving part and an index that made it possible to read the quantity according to the position shown thereon. The aforesaid moving part was a graduated disk or a drum turning on an axis. The angular movements were proportional to the logarithms of the magnitudes to be represented. Using a number of such elements, Torres developed a machine that could solve algebraic equations, even one with eight terms, finding the roots, including the complex ones, with a precision down to thousandths. One part of this machine, called an "endless spindle" ("fusee sans fin") and consisting of great mechanical complexity, allowed the mechanical expression of the relation y=log(10^x+1), with the aim of extracting the logarithm of a sum as a sum of logarithms, the same technique which is the basis of the modern electronic Logarithmic Number System. Since an analogical machine was being used, the variable could be of any value (not only discrete prefixed values). With a polynomial equation, the wheels representing the unknown spin round, and the result gives the values of the sum of the variables. When this sum coincides with the value of the second member, the wheel of the unknown shows a root.

paragraph: With the intention of demonstrating them, Torres also built a machine for solving a second-order equation with complex coefficients, and an integrator. Nowadays, the Torres machine is kept in the museum at the "ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos" of the Technical University of Madrid (UPM).

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Spanish scientists, engineers and inventors

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres and Bush

paragraph: BULLET::::- A Short Account on Leonardo Torres’ Endless Spindle

description: Spanish engineer

wikidata_label: Leonardo Torres Quevedo

wikipedia_title: Leonardo Torres y Quevedo


text: Andria

text: Naples

text: Italian

text: Parthenopean Republic

text: Margherita Pignatelli

text: Caracciolo

text: house of Carafa

text: Pope Paul IV

text: Trani

text: Jacobin

text: Order of San Gennaro

text: San Severino e Sossio

text: escutcheon

text: Guglielmo Pepe

text: Castel Sant'Elmo

text: Cisalpine Republic

text: General Championnet

text: Parthenopean Republic

text: Abruzzo

text: Palazzo Vargas-Macciucca

text: Portici

text: Cardinal Ruffo

text: Castel Nuovo

text: General Duhesme

text: San Severo

text: Andria

text: General Broussier

text: Sanfedisti

text: Public Marketplace

text: Carmine Maggiore

text: Joachim Murat

text: Romantic

categories: History of Naples,People from Andria,Italian revolutionaries,1767 births,18th-century Italian military personnel,18th-century Italian people,1799 deaths,Executed Italian people

paragraph: Ettore Carafa

paragraph: Ettore Carafa d'Andria, the Count of Ruvo (10 August 1767 in Andria – 4 September 1799 in Naples) was an Italian soldier and republican patriot, executed after the fall of the Parthenopean Republic. His courage, idealism, and resolute optimism created in Ettore an image of the Italian martyr for following generations involved in the struggle for more democratic structures and an Italian nation.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: His father, Riccardo Carafa, was the Duke of Andria; his mother, Margherita Pignatelli, was the sister of the Vicar General, Francesco Pignatelli. Ettore had three brothers: Francesco, Fabrizio, and Carlo. He had three sisters: Maria Giuseppa married to the Duke of Sangro, lieutenant general to the King; Maria Luisa married to Baldassarre Caracciolo, Duke of Casteldisangro; and another married to the Duke of Altemps. The house of Carafa had long been a prestigious noble family, which included an ancestor as Pope Paul IV. The Duke and Duchess had "offices in the Court and were very loyal and faithful to the Bourbons; the Duchess and the daughters were considered pious, religious, and of strict morals".

paragraph: Ettore and his brothers, unlike his parents, were attracted by the revolutionary fervor emanating from France. In 1787-1788, Ettore had secretly traveled to Paris with his tutor Franco Laghezza of Trani, where he became enamored with Jacobin ideas.

paragraph: After returning to Naples, there was an incident wherein Ettore had appeared wearing a color emblematic of the revolution, in the form of a scarlet waistcoat, at the Fiorentini theater; this prompted a complaint by the Queen made to his mother, the Duchess of Andria. He was already under suspicion for being a leader of a movement that translated into Italian the 1789 "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen", and distributed the copies throughout Naples.

paragraph: On 23 June 1794 Ettore's father, the Duke, died. As the eldest son, he would to inherit his father's appointment to the Order of San Gennaro. However, due to his anti-monarchical idealism, he refused to receive the honors of his father from the royal court. After an angry debate with his mother, he entered to the church of San Severino e Sossio, where he proceeded to blacken the escutcheon on the tomb of his venerable ancestor Carafa, who had been grand prior of the order of Malta.

paragraph: By August he was arrested while making a trip outside the city. With the help of his brother Carlo Carafa, the castle commander Guglielmo Pepe, and large bribes, he was soon able to escape from Castel Sant'Elmo, and flee to the Cisalpine Republic that had been established in Milan.

paragraph: In January 1799, he joined the French-Italian army of General Championnet that invaded Naples, and forced the frightened King to flee to Sicily, and leave Ettore's uncle as Vicar General in the City. In Naples, the Parthenopean Republic was founded, and soon the young Ettore received the command of a Republican Legion.

paragraph: One anecdote about Ettore's brother, Carlo, is that he was ordered by the Neapolitan Directory to proceed to Rome to levy soldiers to fight under Ettore in Abruzzo. Carlo approached his mother, the Duchess, to ask for funds for the trip and effort. The Duchess was living with her daughters in the Palazzo Vargas-Macciucca in Portici, since their palace in Naples had been burned and looted by the mob in January 1799. The Duchess supposedly angrily replied that she would give no money for such a purpose, but then "dropped" the keys to the money-chest, allowing Carlo to take the money she would not "give".

paragraph: Another brother, Francesco also fought with the Republican forces. On 13 June 1799, during the battle at the Ponte della Maddalena in Naples, he fell into a ditch, was seized and recognized by a Sanfedista from Andria, brought before Cardinal Ruffo, who jailed him at Castel Nuovo, from which he emerged after the Peace of Florence.

paragraph: Ettore traveled to Puglia with General Duhesme. There they besieged San Severo, which after a violent assault, quickly fell. Then Ettore moved south to Andria with General Broussier and alongside his former jailer Guglielmo Pepe, where he thought his birthplace and the feud of his family ties would welcome him. However, the feudal lord who circled the walls of the city, trying to convince those inside that the republic aimed to abolish feudal status, was fired upon by his fellow Andrians atop the walls. A siege followed, featuring French artillery forced the city to surrender, and much of Andria was burned and sacked. For his next mission, Ettore was sent north to defend Pescara, but under nebulous circumstances, he was arrested by the pro-monarchical forces.

paragraph: Ettore was moved to Naples, which had fallen to the Sanfedisti forces of Cardinal Ruffo. His last days were sordid, but he apparently still demonstrated valor to the end. He was taken to Naples and kept under guard with an iron cage around his neck for several days, which prevented sleep; ragged and with a long beard, he was brought to the Public Marketplace to be beheaded. On 24 September 1799 his remains were buried in the Church of Santa Caterina near the Carmine Maggiore.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Ettore's life was short; the battles won by his legions, meager; and at the time of his death, the republic was overthrown, and Naples was in the thrall of a brutal reactionary purge. However, the King and Queen would again flee when the Napoleonic armies swept again into Campania, this time maintaining rule through French authorities, including King Joachim Murat from 1808 till 1815, when the Bourbon monarchy was restored. Ultimately, while the accomplishments of Ettore were limited, the echo of his passion reverberated among Romantic revolutionary movements in Southern Italy.

paragraph: He rebelled against his upbringing: an aristocrat who fought for the rights of all men; a literate young man versed in cavalry battles. Ultimately, Ettore joined the legions of the tragic young patriots seeking liberty, who were executed by the Neapolitan "Ancien Régime".

paragraph: Section::::Other sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- istituto Tecnico Economico Statale, Liceo Economico Sociale Ettore Carafa short biography.

description: Italian revolutionary

wikidata_label: Ettore Carafa

wikipedia_title: Ettore Carafa


text:
Irish
painter
Dublin
William Sadler
Francis Danby
George Petrie
Royal Academy
Netherlands
Rhineland
Brompton, London
National Gallery of Ireland
O'Connor painting at AskArt
O'Connor at Wolverhampton Arts

categories: 19th-century Irish painters,1792 births,Irish landscape painters,1841 deaths,Irish male painters

paragraph: James Arthur O'Connor

paragraph: James Arthur O'Connor (1792 – 7 January 1841) was an Irish painter.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: James Arthur O'Connor was born 15 Aston's Quay, Dublin – the son of an engraver and printer, William O'Connor. O'Connor would become a distinguished landscape painter. He was self-taught, receiving just a few lessons from William Sadler. He travelled to London with Francis Danby and George Petrie, exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1822. O'Connor visited France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Rhineland. He died poor, in Brompton, London, 7 January 1841. O'Connor was married – his wife's name was Anastatia.

paragraph: Section::::List of paintings.

paragraph: The list below contains an incomplete list of his works and gives either the owner (in 1985) or the location of where the original is found today (or both).

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hutchinson, John. "James Arthur O'Connor". Dublin: The National Gallery of Ireland, 1985. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Connor painting at AskArt

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Connor at Wolverhampton Arts

alias:
James Arthur O’Connor
James A. O'Connor
James Arthur O'Conor
J. A. O'Conner
O'Conner
O'Connor
O. Connor
O. Conner
O.Connor
J.A. O'Connor
J. A. O'Connor
j. a. o'connor

description: Irish artist

wikidata_label: James Arthur O'Connor

wikipedia_title: James Arthur O'Connor


text: Werle

text: Mecklenburg

text: Eric IV

text: John VII of Werle

text: John IV

text: Henry IV the Fat

text: John V

text: Biographical data of Catherine

categories: 1450 deaths,Duchesses of Mecklenburg,Year of birth uncertain

paragraph: Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg

paragraph: Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg (born: circa 1400; died: 22 September 1450), was a Baroness consort of Werle-Güstrow, a Duchess consort of Mecklenburg, and Regent of the Duchy of Mecklenburg from 1422 to 1436 as the guardian of her under age sons.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Catherine was the daughter of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. She married firstly, John VII of Werle. He died in 1414. She then married the Duke John IV of Mecklenburg in 1416. When John died in 1422, after six years of marriage, she ruled until 1436 as Regent for her minor sons.

paragraph: For a long time, a charter date July 1448 was the last known document to name Catherine. Then a charter surfaced which suggested she died in November. Around the turn of the Century, Hans Witte could finally prove she died on St. Maurice day (22 September) 1450.

paragraph: Section::::Issue.

paragraph: From her marriage with John, Catherine had two sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry IV the Fat, Duke of Mecklenburg (1417 to 1477)

paragraph: BULLET::::- John V, Duke of Mecklenburg (1418–1442)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- References about Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg in the Landesbibliographie Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biographical data of Catherine

paragraph: BULLET::::- Genealogical table of the House of Mecklenburg

description: German noblewoman


text: Werle-Güstrow

text: Lorenz

text: Balthasar

text: William

text: Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg

text: Erich IV

text: John IV

text: Genealogical table of the House of Mecklenburg

categories: 1414 deaths,House of Mecklenburg,Lords of Werle

paragraph: John VII of Werle

paragraph: John VII of Werle-Güstrow (born: circa 1375; died between 14 August and 17 December 1414) was from 1395 to 1414 Lord of Werle-Güstrow. He was the second eldest son of Lorenz, Lord of Werle-Güstrow, and Mechthild (d. before 17 December 1402). After the death of his father Lorenz in 1393 or 1394, his brother Balthasar initially ruled alone, but from 11 December 1395 John and Balthasar ruled Werle together. From 1 May 1401, their brother William was co-ruler as well.

paragraph: John married Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg, a daughter of Erich IV of Saxe-Lauenburg. After his death, she married John IV of Mecklenburg. He had no known children.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

description: Lord of Werle-Güstrow

wikidata_label: John VII of Werle

wikipedia_title: John VII of Werle


text:
Radziwiłł family
Polish–Lithuanian
szlachcic
Castellan
Trakai
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

categories: 1613 deaths,1578 births,Radziwiłł family,17th-century Polish people

paragraph: Grzegorz IV Radziwiłł

paragraph: Grzegorz Radziwiłł (1578–1613), fourth Grzegorz in Radziwiłł family, was a Polish–Lithuanian noble (szlachcic), Castellan of Trakai in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

description: Polish-Lithuanian noble

wikidata_label: Grzegorz IV

wikipedia_title: Grzegorz IV Radziwiłł


text:
English
noble
Brantingham family
Brantingham
Yorkshire
half-effigy
brass
East Horsley
Surrey
Westminster
Drewsteignton
Devon
marks
manor
John de Segrave
Sileby
messuage
vill
acres
roods
shillings

categories: 14th-century English people,1400s deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Robert de Brantingham

paragraph: Robert de Brantingham (died c. 1400) was an English noble of the late fourteenth century. He lived in southern England, although the Brantingham family traditionally came from Brantingham in Yorkshire, and his half-effigy in brass may be found in St Martin's Church, East Horsley, Surrey.

paragraph: Section::::Legal involvement.

paragraph: On 18 November 1381, in a case tried at Westminster, de Brantingham stood alongside Alexander Marley and two clerks, Thomas de Staindrop and Thomas de Barton, as plaintiff against Sir John and Gwenllian de Raleigh. The action was a plea of covenant concerning Drewsteignton, Devon, for which de Brantingham and his fellow plaintiffs paid 100 marks, and in return were granted the manor of Drewsteignton.

paragraph: De Brantingham also stood as a witness to the grant by Sir John de Segrave to John de Denton of Sileby, his wife, Emma, and his son, William, of a messuage in the vill of Sileby with five acres of land and three roods of meadow, which one Reginald Robinet formerly held, for their lives, rent 10 shillings a year.

description: English noble

wikidata_label: Robert de Brantingham

wikipedia_title: Robert de Brantingham


text:
curler
Winter Olympics 1924
bobsleigh

categories: Olympic bobsledders of France,French male curlers,French male bobsledders,Curlers at the 1924 Winter Olympics,Bobsledders at the 1924 Winter Olympics,1876 births,Olympic curlers of France,Medalists at the 1924 Winter Olympics,1945 deaths

paragraph: Georges André

paragraph: Georges André (July 26, 1876 – March 19, 1945) was a French curler who won bronze at the Winter Olympics 1924. In the four-man bobsleigh competition of the same Olympics he was fourth.

description: French bobsledder

wikidata_label: Georges André

wikipedia_title: Georges André


text:
sound director
Vostan Hayots
Soviet Armenia
Leninakan
1988 earthquake
Yerevan
State Engineering University of Armenia
Mardakert
Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army
Official Website

categories: Armenian rock musicians,Russian record producers,People from Gyumri,Living people,1982 births

paragraph: Hayk F. Gyolchanyan

paragraph: Hayk F. Gyolchanyan (born November 11, 1982) is a Russian record producer, sound director, musician and songwriter, works with many representatives of Russian show business. He is best known as the chief sound director of the TVARMRU (Russian TV channel) and the founder of RedPoint Records studio in Moscow. Since 2006 the keyboardist in the Armenian rock band Vostan Hayots.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Hayk Gyolchanyan was born in Soviet Armenia, in Leninakan on November 22, 1982, to Fyodor and Gayane Gyolchanyan, process engineers. After the 1988 earthquake his family moved to Yerevan. He graduated from the College of Mathematics and Physics at school number 114, the State Engineering University of Armenia (former Polytechnic Institute), Faculty of Applied Sociology and Psychology. Between 2001 and 2003 was the head of Mardakert military orchestra during military service in the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army . In December 2003 he moved to Moscow. Married, has a son born in 2007.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "IF – Coming Back To Life (2004) "

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Usta Valod – Armenian Girl (2005)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "IF – Rhythm Blues And Rock 'n' Roll (2006)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "AlterEgo – In Conflict (2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hayk F. Gyolchanyan – Easy Mode (Unplugged) (2007)"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official Website

wikidata_label: Hayk F. Gyolchanyan

wikipedia_title: Hayk F. Gyolchanyan


text:
composer
David Wyn Jones
Georg Reutter
organist
Antonio Caldara
oratorio
opera
Johann Joseph Fux
Habsburg
Kapellmeister
St. Stephen's Cathedral
countertenor
Baroque
Classical
Bonno
Tuma
Fux
Hainburg
Joseph Haydn
Michael
Fux
Mattheson
Maria Theresa
mass
requiem
gradual
offertories
motet
psalm
antiphon
responses
litanies
De profundis
KV
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Il ritorno di Tobia
La Betulia liberata
Gioas re di Giuda

categories: Musicians from Vienna,Austrian classical composers,18th-century Austrian people,Joseph Haydn,18th-century classical composers,1708 births,Austrian opera composers,Classical-period composers,Male opera composers,Edlers of Austria,Austrian Baroque composers

paragraph: Johann Georg Reutter

paragraph: Johann Adam Joseph Karl Georg Reutter, during his life known as Georg Reutter the Younger (6 April 1708 – 11 March 1772) was an Austrian composer. According to David Wyn Jones, in his prime he was "the single most influential musician in Vienna".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Reutter was born and died in Vienna. His father Georg Reutter (the Elder) was also a notable composer. He was the 11th of 14 children and received his early musical training from his father, assisting him as court organist.

paragraph: A period of more formal instruction from Antonio Caldara ensued, leading to the composition of an oratorio in 1726 and, in 1727, his first opera for the imperial court, "Archidamia". On three separate occasions during this period, Reutter applied for a position as court organist and was each time rejected by Johann Joseph Fux. At his own expense he travelled to Italy in 1730 (possibly in 1729); in February 1730 he was in Venice and in April 1730 in Rome. He returned to Vienna in autumn 1730, and early in the following year he successfully applied for a post as court composer, the formal beginning of a lifetime of service at the Habsburg court. After his father's death he became "Kapellmeister" of St. Stephen's Cathedral in 1738.

paragraph: Section::::As "Kapellmeister".

paragraph: The "Kapellmeister" position had existed since the fifteenth century and Reutter was the 27th to occupy the post. The job provided living space directly adjacent to the Cathedral, the "Kapellhaus" (demolished in 1803), which also housed Reutter's family and the choirboys.

paragraph: Reutter supervised a staff of 31 musicians, as follows:

paragraph: BULLET::::- 5 choirboys, who sang the treble (soprano) part

paragraph: BULLET::::- 12 adult male singers: basses, tenors, and countertenors. The latter sang the alto part.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 12 string players

paragraph: BULLET::::- an organist

paragraph: BULLET::::- a subcantor, who assisted Reutter

paragraph: When trumpets, timpani, or trombones were needed, they were recruited on an ad hoc basis, often borrowed from the musical establishment of the Imperial court ("Hofkapelle").

paragraph: According to Jones, the repertoire of church music "constituted a continually unfolding tradition that is poorly served by the familiar division of the [18th] century into Baroque and Classical." Much of this repertoire was by Reutter himself (see Works, below); other composers prominently represented were Bonno, Tuma, and Fux.

paragraph: Section::::Reutter and Haydn.

paragraph: In 1739, while visiting the town of Hainburg, Reutter auditioned the seven-year-old Joseph Haydn; Haydn joined his ensemble the following year, later to be joined by his younger brother Michael. Both served until they were teenagers and had lost their soprano voices.

paragraph: It was naturally assumed that the youngsters were likely to become professional musicians in adulthood and they were trained accordingly. Joseph Haydn was given singing lessons by the tenor Ignaz Finsterbusch and taught violin by the ensemble's bass player, Adam Gegenbauer. He was also taught keyboard. The training did not include serious instruction in musical theory; this was a thirst that Joseph was able to satisfy (by studying Fux and Mattheson) only after he had left the "Kapelle."

paragraph: The choirboys were also given a basic ordinary education, including reading, writing, arithmetic, and some Latin. Jones suggests that "Haydn's formal education was rather patchy, perhaps less regular than it had been in [his previous home in] Hainburg."

paragraph: The memoirs dictated by Joseph to biographers in his old age indicate that Reutter's choristers often were underfed, thanks to Reutter's reluctance to spend money on them. Reutter was also not particularly helpful in providing feedback on Joseph's earliest efforts at musical composition.

paragraph: Section::::Later career.

paragraph: Reutter later advanced to the position of court "Kapellmeister," and Empress Maria Theresa gave him the sole management of the court orchestra in 1751. Reutter died in Vienna.

paragraph: Section::::Music.

paragraph: In addition to the works mentioned above, Reutter wrote a great deal of church music. Jones lists the following:

paragraph: BULLET::::- about 80 masses

paragraph: BULLET::::- 6 requiems

paragraph: BULLET::::- 17 graduals

paragraph: BULLET::::- 31 offertories

paragraph: BULLET::::- 126 motets

paragraph: BULLET::::- 151 psalm settings

paragraph: BULLET::::- 53 hymns

paragraph: BULLET::::- 48 antiphons

paragraph: BULLET::::- 7 responses

paragraph: BULLET::::- 20 litanies

paragraph: Reutter is believed to be the author of a setting of the "De profundis", KV 93, formerly ascribed to Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

paragraph: Section::::Music.:Oratorios.

paragraph: The following oratorios are mentioned in Eitner's "Quellen-Lexicon":

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La morte d'Abele" (1727) Metastasio

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Elia" (1728) Leopoldo de Villati, 24 February

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bersabea, ovvero il pentimento di David" (1729) text by Giovanni Battista Catena

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Divina provvidenza in Ismael" (1732) Antonio Maria Lucchini

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il ritorno di Tobia" (1733) text by Giovanni Claudio Pasquini, March 5, 1733

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Betulia liberata" (1734) text by Metastasio

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gioas re di Giuda" (1735) (Joash, King of Judah) text by Metastasio

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Maria lebbrosa" (1739)

paragraph: Section::::Music.:Stage works.

paragraph: The following stage works are listed in Eitner's "Quellen-Lexicon":

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Archidamia" (1727)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dialogo tra la inclinazione ed il bene" (1728)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dialogo tra Minerva ed Apollo" (1728)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La forza dell'amicizia ovvero PIlade ed Oreste" (1728)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alcide transformato in Dio" (1729)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Magnanimita di Alessandro" (1729)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Plotina" (1730)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La generosita di Artaserse con Temistocle" (1731)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Pacienza do Socrate" (1731)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il tempo e la verita" (1731)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alessandro il grande" (1732)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Zenobia" (1732)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ciro in Armenia" (1733)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dafne" (1734)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Gratitudine di Mitridate" (1734)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mitridate e di Ponto" (1734)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il Palladio conservato" (1735)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il sacrifizio in Aulide" (1735)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Diana vendicta" (1736)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La speranza assicurata" (1736)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "L'alloro illustrata" (1738)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il parnasso accusato e difeso" (1738)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "L'Eroina d'Argo" (1739)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Amor prigioniero" (1741)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Corona" (1754)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Gara" (1755)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Il sogno" (1756 or 57)

paragraph: Section::::Selected recordings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mozart/Reutter: "De profundis clamavi", Choir and Orchestra of the Vienna Volksoper, Peter Maag

paragraph: BULLET::::- Johann Georg Reutter: "Portus Felicitatis – Motetten und Arien für das Pantaleon, Monika Mauch, Stanislava Jirku, La Gioia Armonica, Jürgen Banholzer. Ramee 2013

paragraph: BULLET::::- Johann Georg Reutter: Arie & Sinfonie, Olivia Vermeulen, Nuovo Aspetto. Accent 2013

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Sources

description: Austrian composer

wikidata_label: Georg Reutter II

wikipedia_title: Johann Georg Reutter


text:
Scottish
Eton
Sub-Lieutenant
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve

categories: People educated at Eton College,1932 births,2005 deaths,Earls of Rothes,Royal Navy officers

paragraph: Ian Leslie, 21st Earl of Rothes

paragraph: Ian Lionel Malcolm Leslie, 21st Earl of Rothes (10 May 1932 – 15 April 2005) was a Scottish nobleman.

paragraph: The eldest son of the 20th Earl and Beryl Dugdale, he was educated at Eton and was a Sub-Lieutenant in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve from 1953. In 1955 he married Marigold Evans-Bevan of Wales, daughter of Sir David Evans-Bevan. They had two sons: James (b. 1958) and Alexander (b. 1962).

paragraph: Section::::Birth.

paragraph: The earl was born Hon. Ian Lionel Malcolm Leslie on May 10, 1932 and was the son of Malcolm Leslie and Beryl Violet Dulgdale. Upon birth he became the master of Rothes, a title given to the heir of the earldom upon birth.

paragraph: Section::::Earl of Rothes.

paragraph: Upon his father's death in 1974 he became Earl of Rothes. He was popular within Leslie and Glenrothes. In 2003 however he moved to England.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Lord Rothes died on 15 April 2005, aged 72, and was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, James. His son has currently had no children which means the earldom will be passed to his second eldest son Hon. Alexander Leslie.

description: British Royal Navy officer

wikidata_label: Ian Leslie, 21st Earl of Rothes

wikipedia_title: Ian Leslie, 21st Earl of Rothes


text:
Countess of Lecce
Naples
Sicily
Jerusalem
Hungary
John of Enghien
Sancia Del Balzo
Isabella of Brienne
Walter VI of Brienne
Battle of Poitiers
Sohier of Enghien
Peter of Enghien
Raimondo del Balzo Orsini
Taranto
Ladislaus of Naples
Prince of Taranto
Joan II of Naples
James II, Count of La Marche
Isabella of Clermont
Southern Italy
Ferdinand of Aragon
Alfonso V of Aragon
Catherine of Taranto
Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini
Maria D'Enghien

categories: 14th-century births,Women of medieval Italy,Counts of Lecce,Royal consorts of Naples,1446 deaths

paragraph: Mary of Enghien

paragraph: Mary of Enghien, also Maria d'Enghien, (1367 or 1370 – 9 May 1446) was Countess of Lecce from 1384 to 1446, and Queen of Naples as well as titular Queen of Sicily, Jerusalem, and Hungary by marriage to Ladislaus of Naples in 1406-1414.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Family.

paragraph: She was the daughter of John of Enghien, Count of Castro, and Sancia Del Balzo. Her father was the third son of Isabella of Brienne (who died in 1360) and her husband Walter of Enghien (who had died in 1345).

paragraph: Her paternal grandmother Isabella survived her brother Walter VI of Brienne, titular Duke of Athens etc., who died without surviving issue in 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers. As his heir, she became Countess of Lecce and Brienne etc., as well as titular Duchess of Athens. Since her eldest son Walter had died before her brother, her heir was her second son Sohier of Enghien. She allowed her inherited lands to be divided between her numerous children during her own lifetime. Mary's father, the third (but second surviving) son, had received the County of Lecce and the lordship of Castro.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Countess of Lecce.

paragraph: Mary's father John died in 1380, leaving minor children. Mary's brother Peter of Enghien, also called Pyrrhus (Pyrro or Pirro), became the Count of Lecce. However, Peter died childless in 1384 and was succeeded by Mary and her husband Raimondo del Balzo Orsini di Nola, whom she married that same year in Taranto.

paragraph: Chroniclers describe her as beautiful, intrepid and adventurous: adored by her children, loved by her first husband, besieged by King Ladislaus of Naples, and treated cruelly by the king's sister.

paragraph: She stayed in her castles of Lecce and Copertino when Raimondo travelled, and gave his services to the king against the papal troops and supporters of the junior Angevin line. She was occupied by their children, Marias, Caterina, Giovanni Antonio, and Gabriele.

paragraph: Raimondo was created Prince of Taranto (in her hereditary rights) and died in 1406.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Queen of Naples.

paragraph: After his husband's death, she was sieged in Taranto (1406) and resisted the troops of Ladislaus till he decided to propose her to be his wife. So she was forced to marry Ladislaus and the wedding was held in the chapel of the Castle of Taranto. Her second marriage was childless. Ladislaus died on 6 August 1414; his sister and successor Joan II of Naples, described as cruel, hated Mary and imprisoned her. Joan's husband James II, Count of La Marche, however, soon allowed her to go. She returned to Lecce, Joan having driven her and her children from the royal domains, back to Tarentine lands.

paragraph: Mary lived a long life, dying at the age of 78. She witnessed the marriage of her granddaughter Isabella of Clermont, daughter of Tristan and Catherine and an heiress of remarkable feudal possessions in Southern Italy, to Ferdinand of Aragon in 1444. He was the bastard son of King Alfonso V of Aragon, who had conquered Southern Italy in 1441.

paragraph: Section::::Children.

paragraph: Her children were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria del Balzo Orsini (died after 1410), married Antonio di Acquaviva, Duke of Atri, etc. Childless.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Caterina del Balzo Orsini, also known as Catherine of Taranto. Married with Bartholomew Tristan of Clermont (Bartolomeo Tristano di Chiaramonte or Chiaromonte), a knight of the French family of de Clermont-Lodeve. Tristan became Count of Capertino by the dowry of his wife. (That Catherine del Balzo Orsini who lived almost in the same period and married Giulio Antonio di Aragona di Acquaviva, Duke of Atri, etc., bringing him the dowry of Casamassima and Conversano, apparently was not this Catherine but a kinswoman, perhaps daughter of Giovanni Antonio or daughter of Gabriel, Duke of Venosa.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giovanni Antonio del Balzo Orsini, John, Prince of Taranto. Died childless in 1463, when his niece Isabella brought the fiefs to her husband King Ferrante.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (possibly natural son of her husband) Gabriele del Balzo Orsini (d. 1453), Count of Ugento, etc., Duke of Venosa. Married Giovanna Caracciolo del Sole dei Duchi di Melfi.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria D'Enghien

paragraph: BR

description: Royal Consort of Naples

wikidata_label: Mary of Enghien

wikipedia_title: Mary of Enghien


text:
Saka
Western Kshatrapas
Chastana
Satavahana
Maha-kshtrapa
Vashishtiputra Satakarni
Gautamiputra Satakarni
Poona
Nasik
Deccan
Amaravati
Junagadh
Sanskrit
Mauryan
Vashishtiputra Satakarni
Vashishtiputra Satakarni
Kanheri
Yaudheya
Haryana
Girnar
Naga
Saka
kshatrapas
Yavanesvara
Yavanajataka
Coins of the Western Satraps
Coins of Rudradaman I

categories: Converts to Hinduism,Western Satraps,History of Malwa

paragraph: Rudradaman I

paragraph: Rudradaman I (r. 130–150) was a Saka ruler from the Western Kshatrapas dynasty. He was the grandson of the king Chastana. Rudradaman I was instrumental in the decline of the Satavahana Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Mahakshatrapa.

paragraph: Rudradaman I took up the title of "Maha-kshtrapa" ("Great Satrap"), after he became the king and then strengthened his kingdom. During his reign he married a Hindu woman and converted to Hinduism In his book "Buddhist critical spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā", the author Shōhei Ichimura speaks thus about him,

paragraph: Section::::Victory over the Satavahana.

paragraph: He maintained matrimonial relationships with Satavahanas and conceded the country of Aparanta to Vashishtiputra Satakarni, his son-in-law and younger son of Gautamiputra Satakarni, as dowry. In spite of the matrimonial link, at least two wars took place between them wherein he defeated Satavahanas but spared the life of Satakarni (probably, Vashishtiputra Satakarni), essentially because of their relationship. However, it is not known who was the aggressor in either of the wars and whether there were more wars between them.

paragraph: As a result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former territories previously held by Nahapana, except for the southern territory of Poona and Nasik. Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the Deccan and eastern central India around Amaravati:

paragraph: While most of the scholars, following Rapson believe that Rudradaman ruled from Ujjain, there is no such evidence to support this. In fact, there is evidence to prove the contrary:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Jain sources mention that after Nahapana (40 years) and Gardabhilas (15 years), Sakas will rule Ujjain but for only four years. Chastana no doubt has ruled Ujjain but he must have ruled it only for four years. His son Jayadaman (a Kshatrapa as against Castana being a Mahaksatrapa) was an ineffectual king and lost most of the territory won by Castana. This must have included all important Ujjain as well.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Natural History of Claudius Ptolemy in 160 CE record Castana as the king of Avanti while it is known that it is Rudradaman who was ruling between 130 and 150 CE. Ptolemy was obviously referring only to the last best known ruler and if Rudradaman was ruling Avanti, he would have mentioned him, since he was certainly well known through his conquests.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Truly speaking, Rudradaman made no reference to Avanti. He said he conquered Eastern and Western Akaravanti (Eastern Malwa) - Western Akaravanti being land lying east to Bhopal, which does not include any western part of Malwa or Avanti. Akaravanti, earlier called as Sudarsana, comprised only Eastern Malwa. Western Akaravanti does not refer to Avanti.

paragraph: Section::::Other facts.

paragraph: The Sanskrit Junagadh inscription dated 150 CE credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam built by the Mauryans. He in fact repaired the embankments of the lake Sudarshana, which was constructed by the Mauryas for checking floods.

paragraph: Rudradaman fought many a battle against the Satavahanas (or the Andhras) and Vashishtiputra Satakarni, the son of the Andhra king Pulamayi, in an effort to end the hostilities, married the daughter of Rudradaman. The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter and Vashishtiputra Satakarni appears in a cave at Kanheri:

paragraph: Rudradaman also conquered the Yaudheya tribes in Haryana, as described in the Girnar inscription:

paragraph: However, in the next century the warlike Yaudheyas became more powerful. The indigenous Nagas also were aggressive toward Saka kshatrapas in the 3rd century.

paragraph: Rudradaman is also known as the king who was ruling when the Greek writer Yavanesvara translated the Yavanajataka from Greek to Sanskrit, which influenced astrology in India.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Todd, James - "The Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan", Rajputana Publications, 1942

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michell, George - "PRINCELY RAJASTHAN - Rajput Palaces and Mansions", Oriental Books, 1992

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Buddhist critical spirituality: Prajñā and Śūnyatā, by Shōhei Ichimura, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers (2001),

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coins of the Western Satraps

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coins of Rudradaman I

wikidata_label: Rudradaman I

wikipedia_title: Rudradaman I


text: Mary Tudor

text: Edward Courtenay

text: earl of Devon

text: Wyatt's rebellion

text: Tower of London

text: England

text: Italy

text: Henry Sutton Dudley

text: Rouen

text: Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford

text: Elizabeth

text: Member of Parliament

text: Tavistock

text: Lancaster

text: Ireland

text: William Cecil

text: Privy Council

text: Francis Drake

text: OUP

categories: English MPs 1559,1520s births,English MPs 1572–1583,1582 deaths,Prisoners in the Tower of London,Clerks,Chief Secretaries for Ireland,English rebels,People of the Tudor period

paragraph: Edmund Tremayne

paragraph: Edmund Tremayne (c. 1525–1582) was an English conspirator and official He was dedicated to Protestant causes, in opposition to the policy of Mary Tudor.

paragraph: Tremayne was an assistant to Edward Courtenay, the first earl of Devon. Devon was suspected of involvement in Wyatt's rebellion against Mary, and Tremayne was taken to the Tower of London in 1554. There he was tortured on the rack for evidence but kept silent. After ten or eleven months in prison, he was released on a £40 fine, and he left England for Italy with Courtenay.

paragraph: He wanted to join Sir Henry Sutton Dudley's conspiracy against Mary, and he joined the camp of English rebels at Rouen before the conspiracy was exploded in April 1557. He then attached himself to Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford, who was another figure plotting against Mary.

paragraph: When Elizabeth assumed the throne, she rewarded Tremayne. He was elected a Member of Parliament for Tavistock, and he was raised to a commissioner of Lancaster. From 1561-1574, he was the chief recipient of royal taxes for the district. He was also interested in the conversion of Ireland. William Cecil had asked him to study the question, and he wrote "Causes why Ireland is not Reformed." In 1571, he was a clerk of the Privy Council. He did not marry until 1576, when he married Eulalia.

paragraph: Tremayne was friends with Sir Francis Drake, who was his cousin.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bartlett, Kenneth R. "Edward Tremayne". In Matthew, H.C.G. and Brian Harrison, eds. "The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography." vol. 55, 283-284. London: OUP, 2004.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Specific

description: English conspirator and civil servant

wikidata_label: Edmund Tremayne

wikipedia_title: Edmund Tremayne


text:
slave
Byzantine Empire
esteemed companion
Muhammad
Muslim
Arab
Persian
Khosrow II
Basra
Euphrates
Greek
Arabic
Mecca
Quraish
Islam
migrate to Medina
Abu Bakr
Medina
Jibril
caliph
Umar
Abu-Lu'lu'ah
Uthman ibn Affan
Ali
Talhah
Zubayr ibn al-Awam
Abdur Rahman bin Awf
Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas
Salaf
Sunni view of the Sahabah
List of Sahaba
Fazail-e-Amaal
Muhammad Zakariya al-Kandahlawi
Lahore

categories: Non-Arab Sahabah,7th-century deaths,580s births

paragraph: Suhayb ar-Rumi

paragraph: Suhayb ar-Rumi () (born c. 587), also known as Suhayb ibn Sinan, was a former slave in the Byzantine Empire who went on to become an esteemed companion of Muhammad and revered member of the early Muslim community.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Around the year 591, about twenty years before the commencement of Muhammad's mission, an Arab named Sinan ibn Malik governed the city of al-Uballah on behalf of the Persian emperor (perhaps Khosrow II). The city, which is now part of Basra, lay on the banks of the Euphrates. He had several children and was particularly fond of one of them who was then barely five years old with blond hair and a fair-complexion named Suhayb. One day Suhayb's mother took him to a village called ath-Thani for a picnic. That day ath-Thani was attacked by Byzantine soldiers who took a large number of prisoners, including Suhayb ibn Sinan.

paragraph: Suhayb was taken to one of the slave markets of the Byzantine Empire, thereafter he passed from one master to another, remaining for about twenty years in Byzantine lands as a slave. He grew up speaking Greek, the language of the Byzantine Empire and practically forgot Arabic. At the first opportunity Suhayb escaped from bondage and headed for Mecca which was considered a place of asylum. There people called him Suhayb "ar-Rumi" or "the Roman" because of his peculiarly heavy speech and blond hair. He became the representative of an aristocrat in Mecca, Abdullah ibn Judan, engaging in trade and becoming quite wealthy.

paragraph: Section::::Acceptance of Islam and escape to Medina.

paragraph: One day he was told that Muhammad was calling people to a new religion in the house or' al-Arqam ibn Abi al-Arqam. After meeting with him, he was convinced of the truth of his message and pledged fealty to Muhammad. The ruling tribe of Quraish soon learned of Sohaib's acceptance of Islam and began harassing him. When Muhammad gave permission for his followers to migrate to Medina in 622, Sohaib resolved to accompany Muhammad and Abu Bakr, but the Quraish discovered his intentions and placed guards over him to prevent him from leaving Mecca and taking the wealth he had acquired through trade. After the departure of Muhammad and Abu Bakr, Suhayb continued to bide his time, unsuccessfully attempting to escape several times.

paragraph: One night, Suhayb feigned stomach problems and went out repeatedly as if responding to calls of nature. His captors became relaxed and Suhayb quietly armed himself, readied a mount and headed for Medina. When his captors realized Suhayb was gone they left in pursuit and eventually caught up with him. Seeing them approach, Suhayb clambered up a hill and holding his bow and arrow, he shouted:

paragraph: "Men of Quraish! You know, by God, that I am one of the best archers and my aim is unerring. By God, if you come near me, with each arrow I have, I shall kill one of you. Then I shall strike with my sword."

paragraph: The men responded "By God, we shall not let you escape from us with your life and money. You came to Mecca weak and poor and you have acquired what you have acquired.."

paragraph: "What would you say if I leave you my wealth?" interrupted Suhayb. "Would you get out of my way?" "Yes," they answered.

paragraph: Suhayb described the place in his house in Mecca where he had left the money, and they allowed him to go. When Suhayb reached Quba, just outside Medina, Muhammad saw him approaching and said, "Your transaction has been fruitful, O Abu Yahya. Your transaction has been fruitful." He repeated this three times. Sohaib's face beamed with happiness as he said: "By God, no one has come before me to you, Messenger of God, and only Jibril could have told you about this."

paragraph: Section::::Following the death of Omar.

paragraph: Suhayb was nominated by the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab to lead the Muslims in prayers for some time.

paragraph: As Umar lay dying after being stabbed by Abu-Lu'lu'ah on November 1, 644, he summoned Uthman ibn Affan, Ali, Talhah, Zubayr ibn al-Awam, Abdur Rahman bin Awf, and Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas and instructed them to consult among themselves and with the Muslims for three days and choose a successor.

paragraph: In this brief intermediate period before Uthman’s appointment, Suhayb was responsible for leading prayers.

paragraph: The Prophet described love for him necessary for faith. He said: Whoever has faith in God and Last Day should love him like a mother loves her child.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Salaf

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sunni view of the Sahabah

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Sahabah

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fazail-e-Amaal" by Muhammad Zakariya al-Kandahlawi, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Publishers Lahore

alias:
Suhayb ibn Sinan
Suhayb Ar-Rummi

description: esteemed companion of Muhammad

wikidata_label: Suhayb ar-Rumi

wikipedia_title: Suhayb ar-Rumi


href: Croatian%20language Zadar Planine novel Nin%2C%20Croatia Planine

text: Croatian Zadar Planine novel Nin Planine

categories: Croatian male writers,People from Zadar,16th-century deaths,1508 births,16th-century Croatian people,Male novelists,16th-century novelists,Republic of Venice novelists,Croatian novelists

paragraph: Petar Zoranić

paragraph: Petar Zoranić (1508 – before 1569) was a Croatian Renaissance writer and poet from Zadar.

paragraph: He is most important as the author of "Planine", regarded as the first Croatian novel. Pastoral in nature, the novel was written in 1538 and published in 1569. Zoranić wrote two other works, "Ljubveni lov" and "Vilenica", but neither of these has survived.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Petar Zoranić was born in 1508, as a descendant of an old noble family Tetačić from Nin, which moved to Zadar at the end of 15th century amidst Ottoman danger. At that time, his mother Elizabeth, was expecting a child. He is first mentioned in 1531, as a notary and judiciary, which probably implies that he previously enrolled as a law student. Because of lack of sources, it is not known in which year he died. He died somewhere between 1548 and 1569.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ljubveni lov"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vilenica"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Planine (1532.)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.matica.hr/vijenac/366/Petar%20Zorani%C4%87%2C%20stablo%20domovine/

description: Croatian writer

wikidata_label: Petar Zoranić

wikipedia_title: Petar Zoranić