text:
Ancient Greek
Dardani
Longarus
Bato
Bastarnae
Etuta
Gentius
Philip V
Germanic
Celtic
Thrace
Danube
Italy
Perseus
Paeonia
Thracians
Rome
Illyria
Polog
Romans
Scordisci
Amphipolis
Rila
Appolonia
Black Sea
Thessaly
Appian
Macedonia
Etuta
Gentius
Uscana
Sar Mountains
Illyrian warfare
Illyrians
List of rulers of Illyria

categories: Illyrian royalty,2nd-century BC rulers in Europe,Dardanians

paragraph: Monunius II

paragraph: Monunius (Ancient Greek Μονούνιος; ruled "c." 176 – 167 ) was an Illyrian king of the Dardanian State who lived in the late 3rd century BC and early 2nd century BC. Monunius attested first in 176 BC was the son of Longarus, a Dardanian king who caused much trouble to Macedonia from 230 BC onwards. He succeeded his brother Bato to the Dardanian throne. Monunius was known for his victory he inflicted on the Bastarnae during the Bastarnae Invasion of Dardania.

paragraph: Etuta the daughter of Monunius married the Ardiaean King Gentius in 169 BC. Since the dynastic marriage relations seem not to have brought an alliance between the two Illyrian States, in 168 BC Gentius allied with Perseus, the enemy of his father-in-law. Many Dardanian kings of the same time were named Monunius and there seems to be some confusion as to whom certain actions and events pertain.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Section::::Background.:Macedonian alliances against Dardania.

paragraph: Since it was difficult to defeat the Dardanians militarily, Philip V drew up a plan to get the large Germanic/Celtic tribe of the Bastarnae against them. While on campaign in Thrace in 184 BC Philip sent agents to stir up the barbarians along the river Danube, that they might invade Italy. Two years later Philip was pleased to learn that the Bastarnae had accepted his alliance and were offering a princess in marriage for one of his sons, Perseus as it turned out. This formidable people, dwelt beyond the lower Danube but were often willing to join in expeditions far from their homelands. The following year Philip mass deportations from Paeonia where he filled the towns with Thracians and other barbarians, as being likely to remain more securely loyal to him in the coming hour of danger, that is war with Rome. In fact Philip's purpose for the Bastarnae was more specific to the security of Macedonia: They were to invade and eject the Dardanians under Monunius and take over their country, and later continue on their way through Illyria, finally reaching Italy. Livy (XL, 574-9) writes that Philip's purpose was to wipe out the Dardanians and settle the Bastarnae in their lands (in the Polog valley), and send them to Italy and lay it waste, leaving their women and children in Dardania.

paragraph: It was a typically ruthless yet realistic scheme, and was later imitated in the Danube lands on more than one occasion by the Romans. The Bastarnae were accompanied by the kindred Scordisci whose lands their route lay. To get the Bastarnae to Monunius' State, Philip had gone to great trouble and expense to arrange safe passage through the Thracians. They left home after a great deal of hesitation but had gone as far as Amphipolis when, in summer of 179 BC, news arrived that Philip V was dead. Soon there was trouble with the Thracians and the Bastarnae retreated to Donica (perhaps Rila), a high mountain in western Thrace. After Philp's death, his son Perseus tried to follow through his fathers plans. After further skirmishes some decided to return home and set off for Appolonia and Mesembria on the Black Sea coast of Thrace, but the rest, under the leadership of Clondicus, pressed on towards Monunius and set about to eject the population in accordance with their arrangement with the late king.

paragraph: Section::::Background.:Rome's refusal of help.

paragraph: In 176 BC Monunius sent envoys to Rome with news of an invasion by the Bastarnae. The Dardanian envoys declared that they were warriors massive in size and numbers and alleged that they were in league with Perseus and the Gauls. Representatives from Thessaly appeared also in order to confirm the story and back up Monunius. The patres would make their customary response, they would send an embassy to investigate. On the return of that embassy, Livy records that the Romans reported only that a Dardanian war was underway, and Appian adds that they had observed a major military build-up in Macedonia. Perseus in the meantime, dispatched his own envoys to Rome with denials that he had any part in the activity of the Bastarnae. The senate would neither censure nor absolve Perseus, but simply directed that he take care to giving the appearance of observing his treaty with Rome and therefore the senate did nothing to support Monunius.

paragraph: Section::::Bastarnae invasion.

paragraph: In 175 BC, the Bastarnae supported by the Thracians and the Scordisci, began the invasion and stormed into Dardania. To face the incoming danger, Monunius mobilized all his forces and concentrated them in the city (name of which is not known) closest to the camp of the Bastarnae. Monunius waited for the beginning of winter to launch the decisive strike, when the allies of the Bastarnae would return to their countries. As soon as the Dardanians had learned of their withdrawal, which left on the forces of the Bastarnae, numbering 30,000, on the field, Monunius separated his forces into two armies. The first was to march head on to the enemy and attack them directly, while the other unit was to march along hidden roads and attack from the rear. But the battle began before the second army back to the enemy's back; the defeated Dardanians withdrew to the city, which was just twelve miles from the camp of the Bastarnae. The victors immediately surrounded the city, believing either that the Dardanians would soon surrender from fear or that they immediately take the city by force. Meanwhile, the second of Monunius' army, having made its way unaware of the lost of the first, found the camp of the Bastarnae undefended, and easily took it without any effort. Having lost their entire baggage and supplies, the Bastarnae were obliged to withdraw from Dardania and to return home. Most perished as they crossed the frozen Danube on foot, only for the ice to give way. Among the survivors was Clondicus who had led the people into Dardania four years earlier.

paragraph: Despite the failure of Philip's Bastarnae strategy, the suspicion aroused by these events in the Roman Senate, which had been warned by the Dardani of the Bastarnae invasion, ensured the demise of Macedonia as an independent state. Thus Monunius managed to protect the borders of the Dardanian State which would have perished otherwise.

paragraph: Section::::Neutrality.

paragraph: Monunius engaged his daughter, Etuta to the Ardiaean King Gentius in 169 BC. However, the marriage does not seem to have secured an Illyrian-Dardanian alliance. Perseus conquered a broad swath of territory in the south of the Dardanian State, also taking the region of Penesta (Polog valley) with its cities Uscana, Oene and Draudachus. In order to stop the Dardanian raids into Macedonia, Perseus burned and destroyed the regions to the north and west of Mount Scardus (Sar Mountains), an area known thereafter as 'Deserted Illyria'. Through these campaigns, Perseus annihilated the military bases that the Romans had built in the north-west of his kingdom, cut off for good the routes the Dardanians had used for their forays into Macedonia, and inserted himself like a wedge between Monunius and Gentius.

paragraph: Since the dynastic marriage relations seem not to have brought an alliance between the two Illyrian States, in 168 BC Gentius allied with Perseus, the enemy of his father-in-law. Nonetheless, Monunius preserved Dardanians neutrality, both in the war between Gentius and Perseus on the one hand and the war with the Romans on the other. After the destruction of Macedonia in 167 BC, the Dardanians ask the consul Paullus Aemilius for control of Paeonia, but he refused, giving them only the right to trade in salt there. Many Dardanian kings of the same time were named Monunius and there seems to be some confusion as to whom certain actions and events pertain.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Illyrian warfare

paragraph: BULLET::::- Illyrians

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Illyria

description: ruled c. 176 – 167 BC

wikidata_label: Monunius of Dardania

wikipedia_title: Monunius II


text:
Turki bin Nasser
Riyadh
Turki bin Nasser
Prince Sultan
Reema bint Bandar Al Saud
Muhammed bin Saud
Saudi Embassy to the USA

paragraph: Faisal bin Turki bin Nasser

paragraph: Faisal bin Turki, is one of the sons of Turki bin Nasser.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Faisal bin Turki was born in Riyadh on 9 April 1973. He is the son of Turki bin Nasser and Noura bint Sultan, a daughter of late Prince Sultan. He was married to Reema bint Bandar Al Saud (marriage dissolved in 2012), presently married to Al Anoud bint Mishal bin Muhammed bin Saud. Children: Turki ، Sarah, Noura and Latifa

paragraph: Section::::Positions held.

paragraph: At the beginning of 2000, he was an attache in the Saudi Embassy to the USA.

description: Football executive

wikidata_label: Faisal bin Turki bin Nasser

wikipedia_title: Faisal bin Turki bin Nasser


text: Diocese of Ilagan

text: Doctorate of Sacred Theology

text: The Catholic University of America

text: Pope Benedict XVI

text: Basti

text: Giuseppe Pinto

text: Apostolic Nuncio to the Philippines

text: Ernesto Antolin Salgado

text: Archbishop of Nueva Segovia

text: Orlando Beltrán Quevedo

text: Archbishop of Cotabato

text: Pope Francis

text: Diocese of Ilagan

text: Isabela

categories: Bishops appointed by Pope Benedict XVI,1963 births,Living people,Catholic University of America alumni

paragraph: David William Antonio

paragraph: David William Valencia Antonio (born 29 December 1963) is a Philippine prelate of the Catholic Church who serves as the Bishop of the Diocese of Ilagan in Isabela and the concurrent Apostolic Administrator of the Apostolic Vicariate of San Jose in Mindoro.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: David William Valencia Antonio was ordained a priest on 1 December 1988. He earned a Doctorate of Sacred Theology from The Catholic University of America in 1999.

paragraph: On 15 June 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him Auxiliary Bishop of Nueva Segovia and Titular Bishop of Basti. He was consecrated bishop on 26 August 2011 by Giuseppe Pinto, Apostolic Nuncio to the Philippines. Co-consecrators were Ernesto Antolin Salgado, Archbishop of Nueva Segovia and Orlando Beltrán Quevedo, Archbishop of Cotabato.

paragraph: On 21 November 2015 Pope Francis named him Apostolic Administrator of the Apostolic Vicariate of San José in Mindoro.

paragraph: On 14 November 2018, Pope Francis appointed him Bishop of the Diocese of Ilagan in Isabela.

description: roman-catholic bishop

wikidata_label: David William Valencia Antonio

wikipedia_title: David William Antonio


text: chemist

text: natural pigments

text: Bachelor of Science

text: Saga Prefecture

text: Tohoku Imperial University

text: organic chemistry

text: natural pigments

text: Lithospermum erythrorhizon

text: Bachelor of Science

text: Chemical Society of Japan

text: University of Oxford

text: William Henry Perkin

text: RIKEN

text: carthamin

text: safflower

text: Kono Yasui

text: Asiatic dayflower

text: eggplant

text: soybean

text: red shiso

text: sea urchin

text: naphthoquinone

text: Ochanomizu University

text: quercetin

text: antihypertensive drug

text: Medal with Purple Ribbon

text: Fukuoka

text: Timeline of women in science

categories: Japanese women scientists,People from Saga Prefecture,1884 births,20th-century women scientists,Japanese chemists,Japanese scientists,1968 deaths,Japanese women chemists,Tohoku University alumni

paragraph: Chika Kuroda

paragraph: Chika Kuroda (黒田チカ; 24 March 1884 – 8 November 1968) was a Japanese chemist whose research focused on natural pigments. She was the first woman in Japan to receive a Bachelor of Science.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Kuroda was born in 1884 in Saga Prefecture. She attended the Women's Department of Saga Normal School, graduating in 1901, and worked as a teacher for a year afterward. She entered the Division of Science at Rika Women's Higher Normal School in 1902 and graduated in 1906. She then taught at Fukui Normal School for a year before enrolling in the graduate program at Kenkyuka Women's Higher Normal School in 1907. She finished the course in 1909 and became an assistant professor at Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School. In 1913, when Tohoku Imperial University became the first of Japan's Imperial Universities to accept women students, she was admitted to the Chemistry Department of the College of Science among the first cohort of women. She was mentored by Professor Riko Majima, who inspired Kuroda's interest in organic chemistry, particularly natural pigments; he supervised her research into the purple pigment of "Lithospermum erythrorhizon". She completed her Bachelor of Science in 1916, becoming the first woman in Japan to do so.

paragraph: Kuroda was appointed an assistant professor at Tohoku Imperial University upon graduating in 1916 and became a professor at Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School in 1918. The same year, she became the first woman to give a presentation to the Chemical Society of Japan when she presented her research on the pigment of "L. erythrorhizon". She travelled to the University of Oxford in 1921, where she researched phthalonic acid derivatives under William Henry Perkin. She returned to Japan in 1923 and resumed her role as professor at Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School. In 1924, she was commissioned by the RIKEN institute to research the structure of carthamin, the pigment of safflower plants. Her thesis on the subject, "The Constitution of Carthamin", earned her a doctorate in science in 1929. She was the second woman in Japan to receive such a degree, after Kono Yasui.

paragraph: Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Kuroda's research examined the pigments of the Asiatic dayflower, eggplant skin, black soybeans, red shiso leaves and sea urchin spines, as well as derivatives of naphthoquinone. She was awarded the Majima Prize by the Chemical Society of Japan in 1936. She was appointed professor at Ochanomizu University in 1949, and at the same time began researching the pigmentation of onion skin. Her extraction of quercetin crystals from onion skin led to the creation of Kerutin C, an antihypertensive drug. She retired in 1952, but continued to lecture at Ochanomizu University as a professor emeritus. She was awarded a Medal with Purple Ribbon in 1959 and was conferred the Order of the Precious Crown of the Third Class in 1965. She developed heart disease in 1967 and died on 8 November 1968 in Fukuoka, aged 84.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timeline of women in science

description: Japanese chemist

wikidata_label: Kuroda Chika

wikipedia_title: Chika Kuroda


text: Yekaterinoslav

text: Moscow

text: avant-garde

text: sculptor

text: Henry Moore

text: Dnipropetrovsk

text: Ukraine

text: Red Army

text: World War II

text: Moscow

text: Ernst Neizvestny

text: philosophy

text: myth

text: perestroika

text: Museum of Vadim Sidur

text: Sidur.net

categories: Russian male poets,20th-century Russian sculptors,Russian male sculptors,20th-century sculptors,20th-century poets,Russian avant-garde,Soviet Nonconformist Art,Russian people of Ukrainian descent,1924 births,1986 deaths

paragraph: Vadim Sidur

paragraph: Vadim Abramovich Sidur (; 28 June 1924, Yekaterinoslav - 26 June 1986, Moscow) was a Soviet avant-garde sculptor and artist sometimes referred as the "Soviet Henry Moore". Sidur is the creator of a style named Grob-Art ("Coffin-Art"). He also left a book of poetry "The Happiest Autumn" (Самая Счастливая Осень) and a memoir "Monuments to the Current State" (Памятники Современному Состоянию).

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Sidur was born in Yekaterinoslav (currently Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine) to a Jewish father and Russian mother. In 1942 he was drafted into the Red Army and fought in the battles of World War II near his hometown. After being wounded in the jaw by a bullet, he was discharged as a disabled veteran. Sidur abandoned his plans to study medicine and entered Stroganov Moscow State University of Arts and Industry in Moscow instead, where his teachers were G.I. Motovilov and S.L. Rabinovich. In 1957 he became a member of the Union of Artists of USSR.

paragraph: During the early period, he created realistic ceramic sculpture. There were also such works as "Heads of the Blinds", "Portrait of Ernst Neizvestny" cut out of rock

paragraph: In 1950s Sidur's art deviated from the official canon, and he completely abandoned it in 1959, developing his own art language.

paragraph: In the 1960s he produced the sculpture series of "Monuments" (Монументы), almost all of which are now indeed public monuments in the squares of Russia and the West. In that work and the related series "Disabled" (Инвалиды), he tried to condense artistic form to a symbol, a sign, or a formula.

paragraph: Later he worked on his own philosophy centered around the artist, prophet of future global catastrophes. An incarnation of this idea in art became his style of Grob-Art, that Sidur saw as a new direction in art. In 1974 he worked on the book "Monuments to the Current State" (Памятники Современному Состоянию) that he self-described as a myth. He also shot an underground movie based on the book. He worked on sculpture series "Man and Woman", "Motherhood". In the 1980s, shortly before his death, he wrote a book of poetry titled "The Most Happy Autumn" (Самая Счастливая Осень).

paragraph: Since the 1960s Sidur's works became known in the West. Soon he became famous. In the Soviet Union his works were not exhibited from 1950 until his death, with the exception of the one-day exhibition in the "House of Writers" in Moscow in 1968. After Sidur's death and with the onset of perestroika, there was established "Vadim Sidur's Museum" (since 1995 named "Moscow State Vadim Sidur's Museum") and the artistic legacy of Sidur was recognized as a "national treasure".

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum of Vadim Sidur

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sidur.net

alias:
Vladimir Abramovich Sidur
Vadim Abramovich Sidur
Wadim Sidur

description: Russian artist

wikidata_label: Vadim Sidur

wikipedia_title: Vadim Sidur


text:
Italian
road racing cyclist
Castellania
Fausto Coppi
1949 Paris–Roubaix
equal
André Mahé
sprint
Giro del Piemonte

categories: Italian male cyclists,Cyclists killed while racing,1951 deaths,Sportspeople from Piedmont,People from the Province of Alessandria,Sport deaths in Italy,1923 births

paragraph: Serse Coppi

paragraph: Serse Coppi (19 March 1923 – 29 June 1951) was an Italian professional road racing cyclist born in Castellania. He was the younger brother of Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: His greatest victory was 1949 Paris–Roubaix, when he was placed equal winner with André Mahé after controversy. He died in 1951 after crashing in the final sprint of the Giro del Piemonte, when his wheel was caught in the tracks of the Turin tramway. He was 28. The British weekly, "The Bicycle", reported: "The two brothers were still with the main bunch a kilometre from the end of the 272km race. Fausto was not moving with his usual smoothness and Serse was by his side with words of encouragement. Then three riders crashed, but only one of them did not continue the race - Serse Coppi. He was actually able to ride to his hotel, and it was not believed that he was seriously hurt. But he was subsequently taken to hospital, where concussion of the brain was diagnosed. He died in Fausto's arms before an operation could be performed."

description: Italian racing cyclist

wikidata_label: Serse Coppi

wikipedia_title: Serse Coppi


text:
Spanish
Mariano Fortuny
Pinazo Camarlench
Joaquín Sorolla
Carmen Thyssen Museum
Joaquín Sorolla
Musée d'Orsay
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Valencia Art exhibit

categories: Spanish floral still life painters,Valencian painters,Orientalist painters,18th-century Spanish painters,People from Valencia,Spanish male painters,1867 births

paragraph: José Navarro (painter)

paragraph: José Navarro y Llorens (1867–1923) was a Spanish painter, active in Valencia noted for his Orientalist paintings, still lifes and local landscapes.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: José Navarro y Llorens was born in Godella, near Valencia, Spain in 1867. He received his art education at the San Carlos Academy in Valencia, a city to which he remained very attached throughout his life.

paragraph: He lived in Madrid from around 1920. He travelled extensively through Europe and North Africa, to expand his knowledge of the arts. He visited Morocco while relatively young. In Morocco, he developed an affinity for oriental subject matter. Navarro was a great admirer of Mariano Fortuny, which was possibly the inspiration that impelled him to travel to Morocco.

paragraph: He was a friend of the artist, Pinazo Camarlench and like him, landscapes are heavily represented in Navarro's work. However, Navarro's themes also included seascapes, Orientalist themes and people, especially gypsies and Moroccans. His work was influenced by the Spanish greats such as Maria Fortuny and Joaquín Sorolla.

paragraph: On account of his talent, Navarro was considered as one of the most worthy painters to represent the Valencian School. In 1908 he made a trip to Rio de Janeiro, where he exhibited his works and obtained great recognition.

paragraph: Navarro died on 6 February 1923 in Valencia.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: His Orientalist scenes often used short brush strokes in an impressionistic style. His work often includes seascapes, especially those depicting dramatic events associated with life at sea; such events were relatively commonplace in 1890's Spain. For example, he produced a work detailing the shipwreck of 1894 that is now located in the Carmen Thyssen Museum, Malaga and is possibly the painting presented to the National Exhibition of 1895, in which it received the Honorable Mention. Also exhibited at that museum is the "Arrival of Fishing" (1904-1910), a work inspired by Joaquín Sorolla's "La Vuelta de la Pesca" (1894), currently at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. He used both oils and water-colours with equal success.

paragraph: Select list of works

paragraph: BULLET::::- "El Zoco" [The Souk or Market at Tangier]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Toros" [Bulls]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Plaza Redonda," [The Round Square]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Escena En La Playa," [Beach Scene]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "En El Puerto," [At the Port]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Playa con Barcas Varadas," [Beach with Abandoned Boats]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gitanillos," [Gypsy Children]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Calle Morocaine," [Moroccan Street], Private collection

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bab-Ftouh, Fes" [Bab-Ftouh, Fez]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Evocación de Marruecos" [Impression of Morocco], Prado, Madrid

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Orientalist artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orientalism

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Valencia Art exhibit.

alias:
Jose Navarro Llorens
Jose Navarro
José Navarro Lloréns

description: Spanish artist

wikidata_label: José Navarro

wikipedia_title: José Navarro (painter)


text: lay theologian

text: Oxford University

text: Magdalen College

text: Cambridge University

text: Magdalene College

text: The Screwtape Letters

text: The Chronicles of Narnia

text: The Space Trilogy

text: Mere Christianity

text: Miracles

text: The Problem of Pain

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: Inklings

text: Surprised by Joy

text: Church of Ireland

text: Anglicanism

text: Joy Davidman

text: renal failure

text: Poets' Corner

text: Westminster Abbey

text: Belfast

text: née

text: Church of Ireland

text: Hugh Hamilton

text: John Staples

text: Warren Hamilton Lewis

text: Strandtown

text: anthropomorphic

text: Beatrix Potter

text: Boxen

text: Wynyard School

text: Watford

text: Campbell College

text: Malvern

text: Malvern College

text: William T. Kirkpatrick

text: Lurgan College

text: Icelandic sagas

text: epic poetry

text: Norse mythology

text: Greek literature

text: University College, Oxford

text: First World War

text: Surprised by Joy

text: English accents

text: Norse

text: Greek

text: Irish mythology

text: literature

text: W. B. Yeats

text: Celtic Revival

text: Dublin

text: conversion to Christianity

text: Crawfordsburn

text: ecumenical

text: University of Toronto

text: Officers' Training Corps

text: commissioned

text: Somerset Light Infantry

text: British Army

text: Somme

text: trench warfare

text: Andover

text: demobilised

text: First

text: Honour Moderations

text: Latin literature

text: Greats

text: University College

text: Magdalen College

text: A. N. Wilson

text: George Sayer

text: The Kilns

text: Headington Quarry

text: Risinghurst

text: Dame Maureen Dunbar

text: dementia

text: Church of Ireland

text: Lucretius

text: strongest arguments

text: George MacDonald

text: The Great Divorce

text: main character

text: Heaven

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: The Everlasting Man

text: G. K. Chesterton

text: Surprised by Joy

text: theism

text: Hugo Dyson

text: Church of England

text: Anglican

text: apologetic

text: venial sin

text: purgatory

text: The Great Divorce

text: Letters to Malcolm

text: mortal sin

text: The Screwtape Letters

text: high church

text: Anglo-Catholic

text: Second World War

text: The Kilns

text: Ministry of Information

text: Home Guard

text: Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman

text: R.A.F.'s

text: Chaplain-in-Chief

text: Maurice Edwards

text: Oxford Socratic Club

text: George VI

text: Commander of the Order of the British Empire

text: Magdalene College, Cambridge

text: Oxford

text: Joy Davidman Gresham

text: William L. Gresham

text: Douglas

text: civil marriage

text: register office

text: St Giles', Oxford

text: bone cancer

text: Churchill Hospital

text: Warren Lewis

text: Aegean

text: A Grief Observed

text: Douglas Gresham

text: shohet

text: nephritis

text: renal failure

text: Holy Trinity Church

text: Headington, Oxford

text: Warren

text: assassination of US President John F. Kennedy

text: Aldous Huxley

text: Brave New World

text: Peter Kreeft

text: Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley

text: church calendar

text: Episcopal Church

text: Oxford University

text: Magdalen College, Oxford

text: chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature

text: Cambridge University

text: Magdalene College

text: English Renaissance

text: later Middle Ages

text: The Allegory of Love

text: Roman de la Rose

text: academic work

text: The Discarded Image

text: Inklings

text: J. R. R. Tolkien

text: Nevill Coghill

text: Lord David Cecil

text: Charles Williams

text: Owen Barfield

text: Warren Lewis

text: John Betjeman

text: Kenneth Tynan

text: Bede Griffiths

text: Roger Lancelyn Green

text: Martin Lings

text: anti-establishment

text: Surprised by Joy

text: Space Trilogy

text: Narnia

text: fall from grace

text: The Pilgrim's Regress

text: John Bunyan

text: The Pilgrim's Progress

text: Martyn Lloyd-Jones

text: Space Trilogy

text: Out of the Silent Planet

text: The Lost Road

text: Middle-earth

text: Elwin Ransom

text: Perelandra

text: Garden of Eden

text: Adam and Eve

text: Fall of Man

text: That Hideous Strength

text: The Abolition of Man

text: Durham University

text: the cathedral

text: Walter Hooper

text: The Dark Tower

text: Kathryn Lindskoog

text: The Chronicles of Narnia

text: Pauline Baynes

text: Heaven

text: Hell

text: The Great Divorce

text: Purgatory

text: William Blake

text: The Marriage of Heaven and Hell

text: Divine Comedy

text: Dante Alighieri

text: The Pilgrim's Progress

text: The Screwtape Letters

text: demon

text: damnation

text: Till We Have Faces

text: Cupid and Psyche

text: pagan

text: Spirits in Bondage

text: Dymer

text: narrative poem

text: The Queen of Drum

text: The Four Loves

text: friendship

text: eros

text: affection

text: charity

text: Language and Human Nature

text: Christian apologists

text: Mere Christianity

text: Christianity Today

text: argument from reason

text: metaphysical naturalism

text: existence of God

text: The Problem of Pain

text: Miracles

text: Elizabeth Anscombe

text: Wittgenstein's Poker

text: allegory

text: supposition

text: Josh McDowell

text: false dilemma

text: John Hick

text: N. T. Wright

text: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe

text: the old Professor

text: natural law

text: The Times

text: Christian denomination

text: Poets' Corner

text: Westminster Abbey

text: The Last Battle

text: Douglas Gresham

text: Walter Hooper

text: Rowan Williams

text: A Severe Mercy

text: Sheldon Vanauken

text: Daniel Handler

text: A Series of Unfortunate Events

text: Eoin Colfer

text: Artemis Fowl

text: Philip Pullman

text: His Dark Materials

text: J. K. Rowling

text: Harry Potter

text: atheist

text: Tim Powers

text: Walter Hooper

text: Kathryn Lindskoog

text: Douglas Gresham

text: Holywood

text: The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica

text: James A. Owen

text: Queen's University of Belfast

text: Joan K. Ostling

text: James Como

text: Christopher Derrick

text: University of Massachusetts Press

text: Colin Duriez

text: Bruce L. Edwards

text: Alastair Fowler

text: "C. S. Lewis: Supervisor"

text: Helen Gardner

text: "† Clive Staples Lewis, 1898–1963"

text: Clyde Kilby

text: Douglas Gresham

text: Joel D. Heck

text: Clyde S. Kilby

text: Laura Miller

text: David Mills

text: Joseph Pearce

text: George Sayer

text: Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces"

text: Michael Ward

text: Michael White

text: Marion E. Wade Center

text: Wheaton College

text: Courtly love

text: Johan Huizinga

text: D. W. Robertson, Jr.

text: Journal of Inklings Studies

text: C. S. Lewis Reading Room

text: C. S. Lewis research collection

text: Wheaton College

text: BBC Radio 4 – Great Lives – Suzannah Lipscomb on CS Lewis – 3 January 2017

categories: British philosophers,Literary critics of English,Mythopoeic writers,British Army personnel of World War I,Male poets from Northern Ireland,Writers from Belfast,Fellows of Magdalene College, Cambridge,20th-century British male writers,Burials in Oxfordshire,Anglicans from Northern Ireland,1963 deaths,Lay theologians,Literary critics from Northern Ireland,Christian apologists,20th-century British novelists,British fantasy writers,Fellows of the British Academy,Anglican philosophers,British children's writers,Science fiction writers from Northern Ireland,Male writers from Northern Ireland,Converts to Anglicanism from atheism or agnosticism,Male novelists from Northern Ireland,Christian novelists,Children's writers from Northern Ireland,Disease-related deaths in England,British literary critics,C. S. Lewis,Alumni of University College, Oxford,British science fiction writers,Deaths from kidney failure,20th-century poets from Northern Ireland,People from Northern Ireland of Welsh descent,20th-century novelists from Northern Ireland,People educated at Campbell College,Spiritual writers from Northern Ireland,People educated at Malvern College,1898 births,Fantasy writers from Northern Ireland,British spiritual writers,Somerset Light Infantry officers,Carnegie Medal in Literature winners,Fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford,Philosophers from Northern Ireland,Inklings,Pseudonymous writers,Anglican writers

paragraph: C. S. Lewis

paragraph: Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963) was a British writer and lay theologian. He held academic positions in English literature at both Oxford University (Magdalen College, 1925–1954) and Cambridge University (Magdalene College, 1954–1963). He is best known for his works of fiction, especially "The Screwtape Letters", "The Chronicles of Narnia", and "The Space Trilogy", and for his non-fiction Christian apologetics, such as "Mere Christianity", "Miracles", and "The Problem of Pain".

paragraph: Lewis and fellow novelist J. R. R. Tolkien were close friends. They both served on the English faculty at Oxford University and were active in the informal Oxford literary group known as the Inklings. According to Lewis's memoir "Surprised by Joy", he was baptised in the Church of Ireland, but fell away from his faith during adolescence. Lewis returned to Anglicanism at the age of 32, owing to the influence of Tolkien and other friends, and he became an "ordinary layman of the Church of England". Lewis's faith profoundly affected his work, and his wartime radio broadcasts on the subject of Christianity brought him wide acclaim.

paragraph: Lewis wrote more than 30 books which have been translated into more than 30 languages and have sold millions of copies. The books that make up "The Chronicles of Narnia" have sold the most and have been popularised on stage, TV, radio, and cinema. His philosophical writings are widely cited by Christian apologists from many denominations.

paragraph: In 1956, Lewis married American writer Joy Davidman; she died of cancer four years later at the age of 45. Lewis died on 22 November 1963 from renal failure, one week before his 65th birthday. In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis was honoured with a memorial in Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Childhood.

paragraph: Clive Staples Lewis was born in Belfast, Ireland, on 29 November 1898. His father was Albert James Lewis (1863–1929), a solicitor whose father Richard had come to Ireland from Wales during the mid-19th century. His mother was Florence Augusta Lewis, née Hamilton (1862–1908), known as Flora, the daughter of a Church of Ireland priest, and great granddaughter of both Bishop Hugh Hamilton and John Staples. He had an elder brother, Warren Hamilton Lewis (known as "Warnie").

paragraph: When his dog Jacksie was killed by a car, the four-year old Lewis adopted the name Jacksie. At first, he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was seven, his family moved into "Little Lea", the family home of his childhood, in the Strandtown area of East Belfast.

paragraph: As a boy, Lewis was fascinated with anthropomorphic animals; he fell in love with Beatrix Potter's stories and often wrote and illustrated his own animal stories. He and his brother Warnie created the world of Boxen, inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read; his father's house was filled with books, and he felt that finding a book to read was as easy as walking into a field and "finding a new blade of grass".

paragraph: Lewis was schooled by private tutors until age nine when his mother died in 1908 from cancer. His father then sent him to live and study at Wynyard School in Watford, Hertfordshire. Lewis's brother had enrolled there three years previously. The school was closed not long afterward due to a lack of pupils; the headmaster Robert "Oldie" Capron was soon after committed to a psychiatric hospital. Lewis then attended Campbell College in the east of Belfast about a mile from his home, but left after a few months due to respiratory problems. He was then sent to the health-resort town of Malvern, Worcestershire, where he attended the preparatory school Cherbourg House, which Lewis calls "Chartres" in his autobiography. It was during this time that Lewis abandoned his childhood Christian faith and became an atheist, becoming interested in mythology and the occult. In September 1913, Lewis enrolled at Malvern College, where he remained until the following June. He found the school socially competitive. After leaving Malvern, he studied privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor and former headmaster of Lurgan College.

paragraph: As a teenager, Lewis was wonder-struck by the songs and legends of what he called "Northernness", the ancient literature of Scandinavia preserved in the Icelandic sagas. These legends intensified an inner longing that he would later call "joy". He also grew to love nature; its beauty reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. His teenage writings moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began using different art forms, such as epic poetry and opera, to try to capture his new-found interest in Norse mythology and the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick ("The Great Knock", as Lewis afterward called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology and sharpened his debate and reasoning skills. In 1916, Lewis was awarded a scholarship at University College, Oxford. Within months of entering Oxford, the British Army shipped him to France to fight in the First World War. In one of his letters, Lewis cited that his experience of the horror of war, along with the loss of his mother and his unhappiness in school, were the bases of his pessimism and atheism.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:"My Irish life".

paragraph: Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock on first arriving in England: "No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England," Lewis wrote in "Surprised by Joy". "The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape ... I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal."

paragraph: From boyhood, Lewis had immersed himself in Norse and Greek mythology, and later in Irish mythology and literature. He also expressed an interest in the Irish language, though there is not much evidence that he laboured to learn it. He developed a particular fondness for W. B. Yeats, in part because of Yeats's use of Ireland's Celtic heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend, Lewis wrote, "I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology."

paragraph: In 1921, Lewis met Yeats twice, since Yeats had moved to Oxford. Lewis was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the Celtic Revival movement, and wrote: "I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish – if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish." Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major Dublin publishers, writing: "If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school." After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian theology and away from pagan Celtic mysticism.

paragraph: Lewis occasionally expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman, he wrote: "Like all Irish people who meet in England, we ended by criticisms on the invincible flippancy and dullness of the Anglo-Saxon race. After all, there is no doubt, "ami", that the Irish are the only people: with all their faults, I would not gladly live or die among another folk." Throughout his life, he sought out the company of other Irish people living in England and visited Northern Ireland regularly. In 1958 he spent his honeymoon there at the Old Inn, Crawfordsburn, which he called "my Irish life".

paragraph: Various critics have suggested that it was Lewis's dismay over the sectarian conflict in his native Belfast which led him to eventually adopt such an ecumenical brand of Christianity. As one critic has said, Lewis "repeatedly extolled the virtues of all branches of the Christian faith, emphasising a need for unity among Christians around what the Catholic writer called 'Mere Christianity', the core doctrinal beliefs that all denominations share". On the other hand, Paul Stevens of the University of Toronto has written that "Lewis' mere Christianity masked many of the political prejudices of an old-fashioned Ulster Protestant, a native of middle-class Belfast for whom British withdrawal from Northern Ireland even in the 1950s and 1960s was unthinkable."

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:First World War and Oxford University.

paragraph: Soon after Lewis entered Oxford in the 1917 summer term, he joined the Officers' Training Corps at the university as his "most promising route into the army". From there, he was drafted into a Cadet Battalion for training. After his training, he was commissioned into the Third Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry of the British Army as a Second Lieutenant. On his 19th birthday (29 November 1917) he arrived at the front line in the Somme Valley in France, where he experienced trench warfare for the first time. On 15 April 1918, Lewis was wounded and two of his colleagues were killed by a British shell falling short of its target. He suffered from depression and homesickness during his convalescence and, upon his recovery in October, he was assigned to duty in Andover, England. He was demobilised in December 1918 and soon restarted his studies.

paragraph: After Lewis returned to Oxford University, he received a First in Honour Moderations (Greek and Latin literature) in 1920, a First in Greats (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in English in 1923. In 1924 he became a philosophy tutor at University College and, in 1925, was elected a Fellow and Tutor in English Literature at Magdalen College, where he served for 29 years until 1954.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Jane Moore.

paragraph: During his army training, Lewis shared a room with another cadet, Edward Courtnay Francis "Paddy" Moore (1898–1918). Maureen Moore, Paddy's sister, said that the two made a mutual pact that if either died during the war, the survivor would take care of both of their families. Paddy was killed in action in 1918 and Lewis kept his promise. Paddy had earlier introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was 18 when they met, and Jane, who was 45. The friendship with Moore was particularly important to Lewis while he was recovering from his wounds in hospital, as his father did not visit him.

paragraph: Lewis lived with and cared for Moore until she was hospitalised in the late 1940s. He routinely introduced her as his mother, referred to her as such in letters, and developed a deeply affectionate friendship with her. Lewis's own mother had died when he was a child, and his father was distant, demanding, and eccentric.

paragraph: Speculation regarding their relationship resurfaced with the 1990 publication of A. N. Wilson's biography of Lewis. Wilson (who never met Lewis) attempted to make a case for their having been lovers for a time. Wilson's biography was not the first to address the question of Lewis's relationship with Moore. George Sayer knew Lewis for 29 years, and he had sought to shed light on the relationship during the period of 14 years prior to Lewis's conversion to Christianity. In his biography "Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis", he wrote:

paragraph: Later Sayer changed his mind. In the introduction to the 1997 edition of his biography of Lewis he wrote:

paragraph: Lewis spoke well of Mrs. Moore throughout his life, saying to his friend George Sayer, "She was generous and taught me to be generous, too." In December 1917, Lewis wrote in a letter to his childhood friend Arthur Greeves that Jane and Greeves were "the two people who matter most to me in the world".

paragraph: In 1930, Lewis moved into The Kilns with his brother Warnie, Mrs. Moore, and her daughter Maureen. The Kilns was a house in the district of Headington Quarry on the outskirts of Oxford, now part of the suburb of Risinghurst. They all contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to Maureen, who by then was Dame Maureen Dunbar, when Warren died in 1973.

paragraph: Jane Moore suffered from dementia in her later years and was eventually moved into a nursing home, where she died in 1951. Lewis visited her every day in this home until her death.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Return to Christianity.

paragraph: Lewis was raised in a religious family that attended the Church of Ireland. He became an atheist at age 15, though he later described his young self as being paradoxically "angry with God for not existing". His early separation from Christianity began when he started to view his religion as a chore and a duty; around this time, he also gained an interest in the occult, as his studies expanded to include such topics. Lewis quoted Lucretius ("De rerum natura", 5.198–9) as having one of the strongest arguments for atheism:

paragraph: which he translated poetically as follows:

paragraph: Lewis's interest in the works of George MacDonald was part of what turned him from atheism. This can be seen particularly well through this passage in Lewis's "The Great Divorce", chapter nine, when the semi-autobiographical main character meets MacDonald in Heaven:

paragraph: He eventually returned to Christianity, having been influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and Christian friend J. R. R. Tolkien, whom he seems to have met for the first time on 11 May 1926, and the book "The Everlasting Man" by G. K. Chesterton. Lewis vigorously resisted conversion, noting that he was brought into Christianity like a prodigal, "kicking, struggling, resentful, and darting his eyes in every direction for a chance to escape". He described his last struggle in "Surprised by Joy":

paragraph: After his conversion to theism in 1929, Lewis converted to Christianity in 1931, following a long discussion and late-night walk with his close friends Tolkien and Hugo Dyson. He records making a specific commitment to Christian belief while on his way to the zoo with his brother. He became a member of the Church of England – somewhat to the disappointment of Tolkien, who had hoped that he would join the Catholic Church.

paragraph: Lewis was a committed Anglican who upheld a largely orthodox Anglican theology, though in his apologetic writings, he made an effort to avoid espousing any one denomination. In his later writings, some believe that he proposed ideas such as purification of venial sins after death in purgatory ("The Great Divorce" and "Letters to Malcolm") and mortal sin ("The Screwtape Letters"), which are generally considered to be Roman Catholic teachings, although they are also widely held in Anglicanism (particularly in high church Anglo-Catholic circles). Regardless, Lewis considered himself an entirely orthodox Anglican to the end of his life, reflecting that he had initially attended church only to receive communion and had been repelled by the hymns and the poor quality of the sermons. He later came to consider himself honoured by worshipping with men of faith who came in shabby clothes and work boots and who sang all the verses to all the hymns.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Second World War.

paragraph: After the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, the Lewises took child evacuees from London and other cities into The Kilns. Lewis was only 40 when the war started, and he tried to re-enter military service, offering to instruct cadets; but his offer was not accepted. He rejected the recruiting office's suggestion of writing columns for the Ministry of Information in the press, as he did not want to "write lies" to deceive the enemy. He later served in the local Home Guard in Oxford.

paragraph: From 1941 to 1943, Lewis spoke on religious programmes broadcast by the BBC from London while the city was under periodic air raids. These broadcasts were appreciated by civilians and servicemen at that stage. For example, Air Chief Marshal Sir Donald Hardman wrote:

paragraph: The broadcasts were anthologised in "Mere Christianity". From 1941, he was occupied at his summer holiday weekends visiting R.A.F. stations to speak on his faith, invited by the R.A.F.'s Chaplain-in-Chief Maurice Edwards.

paragraph: It was also during the same wartime period that Lewis was invited to become first President of the Oxford Socratic Club in January 1942, a position that he enthusiastically held until he resigned on appointment to Cambridge University in 1954.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Honour declined.

paragraph: Lewis was named on the last list of honours by George VI in December 1951 as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) but declined so as to avoid association with any political issues.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Chair at Cambridge University.

paragraph: In 1954, Lewis accepted the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he finished his career. He maintained a strong attachment to the city of Oxford, keeping a home there and returning on weekends until his death in 1963.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Joy Davidman.

paragraph: In later life, Lewis corresponded with Joy Davidman Gresham, an American writer of Jewish background, a former Communist, and a convert from atheism to Christianity. She was separated from her alcoholic and abusive husband, novelist William L. Gresham, and came to England with her two sons, David and Douglas. Lewis at first regarded her as an agreeable intellectual companion and personal friend, and it was on this level that he agreed to enter into a civil marriage contract with her so that she could continue to live in the UK. The civil marriage took place at the register office, 42 St Giles', Oxford, on 23 April 1956. Lewis's brother Warren wrote: "For Jack the attraction was at first undoubtedly intellectual. Joy was the only woman whom he had met ... who had a brain which matched his own in suppleness, in width of interest, and in analytical grasp, and above all in humour and a sense of fun." After complaining of a painful hip, she was diagnosed with terminal bone cancer, and the relationship developed to the point that they sought a Christian marriage. Since she was divorced, this was not straightforward in the Church of England at the time, but a friend, the Rev. Peter Bide, performed the ceremony at her bed in the Churchill Hospital on 21 March 1957.

paragraph: Gresham's cancer soon went into remission, and the couple lived together as a family with Warren Lewis until 1960, when her cancer recurred and she died on 13 July. Earlier that year, the couple took a brief holiday in Greece and the Aegean; Lewis was fond of walking but not of travel, and this marked his only crossing of the English Channel after 1918. Lewis's book "A Grief Observed" describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that he originally released it under the pseudonym N. W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him. Ironically, many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief. After Lewis's death, his authorship was made public by Faber's, with the permission of the executors.

paragraph: Lewis continued to raise Gresham's two sons after her death. Douglas Gresham is a Christian like Lewis and his mother, while David Gresham turned to his mother's ancestral faith, becoming Orthodox Jewish in his beliefs. His mother's writings had featured the Jews in an unsympathetic manner, particularly one "shohet" (ritual slaughterer). David informed Lewis that he was going to become a ritual slaughterer to present this type of Jewish religious functionary to the world in a more favourable light. In a 2005 interview, Douglas Gresham acknowledged that he and his brother were not close, but he did say that they are in email contact. Douglas remains involved in the affairs of the Lewis estate.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Illness and death.

paragraph: In early June 1961, Lewis began suffering from nephritis, which resulted in blood poisoning. His illness caused him to miss the autumn term at Cambridge, though his health gradually began improving in 1962 and he returned that April. His health continued to improve and, according to his friend George Sayer, Lewis was fully himself by early 1963. On 15 July that year, he fell ill and was admitted to the hospital; he suffered a heart attack at 5:00 pm the next day and lapsed into a coma, unexpectedly waking the following day at 2:00 pm. After he was discharged from the hospital, Lewis returned to the Kilns, though he was too ill to return to work. As a result, he resigned from his post at Cambridge in August.

paragraph: Lewis's condition continued to decline, and he was diagnosed with end-stage renal failure in mid-November. He collapsed in his bedroom at 5:30 pm on 22 November, exactly one week before his 65th birthday, and died a few minutes later. He is buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford. His brother Warren died on 9 April 1973 and was buried in the same grave.

paragraph: Media coverage of Lewis's death was almost completely overshadowed by news of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy, which occurred on the same day (approximately 55 minutes following Lewis's collapse), as did the death of English writer Aldous Huxley, author of "Brave New World". This coincidence was the inspiration for Peter Kreeft's book "Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley". Lewis is commemorated on 22 November in the church calendar of the Episcopal Church.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Scholar.

paragraph: Lewis began his academic career as an undergraduate student at Oxford University, where he won a triple first, the highest honours in three areas of study. He was then elected a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he worked for nearly thirty years, from 1925 to 1954. In 1954, he was awarded the newly founded chair of Mediaeval and Renaissance Literature at Cambridge University, and was elected a fellow of Magdalene College. Concerning his appointed academic field, he argued that there was no such thing as an English Renaissance. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His "The Allegory of Love" (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives such as the "Roman de la Rose".

paragraph: Lewis was commissioned to write the volume "English Literature in the Sixteenth Century (Excluding Drama)" for the Oxford History of English Literature, His book "A Preface to "Paradise Lost"" is still cited as a criticism of that work. His last academic work, "The Discarded Image: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature" (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, a reference to the "discarded image" of the cosmos.

paragraph: Lewis was a prolific writer, and his circle of literary friends became an informal discussion society known as the "Inklings", including J. R. R. Tolkien, Nevill Coghill, Lord David Cecil, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and his brother Warren Lewis. Glyer points to December 1929 as the Inklings' beginning date. Lewis's friendship with Coghill and Tolkien grew during their time as members of the Kolbítar, an Old Norse reading group that Tolkien founded and which ended around the time of the inception of the Inklings. At Oxford, he was the tutor of poet John Betjeman, critic Kenneth Tynan, mystic Bede Griffiths, novelist Roger Lancelyn Green and Sufi scholar Martin Lings, among many other undergraduates. Curiously, the religious and conservative Betjeman detested Lewis, whereas the anti-establishment Tynan retained a lifelong admiration for him.

paragraph: Of Tolkien, Lewis writes in "Surprised by Joy":

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Novelist.

paragraph: In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote several popular novels, including the science fiction "Space Trilogy" for adults and the Narnia fantasies for children. Most deal implicitly with Christian themes such as sin, humanity's fall from grace, and redemption.

paragraph: His first novel after becoming a Christian was "The Pilgrim's Regress" (1933), which depicted his experience with Christianity in the style of John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress". The book was poorly received by critics at the time, although David Martyn Lloyd-Jones, one of Lewis's contemporaries at Oxford, gave him much-valued encouragement. Asked by Lloyd-Jones when he would write another book, Lewis replied, "When I understand the meaning of prayer."

paragraph: The "Space Trilogy" (also called the "Cosmic Trilogy" or "Ransom Trilogy") dealt with what Lewis saw as the dehumanising trends in contemporary science fiction. The first book, "Out of the Silent Planet", was apparently written following a conversation with his friend J.R.R. Tolkien about these trends. Lewis agreed to write a "space travel" story and Tolkien a "time travel" one, but Tolkien never completed "The Lost Road", linking his Middle-earth to the modern world. Lewis's main character Elwin Ransom is based in part on Tolkien, a fact to which Tolkien alludes in his letters.

paragraph: The second novel, "Perelandra", depicts a new Garden of Eden on the planet Venus, a new Adam and Eve, and a new "serpent figure" to tempt Eve. The story can be seen as an account of what might have happened if the terrestrial Adam had defeated the serpent and avoided the Fall of Man, with Ransom intervening in the novel to "ransom" the new Adam and Eve from the deceptions of the enemy. The third novel, "That Hideous Strength", develops the theme of nihilistic science threatening traditional human values, embodied in Arthurian legend.

paragraph: Many ideas in the trilogy, particularly opposition to dehumanization as portrayed in the third book, are presented more formally in "The Abolition of Man", based on a series of lectures by Lewis at Durham University in 1943. Lewis stayed in Durham, where he says he was overwhelmed by the magnificence of the cathedral. "That Hideous Strength" is in fact set in the environs of "Edgestow" university, a small English university like Durham, though Lewis disclaims any other resemblance between the two.

paragraph: Walter Hooper, Lewis's literary executor, discovered a fragment of another science-fiction novel apparently written by Lewis called "The Dark Tower". Ransom appears in the story but it is not clear whether the book was intended as part of the same series of novels. The manuscript was eventually published in 1977, though Lewis scholar Kathryn Lindskoog doubts its authenticity.

paragraph: "The Chronicles of Narnia" is a series of seven fantasy novels for children and is considered a classic of children's literature. Written between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, the series is Lewis's most popular work, having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages .

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Novelist.:Other works.

paragraph: Lewis wrote several works on Heaven and Hell. One of these, "The Great Divorce", is a short novella in which a few residents of Hell take a bus ride to Heaven, where they are met by people who dwell there. The proposition is that they can stay if they choose, in which case they can call the place where they had come from "Purgatory", instead of "Hell", but many find it not to their taste. The title is a reference to William Blake's "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell", a concept that Lewis found a "disastrous error". This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the "Divine Comedy" of Dante Alighieri, and Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress".

paragraph: Another short work, "The Screwtape Letters", consists of letters of advice from senior demon Screwtape to his nephew Wormwood on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his damnation. Lewis's last novel was "Till We Have Faces", which he thought of as his most mature and masterly work of fiction but which was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of Cupid and Psyche from the unusual perspective of Psyche's sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.

paragraph: Before Lewis's conversion to Christianity, he published two books: "Spirits in Bondage", a collection of poems, and "Dymer", a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name Clive Hamilton. Other narrative poems have since been published posthumously, including "Launcelot", "The Nameless Isle", and "The Queen of Drum".

paragraph: He also wrote "The Four Loves", which rhetorically explains four categories of love: friendship, eros, affection, and charity.

paragraph: In 2009, a partial draft was discovered of "Language and Human Nature", which Lewis had begun co-writing with J. R. R. Tolkien, but which was never completed.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Christian apologist.

paragraph: Lewis is also regarded by many as one of the most influential Christian apologists of his time, in addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction. "Mere Christianity" was voted best book of the 20th century by "Christianity Today" in 2000. He has been called "The Apostle to the Skeptics" due to his approach to religious belief as a sceptic, and his following conversion.

paragraph: Lewis was very interested in presenting an argument from reason against metaphysical naturalism and for the existence of God. "Mere Christianity", "The Problem of Pain", and "Miracles" were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity, such as the question, "How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?" He also became a popular lecturer and broadcaster, and some of his writing originated as scripts for radio talks or lectures (including much of "Mere Christianity").

paragraph: According to George Sayer, losing a 1948 debate with Elizabeth Anscombe, also a Christian, led Lewis to re-evaluate his role as an apologist, and his future works concentrated on devotional literature and children's books. Anscombe had a completely different recollection of the debate's outcome and its emotional effect on Lewis. Victor Reppert also disputes Sayer, listing some of Lewis's post-1948 apologetic publications, including the second and revised edition of his "Miracles" in 1960, in which Lewis addressed Anscombe's criticism. Noteworthy too is Roger Teichman's suggestion in "The Philosophy of Elizabeth Anscombe" that the intellectual impact of Anscombe's paper on Lewis's philosophical self-confidence should not be over-rated: "... it seems unlikely that he felt as irretrievably crushed as some of his acquaintances have made out; the episode is probably an inflated legend, in the same category as the affair of Wittgenstein's Poker. Certainly, Anscombe herself believed that Lewis's argument, though flawed, was getting at something very important; she thought that this came out more in the improved version of it that Lewis presented in a subsequent edition of "Miracles" – though that version also had 'much to criticize in it'."

paragraph: His most famous works, the "Chronicles of Narnia", contain many strong Christian messages and are often considered allegory. Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs. Hook in December 1958:

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Christian apologist.:"Trilemma".

paragraph: In a much-cited passage from "Mere Christianity", Lewis challenged the view that Jesus was a great moral teacher but not God. He argued that Jesus made several implicit claims to divinity, which would logically exclude that claim:

paragraph: Although this argument is sometimes called "Lewis's trilemma", Lewis did not invent it but rather developed and popularized it. It has also been used by Christian apologist Josh McDowell in his book "More Than a Carpenter". It has been widely repeated in Christian apologetic literature, but largely ignored by professional theologians and biblical scholars.

paragraph: Lewis's Christian apologetics, and this argument in particular, have been criticised. Philosopher John Beversluis described Lewis's arguments as "textually careless and theologically unreliable", and this particular argument as logically unsound and an example of false dilemma. Theologian John Hick argues that New Testament scholars do not now support the view that Jesus claimed to be God. New Testament scholar N. T. Wright criticises Lewis for failing to recognise the significance of Jesus' Jewish identity and setting – an oversight which "at best, drastically short-circuits the argument" and which lays Lewis open to criticism that his argument "doesn't work as history, and it backfires dangerously when historical critics question his reading of the gospels", although he believes this "doesn't undermine the eventual claim".

paragraph: Lewis used a similar argument in "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", when the old Professor advises the young heroes that their sister's claims of a magical world must logically be taken as either lies, madness, or truth.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Christian apologist.:Universal morality.

paragraph: One of the main theses in Lewis's apologia is that there is a common morality known throughout humanity, which he calls "natural law". In the first five chapters of "Mere Christianity", Lewis discusses the idea that people have a standard of behaviour to which they expect people to adhere. Lewis claims that people all over the earth know what this law is and when they break it. He goes on to claim that there must be someone or something behind such a universal set of principles.

paragraph: Lewis also portrays Universal Morality in his works of fiction. In "The Chronicles of Narnia" he describes Universal Morality as the "deep magic" which everyone knew.

paragraph: In the second chapter of "Mere Christianity", Lewis recognises that "many people find it difficult to understand what this Law of Human Nature ... is." And he responds first to the idea "that the Moral Law is simply our herd instinct" and second to the idea "that the Moral Law is simply a social convention". In responding to the second idea Lewis notes that people often complain that one set of moral ideas is better than another, but that this actually argues for there existing some "Real Morality" to which they are comparing other moralities. Finally, he notes that sometimes differences in moral codes are exaggerated by people who confuse differences in beliefs about morality with differences in beliefs about facts:

paragraph: Lewis also had fairly progressive views on the topic of "animal morality", in particular the suffering of animals, as is evidenced by several of his essays: most notably, "On Vivisection" and "On the Pains of Animals".

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Lewis continues to attract a wide readership. In 2008, "The Times" ranked him eleventh on their list of "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945". Readers of his fiction are often unaware of what Lewis considered the Christian themes of his works. His Christian apologetics are read and quoted by members of many Christian denominations. In 2013, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Lewis joined some of Britain's greatest writers recognised at Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. The dedication service, at noon on 22 November 2013, included a reading from "The Last Battle" by Douglas Gresham, younger stepson of Lewis. Flowers were laid by Walter Hooper, trustee and literary advisor to the Lewis Estate. An address was delivered by former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. The floor stone inscription is a quotation from an address by Lewis:

paragraph: Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including "A Severe Mercy" by his correspondent and friend Sheldon Vanauken. "The Chronicles of Narnia" has been particularly influential. Modern children's literature has been more or less influenced by Lewis's series, such as Daniel Handler's "A Series of Unfortunate Events", Eoin Colfer's "Artemis Fowl", Philip Pullman's "His Dark Materials", and J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" . Pullman is an atheist and so fierce a critic of Lewis's work as to be dubbed "the anti-Lewis". He considers C. S. Lewis a negative influence and has accused Lewis of featuring religious propaganda, misogyny, racism, and emotional sadism in his books. Authors of adult fantasy literature such as Tim Powers have also testified to being influenced by Lewis's work.

paragraph: In "A Sword Between the Sexes? C. S. Lewis and the Gender Debates", Mary Stewart Van Leeuwen finds in Lewis's work "a hierarchical and essentialist view of class and gender" corresponding to an Edwardian upbringing.

paragraph: Most of Lewis's posthumous work has been edited by his literary executor Walter Hooper. Kathryn Lindskoog, an independent Lewis scholar, argued that Hooper's scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis. C. S. Lewis's stepson Douglas Gresham denies the forgery claims, saying, "The whole controversy thing was engineered for very personal reasons ... Her fanciful theories have been pretty thoroughly discredited."

paragraph: A bronze statue of Lewis's character Digory from "The Magician's Nephew" stands in Belfast's Holywood Arches in front of the Holywood Road Library.

paragraph: Several C. S. Lewis Societies exist around the world, including one which was founded in Oxford in 1982 to discuss papers on the life and works of Lewis and the other Inklings, and generally appreciate all things Lewisian.

paragraph: Film adaptations have been made of three of "The Chronicles of Narnia: " (2005), "" (2008) and "" (2010).

paragraph: Lewis is featured as a main character in "The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica" series by James A. Owen.

paragraph: Section::::Secondary works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Beversluis (1985), "C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion". Grand Rapids: Eerdmans

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ronald W. Bresland (1999), "The Backward Glance: C. S. Lewis and Ireland". Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies at Queen's University of Belfast.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Devin Brown (2013), "A Life Observed: A Spiritual Biography of C. S. Lewis". Grand Rapids: Brazos Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joe R. Christopher & Joan K. Ostling (1972), "C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings About Him and His Works". Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, n.d.

paragraph: BULLET::::- James Como (1998), "Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis". Spence

paragraph: BULLET::::- James Como (2006), "Remembering C. S. Lewis" (3rd edn. of "C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table"). Ignatius Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sean Connolly (2007), "Inklings of Heaven: C. S. Lewis and Eschatology". Gracewing.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Coren (1994), "The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C. S. Lewis". Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, reprint edition 1996 (First published 1994 in Canada by Lester Publishing Limited).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christopher Derrick (1981) "C. S. Lewis and the Church of Rome: A Study in Proto-Ecumenism". Ignatius Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David C. Downing (1992), "Planets in Peril: A Critical Study of C. S. Lewis's Ransom Trilogy". Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David C. Downing (2002), "The Most Reluctant Convert: C. S. Lewis's Journey to Faith". InterVarsity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David C. Downing (2005), "Into the Region of Awe: Mysticism in C. S. Lewis". InterVarsity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David C. Downing (2005), "Into the Wardrobe: C. S. Lewis and the Narnia Chronicles". San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Colin Duriez (2003), "Tolkien and C. S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship". Paulist Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Colin Duriez (2015), "Bedeviled: Lewis, Tolkien and the Shadow of Evil". InterVarsity Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Colin Duriez & David Porter (2001), "The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends". London: Azure.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bruce L. Edwards (2005), "Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia". Tyndale.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bruce L. Edwards (2005), "Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis's" The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. Broadman and Holman.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alastair Fowler, "C. S. Lewis: Supervisor", "Yale Review"; Vol. 91, No. 4 (October 2003).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helen Gardner (1966) "† Clive Staples Lewis, 1898–1963". Biographical memoir, in "Proceedings of the British Academy" 51 (1966), 417–28.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jocelyn Gibb (ed.) (1965), "Light on C. S. Lewis". Geoffrey Bles, 1965, & Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Douglas Gilbert & Clyde Kilby (1973) "C. S. Lewis: Images of His World". Eerdmans, 1973 & 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Douglas Gresham (1994), "Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C. S. Lewis". HarperSanFrancisco.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ——— (2005), "Jack's Life: A Memory of C. S. Lewis". Broadman & Holman Publishers.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Griffin (2005), "C. S. Lewis: The Authentic Voice" (formerly "C. S. Lewis: A Dramatic Life"). Lion.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dabney Adams Hart (1984), "Through the Open Door: A New Look at C. S. Lewis". University of Alabama Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joel D. Heck (2006), "Irrigating Deserts: C. S. Lewis on Education". Concordia Publishing House.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Carolyn Keefe (1979), "C. S. Lewis: Speaker & Teacher". Zondervan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jon Kennedy (2008), "The Everything Guide to C. S. Lewis and Narnia". Adams Media.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jon Kennedy (2012), "C. S. Lewis Themes and Threads". Amazon Kindle ASIN B00ATSY3AQ

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clyde S. Kilby (1964), "The Christian World of C. S. Lewis". Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964, 1995.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Don W. King (2001), "C. S. Lewis, Poet: The Legacy of His Poetic Impulse". Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kathryn Lindskoog (1994), "Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis". Multnomah Pub.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Susan Lowenberg (1993), "C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide, 1972–1988". Hall & Co.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wayne Mardindale & Jerry Root (1990), "The Quotable Lewis". Tyndale House Publishers.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas L. Martin (ed.) (2000), "Reading the Classics with C. S. Lewis". Baker Academic.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Laura Miller (2008) "The Magician's Book", Little, Brown & Co.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David Mills (ed) (1998) "The Pilgrim's Guide: C. S. Lewis and the Art of Witness". Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph Pearce (1999), "C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church". HarperCollins, 1999; then Ignatius Press, 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas C. Peters (1998), "Simply C. S. Lewis: A Beginner's Guide to His Life and Works". Kingsway Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Justin Phillips (2003), "C. S. Lewis at the BBC: Messages of Hope in the Darkness of War". Marshall Pickering.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harry Lee Poe & Rebecca Whitten Poe (eds) (2006), "C. S. Lewis Remembered: Collected Reflections of Students, Friends & Colleagues". Zondervan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Victor Reppert (2003), "C. S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason". InterVarsity Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Sayer (1988), "Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times". London: Macmillan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter J. Schakel (1984), "Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of "Till We Have Faces"". Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter J. Schakel (2002), "Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds." University of Missouri Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter J. Schakel (ed.) (1977), "The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis". Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter J. Schakel & Charles A. Huttar (eds.) (1991), "Word and Story in C. S. Lewis". University of Missouri Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stephen Schofield (1983), "In Search of C. S. Lewis". Bridge Logos Pub.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jeffrey D. Schultz & John G. West, Jr. (eds) (1998), "The C. S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia". Zondervan Publishing House.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sanford Schwartz (2009), "C. S. Lewis on the Final Frontier: Science and the Supernatural in the Space Trilogy". Oxford University Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- G. B. Tennyson (ed.) (1989), "Owen Barfield on C. S. Lewis". Wesleyan University Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard J. Wagner (2005) "C. S. Lewis and Narnia for Dummies". For Dummies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andrew Walker & Patrick James (eds.) (1998), "Rumours of Heaven: Essays in Celebration of C. S. Lewis", Guildford: Eagle.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chad Walsh (1949), "C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics". London: Macmillan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chad Walsh (1979), "The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis". New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Ward (2008), "Planet Narnia". Oxford University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- George Watson (ed.) (1992), "Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis". Menston: Scolar Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael White (2005), "C. S. Lewis: The Boy Who Chronicled Narnia". Abacus.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Erik J. Wielenberg (2007), "God and the Reach of Reason". Cambridge University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College, has the world's largest collection of works by and about Lewis

paragraph: BULLET::::- Courtly love

paragraph: BULLET::::- Johan Huizinga

paragraph: BULLET::::- D. W. Robertson, Jr.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- [reprinted as ]

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Journal of Inklings Studies peer-reviewed journal on Lewis and his literary circle, based at Oxford

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. S. Lewis Reading Room, with extensive links to online primary and secondary literature (Tyndale Seminary)

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. S. Lewis research collection at The Marion E. Wade Center at Wheaton College

paragraph: BULLET::::- BBC Radio 4 – Great Lives – Suzannah Lipscomb on CS Lewis – 3 January 2017 Step though the wardrobe on Great Lives as CS Lewis – creator of the Narnia Chronicles – is this week's choice

alias:
Clive Staples Lewis
Clive Hamilton
N. W. Clerk
CS Lewis

description: Christian apologist, novelist, and Medievalist

enwikiquote_title: C. S. Lewis

wikidata_label: C. S. Lewis

wikipedia_title: C. S. Lewis