text: Ancient Greek

text: Latin

text: Greek

text: geographer

text: Greek colony

text: Marseille

text: France

text: Antiquity

text: Great Britain

text: Ireland

text: polar ice

text: Celtic

text: Germanic

text: Midnight Sun

text: summer solstice

text: Hyperboreans

text: Mediterranean

text: Thule

text: tide

text: Iceland

text: Pliny

text: Timaeus

text: amber

text: Strabo

text: Dicaearchus

text: Henry Fanshawe Tozer

text: Strabo

text: Geographica

text: Natural History

text: Diodorus of Sicily

text: history

text: Geminus of Rhodes

text: Marcianus

text: Apollonius of Rhodes

text: περίπλους ("periplous"), "sail around"

text: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

text: Cadiz

text: Don River

text: periplus

text: Ictis

text: Loire

text: Polybius

text: Carthaginians

text: Strait of Gibraltar

text: Loire

text: Garonne

text: Sicilian Wars

text: Eratosthenes

text: Sagres Point

text: Gades

text: Tartessos

text: Straits of Gibraltar

text: Portugal

text: stadia

text: Diodorus Siculus

text: Timaeaus

text: Pliny

text: Roman miles

text: Fridtjof Nansen

text: Geography of the United Kingdom

text: Polybius

text: ancient Greek

text: transliteration

text: periplus

text: Massalia

text: Geographica

text: Natural History

text: Bibliotheca historica

text: Bear

text: Kent

text: Cornwall

text: Orkney

text: tin ingot

text: Ictis

text: Rhône

text: Thule

text: Pliny the Elder

text: Vergil

text: Georgic

text: Pliny

text: Crab

text: Lewis

text: Hebrides

text: Møre og Romsdal

text: Trøndelag

text: Norway

text: Skagerrak

text: Ptolemy

text: Scotland

text: Eratosthenes

text: Borysthenes

text: Marseille

text: Trondheim

text: Geminus of Rhodes

text: Normandy

text: Ptolemy

text: Kiev

text: Lofoten islands

text: Møre og Romsdal

text: Richard Francis Burton

text: Iceland

text: Shetland

text: Faroe Islands

text: Norway

text: Greenland

text: Procopius

text: Goths

text: barns

text: mead

text: Pliny

text: jellyfish

text: Aristotle

text: Medusae

text: Cnidaria

text: pancake ice

text: drift ice

text: Nathaniel Bowditch's "American Practical Navigator"

text: slush

text: ice

text: fog

text: Rhine

text: Ptolemy

text: Vistula

text: Baltic sea

text: The Natural History

text: amber

text: amber

text: nominative case

text: Goths

text: nominative case

text: genitive case

text: amber

text: Skagerrak

text: Baltic Sea

text: Balcia

text: Xenophon of Lampsacus

text: Heligoland

text: Zealand

text: Bay of Gdansk

text: Sambia

text: Curonian Lagoon

text: Scythia

text: Balts

text: Frisches Haff

text: Aistians

text: Herodotus

text: Pliny the Elder

text: Bornholm

text: Aestii

text: Venedi

text: Slavs

text: Balto-Slavic

text: Polybius

text: Gades

text: Tanais

text: Black Sea

text: Elbe river

text: Hipparchus

text: tangents

text: Byzantium

text: cotangent

text: arctangent

text: latitude

text: equator

text: complement

text: obliquity of the ecliptic

text: complement

text: celestial pole

text: declination

text: zenith

text: North Pole

text: Polaris

text: Draco

text: Ursa Minor

text: quadrant

text: gnōmōn

text: Babylonia

text: Ionian Greeks

text: Archaic period in Greece

text: Thales

text: celestial sphere

text: ecliptic

text: zodiac

text: Cancer

text: Capricorn

text: summer solstice

text: Egypt

text: Libya

text: Homer

text: North Pole

text: Equator

text: circumpolar stars

text: constellation

text: Ursa Minor

text: Tropic of Cancer

text: Tropic of Cancer

text: Summer Solstice

text: gnōmōn

text: Hipparchus

text: Babylonia

text: Sumer

text: great circle

text: equinox

text: Dnepr river

text: meridian

text: meridian arc

text: parallel

text: Loire river

text: Belfast

text: Bay of Biscay

text: English channel

text: Brest, France

text: Cornwall

text: Irish Sea

text: Orkney

text: Iberian Peninsula

text: winter solstice

text: summer solstice

text: Firth of Clyde

text: Scotland

text: Picts

text: Cyrenaic

text: National Oceanography Centre

text: Avonmouth

text: Severn Estuary

text: tide

text: Aëtius

text: Plutarch

text: Stobaeus

text: phases of the moon

text: Dicaearchus

text: Timaeus

text: Eratosthenes

text: Crates of Mallus

text: Hipparchus

text: Polybius

text: Artemidorus

text: Posidonius

text: Strabo

text: Tacitus

text: Polybius

text: Kent

text: Germani

text: Belgae

text: Virgil

text: Charles Olson

text: Poul Anderson

text: The Boat of a Million Years

text: Britain (name)

text: Cruthin

text: Euthymenes

text: Mining in Cornwall

text: Prydain

text: Scythia

text: Spekke, Arnolds

text: Albion: the earliest history

categories: Iron Age Britain,Explorers of the Arctic,Ancient Massaliotes,Ancient Greek geographers,280s BC deaths,350s BC births,Ancient Greek astronomers,Ancient Greek explorers,Explorers of Europe

paragraph: Pytheas

paragraph: Pytheas of Massalia (; Ancient Greek: Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης "Pythéas ho Massaliōtēs"; Latin: "Pytheas Massiliensis"; fl. 4th century BC) was a Greek geographer and explorer from the Greek colony of Massalia (modern-day Marseille, France). He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe in about 325 BC, but his account of it, known widely in Antiquity, has not survived and is now known only through the writings of others.

paragraph: On this voyage, he circumnavigated and visited a considerable part of modern-day Great Britain and Ireland. He was the first known scientific visitor to see and describe the Arctic, polar ice, and the Celtic and Germanic tribes. He is also the first person on record to describe the Midnight Sun. The theoretical existence of some Northern phenomena that he described, such as a frigid zone, and temperate zones where the nights are very short in summer and the sun does not set at the summer solstice, was already known. Similarly, reports of a country of perpetual snow and darkness (the country of the Hyperboreans) had reached the Mediterranean some centuries before.

paragraph: Pytheas introduced the idea of distant Thule to the geographic imagination, and his account of the tides is the earliest one known that suggests the moon as their cause. He also may have reached Iceland.

paragraph: Section::::Dates.

paragraph: Pliny says that Timaeus (born about 350 BC) believed Pytheas' story of the discovery of amber. First century BC Strabo says that Dicaearchus (died about 285 BC) did not trust the stories of Pytheas. That is all the information that survives concerning the date of Pytheas' voyage. Presuming that Timaeus would not have written until after he was 20 years old in about 330 BC and Dicaearchus would have needed time to write his most mature work, after 300 BC, there is no reason not to accept Henry Fanshawe Tozer's interval of 330–300 BC for the voyage. Some would give Timaeus an extra 5 years, bringing the voyage to 325 BC at earliest. There is no further evidence.

paragraph: If one presumes that Pytheas would not have written before reaching age 20, he would have been a contemporary and competitor of Timaeus and Dicaearchus. As they read his writings he must have written toward the earlier years of the interval.

paragraph: Section::::Record.

paragraph: Pytheas described his travels in a work that has not survived; only excerpts remain, quoted or paraphrased by later authors, most familiarly in Strabo's "Geographica", Pliny's "Natural History" and passages in Diodorus of Sicily's history. Most of the ancients, including the first two just mentioned, refer to his work by his name: "Pytheas says …" Two late writers give titles: the astronomical author Geminus of Rhodes mentions ("ta peri tou Okeanou"), literally "things about the Ocean", sometimes translated as "Description of the Ocean", "On the Ocean" or "Ocean"; Marcianus, the scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes, mentions ("periodos gēs"), a "trip around the earth" or περίπλους ("periplous"), "sail around".

paragraph: Scholars of the 19th century tended to interpret these titles as the names of distinct works covering separate voyages; for example, Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" hypothesizes a voyage to Britain and Thule written about in "Ocean" and another from Cadiz to the Don River, written about in "Sail Around". As is common with ancient texts, multiple titles may represent a single source, for example, if a title refers to a section rather than the whole. Presently periplus is recognized as a genre of navigational literature. Mainstream consensus is that there was only one work, "on the Ocean", which was based on a periplus.

paragraph: Diodorus does not mention Pytheas by name. The association is made as follows: Pliny reports that "Timaeus says there is an island named Mictis … where tin is found, and to which the Britons cross." Diodorus says that tin is brought to the island of Ictis, where there is an emporium. The last link is supplied by Strabo, who says that an emporium on the island of Corbulo in the mouth of the river Loire was associated with the Britain of Pytheas by Polybius. Assuming that Ictis, Mictis and Corbulo are the same, Diodorus appears to have read Timaeus, who must have read Pytheas, whom Polybius also read.

paragraph: Section::::Circumstances of the voyage.

paragraph: Pytheas was the first documented Mediterranean mariner to reach the British Isles.

paragraph: The start of Pytheas's voyage is unknown. The Carthaginians had closed the Strait of Gibraltar to all ships from other nations. Some historians, mainly of the late 19th century and before, therefore speculated (without any evidence) that he must have traveled overland to the mouth of the Loire or the Garonne. Others believed that, to avoid the Carthaginian blockade, he may have stayed close to land and sailed only at night, or taken advantage of a temporary lapse in the blockade.

paragraph: An alternate theory is that by the 4th century BC, the western Greeks, especially the Massaliotes, were on amicable terms with Carthage. In 348 BC, Carthage and Rome came to terms over the Sicilian Wars with a treaty defining their mutual interests. Rome could use Sicilian markets, Carthage could buy and sell goods at Rome, and slaves taken by Carthage from allies of Rome were to be set free. Rome was to stay out of the western Mediterranean, but these terms did not apply to Massalia, which had its own treaty. During the second half of the 4th century BC, the time of Pytheas' voyage, Massaliotes were presumably free to operate as they pleased; there is, at least, no evidence of conflict with Carthage in any of the sources that mention the voyage.

paragraph: The early part of Pytheas' voyage is outlined by statements of Eratosthenes that Strabo says are false because taken from Pytheas. Apparently, Pytheas said that tides ended at the "sacred promontory" ("Hieron akrōtērion", or Sagres Point), and from there to Gades is said to be 5 days' sail. Strabo complains about this distance, and about Pytheas' portrayal of the exact location of Tartessos. Mention of these places in a journal of the voyage indicates that Pytheas passed through the Straits of Gibraltar and sailed north along the coast of Portugal.

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to Britain.

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to Britain.:The "circumnavigation".

paragraph: Strabo reports that Pytheas says he "travelled over the whole of Britain that was accessible". The word "epelthein", at root "come upon", does not imply any specific method, and Pytheas does not elaborate. He does use the word "whole" and he states a "perimetros" ("perimeter") of more than 40,000 stadia. Using Herodotus' standard of for one stadium gives ; however, there is no way to tell which standard foot was in effect. The English foot is an approximation. Strabo wants to discredit Pytheas on the grounds that 40,000 stadia is outrageously high and cannot be real.

paragraph: Diodorus Siculus gives a similar number: 42,500 stadia, about , and explains that it is the perimeter of a triangle around Britain. The consensus has been that he probably took his information from Pytheas through Timaeaus. Pliny gives the "circuitus" reported by Pytheas as 4,875 Roman miles.

paragraph: The explorer Fridtjof Nansen explains this apparent fantasy of Pytheas as a mistake of Timaeus. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus never saw Pytheas' work, says Nansen, but they and others read of him in Timaeus. Pytheas reported only days' sail. Timaeus converted days to stadia at the rate of 1,000 per day, a standard figure of the times. However, Pytheas only sailed 560 stadia per day for a total of 23,800, which in Nansen's view is consistent with 700 stadia per degree. Nansen later states that Pytheas must have stopped to obtain astronomical data; presumably, the extra time was spent ashore. Using the stadia of Diodorus Siculus, one obtains 42.5 days for the time that would be spent in circumnavigating Britain. (It may have been a virtual circumnavigation; see under Thule below.)

paragraph: The perimeter, according to Nansen based on the 23,800 stadia, was . This number is in the neighborhood of what a triangular perimeter ought to be, but it cannot be verified against anything Pytheas may have said, nor is Diodorus Siculus very precise about the locations of the legs. The "perimeter" is often translated as "coastline", but this translation is misleading. The coastline, following all the bays and inlets, is (see Geography of the United Kingdom). Pytheas could have travelled any perimeter between that number and Diodorus'. Polybius adds that Pytheas said he traversed the whole of Britain on foot, of which he, Polybius, is skeptical. Despite Strabo's conviction of a lie, the perimeter said to have been given by Pytheas is not evidence of it. The issue of what he did say can never be settled until more fragments of Pytheas literature are found.

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to Britain.:Name and description of the British.

paragraph: The first known written use of the word Britain was an ancient Greek transliteration of the original P-Celtic term. It is believed to have appeared within a periplus by the geographer and explorer Pytheas of Massalia, but no copies of this work survive. The earliest existing records of the word are quotations of the periplus by later authors, such as those within Strabo's "Geographica", Pliny's "Natural History" and Diodorus of Sicily's "Bibliotheca historica". According to Strabo, Pytheas referred to Britain as "Bretannikē", which is treated a feminine noun.

paragraph: This etymology shows that Pytheas interacted not so much with Irish or Scots, as they used Q-Celtic. Rather, Pytheas brought back the P-Celtic form from more geographically accessible regions where Welsh or Breton are spoken presently. Furthermore, some proto-Celtic was spoken over all of Greater Britain, and this particular spelling is prototypical of those more populous regions.

paragraph: Diodorus based on Pytheas reports that Britain is cold and subject to frosts, being "too much subject to the Bear", and not "under the Arctic pole", as some translations say.

paragraph: The numerous population of natives, he says, live in thatched cottages, store their grain in subterranean caches and bake bread from it. They are "of simple manners" ("ēthesin haplous") and are content with plain fare. They are ruled by many kings and princes who live in peace with each other. Their troops fight from chariots, as did the Greeks in the Trojan War.

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to Britain.:The three corners of Britain: Kantion, Belerion and Orkas.

paragraph: Opposite Europe in Diodorus is the promontory ("akrōtērion") of "Kantion" (Kent), 100 stadia, about , from the land, but the text is ambiguous: "the land" could be either Britain or the continent. Four days' sail beyond that is another promontory, "Belerion", which can only be Cornwall, as Diodorus is describing the triangular perimeter and the third point is "Orkas", presumably the main island of the Orkney Islands.

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to Britain.:The tin trade.

paragraph: The inhabitants of Cornwall are involved in the manufacture of tin ingots. They mine the ore, smelt it and then work it into pieces the shape of knuckle-bones, after which it is transported to the island of Ictis by wagon, which can be done at low tide. Merchants purchasing it there pack it on horses for 30 days to the river Rhône, where it is carried down to the mouth. Diodorus says that the inhabitants of Cornwall are civilised in manner and especially hospitable to strangers because of their dealings with foreign merchants.

paragraph: Section::::Discovery of Thule.

paragraph: Strabo relates, taking his text from Polybius, "Pytheas asserts that he explored in person the whole northern region of Europe as far as the ends of the world." Strabo does not believe it but he explains what Pytheas means by the ends of the world. "Thoulē", he says (now spelled Thule; Pliny the Elder uses "Tyle"; Vergil references "ultima Thule" in Georgic I, Line 30, where the "ultima" refer to the end of the world) is the most northerly of the British Isles. There the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle (see below on Arctic Circle). Moreover, says Strabo, none of the other authors mention Thule, a fact which he uses to discredit Pytheas, but which to moderns indicates Pytheas was the first explorer to arrive there and tell of it.

paragraph: Thule is described as an island six days' sailing north of Britain, near the frozen sea ("pepēguia thalatta", "solidified sea"). Pliny adds that it has no nights at midsummer when the sun is passing through the sign of the Crab (at the summer solstice), a reaffirmation that it is on the Arctic Circle. He adds that the crossing to Thule starts at the island of "Berrice", "the largest of all", which may be Lewis in the outer Hebrides. If "Berrice" was in the outer Hebrides, the crossing would have brought Pytheas to the coast of Møre og Romsdal or Trøndelag, Norway, explaining how he managed to miss the Skagerrak. If this is his route, in all likelihood he did not actually circumnavigate Britain, but returned along the coast of Germany, accounting for his somewhat larger perimeter.

paragraph: Concerning the location of Thule, a discrepancy in data caused subsequent geographers some problems, and may be responsible for Ptolemy's distortion of Scotland. Strabo reports that Eratosthenes places Thule at a parallel 11500 stadia (1305 miles, or 16.4°) north of the mouth of the Borysthenes. The parallel running through that mouth also passes through Celtica and is Pytheas' base line. Using 3700 or 3800 stadia (approximately 420–430 miles or 5.3°–5.4°) north of Marseille for a base line obtains a latitude of 64.8° or 64.9° for Thule, well short of the Arctic Circle. It is in fact the latitude of Trondheim, where Pytheas may have made land.

paragraph: A statement by Geminus of Rhodes quotes "On the Ocean" as saying:

paragraph: ... the Barbarians showed us the place where the sun goes to rest. For it was the case that in these parts the nights were very short, in some places two, in others three hours long, so that the sun rose again a short time after it had set.

paragraph: Nansen claimed that according to this statement, Pytheas was there in person and that the 21- and 22-hour days must be the customary statement of latitude by length of longest day. He calculates the latitudes to be 64° 32′ and 65° 31′, partially confirming Hipparchus' statement of the latitude of Thule. And yet Strabo says:

paragraph: Pytheas of Massalia tells us that Thule ... is farthest north, and that there the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle.

paragraph: Eratosthenes extends the latitudinal distance from Massalia to Celtica to 5000 stadia (7.1°), placing the base line in Normandy. The northernmost location cited in Britain at the Firth of Clyde is now northern Scotland. To get this country south of Britain to conform to Strabo's interpretation of Pytheas, Ptolemy has to rotate Scotland by 90°.

paragraph: The 5000 stadia must be discounted: it crosses the Borysthenes upriver near Kiev rather than at the mouth. It does place Pytheas on the Arctic Circle, which in Norway is south of the Lofoten islands. It seems that Eratosthenes altered the base line to pass through the northern extreme of Celtica. Pytheas, as related by Hipparchus, probably cited the place in Celtica where he first made land. If he used the same practice in Norway, Thule is at least somewhere on the entire northwest coast of Norway from Møre og Romsdal to the Lofoten Islands.

paragraph: The explorer, Richard Francis Burton, in his study of Thule states that it has had many definitions over the centuries. Many more authors have written about it than remembered Pytheas. The question of the location of Pytheas' Thule remains. The latitudes given by the ancient authors can be reconciled. The missing datum required to fix the location is longitude: "Manifestly we cannot rely upon the longitude."

paragraph: Pytheas crossed the waters northward from Berrice, in the north of the British Isles, but whether to starboard, larboard, or straight ahead is not known. From the time of the Roman Empire all the possibilities were suggested repeatedly by each generation of writers: Iceland, Shetland, the Faroe Islands, Norway and later Greenland. A manuscript variant of a name in Pliny has abetted the Iceland theory: "Nerigon" instead of "Berrice", which sounds like Norway. If one sails west from Norway one encounters Iceland. Burton himself espoused this theory.

paragraph: The standard texts have "Berrice" presently, as well as "Bergos" for "Vergos" in the same list of islands. The "Scandiae" islands are more of a problem, as they could be Scandinavia, but other islands had that name as well. Moreover, Procopius says ("De Bello Gothico", Chapter 15) that the earlier name of Scandinavia was Thule and that it was the home of the Goths. The fact that Pytheas returned from the vicinity of the Baltic favors Procopius's opinion. The fact that Pytheas lived centuries before the colonization of Iceland and Greenland by European agriculturalists makes them less likely candidates, as he stated that Thule was populated and its soil was tilled.

paragraph: Concerning the people of Thule Strabo says of Pytheas, but grudgingly:

paragraph: ... he might possibly seem to have made adequate use of the facts as regards the people who live close to the frozen zone, when he says that, ... the people live on millet and other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where there are grain and honey, the people get their beverage, also, from them. As for the grain, he says, – since they have no pure sunshine – they pound it out in large storehouses, after first gathering in the ears thither; for the threshing floors become useless because of this lack of sunshine and because of the rains.

paragraph: What he seems to be describing is an agricultural country that uses barns for threshing grain rather than the Mediterranean outside floor of sun-baked mud and manufactures a drink, possibly mead.

paragraph: Section::::Encounter with drift ice.

paragraph: After mentioning the crossing ("navigatio") from "Berrice" to "Tyle", Pliny makes a brief statement that:

paragraph: "A Tyle unius diei navigatione mare concretum a nonnullis Cronium appellatur."

paragraph: "One day's sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, called by some the Cronian Sea."

paragraph: The "mare concretum" appears to match Strabo's "pepēguia thalatta" and is probably the same as the "topoi" ("places") mentioned in Strabo's apparent description of spring drift ice, which would have stopped his voyage further north and was for him the ultimate limit of the world. Strabo says:

paragraph: Pytheas also speaks of the waters around Thule and of those places where land properly speaking no longer exists, nor sea nor air, but a mixture of these things, like a "marine lung", in which it is said that earth and water and all things are in suspension as if this something was a link between all these elements, on which one can neither walk nor sail.

paragraph: The term used for "marine lung" ("pleumōn thalattios") appears to refer to jellyfish of the type the ancients called sea-lung. The latter are mentioned by Aristotle in "On the Parts of Animals" as being free-floating and insensate. They are not further identifiable from what Aristotle says but some "pulmones" appear in Pliny as a class of insensate sea animal; specifically the "halipleumon" ("salt-water lung"). William Ogle, a major translator and annotator of Aristotle, attributes the name sea-lung to the lung-like expansion and contraction of the Medusae, a kind of Cnidaria, during locomotion. The ice resembled floating circles in the water. The modern English term for this phenomenon is pancake ice.

paragraph: The association of Pytheas' observations with drift ice has long been standard in navigational literature, including Nathaniel Bowditch's "American Practical Navigator", which begins Chapter 33, "Ice Navigation", with Pytheas. At its edge, sea, slush, and ice mix, surrounded by fog.

paragraph: Section::::Discovery of the Baltic.

paragraph: Strabo says that Pytheas gave an account of "what is beyond the Rhine as far as Scythia", which he, Strabo, thinks is false. In the geographers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire, such as Ptolemy, Scythia stretches eastward from the mouth of the river Vistula; thus Pytheas must have described the Germanic coast of the Baltic sea; if the statement is true, there are no other possibilities. As to whether he explored it in person, he said that he explored the entire north in person (see under Thule above). As the periplus was a sort of ship's log, he probably did reach the Vistula.

paragraph: According to "The Natural History" by Pliny the Elder:

paragraph: Pytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an estuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one day's sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbours, the Teutones.

paragraph: The "Gutones" is a simplification of two manuscript variants, "Guttonibus" and "Guionibus", which would be in the nominative case "Guttones" or "Guiones", the Goths in the main opinion. The second major manuscript variant is either "Mentonomon" (nominative case) or "Metuonidis" (genitive case). A number of etymologies have been proposed but none very well accepted. Amber is not actually named. It is termed the "concreti maris purgamentum", the "frozen sea's leavings" after the springtime melt. Diodorus uses "ēlektron", the Greek word for amber, the object that gave its name to electricity through its ability to acquire a charge. Pliny is presenting an archaic opinion, as in his time amber was a precious stone brought from the Baltic at great expense, but the Germans, he says, use it for firewood, according to Pytheas.

paragraph: "Mentonomon" is unambiguously stated to be an "aestuarium" or "estuary" of 6000 stadia, which using the Herodotean standard of per stadium is . That number happens to be the distance from the mouth of the Skagerrak to the mouth of the Vistula, but no source says explicitly where the figure was taken. Competing views, however, usually have to reinterpret "estuary" to mean something other than an estuary, as the west of the Baltic Sea is the only body of estuarial water of sufficient length in the region.

paragraph: Earlier Pliny says that a large island of three days' sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus. Based on the amber, the island could have been Heligoland, Zealand, the shores of Bay of Gdansk, Sambia or the Curonian Lagoon, which were historically the richest sources of amber in northern Europe. This is the earliest use of "Germania".

paragraph: Section::::Voyage to the Don.

paragraph: Pytheas claimed to have explored the entire north; however, he turned back at the mouth of the Vistula, the border with Scythia. If he had gone on he would have discovered the ancestral Balts. They occupied the lands to the east of the Vistula. In the west they began with the people living around Frisches Haff, Lithuanian Aismarės, "sea of the Aistians", who in that vicinity became the Baltic Prussians. On the east Herodotus called them the "Neuri", a name related to Old Prussian "narus", "the deep", in the sense of water country. Later Lithuanians would be "the people of the shore". The Vistula was the traditional limit of Greater Germany. Place names featuring *"ner"- or *"nar"- are wide-ranging over the vast Proto-Baltic homeland, occupying western Russia before the Slavs.

paragraph: Herodotus says that the Neuri had Scythian customs, but they were at first not considered Scythian. During the war between the Scythians and the Persian Empire, the Scythians came to dominate the Neuri. Strabo denies that any knowledge of the shores of the eastern Baltic existed. He had heard of the Sauromatai, but had no idea where to place them. Herodotus had mentioned these Sauromatai as a distinct people living near the Neuri. Pliny the Elder, however, is much better informed. The island of Baunonia (Bornholm), he says lies a days' sail off Scythia, where amber is collected. To him the limit of Germany is the Vistula. In contrast to Strabo, he knows that the Goths live around the Vistula, but these are definitely Germans.

paragraph: By the time of Tacitus, the Aestii have emerged. The former Scythia is now entirely Sarmatia. Evidently the Sarmatians have conquered westward to the Vistula. The Goths have moved to the south. That the Balts lived east of the Vistula from remote prehistoric times is unquestioned. The Baltic languages, however, are only known from the 2nd millennium AD. They are known to have developed in tribal contexts, as they were originally tribal. The first mention of any tribes is in Ptolemy's description of European Sarmatia, where the main Prussian tribes are mentioned for the first time. In Tacitus, only the language of the Aestii is mentioned. Strabo distinguishes the Venedi, who were likely Slavs. From these few references, which are the only surviving evidence apart from glottochronology and place name analysis, it would seem that the Balts of Pytheas' time were well past the Common Balto-Slavic stage, and likely spoke a number of related dialects. By turning back at what he thought was the limit of Germany, he not only missed the Balts, but did not discover that more Germans, the Goths, had moved into the Baltic area.

paragraph: Polybius relates: "... on his return thence (from the north), he traversed the whole of the coast of Europe from Gades to the Tanais." Some authors consider this leg a second voyage, as it does not seem likely he would pass by Marseille without refitting and refreshing the crew. It is striking that he encountered the border of Scythia, turned around, and went around Europe counter-clockwise until he came to the southern side of Scythia on the Black Sea. It is possible to speculate that he may have hoped to circumnavigate Europe, but the sources do not say. In other, even more speculative interpretations, Pytheas returned north and the Tanais is not the Don but is a northern river, such as the Elbe river.

paragraph: Section::::Measurements of latitude.

paragraph: Section::::Measurements of latitude.:Latitude by the altitude of the Sun.

paragraph: In discussing the work of Pytheas, Strabo typically uses direct discourse: "Pytheas says ..." In presenting his astronomical observations, he changes to indirect discourse: "Hipparchus says that Pytheas says ..." either because he never read Pytheas' manuscript (because it was not available to him) or in deference to Hipparchus, who appears to have been the first to apply the Babylonian system of representing the sphere of the Earth by 360°.

paragraph: Strabo uses the degrees, based on Hipparchus. Neither say that Pytheas did. Nevertheless, Pytheas did obtain latitudes, which, according to Strabo, he expressed in proportions of the gnōmōn ("index"), or trigonometric tangents of angles of elevation to celestial bodies. They were measured on the gnōmōn, the vertical leg of a right triangle, and the flat leg of the triangle. The imaginary hypotenuse looked along the line of sight to the celestial body or marked the edge of a shadow cast by the vertical leg on the horizontal leg.

paragraph: Pytheas took the altitude of the Sun at Massalia at noon on the longest day of the year and found that the tangent was the proportion of 120 (the length of the gnōmōn) to 1/5 less than 42 (the length of the shadow). Hipparchus, relying on the authority of Pytheas (says Strabo), states that the ratio is the same as for Byzantium and that the two therefore are on the same parallel. Nansen and others prefer to give the cotangent 209/600, which is the inverse of the tangent, but the angle is greater than 45° and it is the tangent that Strabo states. His number system did not permit him to express it as a decimal but the tangent is about 2.87.

paragraph: It is unlikely that any of the geographers could compute the arctangent, or angle of that tangent. Moderns look it up in a table. Hipparchos is said to have had a table of some angles. The altitude, or angle of elevation, is 70° 47′ 50″ but that is not the latitude.

paragraph: At noon on the longest day the plane of longitude passing through Marseille is exactly on edge to the Sun. If the Earth's axis were not tilted toward the Sun, a vertical rod at the equator would have no shadow. A rod further north would have a north-south shadow, and as an elevation of 90° would be a zero latitude, the complement of the elevation gives the latitude. The Sun is even higher in the sky due to the tilt. The angle added to the elevation by the tilt is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic and at that time was 23° 44′ 40″. The complement of the elevation less the obliquity is 43° 13′, only 5′ in error from Marseille's latitude, 43° 18′.

paragraph: Section::::Measurements of latitude.:Latitude by the elevation of the north pole.

paragraph: A second method of determining the latitude of the observer measures the angle of elevation of a celestial pole, north in the northern hemisphere. Seen from zero latitude the north pole's elevation is zero; that is, it is a point on the horizon. The declination of the observer's zenith also is zero and therefore so is their latitude.

paragraph: As the observer's latitude increases (traveling north) so does the declination. The pole rises over the horizon by an angle of the same amount. The elevation at the terrestrial North Pole is 90° (straight up) and the celestial pole has a declination of the same value. The latitude also is 90.

paragraph: Moderns have Polaris to mark the approximate location of the North celestial pole, which it does nearly exactly, but this position of Polaris was not available in Pytheas' time, due to changes in the positions of the stars. Pytheas reported that the pole was an empty space at the corner of a quadrangle, the other three sides of which were marked by stars. Their identity has not survived but based on calculations these are believed to have been α and κ in Draco and β in Ursa Minor.

paragraph: Pytheas sailed northward with the intent of locating the Arctic Circle and exploring the "frigid zone" to the north of it at the extreme of the Earth. He did not know the latitude of the circle in degrees. All he had to go by was the definition of the frigid zone as the latitudes north of the line where the celestial arctic circle was equal to the celestial Tropic of Cancer, the "tropikos kuklos" (refer to the next subsection). Strabo's angular report of this line as being at 24° may well be based on a tangent known to Pytheas, but he does not say that. In whatever mathematical form Pytheas knew the location, he could only have determined when he was there by taking periodic readings of the elevation of the pole ("eksarma tou polou" in Strabo and others).

paragraph: Today the elevation can be obtained easily on ship with a quadrant. Electronic navigational systems have made even this simple measure unnecessary. Longitude was beyond Pytheas and his peers, but it was not of as great a consequence, because ships seldom strayed out of sight of land. East-west distance was a matter of contention to the geographers; they are one of Strabo's most frequent topics. Because of the gnōmōn north-south distances were accurate often to within a degree.

paragraph: It is unlikely that any gnōmōn could be read accurately on the pitching deck of a small vessel at night. Pytheas must have made frequent overnight stops to use his gnōmōn and talk to the natives, which would have required interpreters, probably acquired along the way. The few fragments that have survived indicate that this material was a significant part of the "periplus", possibly kept as the ship's log. There is little hint of native hostility; the Celts and the Germans appear to have helped him, which suggests that the expedition was put forward as purely scientific. In any case all voyages required stops for food, water and repairs; the treatment of voyagers fell under the special "guest" ethic for visitors.

paragraph: Section::::Measurements of latitude.:Location of the Arctic Circle.

paragraph: The ancient Greek view of the heavenly bodies on which their navigation was based was imported from Babylonia by the Ionian Greeks, who used it to become a seafaring nation of merchants and colonists during the Archaic period in Greece. Massalia was an Ionian colony. The first Ionian philosopher, Thales, was known for his ability to measure the distance of a ship at sea from a cliff by the very method Pytheas used to determine the latitude of Massalia, the trigonometric ratios.

paragraph: The astronomic model on which ancient Greek navigation was based, which is still in place today, was already extant in the time of Pytheas, the concept of the degrees only being missing. The model divided the universe into a celestial and an earthly sphere pierced by the same poles. Each of the spheres were divided into zones ("zonai") by circles ("kukloi") in planes at right angles to the poles. The zones of the celestial sphere repeated on a larger scale those of the terrestrial sphere.

paragraph: The basis for division into zones was the two distinct paths of the heavenly bodies: that of the stars and that of the Sun and Moon. Astronomers know today that the Earth revolving around the Sun is tilted on its axis, bringing each hemisphere now closer to the Sun, now further away. The Greeks had the opposite model, that the stars and the Sun rotated around the Earth. The stars moved in fixed circles around the poles. The Sun moved at an oblique angle to the circles, which obliquity brought it now to the north, now to the south. The circle of the Sun was the ecliptic. It was the center of a band called the zodiac on which various constellations were located.

paragraph: The shadow cast by a vertical rod at noon was the basis for defining zonation. The intersection of the northernmost or southernmost points of the ecliptic defined the axial circles passing through those points as the two tropics ("tropikoi kukloi", "circles at the turning points") later named for the zodiacal constellations found there, Cancer and Capricorn. During noon of the summer solstice (therinē tropē) rods there cast no shadow. The latitudes between the tropics were called the torrid zone ("diakekaumenē", "burned up").

paragraph: Based on their experience of the Torrid Zone south of Egypt and Libya, the Greek geographers judged it uninhabitable. Symmetry requires that there be an uninhabitable Frigid Zone ("katepsugmenē", "frozen") to the north and reports from there since the time of Homer seemed to confirm it. The edge of the Frigid Zone ought to be as far south from the North Pole in latitude as the Summer Tropic is from the Equator. Strabo gives it as 24°, which may be based on a previous tangent of Pytheas, but he does not say. The Arctic Circle would then be at 66°, accurate to within a degree.

paragraph: Seen from the equator the celestial North Pole ("boreios polos") is a point on the horizon. As the observer moves northward the pole rises and the circumpolar stars appear, now unblocked by the Earth. At the Tropic of Cancer the radius of the circumpolar stars reaches 24°. The edge stands on the horizon. The constellation of "mikra arktos" (Ursa Minor, "little bear") was entirely contained within the circumpolar region. The latitude was therefore called the "arktikos kuklos", "circle of the bear". The terrestrial Arctic Circle was regarded as fixed at this latitude. The celestial Arctic Circle was regarded as identical to the circumference of the circumpolar stars and therefore a variable.

paragraph: When the observer is on the terrestrial Arctic Circle and the radius of the circumpolar stars is 66° the celestial Arctic Circle is identical to the celestial Tropic of Cancer. That is what Pytheas means when he says that Thule is located at the place where the Arctic Circle is identical to the Tropic of Cancer. At that point, on the day of the Summer Solstice, the vertical rod of the gnōmōn casts a shadow extending in theory to the horizon over 360° as the Sun does not set. Under the pole the Arctic Circle is identical to the Equator and the Sun never sets but rises and falls on the horizon. The shadow of the gnōmōn winds perpetually around it.

paragraph: Section::::Measurements of latitude.:Latitude by length of longest day, and by Sun's elevation on shortest day.

paragraph: Strabo uses the astronomical cubit ("pēchus", the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the little finger) as a measure of the elevation of the sun. The term "cubit" in this context is obscure; it has nothing to do with distance along either a straight line or an arc, does not apply to celestial distances, and has nothing to do with the gnōmōn. Hipparchus borrowed this term from Babylonia, where it meant 2°. They in turn took it from ancient Sumer so long ago that if the connection between cubits and degrees was known in either Babylonia or Ionia it did not survive. Strabo states degrees in either cubits or as a proportion of a great circle. The Greeks also used the length of day at the summer solstice as a measure of latitude. It is stated in equinoctial hours ("hōrai isēmerinai"), one being 1/12 of the time between sunrise and sunset on an equinox.

paragraph: Based partly on data taken from Pytheas, Hipparchus correlated cubits of the Sun's elevation at noon on the winter solstice, latitudes in hours of a day on the summer solstice, and distances between latitudes in stadia for some locations. Pytheas had proved that Marseille and Byzantium were on the same parallel (see above). Hipparchus, through Strabo, adds that Byzantium and the mouth of the Borysthenes, today's Dnepr river, were on the same meridian and were separated by 3700 stadia, 5.3° at Strabo's 700 stadia per a degree of meridian arc. As the parallel through the river-mouth also crossed the coast of "Celtica", the distance due north from Marseille to Celtica was 3700 stadia, a baseline from which Pytheas seems to have calculated latitude and distance.

paragraph: Strabo says that Ierne (written Ἰέρνη, meaning Ireland ) is under 5000 stadia (7.1°) north of this line. These figures place Celtica around the mouth of the Loire river, an emporium for the trading of British tin. The part of Ireland referenced is the vicinity of Belfast. Pytheas then would either have crossed the Bay of Biscay from the coast of Spain to the mouth of the Loire, or reached it along the coast, crossed the English channel from the vicinity of Brest, France to Cornwall, and traversed the Irish Sea to reach the Orkney Islands. A statement of Eratosthenes attributed by Strabo to Pytheas, that the north of the Iberian Peninsula was an easier passage to Celtica than across the Ocean, is somewhat ambiguous: apparently he knew or knew of both routes, but he does not say which he took.

paragraph: At noon on the winter solstice the Sun stands at 9 cubits and the longest day on the summer solstice is 16 hours at the baseline through Celtica. At 2500 stadia, approximately 283 miles, or 3.6°, north of Celtica, are a people Hipparchus called Celtic, but whom Strabo thinks are the British, a discrepancy he might not have noted if he had known that the British were also Celtic. The location is Cornwall. The Sun stands at 6 cubits and the longest day is 17 hours. At 9100 stadia, approximately 1032 miles, north of Marseille, 5400 or 7.7° north of Celtica, the elevation is 4 cubits and the longest day is 18 hours. This location is in the vicinity of the Firth of Clyde.

paragraph: Here Strabo launches another quibble. Hipparchus, relying on Pytheas, according to Strabo, places this area south of Britain, but he, Strabo, calculates that it is north of Ireland (Ierne/Ἰέρνη). Pytheas, however, rightly knows what is now Scotland as part of Britain, land of the Picts, even though north of Ireland/Ierne. North of southern Scotland the longest day is 19 hours. Strabo, based on theory alone, states that Ierne is so cold that any lands north of it must be uninhabited. In the hindsight given to moderns Pytheas, in relying on observation in the field, appears more scientific than Strabo, who discounted the findings of others merely because of their strangeness to him. The ultimate cause of his skepticism is simply that he did not believe Scandinavia could exist. This disbelief may also be the cause of alteration of Pytheas' data.

paragraph: Section::::On the tides.

paragraph: Pliny reports that "Pytheas of Massalia informs us, that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubits." The passage does not give enough information to determine which cubit Pliny meant; however, any cubit gives the same general result. If he was reading an early source, the cubit may have been the Cyrenaic cubit, an early Greek cubit, of 463.1 mm, in which case the distance was . This number far exceeds any modern known tides. The National Oceanography Centre, which records tides at tidal gauges placed in about 55 ports of the UK Tide Gauge Network on an ongoing basis, records the highest mean tidal change between 1987 and 2007 at Avonmouth in the Severn Estuary of . The highest predicted spring tide between 2008 and 2026 at that location will be on 29 September 2015. Even allowing for geologic and climate change, Pytheas' 80 cubits far exceeds any known tides around Britain. One well-circulated but unevidenced answer to the paradox is that Pytheas is referring to a storm surge. Despite the modern arguments, the fact remains that Pytheas experienced tides that exceeded by far the usual tides in the Mediterranean, and particularly those at Massilia.

paragraph: Matching fragments of Aëtius in pseudo-Plutarch and Stobaeus attribute the flood tides ( "plēmmurai") to the "filling of the moon" ( "plērōsis tēs sēlēnēs") and the ebb tides ( "ampōtides") to the "lessening" ( "meiōsis"). The words are too ambiguous to make an exact determination of Pytheas' meaning, whether diurnal or are meant, or whether full and new moons or the half-cycles in which they occur. Different translators take different views.

paragraph: That daily tides should be caused by full moons and new moons is manifestly wrong, which would be a surprising view in a Greek astronomer and mathematician of the times. He could have meant that spring and neap tides were caused by new and full moons, which is partially correct in that spring tides occur at those times. A gravitational theory (objects fall to the center) existed at the time but Pytheas appears to have meant that the phases themselves were the causes (αἰτίαι "aitiai"). However imperfect or imperfectly related the viewpoint, Pytheas was the first to associate the tides to the phases of the moon.

paragraph: Section::::Literary influence.

paragraph: Pytheas was a central source of information on the North Sea and the subarctic regions of western Europe to later periods, and possibly the only source. The only ancient authors we know by name who certainly saw Pytheas' original text were Dicaearchus, Timaeus, Eratosthenes, Crates of Mallus, Hipparchus, Polybius, Artemidorus and Posidonius. Notably the list does not include Strabo or Tacitus, though Strabo discusses him and Tacitus may likely have known about his work. Either of the two could have known him through other writers or have read his work in the original.

paragraph: Strabo, citing Polybius, accuses Pytheas of promulgating a fictitious journey he could never have funded, as he was a private individual ("idiōtēs") and a poor man ("penēs"). Markham proposes a possible answer to the funding question: seeing that Pytheas was known as a professional geographer and that north Europe was as yet a question mark to Massalian merchants, he suggests that "the enterprise was a government expedition of which Pytheas was placed in command." In another suggestion the merchants of Marseille sent him out to find northern markets. These theories are speculative but perhaps less so than Strabo's contention that Pytheas was a charlatan just because a professional geographer doubted him.

paragraph: Strabo does explain his reasons for doubting Pytheas' veracity. Citing numerous instances of Pytheas apparently being far off the mark on details concerning known regions, he says: "however, any man who has told such great falsehoods about the known regions would hardly, I imagine, be able to tell the truth about places that are not known to anybody." As an example he mentions that Pytheas says Kent is several days' sail from Celtica when it is visible from Gaul across the channel. If Pytheas had visited the place he should have verified it personally.

paragraph: The objection although partially true is itself flawed. Strabo interjects his own view of the location of Celtica, that it was opposite to Britain, end to end. Pytheas, however, places it further south, around the mouth of the Loire (see above), from which it might justifiably be several days' sail. The people across from Britain in Caesar's time are the Germani in the north and the Belgae in the south. Still, some of the Celtic lands were on the channel and were visible from it, which Pytheas should have mentioned but Strabo implies he did not.

paragraph: Strabo's other objections are similarly flawed or else completely wrong. He simply did not believe the earth was inhabited north of Ierne. Pytheas however could not then answer for himself, or protect his own work from loss or alteration, so most of the questions concerning his voyage remain unresolved, to be worked over by every generation. To some he is a daring adventurer and discoverer; to others, a semi-legendary blunderer or prevaricator.

paragraph: The logical outcome of this tendency is the historical novel with Pytheas as the main character and the celebration of Pytheas in poetry beginning as far back as Virgil. The process continues into modern times; for example, Pytheas is a key theme in Charles Olson's "Maximus Poems". Details of Pytheas' voyage also serve as the backdrop for Chapter I of Poul Anderson's science fiction novel, "The Boat of a Million Years".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Britain (name)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cruthin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Euthymenes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mining in Cornwall

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prydain

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scythia

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Spekke, Arnolds (1957) "The ancient amber routes and the geographical discovery of the Eastern Baltic". Stockholm: Goppers.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Taylor, "Albion: the earliest history" (Dublin, 2016)

description: Ancient Greek explorer

wikidata_label: Pytheas

wikipedia_title: Pytheas


href: Burgundy Flanders Carthusian Perpignan Louis%20XIV Archbishop%20of%20Besan%C3%A7on

text:
Burgundian
Flemish
Carthusian
Perpignan
Louis XIV
Archbishop of Besançon

paragraph: Jean de Watteville

paragraph: Jean De Watteville (1618-1702) was a Burgundian noble of Flemish extraction who became a Carthusian monk.

paragraph: His father was Pierre de Watteville, who settled in Spain and pursued a military career. His mother was Giuditta de Brebbia, daughter of a senator from Milan. Jean De Watteville was born in Besançon in 1618, and joined the army at a young age. He fought in Italy for the Habsburgs against the French. Having killed a Spanish officer in a quarrel, De Watteville fled to Paris, where he sought refuge in a Carthusian monastery.

paragraph: De Watteville apparently found the practice of chastity burdensome, and one night was discovered climbing over the monastery wall. He killed the Prior with a shot from his pistol and made his escape. The following day he killed another man in a pub brawl, and so fled onwards again to Spain. In Perpignan he seduced the daughter of his host before killing again, this time during a duel with a gentleman, son of a Spanish grandee, and so was forced to go on the run once more. eventually he arrived in Turkey, where he converted to Islam and became a Pasha.

paragraph: De Watteville then defected to the Venetians and handed over to them several Ottoman fortresses in return for a Papal guarantee that he would be pardoned and could return to the priesthood. This done he returned to Burgundy and collected various rich benefices, plotting to overthrow Spanish rule and replace it with that of Louis XIV. His ambition was to become Archbishop of Besançon, but the Pope reminded him about the double murder, breaking of vows, apostasy etc. and he withdrew to another rich abbey.

wikidata_label: Jean de Watteville

wikipedia_title: Jean de Watteville


text: CMG

text: merchant

text: West Indies

text: Jamaica

text: Saint-Omer

text: Fen Court

text: import-export

text: Jamaica

text: Colonial and Indian Exhibition

text: Secretary of State for the Colonies

text: Colonial Conference

text: Jamaica International Exhibition

text: Great Exhibition

text: Royal Colonial Institute

text: Society of Arts

text: Royal Geographical Society

text: Order of St Michael and St George

text: Royal Jubilee Exhibition, Liverpool

text: Handbook of Jamaica

text: Highbury New Park

text: Dr. Danford Thomas

text: Edward Moorhead

text: Highgate Cemetery

text: guard of honour

text: Joseph Frank Alderhoven

text: James Rufus Boosé

text: A.C. Sinclair

text: Laurence R. Fyfe

text: The West Indies

categories: British merchants,Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George,1899 deaths,Burials at Highgate Cemetery,1838 births,Accidental deaths in London,History of the Colony of Jamaica,Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society

paragraph: C. Washington Eves

paragraph: Charles Washington Augero Eves, CMG, (1838 – 20 April 1899) was a merchant prominent in the trade between London and the West Indies, and a promoter of the products of Jamaica. He was the honorary commissioner for Jamaica at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London, 1886, and was appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to represent Jamaica at the Colonial Conference of 1887.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and family.

paragraph: Eves was born in 1838 and educated in London, Saint-Omer, and Bonn. He was resident in Jamaica during his early life and later in north London. He married Annie and had four daughters and a son, Major Edward Hubert Egerton Eves, RMLI.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Eves was in business with Edward Reinach at 1 Fen Court, in the City of London, in the business of import-export and general merchants, trading as C.W. Eves and Co., until 30 July 1887 when their partnership was dissolved.

paragraph: He was closely involved in the trade between London and the West Indies, in particular with Jamaica, and was the honorary commissioner for Jamaica at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London, 1886. He was appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to represent Jamaica at the Colonial Conference of 1887 and he was chairman of the London committee of the Jamaica International Exhibition of 1891 which was modelled on the Great Exhibition of 1851. He was a member of the council of the Royal Colonial Institute.

paragraph: He became a member of the Society of Arts in 1887 and was also a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. He was appointed a companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1890 for "services rendered in connection with the Island of Jamaica" which was seen as a reward for his work on the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. In March 1890 he was made Honorary Colonel of the 6th Middlesex (St. George's) Corps.

paragraph: Section::::Writing.

paragraph: Eves wrote the introduction to the Jamaica handbook for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition and for Jamaica's participation in the Royal Jubilee Exhibition, Liverpool, of 1887. The remaining text of the later work being made up of official statistics, lists of exhibitors and their goods, and material drawn from the "Handbook of Jamaica" by A.C. Sinclair of the Government Printing Establishment in Jamaica and Laurence R. Fyfe of the Colonial Secretary's Office.

paragraph: In 1889, he produced "The West Indies" which was published under the auspices of The Royal Colonial Institute and combined history, travel advice, and discussion of the general state of the principal islands of the West Indies.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Eves died suddenly at his home of Trelawny House, 49 Highbury New Park, London, on the 20 April 1899. An inquest was held into the death by Dr. Danford Thomas a few days later at Holloway Road. According to evidence given, early on Thursday morning Eves went into the basement of his home to repair some electric burglar alarm bells. After he did not immediately return, Edward Moorhead, a ship-owner of Cardiff and Eves' son-in-law, went to investigate and found Eves unconscious at the bottom of the staircase with a head injury. A doctor attended but Eves died within hours from "compression of blood on the brain, coupled with concussion". A verdict of accidental death was recorded.

paragraph: He was survived by his wife, son, and four daughters and was buried at Highgate Cemetery on 24 April 1899. The funeral was attended by Colonel Bird and the whole of the officers of the Victoria and St George's Rifles (1st Middlesex) who formed a guard of honour. His executors were fellow West Indian merchant Joseph Frank Alderhoven, and major James Rufus Boosé. All three were members of the Royal Colonial Institute.

paragraph: Section::::Selected publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jamaica at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, London, 1886". Spottiswoode, London, 1886. (includes a reprinting of "The Jamaica Court at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition: Handbook compiled for the Governors of the Jamaica Institute" by A.C. Sinclair and Laurence R. Fyfe)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jamaica at the Royal Jubilee Exhibition Liverpool 1887." Spottiswoode, London, 1887.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The West Indies". Sampson Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, London, 1889. (2nd 1891)

wikidata_label: C. Washington Eves

wikipedia_title: C. Washington Eves


text:
Mühlhausen
Königsberg
Enlightenment
Protestant
theologian
mathematician
philosopher
Immanuel Kant
chaplain
University of Königsberg
Collegium Fridericianum
Ludwig Borowski
tutor
pastor
Starkenberg
Löwenhagen
Deacon
Altroßgarten church
magister degree
habilitation
disputation
acoustics
rector
arithmetic
geometry
trigonometry
astronomy
metaphysics
pedagogy
pure
applied mathematics
Arithmetic
Geometry
Trigonometry
Algebra
Astronomy
Mechanics
Optics
Christian Wolff's
Treatise of Algebra
Leonhard Euler
Elements of Algebra
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Danzig
Latin
Immanuel Kant
critical philosophy
transcendental idealism
Parallel Lines Postulate
Georg Cantor
transfinite number
Wenceslaus Johann Gustav Karsten
Georg Simon Klügel
Johann Heinrich Lambert
non-Euclidean geometry

categories: 18th-century German Christian theologians,German mathematicians,18th-century mathematicians,People from East Prussia,19th-century mathematicians,1739 births,Enlightenment philosophers,18th-century philosophers,German philosophers,1805 deaths,People from Bagrationovsky District,University of Königsberg faculty,19th-century German Christian theologians,19th-century philosophers,18th-century German writers

paragraph: Johann Friedrich Schultz

paragraph: Johann Friedrich Schultz, also known as Johann Schultz (11 June 1739, Mühlhausen – 27 June 1805, Königsberg), was a German Enlightenment, Protestant, theologian, mathematician and philosopher. He is best known as a close personal friend and trusted expositor (a person who explains complicated ideas) of Immanuel Kant. Johann Schultz was a "Hofprediger" (second court chaplain) and Professor of Mathematics at the University of Königsberg.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Schultz studied theology and mathematics at the Collegium Fridericianum at Königsberg University, where Immanuel Kant lectured, and matriculated on the 24 September 1756. Ludwig Borowski, one of Kant's early biographers stated that Schultz was one of the best students of Kant, and this is often repeated in the literature, but Schultz denied ever having attended a lecture.

paragraph: Schultz initially worked as a private tutor within Königsberg before undertaking employment as a pastor in Starkenberg between 1766 and 1769, taking similar employment at Löwenhagen between 1769 and 1775 before returning in 1775, to Königsberg to work as a Deacon at the Altroßgarten church. On 6 July 1775 he received his magister degree and on 2 August 1775, he took his examination for promotion of habilitation with a disputation on acoustics. He worked as a lecturer over the winter of 1775 and 1776. In 1777, he was made "Hofprediger" at Königsberg castle church.

paragraph: Schultz’s appointment as professor of mathematics to the government on 11 August 1786 was recommended by the Königsberg senate, at the same time that Kant was serving as rector at Königsberg. As a Professor of mathematics, he had a duty to provide lectures, which he did in arithmetic and geometry in the summer, and trigonometry and astronomy in the winter. Apart from a lecture series in metaphysics during the first half of his second year, and pedagogy that each professor took turns offering, Schultz offered mathematics lectures, focusing on pure and applied mathematics: Arithmetic, Geometry, Trigonometry, Algebra, finite and infinite analysis, Astronomy, Mechanics and Optics. Schultz used Christian Wolff's Treatise of Algebra and Leonhard Euler Elements of Algebra (French:Élémens ďalgebre) and his own text for arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry.

paragraph: Schultz first met the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte between July to October 1791 when Schultz helped Fichte acquire a teaching position close to Danzig. Fichte described Schultz in correspondence as:

paragraph: They continued to write to each other to discuss ideas, even when Fichte left Danzig. The relationship between Schultz and Fichte was more convoluted than it would otherwise be, as Johanna Eleonore, née Büttner (1751–1795), Schultz’s wife, was romantically linked to Fichte. Fichte left Königsberg sooner than he initially planned.

paragraph: Schultz became friends with Kant late in life.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: Schultz published poetry in his early life, and several Latin texts on theology in 1787 and 1791. However, most of his literature was concerned with creation of mathematical texts, including the explanation of Immanuel Kant's new critical system (critical philosophy, transcendental idealism). Schultz wrote and successfully published several mathematical texts including "Foundation of Pure Mathematics" in 1790, a "Brief System of Mathematics" first published in 1797 with new editions in 1805 and 1806. However most of his interest was in the work concerning the Parallel Lines Postulate with papers published in 1780, 1784 and 1786. In 1788 he wrote "Attempt at a precise theory of the infinite" (German: Versuch einer genauen Theorie des Unendlichen) which was an entrant for the 1786 Berlin Academy prize essay question asking for a:

paragraph: Although Schultz was unsuccessful in this entry, the essay preceded certain features of Georg Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers. The work, although similar to work undertaken by the mathematicians Wenceslaus Johann Gustav Karsten, Georg Simon Klügel, and Johann Heinrich Lambert, would eventually result in the development of non-Euclidean geometry.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (anon.), Review of Kant’s Inaugural Dissertation, in the Königsbergsche Gelehrte und Politische Zeitungen (November 22–25, 1771). Reprinted in Reinhard Brandt (op cit.), pp. 59–66. Transl. by James C. Morrison (op cit.), pp. 163–70.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vorläufige Anzeige des entdeckten Beweises für die Theorie der Parallellinen (Königsberg, 1780). 2nd ed.: 1786.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Entdeckte Theorie der Parallelen, nebst einer Untersuchung über den Ursprung ihrer bisherigen Schwierigkeit (Königsberg: D. C. Kanter, 1784).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Erläuterungen über des Herrn Professor Kant Critik der reinen Vernunft (Königsberg: C. G. Dengel, 1784). 2nd ed.: 1791. Transl. by James C. Morrison (op cit.), pp. 3–141.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (anon.), Review of J. A. H. Ulrich, Institutiones logicae et metaphysicae scholae suae scripsit (Jena: Cröker, 1785), in Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (December 13, 1785), pp. 247–49. Translated into English in Brigitte Sassen, tr. and ed., Kant’s Early Critics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 210–14.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Darstellung der vollkommenen Evidenz und Schärfe seiner Theorie der Parallelen (Königsberg: G. C. Hartung, 1786).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prüfung der Kantischen Critik der reinen Vernunft, 2 vols. (Königsberg: Hartung, 1789; Nicolovius 1792). Reprinted in Aetas Kantiana, 1968.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Other publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reflections on the Empty space. "Betrachtungen über den leeren Raum". Königsberg, 1758

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De geometria acustica seu solius auditus ope exercenda". Königsberg, 1775

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De geometria acustica nec non de ratione 0:0 seu basi calculi differentialis". Königsberg, 1787

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Elementa theologiae popularis theoreticae". 1787

paragraph: BULLET::::- Attempt at a precise theory of the infinite. "Versuch einer genauen Theorie des Unendlichen". Königsberg, 1788

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rudements of Pure Mathematics. "Anfangsgründe der reinen Mathesis". Königsberg. 1790

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elements of Practical Theology. "Elementa theologiae practicae". 1791

paragraph: BULLET::::- Defense of critical letters to Mr Emanuel Kant through his critique of pure reason, primarily against the Bornischen attacks. "Vertheidigung der kritischen Briefe an Herrn Emanuel Kant über seine Kritik der reinen Vernunft, vornehmlich gegen die Bornischen Angriffe". Göttingen, 1792

paragraph: BULLET::::- A Brief Concept of Mathematics. "Kurzer Lehrbegriff der Mathematik. Königsberg", 1797, 1805, 1806

paragraph: BULLET::::1. "Bd. Kurzer Lehrbegriff der Arithmetik, Geometrie, Trigonometrie und Landmesskunst".

paragraph: BULLET::::2. "Bd. Kurzer Lehrbegriff der mechanischen und optischen Wissenschaften".

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Popular Foundations of Astronomy. "Bd. Populäre Anfangsgründe der Astronomie".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Very light and short development of some of the most important mathematical theories. "Sehr leichte und Kurze Entwickelung einiger der wichtigsten mathematischen Theorien". Königsberg, 1803

paragraph: BULLET::::- Foundations of pure mechanics, which are the foundations of pure natural science. "Anfangsgründe der reinen Mechanik, die zugleich die Anfangsgründe der reinen Naturwissenschaft sind". Königsberg, 1804

description: German mathematician and theologian

wikidata_label: Johann Schultz

wikipedia_title: Johann Friedrich Schultz


text:
Serbia
Axis
World War II
Royal Serbian Army
Balkan Wars
Karađorđe's Star
Royal Yugoslav Army
Government of National Salvation
Milan Nedić
Belgrade Process
Dragoljub Joksimović
Royal Serbian Army
Balkan Wars
Battle of Bregalnica
Battle of Cer
Battle of Drina
Royal Yugoslav Army
Karađorđe's Star

categories: 1873 births,Serbian people of World War II,Serbian collaborators with Nazi Germany,Serbian politicians

paragraph: Đura Dokić

paragraph: Đura Dokić (; 1873–1946) was a Serbian general, notable for being an Axis collaborator during World War II. He served in the Royal Serbian Army during the Balkan Wars and World War I, where he rose in ranks, and was awarded four state orders, including Karađorđe's Star. In the Royal Yugoslav Army (1918–41), he rose to the rank of Army general. He was appointed Minister of Transportation in the Government of National Salvation headed by Milan Nedić on 7 October 1941. He remained in that position for a little over a year. The British captured him, along with other Serbian collaborationists. He was tried and sentenced to death in the 1946 Belgrade Process. His representative at the trial was barrister Dragoljub Joksimović. He was accused of "conspiring to ship slave workers into Germany" according to contemporary American newspapers.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal Serbian Army

paragraph: BULLET::::- Finished Military Academy on 2 August 1893 as 1st-class Captain.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Received Infantry major rank ("pešadijski major") ( 1910).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Participated in the Balkan Wars. Received Lieutenant colonel ("potpukovnik") rank. Commander of the VI Regiment. Active at the Battle of Bregalnica. Wounded.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Received Colonel ("pukovnik") rank before January 1914.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander of 20th Infantry Regiment () as colonel, active at the Battle of Cer (15–24 August 1914).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander of "Centre Section" and later "Right Section" as colonel at the Battle of Drina (6 September–4 October 1914).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander of Negotin Detachment () as colonel, active in the Eastern Serbian front in October 1915.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Active in the Crna Reka operation and the liberation of Bitola in 1916.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal Yugoslav Army

paragraph: BULLET::::- Received General ("armijski đeneral") rank in 1922–23.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Titled "Commander of the Army" ("komandant armije") in 1930.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: Dokić was awarded four state orders, including Karađorđe's Star, for his achievements in the 1912–18 wars.

wikidata_label: Đura Dokić

wikipedia_title: Đura Dokić


text: All Japan Pro Wrestling

text: Jr. Tag Battle of Glory

text: Masashi Takeda

text: Dragon Gate

text: Open the Brave Gate Championship

text: 1 time

text: Dramatic Dream Team

text: Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship

text: 2 times

text: Kaientai Dojo

text: 3 times

text: Michinoku Pro Wrestling

text: Tohoku Tag Team Championship

text: 1 time

text: Osaka Pro Wrestling

text: 1 time

text: Osaka Pro Wrestling Owarai Championship

text: 2 times

text: Osaka Meibutsu Sekaiichi Championship

text: 1 time

text: Osaka Pro Wrestling Championship

text: 4 times

text: 3 times

text: Black Buffalo

text: Pro Wrestling Zero1

text: 1 time

categories: 1976 births,People from Takatsuki, Osaka,Japanese male professional wrestlers,Living people,Sportspeople from Osaka Prefecture

paragraph: Atsushi Maruyama

paragraph: Section::::Championships and accomplishments.

paragraph: BULLET::::- All Japan Pro Wrestling

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jr. Tag Battle of Glory (2017) – with Masashi Takeda

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dragon Gate

paragraph: BULLET::::- Open the Brave Gate Championship (1 time)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dramatic Dream Team

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship (2 times)

paragraph: BULLET::::- IMGP World Heavyweight Championship (2 times, current)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kaientai Dojo

paragraph: BULLET::::- Independent World Junior Heavyweight Championship (3 times)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mexican Wrestling Federation

paragraph: BULLET::::- MWF World Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michinoku Pro Wrestling

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tohoku Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Flash Moon

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iron Man Tournament (2008)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Pro Wrestling

paragraph: BULLET::::- CMLLL World Super Mexico Championship (1 time, current)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Pro Wrestling Battle Royal Championship (1 time)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Pro Wrestling Owarai Championship (2 times)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Meibutsu Sekaiichi Championship (1 time)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Pro Wrestling Championship (4 times)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Pro Wrestling Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Billyken Kid (1) and Black Buffalo (2)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Tag Festival (2006) – with Flash Moon

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Tag Festival (2007) – with Billyken Kid

paragraph: BULLET::::- Osaka Tag Festival (2011) – with Black Buffalo

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tenno-zan (2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pro Wrestling Zero1

paragraph: BULLET::::- NWA International Lightweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Billyken Kid

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-

description: Japanese professional wrestler

wikidata_label: Tigers Mask

wikipedia_title: Atsushi Maruyama


text:
Bikol
Philippines
Naga City
Lupi
Ateneo de Naga University
Development Communication
University of the Philippines Diliman
Danton Remoto
John Donne
Philippine National Book Award
National Book Development Board
Manila Critics Circle

categories: 1980 births,Writers from Camarines Sur,People from Naga, Camarines Sur,Filipino writers,Living people

paragraph: Victor Dennis T. Nierva

paragraph: Victor Dennis T. Nierva (born 24 February 1980) is a poet, teacher, journalist, theatre actor, translator, graphic and book designer, and a cultural advocate. He is from the Bikol region of the Philippines.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Nierva was born in Naga City. His father was Estelito Aguila Nierva, a railway official. His mother was Grace Pacay Tino, a teacher. His early education came in the central school of Lupi, a rural railroad town in the province of Camarines Sur. This lowly, riverine and hilly town appears in Nierva's poetry. In many literary gatherings he would admit that the town is one of his richest sources of poetic inspiration.

paragraph: Nierva finished basic education in 1992 and entered Ateneo de Naga University (AdNU) for high school and college. In 2000, he earned his degree in Development Communication.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He became a faculty member of AdNU's Department of Media Studies. He works as a freelance writer, translator, and graphic and industrial designer. He is studying for a Masters in Creative Writing at the University of the Philippines Diliman.

paragraph: In 2007, his first book, "Antisipasyon asin iba pang Rawitdawit sa Bikol asin Ingles" (Anticipation and other Poems in Bikol and English), was published. He maintains a column entitled "Mayon Limited" in the online Bikol news hub, "Vox Bikol".

paragraph: Danton Remoto stated: "In less enlightened times, poetry was thought to have been written only in the metropolis, seen as the center of culture and taste. In the last ten years, regional publishing has begun to produce excellent books of literature. One of them is "Antisipasyon asin iba pang Rawitdawit sa Bikol asin Ingles", written by Victor Dennis T. Nierva and published by Goldprint, Naga City. Images of the poet's Bicol Region are luxuriant in this book. They are memories, presences, and forebodings. But always, the poet's pen is restrained, the images and lines chiseled. This is a young poet's book, but some of the poems in this collection—whether in their original Bikol or translated into English—are already some of the best poems of his generation. For the lapidary quality of his poetry, the National Book Award for Poetry is given to "Antisipasyon asin iba pang rawitdawit sa Bikol asin Ingles"."

paragraph: His second book, "Doros asin mga Anghel" (Translations in Bikol of John Donne's "Holy Sonnets and Selected Works") was released by Ateneo de Naga University Press in January 2012.

paragraph: Section::::Recognition.

paragraph: Section::::Recognition.:"Antisipasyon asin iba pang Rawitdawit sa Bikol asin Ingles".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Premio Tomas Arejola para sa Literaturang Bikol (2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippine National Book Award for Poetry (2008) National Book Development Board and Manila Critics Circle

paragraph: BULLET::::- Madrigal-Gonzalez Best First Book Award Finalist (2009)

paragraph: Section::::Recognition.:"Doros asin mga Anghel".

paragraph: BULLET::::- National Book Award for Best Translated Book (2013)

description: Bikolano Writer

wikidata_label: Victor Dennis T. Nierva

wikipedia_title: Victor Dennis T. Nierva


text: Bernay, Eure

text: La Vaupalière

text: geologist

text: philologist

text: archaeologist

text: historian

text: Latin

text: Greek

text: English

text: Italian

text: German

text: Swedish

text: Hebrew

text: Sanskrit

text: Arcisse de Caumont

text: Charles de Gerville

text: Gervais de La Rue

text: Société des Antiquaires de Normandie

text: Seine-Inférieure

text: Eure

text: History of Normandy

text: Orderic Vitalis

text: Berthouville

text: Bibliothèque nationale de France

text: Parlement de Normandie

text: Lillebonne

text: French Revolution of 1848

text: Pausanias

text: Jean de La Varende

text: Leather-Nose

text: Abbey of Saint-Evroul

text: Louis Passy

text: Léopold Delisle

text: marquis de Blosseville

text: Nicétas Périaux

text: Pierre Périaux

text: Édouard Frère

text: Léopold Delisle

text: Alain Blanchard

text: Roman de Rou

text: Édouard Frère

categories: 1787 births,1859 deaths,French historians,French geologists,French botanists,People from Bernay, Eure,French philologists,Members of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres

paragraph: Auguste Le Prévost

paragraph: Auguste Le Prévost (3 June 1787 in Bernay, Eure – 14 July 1859 in La Vaupalière) was a French geologist, philologist, archaeologist and historian.

paragraph: While studying classics and law, Le Prevost developed a passion for history and archeology. To further it, he learned, besides Latin and Greek, English, Italian, German, Swedish, Hebrew and Sanskrit. His encyclopedic knowledge, the critical and rigorous method he applied to his research, were clearly an innovation in his time. As an historian, Le Prevost pioneered, along with his friend Arcisse de Caumont, research on the Romanesque and Gothic architecture in Normandy and France. In 1824, he cofounded with de Caumont, Charles de Gerville and Father Gervais de La Rue, the Société des Antiquaires de Normandie, a veritable "school in motion of specialists of architecture". He was elected a member of the Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Rouen in 1813, and chaired, on various occasions, the learned societies of Seine-Inférieure and Eure. He was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1838.

paragraph: Le Prévost, who was fascinated by the History of Normandy, published the five volumes of the Norman chronicler Orderic Vitalis' work. He showed his versatility by authoring, among many scientific papers, a "Discours sur la poésie romantique" in 1825. In 1830, he published two sets of detailed notes on the important discovery of "the treasure of Berthouville", a fabulous collection of Gallo-Roman silverware listed today among the most valuable pieces medal cabinet of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. He is responsible for the restoration of the Parlement de Normandie in Rouen and conservation of Roman theater of Lillebonne.

paragraph: He began a political career with his election as general counselor in Bernay in 1831, then as deputy in 1834. He was consistently re-elected until the Orleans family fell from power after the French Revolution of 1848. he did not oppose the republic, but said humorously, "The Republic and I greet one another, but we do not talk." He then resumed scholarly activities he had never really abandoned, and earned the nickname of "Norman Pausanias". When he died in 1859, he had gone almost blind.

paragraph: He is featured in Jean de La Varende's most famous novel, "Leather-Nose" (1936), when the hero, Roger Tainchebraye, meets "a black man feverishly measuring, looking, counting, an active and tiny insect: it was Auguste Le Prevost, the archaeologist of Bernay, semi-founder of the science that would get such a upswing" walks through the ruins of the Abbey of Saint-Evroul. Nez-de-Cuir also mentions a mysterious crypt in the abbey with "miscellaneous valuables, rings and bits of sticks, which come from a discovery made around here"...

paragraph: The innumerable unpublished "Notes historiques et archéologiques" by Le Prevost were later published in several volumes between 1866 and 1869 by Louis Passy and Léopold Delisle. They have been widely used by generations of researchers, and are still authoritative.

paragraph: Le Prévost was appointed sub-prefect of Bernay in August 1814 before he was discharged in November 1815. A street of his native town of Bernay was named after him.

paragraph: Section::::Summary Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Anciennes divisions territoriales de la Normandie", Crapelet, Paris, 1837

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Architecture gallo-romaine et architecture du moyen age", Imprimerie Impériale, Paris, 1857

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dictionnaire des anciens noms de lieux du département de l’Eure", Ancelle, Évreux, 1839

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dictionnaire du patois normand en usage (...) dans l’Eure" (avec Paul Eugène Robin et le marquis de Blosseville), Hérissey, Évreux, 1879–1882 ; Slatkine Reprints, Genève, 1978

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Du classique et du romantique : recueil de disçours pour et contre, lus à l'Académie royale des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de Rouen, pendant l'année 1824", Nicétas Périaux, Rouen, 1826

paragraph: BULLET::::- Édition de : Orderic Vital, " Historiae ecclesiasticae (...)", 5 vol., J. Renouard, Paris, 1838–1855 ; Johnson Reprint, New York, 1965

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Essai sur les romances historiques du Moyen Âge", Pierre Périaux, Rouen, 1814

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Roman de Rou et des ducs de Normandie", Édouard Frère, Rouen, 1827

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mémoire sur la collection de vases antiques trouvée, en mars 1830, à Berthouville", T. Chalopin, Caen, 1830

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mémoires et notes de M. Auguste Le Prévost pour servir à l’histoire du département de l’Eure", publiées par Léopold Delisle et Antoine Passy, 3 vol., A. Hérissey, Évreux, 1862–1869

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Note sur les antiquités romaines de Serquigny", Ancelle fils, Évreux, 1830

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Notes pour servir à la topographie et à l’histoire des communes du département de l’Eure au Moyen âge", A. Hérissey, Évreux, 1849

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Notice historique et archéologique sur le département de l’Eure", Ancelle, Évreux, 1832

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Notice sur la châsse de Saint-Taurin d’Évreux", J. J. Ancelle, Évreux, 1838

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Observations philologiques et grammaticales sur le Roman de Rou : et sur quelques règles de la langue des trouvères au douzième siècle", Édouard Frère, Rouen, 1829

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rapport sur les pièces adressées à l’Académie Royale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Rouen, par M. le Professeur Carl Rafn", Nicétas Périaux, Rouen, 1830

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Réflexions sur Alain Blanchard", Brière, Rouen, 1829

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Réflexions sur les antiquités des départements de l'Eure et de la Seine-Inférieure, et notamment sur les restes d'Agnès Sorel", Académie de Rouen, Rouen, 1815

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Réponse à l’écrit de M. Letronne intitulé : « Examen critique du prétendu cœur de saint Louis »", 1844

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Supplément aux notes historiques sur le "Roman de Rou"", Rouen, Édouard Frère, 1829

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sur la poésie romantique", Pierre Périaux, Rouen, 1825

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Conquest of England, from Wace's poem of the Roman de Rou", [s.n.], Londres, 1860

paragraph: Numerous articles in the journals of various learned societies.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adolphe-André Porée, "Auguste Le Prévost, archéologue et historien", Bernay, Vve Lefèvre, 1881

alias:
Auguste Le Prevost
Le Prévost

description: French scientist

wikidata_label: Auguste Le Prévost

wikipedia_title: Auguste Le Prévost


text: Prague

text: Academy of Fine Arts

text: Charles University

text: National Revival

text: Joseph Bergler

text: Johann Rudolf Czernin

text: House of Czernin

text: Josef Dobrovský

text: František Palacký

text: Klemens von Metternich

text: Nazarene movement

text: Josef Mánes

text: Karel Javůrek

text: Leccos: Biography

categories: Czech male painters,Czech painters,Court painters,Artists from Prague,1840 deaths,1786 births

paragraph: František Tkadlík

paragraph: František Tkadlík (or Franz Kadlik; 23 November 1786, Prague – 16 January 1840, Prague) was a Czech portrait painter and draftsman.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was the son of an innkeeper and displayed an early aptitude for drawing. Two of the boarders at his parents' inn were drawing teachers and they encouraged him in his desire to be an artist. Wealthy relatives were won over to the cause and he was soon enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts, later attending Charles University, where he studied philosophy.

paragraph: The National Revival in Bohemia had a decisive influence on his work. On a recommendation by Professor Joseph Bergler, he came under the patronage of Johann Rudolf Czernin, the Count von Chudenitz, which enabled him to continue his studies. From 1817 to 1825, he served as Court Painter to the House of Czernin and overseer for their collection of paintings in Vienna. He maintained close contact with many Czech scholars, such as Josef Dobrovský and František Palacký, which deepened his nationalistic feelings.

paragraph: After completing his work in Vienna, he received an Imperial Pension courtesy of Klemens von Metternich, who had been a regular visitor at the Czernins. He spent several years studying in Rome, where he was influenced by the Nazarene movement. He returned to Vienna in 1832, then moved on to Prague in 1836, when he became the first Czech to be appointed Director of the Art Academy. Josef Mánes and Karel Javůrek were among his best-known students there.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich: Kadlik, Franz

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eva Petrová: "František Tkadlík", Československé akademie věd, Prague 1960.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Galerie Marold: Brief biography with paintings

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leccos: Biography

alias:
Frantisek Kadlik
Franz Kadlik
Franz Thadlik
František Kadlik
Frantisek Tkadlík

description: Czech painter

wikidata_label: František Tkadlík

wikipedia_title: František Tkadlík


text:
Canadian football
defensive end
Winnipeg Blue Bombers
Canadian Football League
college football
University of Texas at Austin
defensive end
Seattle Seahawks
undrafted free agent
Washington Redskins
Cleveland Browns
Dallas, Texas
Jim Jeffcoat
Dallas Cowboys
Plano West Senior High School
USA Today
Parade
EA Sports
U.S. Army All-American Bowl
Rivals.com
University of Texas at Austin
The Sporting News
All-American
Ted Hendricks Award
2014 NFL Draft
1937
Seattle Seahawks
undrafted free agent
practice squad
Washington Redskins
Philadelphia Eagles
Mark Sanchez
Trent Murphy
injured reserve
Tony Romo
Dallas Cowboys
injured reserve
Cleveland Browns
Winnipeg Blue Bombers
106th Grey Cup
Cincinnati Bengals
Washington Redskins bio
Texas Longhorns bio

categories: Texas Longhorns football players,Washington Redskins players,Seattle Seahawks players,Cleveland Browns players,Living people,Sportspeople from Dallas,American football defensive ends,American football linebackers,1990 births,Canadian football defensive linemen,American players of Canadian football,Sportspeople from Plano, Texas,All-American college football players

paragraph: Jackson Jeffcoat

paragraph: Jackson Jeffcoat (born December 26, 1990) is a Canadian football defensive end for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played college football at the University of Texas at Austin as a defensive end. He was signed by the Seattle Seahawks as an undrafted free agent in 2014, and also played for the Washington Redskins and the Cleveland Browns.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Born in Dallas, Texas, while his father, Jim Jeffcoat, played for the Dallas Cowboys, Jeffcoat attended Plano West Senior High School, where he was a two-time first-team all-state defensive end. Over his final three seasons, he recorded 259 tackles, 25.5 sacks, 56 TFL, 42 pressures, four PBU, three forced fumbles, two interceptions, two blocked kicks, and a touchdown. He was named a High School All-American by "USA Today", "Parade", and EA Sports. He was selected to play in the 2010 U.S. Army All-American Bowl.

paragraph: Regarded as a five-star recruit by "Rivals.com", Jeffcoat was listed as the No. 1

paragraph: strong-side, defensive end in the class of 2010.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: Jeffcoat attended the University of Texas at Austin from 2010 to 2013.

paragraph: Jeffcoat was named a 2010 Freshman All-American by "The Sporting News".

paragraph: As a senior in 2013, he was a consensus All-American and won the Ted Hendricks Award in recognition of his contributions on the field.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Seattle Seahawks.

paragraph: Jeffcoat was originally predicted to be drafted somewhere in the middle rounds of the 2014 NFL Draft. However, neither he nor any other member of the Longhorns team was drafted that year, the first time since 1937 that no Longhorns were drafted. Jeffcoat signed with the Seattle Seahawks as an undrafted free agent. The Seahawks released him on August 25, 2014.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Washington Redskins.

paragraph: On September 2, 2014, Jeffcoat was signed to the practice squad of the Washington Redskins. He was promoted to the active roster on October 7, but was waived three days later. The Redskins re-signed him to their practice squad again on November 13. He was promoted again to the active roster on December 16. In the Week 16 win against the Philadelphia Eagles that removed them from playoff contention, Jeffcoat recorded his first career sack on quarterback Mark Sanchez. The following week, he had his first career start with Trent Murphy on injured reserve and recorded his first career interception, which came off Tony Romo, in the Week 17 loss to the Dallas Cowboys.

paragraph: On November 7, 2015, he was placed on the team's injured reserve. He was waived by the team on April 14, 2016.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Cleveland Browns.

paragraph: Jeffcoat was claimed off waivers by the Cleveland Browns on April 15, 2016. On August 1, 2016, Jeffcoat was waived by the Browns.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Winnipeg Blue Bombers.

paragraph: Jeffcoat was signed by the Winnipeg Blue Bombers (CFL) on February 21, 2017. In 16 games played, Jeffcoat contributed 36 tackles, 7 sacks, 3 tackles on special teams, one interception, and a forced fumble. In Winnipeg's one postseason game, Jeffcoat had 5 tackles and a sack, but the Blue Bombers were defeated by Edmonton. 2018 saw Jeffcoat miss several games with injury, but he still put up a respectable 21 tackles, 5 sacks, and 2 forced fumbles. Jeffcoat also had a monster postseason, committing four sacks total in two games played, but a loss to Calgary in the Western Division final denied Jeffcoat and the Blue Bombers a trip to the 106th Grey Cup.

paragraph: After fulfilling his CFL rookie contract, Jeffcoat was eligible to become a free agent on February 12, 2019. Jeffcoat was pursued by interested NFL teams, and was brought in for a workout by the Cincinnati Bengals. However, Jeffcoat was signed to a two year contract extension with the Blue Bombers on January 21, 2019.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Washington Redskins bio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Texas Longhorns bio

description: American football linebacker

wikidata_label: Jackson Jeffcoat

wikipedia_title: Jackson Jeffcoat


text:
tenor
Medindie, South Australia
Melbourne Opera
Tosca
La bohème
Madama Butterfly
The Tales of Hoffmann
Queen Elizabeth II
Opéra-Comique
Palais Garnier
Faust
Roméo et Juliette
Manon
Werther
Carmen
Lyon
Bordeaux
Marseille
Vienna
Leningrad
Buenos Aires
Rigoletto
La traviata
Cavalleria rusticana
Pagliacci
San Francisco Opera
Norman Dello Joio
Opéra national du Rhin
Strasbourg
Nice
Antibes
Rita Gorr
Mady Mesplé
Gabriel Bacquier
Jésus Etcheverry
Madama Butterfly
Albert Wolff
Hérodiade
Georges Prêtre
Régine Crespin
EMI
Maria Callas
Il trovatore
Tito Gobbi
Georges Sébastian
Colomars
Iris Parel
Marie-Christine Lance
Alain Pâris
Éditions Robert Laffont

categories: 20th-century Australian musicians,2013 deaths,French opera singers,20th-century French singers,Australian emigrants to France,Musicians from South Australia,1925 births,People from Adelaide,Australian operatic tenors

paragraph: Albert Lance

paragraph: Albert Lance (12 July 192515 May 2013) was an Australian tenor, also holding French citizenship. He was Australia's principal tenor during the 1950s and later enjoyed a highly successful career in France.

paragraph: He was born in Medindie, South Australia as Lancelot Albert Ingram, but was usually known as Lance Ingram. He began singing as a child, in school and in church choir. His mother made him study voice at the Melbourne Music Conservatory. After graduation, he sang in cafés and night clubs, and joined a touring company and performed throughout Australia, singing popular songs. The director of that company was impressed enough to send him for an audition at the Melbourne Opera, where he was immediately offered a contract. He made his debut there, as Cavaradossi in "Tosca", in 1950, and went on to sing Rodolfo in "La bohème", and Pinkerton in "Madama Butterfly", to considerable acclaim. He then appeared as the lead in "The Tales of Hoffmann" given in honour of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953.

paragraph: Ingram was noticed by the wife of the famed voice teacher Modesti, who invited him to France, for further study. Under Modesti's guidance, and with the help of his assistant, Simone Féjart, he acquired considerable refinement, both vocal and musical. Having changed his professional name from Lance Ingram to Albert Lance, he made his Paris debut at the Opéra-Comique in 1955, as Cavaradossi. The following year, he made his debut at the Palais Garnier, in the title role in "Faust", and the success was immediate. He quickly established himself as one of the leading "French tenors" of the time, at both the Opéra-Comique and the Opéra until 1972, singing the great French roles such as Roméo in "Roméo et Juliette", des Grieux in "Manon", "Werther", Don José in "Carmen", etc. He was also invited to perform at the opera houses of Lyon, Bordeaux, and Marseille, as well as London, Vienna, Moscow, Leningrad, and Buenos Aires. Lance was also much appreciated in the Italian repertory, adding to his repertory the lead tenor roles in "Rigoletto", "La traviata", "Cavalleria rusticana", "Pagliacci" and others.

paragraph: Lance made his American debut at the San Francisco Opera in 1961, in the creation of Norman Dello Joio's "Blood Moon". He also appeared in Los Angeles and Philadelphia.

paragraph: Lance became a permanent member of the Opéra national du Rhin in Strasbourg from 1973 until his retirement in 1977. After his retirement from the stage, Lance turned to full-time teaching, first at the Music Conservatory of Nice, and later Antibes. Lance became a French citizen in 1967.

paragraph: Lance left a few recordings, notably a complete "Werther" made in 1964, with Rita Gorr, Mady Mesplé, Gabriel Bacquier, conducted by Jésus Etcheverry. There is also a complete "Madama Butterfly" (in French) from the Opéra Comique de Paris conducted Albert Wolff from 1957 with Lance as Pinkerton, and scenes from "Hérodiade" conducted by Georges Prêtre from 1963 with Lance as Jean alongside the Salomé of Régine Crespin and Hérodiade of Rita Gorr.

paragraph: EMI has published the kinescope of the 1958 Paris debut of Maria Callas, "La Grande Nuit de l'Opéra," in which Lance appeared, on DVD. He is heard in an excerpt from "Il trovatore", and is seen in a staged Act II of "Tosca", opposite Callas and Tito Gobbi, conducted by Georges Sébastian.

paragraph: In March 2011, the French opera community announced that Lance would be the first Australian to be the President of the Paris Opera Jubilee.

paragraph: Albert Lance died on 15 May 2013 in Colomars, France.

paragraph: Lance is survived by wife and former mezzo-soprano Iris Parel, daughter Marie-Christine Lance and grandson Matthew.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Notes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bibliography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alain Pâris, "Dictionnaire des interprètes et de l'interpretation musicale au XX siècle" (2 vols), Éditions Robert Laffont (Bouquins, Paris 1982, 4th Edn. 1995, 5th Edn 2004).

description: French opera singer

wikidata_label: Albert Lance

wikipedia_title: Albert Lance