text: Roman emperor

text: Theodosius I

text: regent

text: Valentinian III

text: queen consort

text: Ataulf

text: king of the Visigoths

text: Constantius III

text: Theodosius I

text: Galla

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text: Julian Alps

text: Aurelian Walls

text: siege

text: Zosimus

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text: Jordanes

text: Marcellinus Comes

text: Gaul

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text: Hispania

text: Germanic chieftain

text: Amali faction

text: Sigeric

text: Edward Gibbon

text: Wallia

text: Códice de Roda

text: Constantius III

text: Justa Grata Honoria

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text: Valentinian III

text: Pope Zosimus

text: Eulalius

text: Boniface I

text: synod

text: Easter

text: Basilica of St. John Lateran

text: Bishop of Spoleto

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text: Augusta

text: Thermantia

text: Olympiodorus of Thebes

text: Zosimus

text: Sozomen

text: Philostorgius

text: Constantinople

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text: Roman–Sasanian War (421–422)

text: Bahram V

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Saracen

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text: al-Hirah

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text: Iraq

text: edema

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text: Castinus

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text: defect

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text: Roman Senate

text: Huns

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text: commander-in-chief

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text: Bonifacius

text: Diocese of Africa

text: Arles

text: Theodoric I

text: Visigoths

text: Avitus

text: Procopius

text: Vandals

text: Gaiseric

text: Hippo Regius

text: Numidia

text: Augustine of Hippo

text: Battle of Ravenna (432)

text: Pannonia

text: Attila

text: Justa Grata Honoria

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text: Rome

text: Church of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Jerusalem

text: San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna

text: Mausoleum

text: UNESCO

text: World Heritage Site

text: Lawrence of Rome

text: sarcophagi

text: Alexander Blok

text: Ezra Pound

text: Canto

text: Louis Zukofsky

text: Carl Jung

text: R. A. Lafferty

text: BBC

text: Natasha Barrero

text: Jaume Pahissa

text: Alice Krige

text: Attila

categories: 5th-century Byzantine women,388 births,Augustae,Daughters of Byzantine emperors,5th-century Byzantine people,5th-century Visigothic people,Roman empresses,5th-century Christians,Visigothic queens consort,450 deaths,Aelii,Valentinian dynasty,Theodosian dynasty,5th-century women rulers,5th-century Romans

paragraph: Galla Placidia

paragraph: Aelia Galla Placidia (388 – 27 November 450), daughter of the Roman emperor Theodosius I, was regent to Valentinian III from 423 until his majority in 437, and a major force in Roman politics for most of her life. She was queen consort to Ataulf, king of the Visigoths from 414 until his death in 415, and briefly empress consort to Constantius III in 421.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Placidia was the daughter of Theodosius I and his second wife, Galla, who was herself daughter of Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina. Her older brother Gratian died young. Her mother died in childbirth in 394, giving birth to John, who died with their mother. Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of emperors Arcadius and Honorius. Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents according to Gregory of Nyssa, placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla, the first wife of Theodosius I, in 385.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Placidia was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage. She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum (Milan) during 394. She was present at Theodosius' death on January 17, 395. She was granted the title of "nobilissima puella" ("most noble girl") during her childhood.

paragraph: Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho the Vandal and his wife, Serena. She is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery. She might have also been given a classical education, though no details are known. Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia. The poem "In Praise of Serena" by Claudian and the "Historia Nova" by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I. According to ""De Consulatu Stilichonis"" by Claudian, Placidia was betrothed to Eucherius, only known son of Stilicho and Serena. Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty, following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria, their daughter, to Honorius.

paragraph: Stilicho was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire. He was the only known person to hold the rank of "magister militum in praesenti" from 394 to 408 in both the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. He was also titled "magister equitum et peditum" ("Master of the Horse and of Foot"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire. In 408, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his son Theodosius II, only seven years old. Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and "undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius", convincing Honorius not to travel to the East himself. Shortly after, Olympius, "an officer of rank in the court-guards" attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius. Olympius proceeded to lead a military coup d'état which left him in control of Honorius and his court. Stilicho was arrested and executed on August 22, 408. Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but was arrested there by Arsacius and Tarentius, two eunuchs following imperial command. They executed him not long after. Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave the next post under him to Arsacius. Their deaths left Placidia effectively unattached.

paragraph: Section::::First marriage.

paragraph: In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, throughout the Italian Peninsula the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The foederati were considered loyalists of Stilicho and treated accordingly. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric I, King of the Visigoths, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. Alaric accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September 408, stood before the Aurelian Walls and began a strict blockade. Rome was under siege, with minor interruptions, from 408 to August 24, 410. Zosimus records that Placidia was within the city during the siege. When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, "the whole senate therefore, with Placidia, uterine sister to the emperor, thought it proper that she should suffer death". Her reasons for concurring to the execution of her cousin are not stated in the account.

paragraph: Prior to the fall of Rome, Placidia was captured by Alaric. Her captivity was recorded by both Jordanes and Marcellinus Comes, though the exact circumstances are not mentioned. She followed the Visigoths in their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul in 412. Their ruler Ataulf, having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus, rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul. He managed to defeat and execute both Gallo-Roman emperors in 413.

paragraph: After the heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on the walls of Carthage, relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on January 1, 414. The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. Priscus Attalus gave the wedding speech, a classical epithalamium. The marriage was recorded by Hydatius. The historian Jordanes states that they married earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii (Forlì). Jordanes's date may actually be when she and the Gothic king first became more than captor and captive.

paragraph: Placidia and Ataulf had a single known son, Theodosius. He was born in Barcelona by the end of 414. Theodosius died early in the following year, thus eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line. Years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. In Hispania, Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service a man identified as "Dubius" or "Eberwolf", a former follower of Sarus. Sarus was a Germanic chieftain who was killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus. His follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his beloved patron. And so, in the palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed in August/September, 415.

paragraph: The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric, a brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths. According to "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" by Edward Gibbon, the first act of Sigeric's reign "was the inhuman murder" of Ataulf's six children from a former marriage "whom he tore, without pity, from the feeble arms of a venerable bishop" (Sigesar, bishop of the Goths). As for Galla Placidia, as Ataulf's widow, she was "treated with cruel and wanton insult" by being forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among the crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric. Seeing the noble widow's sufferings, however, became one of the factors that roused indignant opponents of the usurper, who quickly assassinated Sigeric and replaced him with Wallia, Ataulf's relative.

paragraph: Section::::Second marriage.

paragraph: According to the "Chronicon Albeldense", included in the "Códice de Roda", Wallia was desperate for food supplies. He surrendered to Constantius III, at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for the Visigoths. Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty. Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on January 1, 417. Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria was probably born in 417 or 418. The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first among the children of the marriage, suggesting that she was the eldest. Their son Valentinian III was born July 2, 419.

paragraph: Placidia intervened in the succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on December 26, 418. Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own popes, the first electing Eulalius (December 27) and the other electing Boniface I (December 28). They acted as rival popes, both in Rome, and their factions plunged the city into tumult. Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on the matter. Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius. This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in the Papal election.

paragraph: Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate pope. As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide the matter. The synod met from February to March 419 but failed to reach a conclusion. Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops. In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome. As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of St. John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (March 30, 419) the ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto. The conflict cost Eulalius the imperial favor, and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate pope as of April 3, 419, returning to Rome a week later. Placidia had personally written to the African bishops, summoning them to the second synod. Three of her letters are known to have survived.

paragraph: On February 8, 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus, becoming co-ruler with the childless Honorius. Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta. She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced his second wife Thermantia in 408 and had never remarried. Neither title was recognised by Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor. Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office. He died of an illness on September 2, 421.

paragraph: Section::::Widow.

paragraph: Galla Placidia herself was now forced from the Western Empire. Though the motivation for this remains unclear, the public issue was the increasingly scandalous public caresses she received from her own brother Honorius—this at least was the interpretation of Olympiodorus of Thebes, a historian used as a source by Zosimus, Sozomen and probably Philostorgius, as J.F. Matthews has postulated. Gibbon had a different opinion: "The power of Placidia; and the indecent familiarity of her brother, which might be no more than the symptoms of a childish affection, were universally attributed to incestuous love."

paragraph: According to Gibbon, "On a sudden, by some base intrigues of a steward and a nurse, this excessive fondness was converted into an irreconcilable quarrel: the debates of the emperor and his sister were not long confined within the walls of the palace; and as the Gothic soldiers adhered to their queen, the city of Ravenna was agitated with bloody and dangerous tumults, which could only be appeased by the forced or voluntary retreat of Placidia and her children. The royal exiles landed at Constantinople, soon after the marriage of Theodosius, during the festival of the Persian victories. They were treated with kindness and magnificence; but as the statues of the emperor Constantius had been rejected by the Eastern court, the title of Augusta could not decently be allowed to his widow." The passage places the arrival of Placidia and her children after the marriage of Theodosius II to Aelia Eudocia, known to have occurred on June 7, 421. The "Persian victories" mentioned were probably victory celebrations over the brief Roman–Sasanian War (421–422) under the respective leadership of Theodosius II and Bahram V of the Sasanian Empire. The "Saracens of Hira" were the Lakhmids of al-Hirah, a pre-Islamic Arab state that was located in what is now Iraq.

paragraph: On August 15, 423, Honorius died of edema, perhaps pulmonary edema. With no member of the Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor. However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed. Taking advantage of the power vacuum, Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker. He declared Joannes, the "primicerius notariorum" "chief notary" (the head of the civil service), to be the new Western Roman Emperor. Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius. Aetius was a son of Flavius Gaudentius, magister militum, and Aurelia. Joannes' rule was accepted in the provinces of Italia, Gaul and Hispania, but not in the province of Africa.

paragraph: Theodosius II reacted by preparing Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office. In 423/424, Valentinian was named "nobilissimus". In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia, his first cousin once removed. She was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia. The year of their betrothal was recorded by Marcellinus Comes. At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four years old, Licinia only two. Gibbon attributes the betrothal to "the agreement of the three females who governed the Roman world", meaning Placidia and her nieces Eudocia and Pulcheria. In the same year, Valentinian was proclaimed a Caesar in the Eastern court.

paragraph: The campaign against Joannes also started in the same year. Forces of the Eastern Roman army gathered at Thessaloniki, and were placed under the general command of Ardaburius, the victorious general of the Roman-Persian War. The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea by two routes. Aspar, son of Ardaburius, led the cavalry by land, following the coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy. Placidia and Valentinian joined this force. Ardaburius and the infantry boarded ships of the Eastern Roman navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea. Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia, taking the city by surprise and with virtually no resistance. The fleet, on the other hand, was dispersed by a storm. Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes and were held prisoners in Ravenna.

paragraph: Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to the hostilities. The prisoner was allowed the "courteous freedom" of walking the court and streets of Ravenna during his captivity. He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes and convinced some of them to defect to Theodosius' side. The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna. A shepherd led Aspar's cavalry force through the marshes of the Po to the gates of Ravenna; with the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within, the city was quickly captured. Joannes was taken and his right hand cut off; he was then mounted on a donkey and paraded through the streets, and finally beheaded in the hippodrome of Aquileia.

paragraph: With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on October 23, 425, in the presence of the Roman Senate. Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army, a reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube. After some skirmishing, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement that established the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of "magister militum per Gallias "(commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Gaul).

paragraph: Section::::Regent.

paragraph: Galla Placidia was regent of the Western Roman Empire from 425 to 437, her regency ending when Valentinian reached his eighteenth birthday on July 2, 437. Among her early supporters was Bonifacius, governor of the Diocese of Africa. Aetius, his rival for influence, managed to secure Arles against Theodoric I of the Visigoths. The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages. The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.:Conflict between Bonifacius and Aetius.

paragraph: Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429. Placidia appointed Bonifacius general of Libya. Procopius records that Aetius played the two against each other, warning Placidia against Bonifacius and advising her to recall him to Rome; simultaneously writing to Bonifacius, warning him that Placidia was about to summon him for no good reason in order to put him away.

paragraph: Bonifacius, trusting the warning from Aetius, refused the summons; and, thinking his position untenable, sought an alliance with the Vandals in Spain. The Vandals subsequently crossed from Spain into Libya to join him. To friends of Bonifacius in Rome, this apparent act of hostility toward the Empire seemed entirely out of character for Bonifacius. They traveled to Carthage at Placidia's behest to intercede with him, and he showed them the letter from Aetius. The plot now revealed, his friends returned to Rome to apprise Placidia of the true situation. She did not move against Aetius, as he wielded great influence, and as the Empire was already in danger; but she urged Bonifacius to return to Rome "and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians."

paragraph: Bonifacius now regretted his alliance with the Vandals and tried to persuade them to return to Spain. Gaiseric offered battle instead, and Bonifacius was besieged at Hippo Regius in Numidia by the sea. (Augustine of Hippo was its bishop and died in this siege.) Unable to take the city, the Vandals eventually raised the siege. The Romans, with reinforcements under Aspar, renewed the struggle but were routed and lost Africa to the Vandals.

paragraph: Bonifacius had meanwhile returned to Rome, where Placidia raised him to the rank of patrician and made him "master-general of the Roman armies". Aetius returned from Gaul with an army of "barbarians", and was met by Bonifacius in the bloody Battle of Ravenna (432). Bonifacius won the battle, but was mortally wounded and died a few days later. Aetius was compelled to retire to Pannonia.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.:Rise of Aetius.

paragraph: With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aetius, Placidia acknowledged the inevitable: Aetius was recalled from exile in 433 and given the titles "magister militum" and "Patrician". The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman Army and gave him considerable influence over imperial policy. Placidia continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions was diminished. She would continue to exercise political influence until her death in 450—no longer, however, the only power at court.

paragraph: Aetius later played a pivotal role in the defense of the Western Empire against Attila. Attila was diverted from Constantinople towards Italy by a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force upon her. Honoria included her engagement ring with the letter. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia persuaded him not to kill Honoria. Valentinian wrote to Attila denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, unconvinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Honoria was quickly married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus, though this did not prevent Attila from pressing his claim.

paragraph: Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome in November 450, and did not live to see Attila ravage Italy in 451–453, in a much more brutal campaign than the Goths had waged, using Justa's letter as his sole "legitimate" excuse.

paragraph: Section::::Public works.

paragraph: Placidia was a devout Christian. She was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence. She restored and expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Adriatic Sea. The dedicatory inscription reads "Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea."

paragraph: Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites inscribed in 1996. However, there is some doubt whether the building served as her tomb. The building was initially erected as a chapel dedicated to Lawrence of Rome. It is unknown whether the sarcophagi therein contained the bodies of the members of the Theodosian dynasty, or when they were placed in the building.

paragraph: Section::::In literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Two stanzas in Alexander Blok's poem "Ravenna" (May–June 1909) focus on her tomb; Olga Matich writes: "For Blok, Galla Placidia represented a synthetic historical figure that linked different cultural histories."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ezra Pound uses her tomb as an exemplar of the "gold" remaining from the past, for example in Canto XXI: "Gold fades in the gloom,/ Under the blue-black roof, Placidia's..."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Louis Zukofsky refers to it in his poem "4 Other Countries," reproduced in ""A"" 17: "The gold that shines/ in the dark/ of Galla Placidia,/ the gold in the// Round vault rug of stone/ that shows its pattern as well as the stars/ my love might want on her floor..."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Carl Jung refers to Galla Placidia in his autobiography "Memories, Dreams, Reflections", (Chapter IX, Section 'Ravenna and Rome'). He reports a vision of "four great mosaic frescoes of incredible beauty" he experienced in the Neonian Bapistery right after visiting Galla's tomb at Ravenna. He had been, he says, "personally affected by the figure of Galla Placidia" and goes on to say: "Her tomb seemed to me a final legacy through which I might reach her personality. Her fate and her whole being were vivid presences to me". Jung was later surprised to discover that the mosaics he and an acquaintance remembered had actually never existed.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Galla Placidia is a major supporting character in R. A. Lafferty's semi-historical work "The Fall of Rome", which introduces her as "the goblin child and sister of the two young emperors who, at the age of seventeen, and when all the rest of them were cowed, seized control of the Roman Senate and the City and represented the defiance in the last one hundred days of the world."

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Galla Placidia is represented in the BBC's by Natasha Barrero.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Spanish musician Jaume Pahissa wrote the opera "Galla Placídia" in 1913.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Galla Placidia is played by Alice Krige in the 2001 American TV miniseries "Attila".

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- is a good, modern study of Placidia and the times in which she lived.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pictures of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Entry of Aelia Flaccilla in the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zosimus, New History. London: Green and Chaplin (1814). Book 5.

description: Roman Empress

wikidata_label: Galla Placidia

wikipedia_title: Galla Placidia


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König Ottokars Glück und Ende
statue

categories: 13th-century Austrian people,Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral,Czech Republic–Slovenia relations,13th-century rulers in Europe,Roman Catholic monarchs,Christians of the Prussian Crusade,People from Městec Králové,Monarchs killed in action,Ottokar II of Bohemia,Medieval kings of Bohemia,Dukes of Austria,Margraviate of Moravia,Czech military leaders,Dukes of Styria,Dukes of Carinthia,Austria–Czech Republic relations,Czech people of German descent,13th-century Bohemian people,1278 deaths,Croatia–Czech Republic relations,1230s births,13th-century rulers of Austria,Přemyslid dynasty

paragraph: Ottokar II of Bohemia

paragraph: Ottokar II (; c. 1233 – 26 August 1278), the Iron and Golden King, was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty who reigned as King of Bohemia from 1253 until his death in 1278. He also held the titles of Margrave of Moravia from 1247, Duke of Austria from 1251, Duke of Styria from 1260, as well as Duke of Carinthia and Margrave of Carniola from 1269.

paragraph: With Ottokar's rule, the Přemyslids reached the peak of their power in the Holy Roman Empire. His expectations of the imperial crown, however, were never fulfilled.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Ottokar was the second son of King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia (reigned 1230-1253). Through his mother, Kunigunde, daughter of Philip of Swabia, he was related to the Holy Roman Emperors of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, which became extinct in the male line upon the execution of King Conradin of Sicily in 1268.

paragraph: Named after his grandfather King Přemysl Ottokar I, he was originally educated for the role of an ecclesiastical administrator, while his elder brother Vladislaus was designated heir of the Bohemian kingdom. He was possibly educated by the Bohemian chancellor Philip of Spanheim, who would later become a rival for the rule of the Duchy of Carinthia.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Rise to power.

paragraph: When his brother Vladislaus died in 1247, Ottokar suddenly became the heir to the Bohemian throne. According to popular oral tradition, he was profoundly shocked by his brother's death and did not involve himself in politics, becoming focused on hunting and drinking. His father appointed the new heir as Margrave of Moravia, and Ottokar took up residence in Brno, where he was occupied with the reconstruction of the Moravian lands devastated by Mongol raids of 1242.

paragraph: In 1248 some discontented nobles enticed him into leading a rebellion against his father King Wenceslaus. During this rebellion he was elected "the younger King" ("mladší král") on 31 July 1248 and temporarily expelled his father from Prague Castle. Přemysl Ottokar II held the title of King of Bohemia until November 1249. However, Pope Innocent IV excommunicated Ottokar, whereafter Wenceslaus finally managed to defeat the rebels and imprisoned his son at Přimda Castle.

paragraph: Father and son eventually reconciled to assist the king's aim of acquiring the neighbouring Duchy of Austria, where the last Babenberg duke, Frederick II had been killed in the 1246 Battle of the Leitha River. King Wenceslaus had initially attempted to acquire Austria by marrying his heir, Vladislaus, to the last duke's niece Gertrude of Babenberg. That marriage came to an end after half a year with Vladislaus's death in January 1247, and in 1248 Gertrude married the Zähringen margrave Herman VI of Baden. Herman, rejected by the Austrian nobility, could not establish his rule. Wenceslaus used this as pretext to invade Austria when Herman died in 1250 — according to some sources, the estates called upon him to restore order.

paragraph: Wenceslaus released Přemysl Ottokar very soon and in 1251 again made him Margrave of Moravia and installed him, with the approval of the Austrian nobles, as governor of Austria. The same year Ottokar entered Austria, where the estates acclaimed him as Duke. To legitimize his position, Přemysl Ottokar married the late Duke Frederick II's sister Margaret of Babenberg, who was his senior by 30 years and the widow of the Hohenstaufen king Henry (VII) of Germany. Their marriage took place on 11 February 1252 at Hainburg.

paragraph: In 1253 King Wenceslaus died and Přemysl Ottokar succeeded his father as King of Bohemia. After the death of the German King Konrad IV in 1254 while his son Conradin was still a minor, Ottokar also hoped to obtain the Imperial dignity - as King of the Romans - for himself. However, his election bid was unsuccessful and Count William II of Holland, the German anti-king since 1247, was generally recognised.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Building an empire.

paragraph: Feeling threatened by Ottokar's growing regional power beyond the Leitha River, his cousin King Béla IV of Hungary challenged the young king. Béla formed a loose alliance with the Wittelsbach duke Otto II of Bavaria and tried to install his own son Stephen as Duke of Styria, which since 1192 had been ruled in personal union with Austria under the terms of the Georgenberg Pact of 1186. Papal mediation settled the conflict : the parties agreed that Ottokar would yield large parts of Styria to Béla in exchange for recognition of his right to the remainder of Austria.

paragraph: Subsequently King Ottokar II led the two crusade expeditions against the pagan Old Prussians (1254-1255 and 1268).

paragraph: Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), founded in 1255 by the Teutonic Order, was named in his honour and later became the capital of the Duchy of Prussia.

paragraph: After a few years of peace the conflict with Hungary resumed: Ottokar defeated the Hungarians in July 1260 at the Battle of Kressenbrunn, ending years of disputes over Styria with Béla IV. Béla now ceded Styria back to Ottokar, and his claim to those territories was formally recognized by Richard of Cornwall, then king of Germany and nominal ruler of all the German lands. This peace agreement was also sealed by a royal marriage. Ottokar ended his marriage to Margaret and married Béla's young granddaughter Kunigunda of Halych, who became the mother of his children. The youngest of them became his only legitimate son, Wenceslaus II.

paragraph: During the Imperial Imperial "interregnum" of 1250 to 1273, Ottokar could increase his personal influence while Richard of Cornwall and Alfonso of Castile jostled to attain the Imperial dignity. In 1266 he occupied the Egerland in north-west Bohemia, and in 1268 he signed an inheritance treaty with the Sponheim duke Ulrich III of Carinthia, succeeding him in Carinthia, Carniola and the Windic March the next year. In 1272 he also acquired Friuli. His rule was once again contested by the Hungarians on the field of battle. After another victory, Ottokar became the most powerful king within the Empire.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The path to the final battle.

paragraph: After Richard of Cornwall died in April 1272 and Pope Gregory X rejected the claims raised by Alfonso of Castile, a new election for the Imperial German throne took place in 1273. However, the Bohemian king again failed to win the Imperial crown, as the electors voted for the "little count" Rudolf of Habsburg, Ottokar's last and finally victorious rival.

paragraph: Přemysl Ottokar refused to acknowledge Rudolf's election, and urged the Pope to adopt a similar policy. At a convention of the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg in 1274, Rudolf decreed that all Imperial lands that had changed hands since the death of the last Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II must be returned to the crown. This would have deprived Ottokar not only of the Egerland, but also of the Austrian, Styrian, and Carinthian duchies. In 1275 Rudolf placed Ottokar under the Imperial ban and besieged his Hofburg residence in Vienna, while a rebellion led by the Vítkovci noble Zavis of Falkenstein disrupted the Bohemian lands. This compelled Přemysl Ottokar in November 1276 to sign a new treaty by which he gave up all claims to Austria and the neighboring duchies, retaining for himself only Bohemia and Moravia. Ottokar's son Wenceslaus became betrothed to Rudolf's daughter Judith. There followed an uneasy peace.

paragraph: Two years later, the Bohemian king made a last attempt to recover his lost lands by force. Přemysl Ottokar again found allies in Bavaria, Brandenburg and Poland. He collected a large army to meet the forces of Rudolf and his ally King Ladislaus IV of Hungary in the Battle on the Marchfeld on 26 August 1278, where he was defeated and killed. Rudolf had his body laid out in state at the Vienna Minorites Church. (In 1297 Ottokar's mortal remains were finally transferred to St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.) His 6-year-old son Wenceslaus II succeeded him as King of Bohemia.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and children.

paragraph: On 11 February 1252, Přemysl Ottokar II married Margaret of Austria. Margaret was 26 years older than him and the couple's childless marriage ended with an annulment. On 25 October 1261, Ottokar married Kunigunda of Slavonia. They probably had four children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry (1262–1263)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kunigunde (January 1265 – 27 November 1321), married Boleslaus II of Masovia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Agnes (5 September 1269 – 17 May 1296), married Rudolf II, Duke of Austria

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wenceslaus II (17 September 1271 – 21 June 1305)

paragraph: Ottokar also had two extramarital sons and daughters. The most important was his firstborn, Nicholas. He was never accepted as heir apparent to the Bohemian crown by the sitting pope, but was given the Duchy of Opava as fief in 1269. Other illegitimate children include John, provost of Vyšehrad Chapter.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Přemysl Ottokar is considered one of the greatest kings of Bohemia, along with Charles IV. He was a founder of many new towns (about 30 — not only in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, but also in Austria and Styria) and incorporated many existing settlements through civic charters, giving them new privileges. He was a strong proponent of trade, law and order. Furthermore, he instituted open immigration policies through which skilled German-speaking immigrants settled in major cities throughout his domains. As noted, the historic East Prussian city of Königsberg ("King's Mountain") was named in his honor as a tribute to his support of the Teutonic Knights in their war with the pagan Old Prussians.

paragraph: As Czech traditional law was different from that of his other domains, many principles introduced during his reign formed core of the Czech law for the following centuries. From his time stems the oldest preserved source of Czech law, Zemské desky, and also the oldest written Czech communal law, recorded in the founding deeds of the respective towns. By supporting the city of Jihlava (German: Iglau) with its mines, he laid foundation of the silver wealth of later Bohemian kings. Privileges of civic charters usually excluded the towns from obedience to the traditional courts held by members of nobility. This can be seen as a step towards equality and a precursor of modern civil law.

paragraph: In the country, Ottokar's introduction of the Law of Emphyteusis into the Czech law is sometimes interpreted as "Germanization". In fact it was creative, for it freed subjects from feudal obligations, except for rent — and tax, if such was levied. Free selling and leaving of estates could also be bought and soon became common. Thus, Ottokar can be reckoned an early Bohemian ruler who furthered Bohemian rights in medieval times. This change of legal environment in Bohemia was introduced by systematic founding of villages chartered under this law.

paragraph: He issued also a general privilege to the Jews (1254), which established principles of integration of the Jews into the Czech society until 1848. The Jews were now eligible for various positions, such as servants of crown, thereby being somewhat less subject to discrimination. Instead of being able to claim only the support of individual lords, the Jews could from then on claim support of any royal officer.

paragraph: Ottokar followed with a systematic policy of strengthening his domains by building fortifications. Besides supporting towns, he built many fortresses himself — Zvíkov Castle, Křivoklát Castle or Bezděz Castle in Bohemia, and the famed Hofburg Palace in Vienna — and also induced his vassals to build castles. A sign of rising strength of Bohemia, it was also a reaction to the Mongol raids of the 13th century (see Béla IV of Hungary). Conflict for the title of ownership to these fortified places built by members of nobility was probably the source of an uprising in 1276, which cost Ottokar the Austrian lands, and two years later (in an attempt for reconquest) his life.

paragraph: Some of the fortresses built by Ottokar were for centuries the strongest in Bohemia. Ironically, Bezděz Castle served as a prison for his son Wenceslaus II of Bohemia for short time after Ottokar's death. The castle housed Bohemian legal records Zemské desky and many spiritual and temporal treasures during the destructive civil strife of the Hussite wars (1419–1434) in Bohemia. It was conquered in 1620, during the 30 Years' War, but by then it was long deserted, and in that state was defended by rebelling subjects against an Imperial army.

paragraph: Before his conflict with Rudolf of Habsburg, Ottokar exacted influence over a number of relatives, allies and vassals in Germany, such as the Margraviate of Brandenburg — and spiritual principalities, including the Archbishopric of Salzburg and the Patriarchate of Aquileia. After the death of Konradin in 1268 he was an heir of the House of Hohenstaufen's claim to the imperial crown. However, he did not raise this claim, remaining content with informal influence in Germany. In 1267 he was appointed protector of the royal domains (of the Holy Roman Empire) east of the Rhine by the German king, Richard of Cornwall. He held this office till 1273.

paragraph: Ottokar is a significant figure in history and legend. In the "Divine Comedy" by Dante, Ottokar is seen outside the gates of Purgatory, in amiable companionship with his imperial rival Rudolf. He is also the protagonist of a tragedy by the 19th-century Austrian playwright Franz Grillparzer, titled "König Ottokars Glück und Ende".

paragraph: There is a statue dedicated to him.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: br

description: Czech king and warrior

wikidata_label: Ottokar II of Bohemia

wikipedia_title: Ottokar II of Bohemia


text: usurper

text: Roman Empire

text: Emperor

text: Theodosius I

text: Christian

text: Roman polytheism

text: Frankish

text: magister militum

text: Arbogast

text: Valentinian II

text: Arbogast

text: Roman Senate

text: Virius Nicomachus Flavianus

text: Praetorian Prefect of Italy

text: Nicomachus Flavianus

text: praefectus annonae

text: Numerius Proiectus

text: Polytheism

text: Temple of Venus and Rome

text: Altar of Victory

text: Curia

text: Gratian

text: Ambrose

text: Milan

text: Alamanni

text: Rhine

text: Honorius

text: Augustus

text: Battle of the Frigidus

text: Vipava Valley

text: Slovenia

text: Leo I the Thracian

categories: 4th-century Christians,394 deaths,Executed Roman emperors,4th-century murdered monarchs,Flavii,4th-century births,Imperial Roman consuls,4th-century Roman usurpers,Valentinian dynasty,People executed by the Roman Empire

paragraph: Eugenius

paragraph: Flavius Eugenius (died 6 September 394) was a usurper in the western Roman Empire (392–394) against Emperor Theodosius I. Though himself a Christian, he was the last Emperor to support Roman polytheism.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: A former teacher of grammar and rhetoric, as well as "magister scrinorum", Eugenius was an acquaintance of the Frankish "magister militum" and of the "de facto" ruler of the western portion of the Empire, Arbogast.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Rise to power.

paragraph: Following the death of Valentinian II, Arbogast, who had probably been the cause of Valentinian II's murder or suicide, elevated Eugenius to the purple (22 August 392). Deferring to Eugenius offered Arbogast two strong advantages: first, Eugenius, a Roman, was more suitable than Arbogast, a Frank, as an emperor; furthermore, the Roman Senate would be more likely to support Eugenius.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Civil, religious, and military policies.

paragraph: After being installed as Emperor, Eugenius changed the imperial administrators. When Theodosius had left the western half of the empire to Valentinian II, he had put his own men in the highest civil offices, to keep a strong grasp on the whole empire. Eugenius replaced these administrators with others loyal to himself, coming from the senatorial class. Virius Nicomachus Flavianus the Elder became Praetorian Prefect of Italy, his son Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger received the title of Prefect of Rome, while the new "praefectus annonae" was Numerius Proiectus.

paragraph: Though his actual beliefs are a matter of controversy among ancient and modern historians, Eugenius was at least publicly a Christian, and therefore was reluctant to accept a program of imperial support to Polytheism. His men, however, convinced Eugenius to use public money to fund pagan projects, such as the rededication of the Temple of Venus and Rome and the restoration of the Altar of Victory within the Curia (removed by Emperor Gratian). This religious policy created tension with Theodosius and the powerful and influential Bishop Ambrose, who left his see in Milan when the imperial court of Eugenius arrived.

paragraph: Eugenius was also successful in the military field, notably in the renovation of old alliances with Alamanni and Franks. Arbogast, who was a Frank and had also Alamanni and Frankish soldiers in his ranks, marched to the Rhine frontier, where he impressed and pacified the Germanic tribes by parading his army in front of them.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Fall.

paragraph: After his election as emperor, Eugenius sent ambassadors to Theodosius's court, asking for recognition of his election. Theodosius received them, but started to gather troops to defeat Eugenius. Theodosius also promoted his eight-year-old son Honorius to the rank of "Augustus" of the West in January 393.

paragraph: Theodosius then moved from Constantinople with his army, and met Eugenius and Arbogast in the Battle of the Frigidus (Vipava Valley, Slovenia) on 6 September 394. The bloody battle lasted two days, and was marked by unusual astronomical and meteorological events, but in the end Theodosius won. Arbogast immediately committed suicide after the defeat, while Eugenius was held for execution as a criminal, his head afterward being displayed in Theodosius' camp.

paragraph: Section::::Evaluation.

paragraph: The reign of Eugenius marked the end of an era and the beginning of a new one. Five months later Theodosius died, dividing his empire between his two sons. This had happened many times before in the previous two centuries, but this time it was to be final – the Roman Empire never reunited, even under Leo I the Thracian (when there was no Western Emperor for some periods), and soon after his reign, the western half fell.

paragraph: Eugenius also represented the last opportunity for the pagans, with the senatorial class, to oppose the Christianization of the Empire. The Battle of the Frigidus was part of a trend towards using increasing percentages of barbarian troops, especially in the west, where it led to the weakening of the Empire itself.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roberts, Walter, "Flavius Eugenius (392-394)", "De Imperatoribus Romanis"

description: Roman usurper

wikidata_label: Eugenius

wikipedia_title: Eugenius


text: artist

text: sculpture

text: installation

text: New York City

text: Columbia University

text: Yale University

text: School of Visual Arts

text: installations

text: Venice Biennale

text: MacArthur Fellowship

text: The Museum of Modern Art

text: Guggenheim Museum

text: Whitney Museum of American Art

text: The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art

text: Museum of Modern Art, Los Angeles

text: Whitney Biennial

text: Carnegie International

text: Berlin

text: Liverpool

text: São Paulo

text: Venice

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: the Walker Art Center

text: High Line

text: Boston

text: MTA Arts & Design

text: 96th Street

text: Second Avenue Subway

text: Tanya Bonakdar Gallery

text: Victoria Miro Gallery

text: Siddhartha Mukherjee

text: The Emperor of All Maladies

text: Western Washington University

text: Bellingham

text: The Rose Art Museum

text: Tanya Bonakdar Gallery

text: Venice Biennale

text: Victoria Miro Gallery

text: The Fabric Workshop and Museum

text: Walker Art Center

text: Venice Biennale

text: Asia Society

text: Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: The Whitney Museum

text: Boston Museum of Fine Arts

text: Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago

text: Museum of Modern Art

text: Whitney Museum of American Art

text: Guggenheim Museum

text: The New Museum

text: San Francisco Museum of Modern Art

text: Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art

text: Museum of Contemporary Art

text: Detroit Institute of Art

text: Albright-Knox Art Gallery

text: Walker Art Center

text: National Gallery of Victoria

text: Boston Museum of Fine Arts

text: Fogg Museum of Art

text: Museum of Contemporary Art

text: National Gallery of Canada

text: Yale University Art Gallery

text: Cleveland Museum of Art

text: Sarah Sze Official Website

text: Tanya Bonakdar Gallery

text: Victoria Miro Gallery

text: Venice Biennale U.S Pavilion Exhibition

text: Carnegie Museum of Art site on Sze

text: Sarah Sze: Infinite Line site, Asia Society

text: Interview for The New Yorker with Andrea Scott, 2012

categories: 1969 births,Yale University alumni,20th-century women artists,Artists from Boston,MacArthur Fellows,Milton Academy alumni,American people of Chinese descent,Columbia University faculty,Columbia University people,Living people,School of Visual Arts alumni

paragraph: Sarah Sze

paragraph: Sarah Sze (; born 1969) is a contemporary artist known for sculpture and installation works that employ everyday objects to create multimedia landscapes. Sze lives and works in New York City and is a professor of visual arts at Columbia University.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Sze was born in Boston in 1969. She received a BA from Yale University in 1991 and an MFA from New York's School of Visual Arts in 1997.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Sze draws from Modernist traditions of the found object, to build large scale installations. She uses everyday items like string, Q-tips, photographs, and wire to create complex constellations whose forms change with the viewer's interaction. The effect of this is to "challenge the very material of sculpture, the very constitution of sculpture, as a solid form that has to do with finite geometric constitutions, shapes, and content."

paragraph: Sze represented the United States at the Venice Biennale in 2013, and was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship in 2003. She has exhibited in museums worldwide, and her works are held in the permanent collections of prominent institutions, including The Museum of Modern Art, the Guggenheim Museum, and the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; The Fondation Cartier, Paris; The Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago; The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; and the Museum of Modern Art, Los Angeles. Sze's work has been featured in The Whitney Biennial (2000), the Carnegie International (1999) and several international biennials, including Berlin (1998), Guangzhou (2015), Liverpool (2008), Lyon (2009), São Paulo (2002), and Venice (1999, 2013, and 2015). Sze has also created public works for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis, and the High Line in New York. Sze was born in Boston, Massachusetts and lives and works in New York.

paragraph: On January 1, 2017, a permanent installation commissioned by MTA Arts & Design of drawings by Sze on ceramic tiles opened in the 96th Street subway station on the new Second Avenue Subway line in New York City.

paragraph: Section::::Art market.

paragraph: Sze is represented by Tanya Bonakdar Gallery in New York and Victoria Miro Gallery in London.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Sze lives in New York City with her husband, Siddhartha Mukherjee, the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of "The Emperor of All Maladies" who teaches medicine at Columbia, and their two daughters.

paragraph: Section::::Notable exhibitions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2019 – "Split Stone (Northwest)", Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA (permanent installation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2016 – "Sarah Sze," The Rose Art Museum, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 – "Sarah Sze," Tanya Bonakdar Gallery, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 – "All The Worlds Futures", 56th Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy, curated by Okwui Enwezor

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 – "Sarah Sze", Victoria Miro Gallery, London, UK

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 – "Sarah Sze: Triple Point (Planetarium)," Bronx Museum of the Arts, Bronx, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013 – "Sarah Sze," The Fabric Workshop and Museum, Philadelphia, PA

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002 – "Grow or Die", Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN (permanent installation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013 – "Triple Point", American Pavilion, 55th Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012 – "Sarah Sze", MUDAM Museum, Luxembourg, Luxembourg

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2011–2012 - "Sarah Sze: Still Life with Landscape (Model for a Habitat)", High Line, between West 20th and West 21st Streets , New York City, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2011 – "Sarah Sze: Infinite Line", Asia Society, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 – "Tilting Planet", Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art, Newcastle, UK

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008 – "Sarah Sze", Maison Hermès 8F Le Forum, Tokyo, Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2007 – "Sarah Sze", Victoria Miro Gallery, London, UK

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006 – "Sarah Sze", Malmo Konsthall, Malmo, Sweden

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006 – "Corner Plot", Doris C. Freedman Plaza, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006 – "Model for Corner Plot", Agassiz House, Radcliffe Yard, Cambridge, MA

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – "Sarah Sze", Marianne Boesky Gallery, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – "An Equal and Opposite Reaction", the Seattle Opera, Seattle, WA, (permanent installation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004 – "Blue Poles", Sidney-Pacific Graduate Dormitory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA (permanent installation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004 – "Sarah Sze: The Triple Point of Water", Fondazione Davide Halevim, Milan, Italy

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003 – "Sarah Sze: The Triple Point of Water", The Whitney Museum, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002 – "Sarah Sze", Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2001 – "Sarah Sze", Center for Curatorial Studies Museum, Bard College, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2001 – "Drawn", Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego, CA

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2000 – "Sarah Sze", Marianne Boesky Gallery, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – "Sarah Sze", Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, Chicago, IL

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – "Sarah Sze: Still Life with Flowers", Galerie fur Zeitgenossische Kunst, Leipzig, Germany

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – "Sarah Sze", Foundation Cartier pour l’art contemporain, Paris, France

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – "Sarah Sze", Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, UK

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – "Migrateurs", Musee d’Art Modern de la Ville de Paris, Paris, France

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – "White Room", White Columns, New York, NY

paragraph: Section::::Museum collections.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guggenheim Museum, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- The New Museum, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA

paragraph: BULLET::::- Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, CA

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum of Contemporary Art, San Diego, CA

paragraph: BULLET::::- Detroit Institute of Art, Detroit, MI

paragraph: BULLET::::- Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, MN

paragraph: BULLET::::- National Gallery of Victoria, Australia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cartier Foundation, Paris, France

paragraph: BULLET::::- 21st Century Museum of Art, Kanazawa, Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fogg Museum of Art, Boston, MA

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, IL

paragraph: BULLET::::- National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Canada

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, CT

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, OH

paragraph: Section::::Awards and grants.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2017 – Honoree, National Academy Museum and School, New York

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2016 – Louise Blouin Foundation Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 – Amherst Honorary Degree, Doctor of the Arts, Honoris Causa

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 – School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Medal Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013 – US Representative for the Venice Biennale

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013 – Inducted into the National Academy

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012 – American Federation of the Arts Cultural Leadership Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012 – Laurie M. Tisch Award for civic responsibility and action and significant leadership in education, arts, culture, civic affairs and/or health

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012 – AICA Award for Best Project in a Public Space, Sarah Sze, Still Life with Landscape (Model for a Habitat), The High Line, New York, NY

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – Radcliffe Institute Fellow

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003 – MacArthur Fellow

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003 – Lotos Club Foundation Prize in the Arts

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002 – Atelier Calder Residency, Sache`, France

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999 – Louis Comfort Tiffany Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – The Marie Walsh Sharpe Foundation Studio Residency, New York

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – Rema Hort Mann Foundation Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1997 – Paula Rhodes Memorial Award

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1996 – School of Visual Arts Graduate Fellowship

paragraph: Section::::Teaching.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1998 – Visiting Lecturer, Yale University, Intersections of Art and Architecture

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1999–2002 – Lecturer, School of Visual Art, Master of Fine Arts Program

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002–2004 – Lecturer, Columbia University, School of the Arts

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005–2008 – Adjunct Professor, Columbia University, School of the Arts

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009–Present – Professor, Columbia University, School of the Arts

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sarah Sze Official Website

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tanya Bonakdar Gallery

paragraph: BULLET::::- Victoria Miro Gallery

paragraph: BULLET::::- Venice Biennale U.S Pavilion Exhibition

paragraph: BULLET::::- Carnegie Museum of Art site on Sze

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sarah Sze: Infinite Line site, Asia Society

paragraph: BULLET::::- Interview for The New Yorker with Andrea Scott, 2012

description: contemporary artist who lives and works in New York City

wikidata_label: Sarah Sze

wikipedia_title: Sarah Sze


text:
Toruń
Warsaw University of Technology
Kielce
Kraków
Bordeaux
Warsaw
Vilnius
Noorderlicht
Bielsko-Biała
Official website

categories: 1948 births,Warsaw University of Technology,Polish photographers,Living people,People from Toruń

paragraph: Michał Cała

paragraph: Michał Cała (born in 1948 in Toruń) is a Polish photographer.

paragraph: Having graduated from Warsaw University of Technology, he moved to Tychy and from 1975 to 1992 he photographed the Silesian landscape. The most important result of his work was a series of black-and-white photographs called "Silesia". He was particularly interested in labourers' housing districts, old ironworks, coal mines and enormous coal heaps. He was also taking pictures of people, who lived in that environment.

paragraph: The author is a laureate of many photography competitions. On two occasions he won Grand Prix at Biennale of Polish Landscape in Kielce in 1979 and 1983. As a result of his partnership with Galeria Zderzak in Kraków in years 2004-2006 he published black-and-white album "Silesia".

paragraph: The second important black-and-white series created by Michał Cała is "Galicja" (about south-east Poland). He was also the author of the exhibition "Paysages de Pologne" shown in Galerie Contraste in Bordeaux in 1985.

paragraph: In 2007 Michał Cała was invited to take part in the exhibition presenting photographs of 100 most important Polish photographers in the 20th century: "Polish Photography in 20th Century" (Warsaw, Vilnius).

paragraph: In the same year he presented his series "Silesia" at 2. Foto Festival Mannheim Ludwigshafen Heidelberg. He also won first place in Pilsner International Photo Awards 2007, category "Industrial". In the same year British "Foto8" magazine and "British Journal of Photography" published articles about the author and his photographs. In 2008 his photos were also part of the project "Behind Wall" at the Noorderlicht Photofestival in the Netherlands.

paragraph: In 2009, two exhibitions took place: one in Silesian Museum in Katowice titled "Michał Cała, Edward Poloczek, Silesian Inspirations of Landscape" and second in "Stara Galeria" of Union of Polish Art Photographers in Warsaw titled "Michał Cała, 30 Years of Photography in Silesia".

paragraph: His photographs were published in albums "The Anthology of Polish Photography 1839-1989", "Masters of Polish Landscape" and "Polish Photography in 20th Century".

paragraph: From 1983, he is a member of Union of Polish Art Photographers. Currently he lives in Bielsko-Biała.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official website

description: Polish photographer

wikidata_label: Michał Cała

wikipedia_title: Michał Cała


text: Friedrich I, Count of Zollern

text: Zollern

text: Lothar of Supplinburg

text: King of Germany

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: House of Hohenstaufen

text: Conrad III of Germany

text: House of Welf

text: Germany

text: Rhine

text: Danube

text: Alsace

text: Neckar

text: allodial land

text: Land held in feudal tenure

text: Friedrich III

text: Friedrich I

text: House of Hohenzollern

categories: 12th-century German people,Year of birth unknown,12th-century deaths,Counts of Zollern,House of Hohenzollern

paragraph: Frederick II of Zollern

paragraph: Friedrich II, Count von Zollern (died: 1142 or after 1145) was the eldest son of Friedrich I, Count of Zollern, and became Count of Zollern after his father's death around 1125.

paragraph: Friedrich II supported Lothar of Supplinburg, who was King of Germany, then Holy Roman Emperor, from 1125 to Lothar's death in 1137 against the House of Hohenstaufen, then supported that same house (and the new German King, Conrad III of Germany) after 1138 against the House of Welf.

paragraph: It was also at this time that the counts of Zollern were able to greatly increase their possessions in terms of both territory and castles in the southwestern parts of today's Germany, expanding to the Rhine, and lower Danube, as well as adding territory in Alsace and by the Neckar. All of these possessions were in the form of allodial land. Land held in feudal tenure was added to these outright possessions to form the ancestral territory of the counts of Zollern.

paragraph: Section::::Family and children.

paragraph: Friedrich had at least two sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Friedrich III, Count of Zollern, (died: ), who became Burgrave of Nuremberg as Friedrich I

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bertold of Zollern

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- House of Hohenzollern

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Page at Genealogie Mittelalter – Mittelalterliche Genealogie im Deutschen Reich bis zum Ende der Staufer

description: Count of Zollern

wikidata_label: Frederick II of Zollern

wikipedia_title: Frederick II of Zollern


text:
Rafi-ush-Shan
Mughal Emperor
Furrukhsiyar
Syed Brothers
Furrukhsiyar
Nekusiyar
Agra Fort
Syed Brothers
Nekusiyar's
Tuberculosis
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
Mehrauli
Delhi

wikipedia_title:
Rafi-ush-Shan
Mughal emperors
Farrukhsiyar
Sayyid brothers
Farrukhsiyar
Neku Siyar
Agra Fort
Sayyid brothers
Neku Siyar
Tuberculosis
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
Mehrauli
Delhi

paragraph: Rafi ud-Darajat

paragraph: Rafi ud-Darajat ()

paragraph: (1 December 1699 – 6 June 1719), the youngest son of Rafi-ush-Shan and the nephew of Azim ush Shan, was the 10th Mughal Emperor. He succeeded Furrukhsiyar on 28 February 1719, being proclaimed Badshah by the Syed Brothers. He died because of tubercolosis.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Role of the Syed Brothers.

paragraph: As Rafi ud-Darajat owed his throne to the Syed Brothers they took full advantage of this. They wanted him to be a puppet ruler and so took steps to curtail his power. The previous emperor Furrukhsiyar was deposed by the Syed Brothers as he had tried to maintain his independence.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Rival claim to throne.

paragraph: The reign of Rafi ud-Darajat was one of turbulence. On 18 May 1719, less than three months after his own accession, Rafi ud-Darajat's uncle, Nekusiyar, assumed the throne at the Agra Fort as he thought he was more eligible for the post.

paragraph: The Syed Brothers were extremely determined to defend the emperor they had raised to the throne and punish the offender. They swiftly succeeded. Only three months after Nekusiyar's enthronement, the fort surrendered and Nekusiyar was captured. He was respectfully received by the "Amir ul-Umara" and confined at "Salimgarh" where he died in 1723.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Before dying, Rafi ud-Darajat requested that his elder brother be enthroned. Accordingly, on 6 June 1719, after a reign of 3 months and six days, he was dethroned. Two days later his brother, Rafi ud-Daulah, was enthroned. Rafi ud-Darajat died of Tuberculosis or was murdered at Agra, 6 June 1719. His remains were interred near the shrine of Sufi saint Khawaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki at Mehrauli in Delhi.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mughal dynasty genealogy

description: 11th Mughal Emperor

wikidata_label: Rafi ud-Darajat

wikipedia_title: Rafi ud-Darajat


text:
India
Rafi-ush-Shan
Bahadur Shah I
Rafi ud Darajat
Shah Jahan II
Sayyid brothers
Muhammad Shah
Jahan Shah

paragraph: Muhammad Ibrahim (Mughal emperor)

paragraph: Muhammed Ibrahim (9 August 1703 – 31 January 1746) was a claimant to the throne of India.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Muhammad Ibrahim was the eldest son of Prince Rafi-ush-Shan, son of Emperor Bahadur Shah I. His mother was Nur-un-nissa Begum, the daughter of Shaikh Baqi. He was the brother of Emperors Rafi ud Darajat  and Shah Jahan II. On 2 December 1707, he was given the rank of 7000, and 2000 horses.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: On 15 October 1720, he was brought out of the prison and placed on the throne. He had been designated by the Sayyid brothers as his brother's successor. However, Sayyid Khan Jahan, the governor of Delhi, dreading with Ibrahim's reputation for violent temper, had substituted him with his cousin Roshan Aktar Muhammad Shah, son of Prince Khujista Akhtar Jahan Shah. He was defeated by Muhammad Shah in the battle of Hasanpur, and deposed on 13 November 1720. He was sent back to the prison in the citadel of Shahjahanabad. A quartrain quoted by Khush-hal Chand says, his day of power had been short-lived, "like a drop of dew upon a blade of grass."

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: He died on 30 January 1746, at the age of about forty-three years.

paragraph: Section::::Titles.

paragraph: His full title was:

paragraph: Abul Fath Zahir-ul-din Muhammad Ibrahim.

paragraph: Section::::Titles.:Coins.

paragraph: Sikka bar sim zad dar jahan

paragraph: ba fazal-i-Muhammad Ibrahim, Shah-i-shahan

paragraph: Silver was stamped in the world

paragraph: By favour of Muhammad Ibrahim, the king of kings.

description: Mughal emperor

wikidata_label: Muhammad Ibrahim

wikipedia_title: Muhammad Ibrahim (Mughal emperor)


text:
Bishop of Louisville
Kentucky
Mount St. Mary's College
Emmitsburg
Maryland
Samuel Eccleston
Archbishop of Baltimore
John Hughes
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York
Church of the Nativity
William Henry Elder
Pope Pius IX
American College at Rome
Georgetown University
American Civil War
Cardinal von Reisach
Xavier de Mérode
Pope Pius IX
Archbishop of Osimo and Cingoli
Louisville
Passionists
Benedictines
Fathers of the Resurrection
Sisters of Mercy
Little Sisters of the Poor
Franciscan Sisters
Brothers of Mary
Mary Magdalen
First Vatican Council
Second Plenary Council of Baltimore
Third Plenary Council of Baltimore

categories: 1909 deaths,American Roman Catholic bishops,Pontifical North American College rectors,1823 births,Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Louisville,Religious leaders from Louisville, Kentucky,Georgetown University alumni,Mount St. Mary's University alumni

paragraph: William George McCloskey

paragraph: William George McCloskey (10 November 1823 – 17 September 1909) was an American Catholic priest, who became the fourth Bishop of Louisville, Kentucky.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early life.

paragraph: William George McCloskey was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on 10 November 1823, the youngest of five sons of George and Ellen McCloskey. Two of his older brothers also became priests. His brother John became president of Mount St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg.

paragraph: He was sent to Mount St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland in 1835 and graduated in 1840. In May 1850, he was ordained subdeacon at that seminary by Samuel Eccleston, Archbishop of Baltimore, and on October 6, 1852 was ordained priest by Bishop John Hughes in St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York. He said his first Mass in the basement of the Church of the Nativity, where his brother George was then pastor, and remained there ten months as assistant. Then, from a desire to live in the seminary cloister, he returned with the consent of his superiors to Mount St. Mary's, where he taught English and later Latin.

paragraph: In 1857, he succeeded William Henry Elder as director of St. Mary's Seminary, where he taught moral theology and sacred scripture. On December 1, 1859 Pope Pius IX appointed McCloskey the first rector of the American College at Rome, being the unanimous choice of the American bishops. He reached Rome in March 1860. Georgetown University had shortly before conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Dr. McCloskey's administration of the American College included the period of the American Civil War. There were serious divisions in the student body.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Bishop of Louisville.

paragraph: He was rector until his promotion to the See of Louisville in May 1868, being consecrated bishop in the chapel of the college on May 24 of that year by Cardinal von Reisach, Archbishop of Munich, Bavaria, assisted by Mons. Xavier de Mérode, minister of Pope Pius IX, and by Monsignor Salvatore Nobili Vitelleschi, Archbishop of Osimo and Cingoli.

paragraph: He arrived in Louisville, as its bishop, towards the end of summer 1868. He found sixty-four churches and left in his diocese at his death one hundred and sixty-five. He introduced many religious orders into the diocese: the Passionists, the Benedictines, the Fathers of the Resurrection, the Sisters of Mercy, the Little Sisters of the Poor, the Franciscan Sisters, and the Brothers of Mary. The growth of the parochial schools was chiefly the product of his zeal. In 1869 he established the diocesan seminary known as Preston Park Seminary. He wrote a life of Mary Magdalen (Louisville, 1900).

paragraph: Bishop McCloskey was present at the First Vatican Council in 1870. He also attended the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1866, and the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, in 1884, strongly advocating in the former the cause of the American College at Rome.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Record", the diocesan organ of Louisville, files;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brann, "History of the American College at Rome" (New York, 1910)

description: American Catholic bishop

wikidata_label: William George McCloskey

wikipedia_title: William George McCloskey


text:
Dartmoor
Devon
Dartmoor
Tintagel
King Arthur
The New York Times
Thomas Hardy
George Augustus Moore

categories: 1870 births,English horror writers,20th-century English novelists,People educated at St Edward's School, Oxford,English male novelists,20th-century British male writers,English science fiction writers,People from Devon,1948 deaths,Canadian emigrants to England

paragraph: Ernest George Henham

paragraph: Ernest George Henham (1870–1948) was a Canadian-British author who wrote novels at the beginning of the 20th century about Dartmoor and Devon, England. He also published literary works under the pseudonym John Trevena.

paragraph: Section::::General background.

paragraph: Ernest G. Henham was born on 14 December 1870 and his writings include a series of novels based on Dartmoor, the moorland in Devon, England, where he lived much of his life. He created a pseudonym, John Trevena, for many of his books. It was probably no coincidence that the surname he chose was the original name for Tintagel, the legendary location of King Arthur's castle.

paragraph: Henham wrote more than two dozen books, which were published between 1897 and 1927. He was considered a recluse, but often used people he encountered in real life for the characters in his work. In addition to the United Kingdom, his books were also published in the United States. The New York Times reviewed his books twice, on 21 March 1908 and 23 August 1914. He is perhaps best known for his trilogy: "Furze the Cruel", "Heather" and "Granite". As stated by the author in his introductory remarks to "Furze the Cruel": Almost everywhere in Dartmoor are furze, heather and granite. The furze seems to suggest cruelty, the heather endurance, and the granite strength. The furze is destroyed by fire, but grows again; the granite is worn away imperceptively by the rain...In his introduction to "Heather", Trevena writes: "Heather, which flourishes only in pure air and sunshine, and blossoms again though it is torn by winds, seems to represent the spirit of Endurance."

paragraph: According to one American commentator, ...only Thomas Hardy and George Augustus Moore among contemporary novelists rival his art at its best. ... Trevena's novels are the expression of a passionate feeling for Nature, regarded as the sum of human personality and experience, in all its moods,--benign and malign, as man is benign and malign, and faithful to life in the stone as well as the flower...(John Trevena. "By Violence" with an Introduction by Edward J. O'Brien (Boston 1918)).

paragraph: The natural world of the moor is important to many of his works and Trevena's themes are often about opposing ideas, such as educated vs. uneducated people; clean rural vs. dirty city living; and secular vs. religious philosophies. Trevena's personal perspective on the value of reading and writing is perhaps best captured in "Sleeping Waters" where he states: "You can learn without reading, and you can live without writing... The state of ignorance may be a happy one; but when you die you leave a world which you have never really discovered, you depart from a life which you have never shared in, and you abandon for ever a wealth of beauty which has never been revealed to you. The reward of ignorance is a dull kind of self-conceit. If you were to read a dozen of the best books, you would talk less, my friend, and think more... ."

paragraph: Henham also wrote some novels with fantastic content. "Tenebrae" (1898) features a enormous, menacing spider. "The Feast of Bacchus: A Study in Dramatic Atmosphere (1907)" is a supernatural horror novel. "The Reign of the Saints" (1911), (as John Trevena) is a science fiction novel set in a future Britain.

paragraph: Section::::List of published works.

paragraph: He published the following works under his real name:

paragraph: "God, Man and the Devil" (1897),

paragraph: "Menotah: A Tale of the Riel Rebellion" (1897),

paragraph: "Tenebrae" (1898),

paragraph: "Pete Barker's Shanty" (1898),

paragraph: "Bonanza: A Tale of the Outside" (1901),

paragraph: "Scud" (1902),

paragraph: "The Plowshare and the Sword: A Tale of Old Quebec" (1903),

paragraph: "Krum: A Study in Consciousness" (1904),

paragraph: "A Pixy in Petticoats" (1906),

paragraph: "The Feast of Bacchus" (1907),

paragraph: "Bracken" (1910), and

paragraph: "The Reign of the Saints" (1913)

paragraph: The following works were published under his pseudonym, John Trevena:

paragraph: "Arminel of the West" (1907),

paragraph: "Furze the Cruel" (1907),

paragraph: "Heather" (1908),

paragraph: "Granite" (1909),

paragraph: "The Dartmoor House That Jack Built" (1909),

paragraph: "Written in the Rain" (1910),

paragraph: "Bracken" (1910),

paragraph: "The Reign of the Saints" (1911),

paragraph: "Wintering Hay" (1912),

paragraph: "No Place Like Home" (1913),

paragraph: "Sleeping Waters" (1913),

paragraph: "Adventures Among Wild Flowers" (1914),

paragraph: "Moyle Church-Town" (1915),

paragraph: "The Captain's Furniture" (1916),

paragraph: "Raindrops" (1920),

paragraph: "The Vanished Moor" (1923),

paragraph: "The Custom of the Manor" (1924),

paragraph: "Off the Beaten Track" (1925), and

paragraph: "Typet's Treasure" (1927).

paragraph: Henham also published dozens of short stories in various magazines in his own name and by using his pseudonym.

description: British writer

wikidata_label: Ernest George Henham

wikipedia_title: Ernest George Henham


text: Mexican-American

text: All-American

text: softball

text: Murrieta, California

text: Oregon Ducks softball

text: shortstop

text: second baseman

text: Michigan Wolverines softball

text: Big Ten

text: slugging percentage

text: NCAA

text: runs

text: grand slam

text: RBI

text: home run

text: Murrieta, California

text: Vista Murrieta High School

text: shortstop

text: home runs

text: walks

text: double

text: Marshall Thundering Herd

text: Women's College World Series

text: Arizona State Sun Devils

text: Carol Hutchins

text: hits

text: ULL Ragin' Cajuns

text: Binghamton Bearcats

text: San Jose State Spartans

text: Indiana Hoosiers

text: Florida Gators

text: Virginia Tech Hokies

text: Northwestern Wildcats

text: Minnesota Gophers

text: University of Arizona

text: Valparaiso Crusaders

text: Florida State Seminoles

text: Traci Conrad

text: Samantha Findlay

text: 2013 Women's College World Series

text: USSSA Pride

text: National Pro Fastpitch

text: Oregon Ducks softball

text: Sydney

text: Oklahoma

text: Carol Hutchins

text: Michigan

text: Lonni Alameda

text: USSSA Pride

text: Mike Stith

text: USSSA Pride

text: Melyssa Lombardi

text: Oregon

categories: Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States,USSSA Pride players,American sportspeople of Mexican descent,Oregon Ducks softball coaches,Softball players at the 2015 Pan American Games,People from Murrieta, California,1994 births,Michigan Wolverines softball players,American softball coaches,Living people,Pan American Games medalists in softball

paragraph: Sierra Romero

paragraph: Sierra Joy Romero (born March 19, 1994) is a Mexican-American, former collegiate 4-time All-American, pro All-Star right-handed hitting softball player originally from Murrieta, California. She is currently a volunteer assistant coach for the Oregon Ducks softball team. She was a shortstop and second baseman for the Michigan Wolverines softball team from 2013–2016, where she set numerous records. She holds the Big Ten career Triple Crown, along with the slugging percentage record, simultaneously leading all of the NCAA in runs scored and grand slams. Finally, she is one of nine NCAA players to hit .400 with 200 RBIs, 50 home runs and an .800 slugging percentage for her career and was named the #5 Greatest College Softball Player.

paragraph: Section::::Early Years.

paragraph: Romero was born in 1994 and grew up in Murrieta, California. She attended Vista Murrieta High School and was ranked as the No. 3 prospect in the United States by ESPN.com. She graduated from Vista Murrieta in 2012.

paragraph: Section::::University of Michigan.

paragraph: Section::::University of Michigan.:2013 Season.

paragraph: As a freshman in 2013, she was selected as the Big Ten Player of the Year and the Big Ten Freshman of the Year to accompany National Fastpitch Coaches Association Second Team All-American honors. Romero started all 64 games for Michigan at the shortstop position and set a Michigan single-season record with 23 home runs and ranked top-5 in RBIs and walks. She also set Big Ten Conference single-season records with 12 home runs and 34 runs scored in conference games. She was selected as the Big Ten Freshman of The Week seven times. For the NCAA, she ranked top-5 in RBIs, homers and walks for the year.

paragraph: Debuting on February 8, Romero went 1/4 with a two-run double in defeating the Marshall Thundering Herd. Romero led the Wolverines to the Women's College World Series and on June 1, 2013, she hit a home run to best the Arizona State Sun Devils in a 2–0 victory as their only win at the series. Michigan softball coach Carol Hutchins at the time said of Romero: "The one thing she gives us is swag. She's got swag like no other."

paragraph: Section::::University of Michigan.:2014 Season.

paragraph: In 2014, Romero once again earned honors from the NFCA (a first-team selection) and the conference. She appeared in 62 games for Michigan and compiled a career high and school best batting average and top-5 marks in home runs, bases on balls, on-base percentage (the latter two both career bests with the walks leading the NCAA) and 30 extra base hits; the overall hits total was also the best of her career. Along with these stats, Romero's RBI total also helped her earn a Big Ten Triple Crown. Romero collected three singles and hit a grand slam vs. the ULL Ragin' Cajuns on February 15 for a career highlight for base knocks.

paragraph: Section::::University of Michigan.:2015 Season.

paragraph: For the 2015 season, Romero, captured her third all-season honors, including the inaugural ESPNW's National Player of The Year. Romero appeared in 68 games for Michigan and achieved a career highs in RBIs (Big Ten record), slugging percentage and stolen bases, while ranking top-5 in school batting average, on base percentage, home runs, bases on balls, runs, with 35 extra base hits. She also amassed a second conference Triple Crown. For the NCAA, she ranked top-5 in RBIs and on base percentage.

paragraph: On February 28, Romero drove in six RBIs with a three-hit, two-home run performance to defeat the Binghamton Bearcats for a career high. Romero hit two home runs on March 6 vs. the San Jose State Spartans to reach her career 50th, the milestone hit off Berlyn Rippentrop. The next month on April 18, Romero tallied her 200th career RBI on a two-run homer to help defeat the Indiana Hoosiers. On May 8, she set a new NCAA record with her tenth career grand slam home run.

paragraph: The Wolverines entered the WCWS as the No. 2 seed and advanced into the championship series against the Florida Gators. In the finale, Romero batted in the only run in a 4–1 loss. She was named to the All-Tournament Team.

paragraph: Section::::University of Michigan.:2016 Season.

paragraph: For the 2016 season, Romero was awarded her third conference Player of The Year and First Team All-American honors. She was named USA Softball Collegiate Player of The Year along with winning the Honda Softball Award and the very first NFCA D1 Player of The Year award. Romero appeared in 59 games with top-5 school batting average, on-base and slugging percentage, home runs, runs scored and walk stats. She ranked top-5 in NCAA categories for RBIs and home runs.

paragraph: Beginning on February 21, Romero began a career high 18 consecutive game hit streak against the Virginia Tech Hokies and continuing to the Northwestern Wildcats on March 26 (hitting .518 29/56 with 34RBIs, 4HRs, 3B, 62Bs, 12BBs, 4Ks and slugging .875%). In the conference championship game, she set a new NCAA record for runs scored by hitting a home run in the first inning in an eventual loss to the Minnesota Gophers on May 14. Later she became the first college player to score 300 runs. Romero was just the fourth player and the first not playing for the University of Arizona to cross 300 career RBIs on May 20 vs. the Valparaiso Crusaders, with another first-inning homer. The Wolverines returned for a third trip to the WCWS with Romero but they were eliminated on June 5 by the Florida State Seminoles, Romero was shut out at the plate managing only a walk in her final appearance.

paragraph: For her career at Michigan, the Wolverine set records for the highest career batting average in school history, 50 points ahead of Michigan's prior record holder, Traci Conrad. She also claims the highest career slugging percentage, more than 200 points ahead of Michigan's prior record holder, Samantha Findlay; additionally ranking 20 home run, 76 RBIs and surpassing Findlay's career walks total of 155. For the Big Ten, Romero tops the same stats except walks, which gives her the conference career Triple Crown, a rare feat. In the NCAA, she ranks first for her career runs and grand slams and top-10 in RBIs, slugging (4th), home runs and walks (7th).

paragraph: After the 2013 Women's College World Series, Romero played for the Team USA Junior Women's National softball team in the International Softball Federation Junior Women's World Championship. Romero started eight games at shortstop for Team USA, compiling a batting average of .500 in 22 at-bats with a .955 slugging percentage. She had ten RBIs, three doubles, two triples, and a home run in the tournament.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Romero was drafted second overall by the USSSA Pride in the National Pro Fastpitch 2016 draft. Following her rookie year, Romero followed up her debut by being named All-NPF in 2017. Romero recently began her 2018 campaign.

paragraph: Section::::Coaching career.

paragraph: On August 15, 2018, it was announced that Romero joined the Oregon Ducks softball staff as a volunteer assistant coach.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: She is the eldest daughter of Michael and Melissa Romero. She has three younger siblings; her youngest sibling Sophia, is also a aspiring softball player, Brother Mikey who is a star baseball player, and sister Sydney, is an All-American infielder for Oklahoma. She is of Mexican descent.

paragraph: Section::::Coaching tree.

paragraph: Played under:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Carol Hutchins: Michigan (2013–2016)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lonni Alameda: USSSA Pride (2016–2017)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mike Stith: USSSA Pride (2018–Present)

paragraph: Coached under:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Melyssa Lombardi: Oregon (2019–Present)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- NCAA Division I softball career .400 batting average list

paragraph: BULLET::::- NCAA Division I softball career 200 RBIs list

paragraph: BULLET::::- NCAA Division I softball career 50 home runs list

description: American softball player

wikidata_label: Sierra Romero

wikipedia_title: Sierra Romero


text:
Leipzig
Berlin
botanist
plant sexuality
reproduction
University of Leipzig
Johann Ernst Hebenstreit
physiology
materia medica
University of Frankfurt
Collegium Medico-chirurgicum
botanical garden
forestry
plant movement
plant organ
pollination
Gleditsia
Fabaceae
Berlin-Schöneberg
dissertation
Linnean System
IPNI

categories: 1786 deaths,Leipzig University alumni,People from Leipzig,German botanists,1714 births

paragraph: Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch

paragraph: Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch (5 February 1714 in Leipzig – 5 October 1786 in Berlin) was a German physician and botanist known for pioneer investigations of plant sexuality and reproduction.

paragraph: He studied medicine and other subjects at the University of Leipzig (1728–35), where one of his instructors was naturalist Johann Ernst Hebenstreit (1703–1757). From 1742 he gave lectures in physiology, botany and materia medica at the University of Frankfurt, afterwards relocating to Berlin as a professor of botany at the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum and director of the local botanical garden. Beginning in 1770, he gave lectures at the recently established institute of forestry, where he was instrumental in providing a scientific basis for the field of forestry.

paragraph: In his experiments involving plant movement, he demonstrated the influence that climatic factors had upon plant organs. Also, his views on the role that insects play in pollination of plants was considered to be ahead of its time.

paragraph: The botanical genus "Gleditsia" (family Fabaceae) is named in his honor, as is the botanical journal "Gleditschia". In Berlin-Schöneberg, a thoroughfare called "Gleditschstraße" bears his name.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Consideratio Epicriseos Siegesbeckianae in Linnaei Systema Plantorum Sexuale Et Methodum Botanicam Huic Superstructam", 1740 – dissertation in which Gleditsch recognized the importance of the Linnean System.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Systema plantarum a staminum situ Systema plantarum a staminum situ", 1764.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vermischte physicalisch-botanisch-oeconomische Abhandlungen", 1765 – Mixed physical-botanical-economic treatises.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Systematische Einleitung in die neuere, aus ihren eigenthümlichen physikalisch-ökonomischen Gründen hergeleitete Forstwissenschaft" (two volumes, 1775) – Systematic introduction to the newly (due to unique physical-economic reasons) derived forestry.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- IPNI List of plants described or co-described by Gleditsch.

description: German botanist

wikidata_label: Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch

wikipedia_title: Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch


text:
Count of Saint-Pol
Count of Ligny
Roussy
John I
Battle of
Baesweiler
Wenceslaus I of Luxembourg
Duchess of Brabant
William II, Duke of Jülich
Edward, Duke of Guelders
Jean de Châtillon-Saint-Pol
Waleran III
Battle of Agincourt
Pierre
bishop of Metz
Peter of Enghien
Jean III de Werchin et Cysoing
John of Luxembourg, Lord of Beauvoir
Margaret, Countess of Brienne
Peter of Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol
John II of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny
Bishop of Cambrai
Joan, Countess of Ligny

categories: 1340 births,Counts of Saint-Pol,French people of Luxembourgian descent,Counts of Ligny

paragraph: Guy I, Count of Ligny

paragraph: Guy I of Luxembourg-Ligny (1340 – August 23, 1371) was Count of Saint-Pol (1360–1371) and Count of Ligny, Lord of Roussy and Beauvoir (1364–1371).

paragraph: He was the son of John I and Alix of Dampierre, dame de Richebourg.

paragraph: Guy participated and lost in the Battle of Baesweiler (present-day Germany), a conflict between his relative Wenceslaus I of Luxembourg, husband of the Duchess of Brabant on the one side, and William II, Duke of Jülich and Edward, Duke of Guelders on the other side.br

paragraph: The chronicler Jan van Boendale writes in his "Brabantsche Yeesten" that Guy lay wounded and abandoned on the battlefield, until he was discovered by a scavenger the next day, who killed and robbed him. When this plunderer tried later to sell his booty, he was hanged.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and children.

paragraph: In 1354 he married Mahaut de Châtillon (1335–1378), Countess of Saint-Pol, daughter of Jean de Châtillon-Saint-Pol and Jeanne de Fiennes, and had:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Waleran III (1356–1415), Count of Ligny and of Saint-Pol, died at the Battle of Agincourt.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pierre (1369–1387), bishop of Metz and cardinal, beatified in 1527.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret, married in 1377 Peter of Enghien, died in 1384, and in 1396 with Jean III de Werchin et Cysoing, died at the Battle of Agincourt.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John of Luxembourg, Lord of Beauvoir (1370–1397), married Margaret, Countess of Brienne. He started a cadet branch of the House of Saint-Pol and was the father of Peter of Luxembourg, Count of Saint-Pol and John II of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny.

paragraph: BULLET::::- André (died 1396), Bishop of Cambrai

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marie, married Jean de Condé (died 1391), and Simon, count of Salm (died 1397)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan, Countess of Ligny (died 1430).

description: Count of St. Pol and Ligny

wikidata_label: Guy I of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny

wikipedia_title: Guy I, Count of Ligny