text: Lancastrian phase

text: Hundred Years' War

text: Roman Catholic saint

text: Jacques d'Arc

text: Isabelle Romée

text: peasant

text: Domrémy

text: archangel

text: Michael

text: Saint Margaret

text: Saint Catherine of Alexandria

text: Charles VII

text: Siege of Orléans

text: Reims

text: Compiègne

text: Burgundian faction

text: Pierre Cauchon

text: burned at the stake

text: Pope Callixtus III

text: martyr

text: Catholic League

text: Napoleon Bonaparte

text: beatified

text: canonized

text: patron saint

text: Saint Denis

text: Saint Martin of Tours

text: Saint Louis

text: Saint Michael

text: Saint Rémi

text: Saint Petronilla

text: Saint Radegund

text: Saint Thérèse of Lisieux

text: cultural depictions of her

text: Hundred Years' War

text: inheritance dispute over the French throne

text: chevauchée

text: scorched earth

text: French population

text: Black Death

text: Charles VI

text: Louis

text: Duke of Orléans

text: John the Fearless

text: Duke of Burgundy

text: Isabeau of Bavaria

text: assassination of the Duke of Orléans

text: Charles of Orléans

text: Count of Armagnac

text: "Armagnac" faction

text: "Burgundian faction"

text: Henry V of England

text: victory at Agincourt

text: Paris

text: Charles VII

text: Dauphin

text: assassinated John the Fearless

text: Philip the Good

text: Isabeau of Bavaria

text: Treaty of Troyes

text: Henry V

text: Henry VI of England

text: John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford

text: regent

text: Rouen

text: Reims

text: Loire

text: Jacques d'Arc

text: Isabelle Romée

text: Domrémy

text: Duchy of Bar

text: Saint Michael

text: Saint Catherine

text: Saint Margaret

text: Vaucouleurs

text: Robert de Baudricourt

text: Chinon

text: Jean de Metz

text: Bertrand de Poulengy

text: Battle of Rouvray

text: Charles

text: Yolande of Aragon

text: Orléans

text: orthodoxy

text: Poitiers

text: Holy Spirit

text: Orléans

text: besieged city of Orléans

text: Jean d'Orléans

text: war council

text: Saint Loup

text: Saint-Jean-le-Blanc

text: Les Augustins

text: Archbishop of Embrun

text: Jean Gerson

text: John II of Alençon

text: Jargeau

text: Meung-sur-Loire

text: Beaugency

text: John Fastolf

text: battle at Patay

text: Agincourt

text: archers

text: Gien

text: march toward Reims

text: Auxerre

text: Troyes

text: assault at Paris

text: crossbow bolt

text: Grand Chamberlain

text: Georges de la Trémoille

text: took Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier

text: La-Charité-sur-Loire

text: Hussites

text: Compiègne

text: English and Burgundian siege

text: archer

text: Jean de Luxembourg

text: Arras

text: Pierre Cauchon

text: Beauvais

text: livres tournois

text: heresy

text: Rouen

text: jurisdiction

text: ecclesiastical

text: secular

text: Council of Basel

text: abjuration

text: Heresy

text: capital crime

text: St. Thomas Aquinas

text: Jean Gerson

text: execution by burning

text: crucifix

text: Seine

text: Henry VI

text: Notre-Dame cathedral

text: Treaty of Arras

text: indulgence

text: pilgrimage

text: Pope Callixtus III

text: Jean Bréhal

text: former rector of the University of Paris

text: Sorbonne

text: secular

text: Catholic League

text: Félix Dupanloup

text: panegyric

text: canonized

text: saint

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Pope Benedict XV

text: Edward III

text: Christine de Pizan

text: Yolande of Aragon

text: Joan of Luxembourg

text: Anne of Burgundy

text: French Navy

text: helicopter carrier

text: French far-right

text: Front National

text: World War I

text: Joan of Arc, They Are Calling You

text: Joan of Arc's Answer Song

text: Saint Margaret

text: Saint Catherine

text: Saint Michael

text: revelation

text: epilepsy

text: migraine

text: tuberculosis

text: schizophrenia

text: unpasteurized

text: Henry VI

text: Philippe Charlier

text: Raymond Poincaré University Hospital

text: Garches

text: Carbon-14 tests

text: spectroscopic

text: mummy

text: Puy du Fou

text: Elizabeth II

text: Henry Beaufort

text: revisionist authors

text: King Charles VII

text: Jean II, Duke of Alençon

text: Gilles de Rais

text: Joanna of Flanders

text: Jean V de Bueil

text: Guy XIV de Laval

text: André de Lohéac

text: Marie of Anjou

text: Pierronne

text: André César Vermare

text: Alena Arzamasskaia

text: Djamila Bouhired

text: FLN

text: María Pita

text: Agustina de Aragón

text: Madeleine de Verchères

text: New France

text: Joan of Arc Archive

text: "Blessed Joan of Arc" (written before her canonization)

text: Catholic Encyclopedia

text: Catholic Online Saints

text: Joan of Arc's Companions-in-arms

text: Joan of Arc Museum

text: INRAP page on Orleans' fortifications

text: Location of Joan of Arc's Execution

text: Locations in Joan of Arc's campaigns and life

text: Catholic Saints page about Joan of Arc

text: The Real Joan of Arc: Who Was She?

text: International Jeanne d'Arc Centre

text: Historical Association for Joan of Arc Studies

text: Protocol of the 1431st process

text: Rehabilitation process

text: Jeanne d'Arc la pucelle cinematography

text: Films about Jeanne d'Arc, International Joan of Arc Society (with film clips)

text: filmrezension.de: Dossier on Jeanne d'Arc films from 1928 to the present

text: Centre Jeanne d'Arc

text: "The Siege of Orleans"

text: In Our Time

categories: Christian female saints of the Middle Ages,Armagnac faction,Michael (archangel),Joan of Arc,People executed for heresy,1431 deaths,Executed people from Lorraine,Beatifications by Pope Pius X,Canonizations by Pope Benedict XV,15th-century Christian mystics,Executed French people,Female wartime cross-dressers,Executed French women,Prophets in Christianity,History of Rouen,Medieval French saints,Roman Catholic mystics,Patron saints of France,History of Catholicism in France,15th-century Roman Catholic martyrs,Angelic visionaries,People executed under the Lancastrians,Women in 15th-century warfare,People of the Hundred Years' War,15th-century French women,People executed by the Kingdom of England by burning,People from Vosges (department),Women in medieval European warfare,French Roman Catholic saints,Women in war in France,French prisoners of war in the Hundred Years' War,1412 births,15th-century Christian saints

paragraph: Joan of Arc

paragraph: Joan of Arc, in French Jeanne d'Arc () or Jehanne (circa 1412 – 30 May 1431), nicknamed "The Maid of Orléans" (), is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years' War, and was canonized as a Roman Catholic saint. She was born to Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée, a peasant family, at Domrémy in northeast France. Joan claimed to have received visions of the archangel Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine of Alexandria instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent Joan to the Siege of Orléans as part of a relief army. She gained prominence after the siege was lifted only nine days later. Several additional swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims. This long-awaited event boosted French morale and paved the way for the final French victory.

paragraph: On 23 May 1430, she was captured at Compiègne by the Burgundian faction, a group of French nobles allied with the English. She was later handed over to the English and put on trial by the pro-English bishop Pierre Cauchon on a variety of charges. After Cauchon declared her guilty, she was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, dying at about nineteen years of age.

paragraph: In 1456, an inquisitorial court authorized by Pope Callixtus III examined the trial, debunked the charges against her, pronounced her innocent, and declared her a martyr. In the 16th century she became a symbol of the Catholic League, and in 1803 she was declared a national symbol of France by the decision of Napoleon Bonaparte. She was beatified in 1909 and canonized in 1920. Joan of Arc is one of the nine secondary patron saints of France, along with Saint Denis, Saint Martin of Tours, Saint Louis, Saint Michael, Saint Rémi, Saint Petronilla, Saint Radegund and Saint Thérèse of Lisieux.

paragraph: Joan of Arc has remained a popular figure in literature, painting, sculpture, and other cultural works since the time of her death, and many famous writers, playwrights, filmmakers, artists, and composers have created, and continue to create, cultural depictions of her.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: The Hundred Years' War had begun in 1337 as an inheritance dispute over the French throne, interspersed with occasional periods of relative peace. Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, and the English army's use of "chevauchée" tactics (destructive "scorched earth" raids) had devastated the economy. The French population had not regained its former size since the Black Death of the mid-14th century, and its merchants were isolated from foreign markets. Before the appearance of Joan of Arc, the English had nearly achieved their goal of a dual monarchy under English control and the French army had not achieved any major victories for a generation. In the words of DeVries, "The kingdom of France was not even a shadow of its thirteenth-century prototype."

paragraph: The French king at the time of Joan's birth, Charles VI, suffered from bouts of insanity and was often unable to rule. The king's brother Louis, Duke of Orléans, and the king's cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, quarreled over the regency of France and the guardianship of the royal children. This dispute included accusations that Louis was having an extramarital affair with the queen, Isabeau of Bavaria, and allegations that John the Fearless kidnapped the royal children. The conflict climaxed with the assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407 on the orders of the Duke of Burgundy.

paragraph: The young Charles of Orléans succeeded his father as duke and was placed in the custody of his father-in-law, the Count of Armagnac. Their faction became known as the "Armagnac" faction, and the opposing party led by the Duke of Burgundy was called the "Burgundian faction". Henry V of England took advantage of these internal divisions when he invaded the kingdom in 1415, winning a dramatic victory at Agincourt on 25 October and subsequently capturing many northern French towns. In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massacred the Count of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers. The future French king, Charles VII, assumed the title of Dauphin—the heir to the throne—at the age of fourteen, after all four of his older brothers had died in succession. His first significant official act was to conclude a peace treaty with the Duke of Burgundy in 1419. This ended in disaster when Armagnac partisans assassinated John the Fearless during a meeting under Charles's guarantee of protection. The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, blamed Charles for the murder and entered into an alliance with the English. The allied forces conquered large sections of France.

paragraph: In 1420 the queen of France, Isabeau of Bavaria, signed the Treaty of Troyes, which granted the succession of the French throne to Henry V and his heirs instead of her son Charles. This agreement revived suspicions that the Dauphin may have been the illegitimate product of Isabeau's rumored affair with the late duke of Orléans rather than the son of King Charles VI. Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, leaving an infant, Henry VI of England, the nominal monarch of both kingdoms. Henry V's brother, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, acted as regent.

paragraph: By the time Joan of Arc began to influence events in 1429, nearly all of northern France and some parts of the southwest were under Anglo-Burgundian control. The English controlled Paris and Rouen while the Burgundian faction controlled Reims, which had served as the traditional coronation site for French kings since 816. This was an important consideration since neither claimant to the throne of France had been officially crowned yet. Since 1428 the English had been conducting a siege of Orléans, one of the few remaining cities still loyal to Charles VII and an important objective since it held a strategic position along the Loire River, which made it the last obstacle to an assault on the remainder of Charles VII's territory. In the words of one modern historian, "On the fate of Orléans hung that of the entire kingdom." No one was optimistic that the city could long withstand the siege. For generations, there had been prophecies in France which promised France would be saved by a virgin from the "borders of Lorraine" "who would work miracles" and "that France will be lost by a woman and shall thereafter be restored by a virgin". The second prophecy predicating France would be "lost" by a woman was taken to refer to Isabeau's role in signing the Treaty of Troyes.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Joan was the daughter of Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée in Domrémy, a village which was then in the French part of the Duchy of Bar. Joan's parents owned about 50 acres (20 hectares) of land and her father supplemented his farming work with a minor position as a village official, collecting taxes and heading the local watch. They lived in an isolated patch of eastern France that remained loyal to the French crown despite being surrounded by pro-Burgundian lands. Several local raids occurred during her childhood and on one occasion her village was burned. Joan was illiterate and it is believed that her letters were dictated by her to scribes and she signed her letters with the help of others.

paragraph: At her trial, Joan stated that she was about 19 years old, which implies she thought she was born around 1412. She later testified that she experienced her first vision in 1425 at the age of 13, when she was in her "father's garden" and saw visions of figures she identified as Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, who told her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. She said she cried when they left, as they were so beautiful.

paragraph: At the age of 16, she asked a relative named Durand Lassois to take her to the nearby town of Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned the garrison commander, Robert de Baudricourt, for an armed escort to bring her to the French Royal Court at Chinon. Baudricourt's sarcastic response did not deter her. She returned the following January and gained support from two of Baudricourt's soldiers: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy. According to Jean de Metz, she told him that "I must be at the King's side ... there will be no help (for the kingdom) if not from me. Although I would rather have remained spinning [wool] at my mother's side ... yet must I go and must I do this thing, for my Lord wills that I do so." Under the auspices of Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy, she was given a second meeting, where she made a prediction about a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans several days before messengers arrived to report it. According to the "Journal du Siége d'Orléans," which portrays Joan as a miraculous figure, Joan came to know of the battle through "grace divine" while tending her flocks in Lorraine and used this divine revelation to persuade Baudricort to take her to the Dauphin.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Rise.

paragraph: Robert de Baudricourt granted Joan an escort to visit Chinon after news from Orleans confirmed her assertion of the defeat. She made the journey through hostile Burgundian territory disguised as a male soldier, a fact which would later lead to charges of "cross-dressing" against her, although her escort viewed it as a normal precaution. Two of the members of her escort said they and the people of Vaucouleurs provided her with this clothing, and had suggested it to her.

paragraph: Joan's first meeting with Charles took place at the Royal Court in the town of Chinon in 1429, when she was aged 17 and he 26. After arriving at the Court she made a strong impression on Charles during a private conference with him. During this time Charles' mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon was planning to finance a relief expedition to Orléans. Joan asked for permission to travel with the army and wear protective armor, which was provided by the Royal government. She depended on donated items for her armor, horse, sword, banner, and other items utilized by her entourage. Historian Stephen W. Richey explains her attraction to the royal court by pointing out that they may have viewed her as the only source of hope for a regime that was near collapse:

paragraph: Upon her arrival on the scene, Joan effectively turned the longstanding Anglo-French conflict into a religious war, a course of action that was not without risk. Charles' advisers were worried that unless Joan's orthodoxy could be established beyond doubt—that she was not a heretic or a sorceress—Charles' enemies could easily make the allegation that his crown was a gift from the devil. To circumvent this possibility, the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers to verify her morality. In April 1429, the commission of inquiry "declared her to be of irreproachable life, a good Christian, possessed of the virtues of humility, honesty and simplicity." The theologians at Poitiers did not render a decision on the issue of divine inspiration; rather, they informed the Dauphin that there was a "favorable presumption" to be made on the divine nature of her mission. This convinced Charles, but they also stated that he had an obligation to put Joan to the test. "To doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God's aid", they declared. They recommended that her claims should be put to the test by seeing if she could lift the siege of Orléans as she had predicted.

paragraph: She arrived at the besieged city of Orléans on 29 April 1429. Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans on behalf of his captive half-brother, initially excluded her from war councils and failed to inform her when the army engaged the enemy. However, his decision to exclude her did not prevent her presence at most councils and battles. The extent of her actual military participation and leadership is a subject of debate among historians. On the one hand, Joan stated that she carried her banner in battle and had never killed anyone, preferring her banner "forty times" better than a sword; and the army was always directly commanded by a nobleman, such as the Duke of Alençon for example. On the other hand, many of these same noblemen stated that Joan had a profound effect on their decisions since they often accepted the advice she gave them, believing her advice was divinely inspired. In either case, historians agree that the army enjoyed remarkable success during her brief time with it.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Military campaigns.

paragraph: The appearance of Joan of Arc at Orléans coincided with a sudden change in the pattern of the siege. During the five months before her arrival, the defenders had attempted only one offensive assault, which had ended in defeat. On 4 May, however, the Armagnacs attacked and captured the outlying fortress of Saint Loup ("bastille de Saint-Loup"), followed on May 5 by a march to a second fortress called Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, which was found deserted. When English troops came out to oppose the advance, a rapid cavalry charge drove them back into their fortresses, apparently without a fight.

paragraph: The Armagnacs then attacked and captured an English fortress built around a monastery called Les Augustins. That night, Armagnac troops maintained positions on the south bank of the river before attacking the main English stronghold, called ""les Tourelles"", on the morning of 7 May. Contemporaries acknowledged Joan as the heroine of the engagement. She was wounded by an arrow between the neck and shoulder while holding her banner in the trench outside les Tourelles, but later returned to encourage a final assault that succeeded in taking the fortress. The English retreated from Orléans the next day, and the siege was over.

paragraph: At Chinon and Poitiers, Joan had declared that she would provide a sign at Orléans. The lifting of the siege was interpreted by many people to be that sign, and it gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson, both of whom wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event. To the English, the ability of this peasant girl to defeat their armies was regarded as proof that she was possessed by the Devil; the British medievalist Beverly Boyd noted that this charge was not just propaganda, and was sincerely believed since the idea that God was supporting the French via Joan was distinctly unappealing to an English audience.

paragraph: The sudden victory at Orléans also led to many proposals for further offensive action. Joan persuaded Charles VII to allow her to accompany the army with Duke John II of Alençon, and she gained royal permission for her plan to recapture nearby bridges along the Loire as a prelude to an advance on Reims and the coronation of Charles VII. This was a bold proposal because Reims was roughly twice as far away as Paris and deep within enemy territory. The English expected an attempt to recapture Paris or an attack on Normandy.

paragraph: The Duke of Alençon accepted Joan's advice concerning strategy. Other commanders including Jean d'Orléans had been impressed with her performance at Orléans and became her supporters. Alençon credited her with saving his life at Jargeau, where she warned him that a cannon on the walls was about to fire at him. During the same siege she withstood a blow from a stone that hit her helmet while she was near the base of the town's wall. The army took Jargeau on 12 June, Meung-sur-Loire on 15 June, and Beaugency on 17 June.

paragraph: The English army withdrew from the Loire Valley and headed north on 18 June, joining with an expected unit of reinforcements under the command of Sir John Fastolf. Joan urged the Armagnacs to pursue, and the two armies clashed southwest of the village of Patay. The battle at Patay might be compared to Agincourt in reverse. The French vanguard attacked a unit of English archers who had been placed to block the road. A rout ensued that decimated the main body of the English army and killed or captured most of its commanders. Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers and became the scapegoat for the humiliating English defeat. The French suffered minimal losses.

paragraph: The French army left Gien on 29 June on the march toward Reims and accepted the conditional surrender of the Burgundian-held city of Auxerre on 3 July. Other towns in the army's path returned to French allegiance without resistance. Troyes, the site of the treaty that tried to disinherit Charles VII, was the only one to put up even brief opposition. The army was in short supply of food by the time it reached Troyes. But the army was in luck: a wandering friar named Brother Richard had been preaching about the end of the world at Troyes and convinced local residents to plant beans, a crop with an early harvest. The hungry army arrived as the beans ripened. Troyes capitulated after a bloodless four-day siege.

paragraph: Reims opened its gates to the army on 16 July 1429. The coronation took place the following morning. Although Joan and the Duke of Alençon urged a prompt march toward Paris, the royal court preferred to negotiate a truce with Duke Philip of Burgundy. The duke violated the purpose of the agreement by using it as a stalling tactic to reinforce the defense of Paris. The French army marched past a succession of towns near Paris during the interim and accepted the surrender of several towns without a fight. The Duke of Bedford led an English force to confront Charles VII's army at the battle of Montépilloy on August 15, which resulted in a standoff. The French assault at Paris ensued on 8 September. Despite a wound to the leg from a crossbow bolt, Joan remained in the inner trench of Paris until she was carried back to safety by one of the commanders.

paragraph: The following morning the army received a royal order to withdraw. Most historians blame French Grand Chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille for the political blunders that followed the coronation. In October, Joan was with the royal army when it took Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier, followed by an unsuccessful attempt to take La-Charité-sur-Loire in November and December. On 29 December, Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII as a reward for her actions.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Capture.

paragraph: A truce with England during the following few months left Joan with little to do. On 23 March 1430, she dictated a threatening letter to the Hussites, a dissident group which had broken with the Catholic Church on a number of doctrinal points and had defeated several previous crusades sent against them. Joan's letter promises to "remove your madness and foul superstition, taking away either your heresy or your lives." Joan, an ardent Catholic who hated all forms of heresy (together with Islam), also sent a letter challenging the English to leave France and go with her to Bohemia to fight the Hussites, an offer that went unanswered.

paragraph: The truce with England quickly came to an end. Joan traveled to Compiègne the following May to help defend the city against an English and Burgundian siege. On 23 May 1430 she was with a force that attempted to attack the Burgundian camp at Margny north of Compiègne, but was ambushed and captured. When the troops began to withdraw toward the nearby fortifications of Compiègne after the advance of an additional force of 6,000 Burgundians, Joan stayed with the rear guard. Burgundian troops surrounded the rear guard, and she was pulled off her horse by an archer. She agreed to surrender to a pro-Burgundian nobleman named Lionel of Wandomme, a member of Jean de Luxembourg's unit.

paragraph: Joan was imprisoned by the Burgundians at Beaurevoir Castle. She made several escape attempts, on one occasion jumping from her 70-foot (21 m) tower, landing on the soft earth of a dry moat, after which she was moved to the Burgundian town of Arras. The English negotiated with their Burgundian allies to transfer her to their custody, with Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais, an English partisan, assuming a prominent role in these negotiations and her later trial. The final agreement called for the English to pay the sum of 10,000 livres tournois to obtain her from Jean de Luxembourg, a member of the Council of Duke Philip of Burgundy.

paragraph: The English moved Joan to the city of Rouen, which served as their main headquarters in France. Historian Pierre Champion notes that the Armagnacs attempted to rescue her several times by launching military campaigns toward Rouen while she was held there. One campaign occurred during the winter of 1430–1431, another in March 1431, and one in late May shortly before her execution. These attempts were beaten back. Champion also quotes 15th-century sources that say Charles VII threatened to "exact vengeance" upon Burgundian troops whom his forces had captured and upon "the English and women of England" in retaliation for their treatment of Joan.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Trial.

paragraph: The trial for heresy was politically motivated. The tribunal was composed entirely of pro-English and Burgundian clerics, and overseen by English commanders including the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Warwick. In the words of the British medievalist Beverly Boyd, the trial was meant by the English Crown to be "a ploy to get rid of a bizarre prisoner of war with maximum embarrassment to their enemies". Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431 at Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government. The procedure was suspect on a number of points, which would later provoke criticism of the tribunal by the chief inquisitor who investigated the trial after the war.

paragraph: Under ecclesiastical law, Bishop Cauchon lacked jurisdiction over the case. Cauchon owed his appointment to his partisan support of the English Crown, which financed the trial. The low standard of evidence used in the trial also violated inquisitorial rules. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, who was commissioned to collect testimony against Joan, could find no adverse evidence. Without such evidence the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial. Opening a trial anyway, the court also violated ecclesiastical law by denying Joan the right to a legal adviser. In addition, stacking the tribunal entirely with pro-English clergy violated the medieval Church's requirement that heresy trials be judged by an impartial or balanced group of clerics. Upon the opening of the first public examination, Joan complained that those present were all partisans against her and asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side" to be invited in order to provide balance. This request was denied.

paragraph: The Vice-Inquisitor of Northern France (Jean Lemaitre) objected to the trial at its outset, and several eyewitnesses later said he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened his life. Some of the other clergy at the trial were also threatened when they refused to cooperate, including a Dominican friar named Isambart de la Pierre. These threats, and the domination of the trial by a secular government, were violations of the Church's rules and undermined the right of the Church to conduct heresy trials without secular interference.

paragraph: The trial record contains statements from Joan that the eyewitnesses later said astonished the court, since she was an illiterate peasant and yet was able to evade the theological pitfalls the tribunal had set up to entrap her. The transcript's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety: "Asked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered, 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me. The question is a scholarly trap. Church doctrine held that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she had answered yes, then she would have been charged with heresy. If she had answered no, then she would have confessed her own guilt. The court notary Boisguillaume later testified that at the moment the court heard her reply, "Those who were interrogating her were stupefied."

paragraph: Several members of the tribunal later testified that important portions of the transcript were falsified by being altered in her disfavor. Under Inquisitorial guidelines, Joan should have been confined in an ecclesiastical prison under the supervision of female guards (i.e., nuns). Instead, the English kept her in a secular prison guarded by their own soldiers. Bishop Cauchon denied Joan's appeals to the Council of Basel and the Pope, which should have stopped his proceeding.

paragraph: The twelve articles of accusation which summarized the court's findings contradicted the court record, which had already been doctored by the judges. Under threat of immediate execution, the illiterate defendant signed an abjuration document that she did not understand. The court substituted a different abjuration in the official record.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Cross-dressing charge.

paragraph: Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offense; therefore, a repeat offense of "cross-dressing" was now arranged by the court, according to the eyewitnesses. Joan agreed to wear feminine clothing when she abjured, which created a problem. According to the later descriptions of some of the tribunal members, she had previously been wearing male (i.e. military) clothing in prison because it gave her the ability to fasten her hosen, boots and tunic together into one piece, which deterred rape by making it difficult to pull her hosen off. She was evidently afraid to give up this outfit even temporarily because it was likely to be confiscated by the judge and she would thereby be left without protection. A woman's dress offered no such protection. A few days after her abjuration, when she was forced to wear a dress, she told a tribunal member that "a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force." She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or, in the testimony of Jean Massieu, because her dress had been taken by the guards and she was left with nothing else to wear.

paragraph: Her resumption of male military clothing was labeled a relapse into heresy for cross-dressing, although this would later be disputed by the inquisitor who presided over the appeals court that examined the case after the war. Medieval Catholic doctrine held that cross-dressing should be evaluated based on context, as stated in the "Summa Theologica" by St. Thomas Aquinas, which says that necessity would be a permissible reason for cross-dressing. This would include the use of clothing as protection against rape if the clothing would offer protection. In terms of doctrine, she had been justified in disguising herself as a pageboy during her journey through enemy territory, and she was justified in wearing armor during battle and protective clothing in camp and then in prison. The "Chronique de la Pucelle" states that it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field. When her soldiers' clothing was not needed while on campaign, she was said to have gone back to wearing a dress. Clergy who later testified at the posthumous appellate trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape.

paragraph: Joan referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned on the matter. The Poitiers record no longer survives, but circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics had approved her practice. She also kept her hair cut short through her military campaigns and while in prison. Her supporters, such as the theologian Jean Gerson, defended her hairstyle for practical reasons, as did Inquisitor Brehal later during the appellate trial. Nonetheless, at the trial in 1431 she was condemned and sentenced to die. Boyd described Joan's trial as so "unfair" that the trial transcripts were later used as evidence for canonizing her in the 20th century.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Execution.

paragraph: Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution by burning on 30 May 1431. Tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux-Marché in Rouen, she asked two of the clergy, Fr Martin Ladvenu and Fr Isambart de la Pierre, to hold a crucifix before her. An English soldier also constructed a small cross that she put in the front of her dress. After she died, the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive. They then burned the body twice more, to reduce it to ashes and prevent any collection of relics, and cast her remains into the Seine River. The executioner, Geoffroy Thérage, later stated that he "greatly feared to be damned".

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous events.

paragraph: The Hundred Years' War continued for twenty-two years after her death. Charles VII retained legitimacy as the king of France in spite of a rival coronation held for Henry VI at Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris on 16 December 1431, the boy's tenth birthday. Before England could rebuild its military leadership and force of longbowmen lost in 1429, the country lost its alliance with Burgundy when the Treaty of Arras was signed in 1435. The Duke of Bedford died the same year and Henry VI became the youngest king of England to rule without a regent. His weak leadership was probably the most important factor in ending the conflict. Kelly DeVries argues that Joan of Arc's aggressive use of artillery and frontal assaults influenced French tactics for the rest of the war.

paragraph: In 1452, during the posthumous investigation into her execution, the Church declared that a religious play in her honor at Orléans would allow attendees to gain an indulgence (remission of temporal punishment for sin) by making a pilgrimage to the event.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous events.:Retrial.

paragraph: A posthumous retrial opened after the war ended. Pope Callixtus III authorized this proceeding, also known as the "nullification trial", at the request of Inquisitor-General Jean Bréhal and Joan's mother Isabelle Romée. The purpose of the trial was to investigate whether the trial of condemnation and its verdict had been handled justly and according to canon law. Investigations started with an inquest by Guillaume Bouillé, a theologian and former rector of the University of Paris (Sorbonne).

paragraph: Bréhal conducted an investigation in 1452. A formal appeal followed in November 1455. The appellate process involved clergy from throughout Europe and observed standard court procedure. A panel of theologians analyzed testimony from 115 witnesses. Bréhal drew up his final summary in June 1456, which describes Joan as a martyr and implicated the late Pierre Cauchon with heresy for having convicted an innocent woman in pursuit of a secular vendetta. The technical reason for her execution had been a Biblical clothing law. The nullification trial reversed the conviction in part because the condemnation proceeding had failed to consider the doctrinal exceptions to that stricture. The appellate court declared her innocent on 7 July 1456.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous events.:Canonization.

paragraph: Joan of Arc became a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century.

paragraph: When Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849, he pronounced a fervid panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted attention in England as well as France, and he led the efforts which culminated in Joan of Arc's beatification in 1909. She was canonized as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church on 16 May 1920 by Pope Benedict XV in his bull "Divina disponente".

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Joan of Arc became a semi-legendary figure for the four centuries after her death. The main sources of information about her were chronicles. Five original manuscripts of her condemnation trial surfaced in old archives during the 19th century. Soon, historians also located the complete records of her rehabilitation trial, which contained sworn testimony from 115 witnesses, and the original French notes for the Latin condemnation trial transcript. Various contemporary letters also emerged, three of which carry the signature "Jehanne" in the unsteady hand of a person learning to write. This unusual wealth of primary source material is one reason DeVries declares, "No person of the Middle Ages, male or female, has been the subject of more study."

paragraph: Joan of Arc came from an obscure village and rose to prominence when she was a teenager, and she did so as an uneducated peasant. The French and English kings had justified the ongoing war through competing interpretations of inheritance law, first concerning Edward III's claim to the French throne and then Henry VI's. The conflict had been a legalistic feud between two related royal families, but Joan transformed it along religious lines and gave meaning to appeals such as that of squire Jean de Metz when he asked, "Must the king be driven from the kingdom; and are we to be English?" In the words of Stephen Richey, "She turned what had been a dry dynastic squabble that left the common people unmoved except for their own suffering into a passionately popular war of national liberation." Richey also expresses the breadth of her subsequent appeal:

paragraph: From Christine de Pizan to the present, women have looked to Joan as a positive example of a brave and active woman. She operated within a religious tradition that believed an exceptional person from any level of society might receive a divine calling. Some of her most significant aid came from women. King Charles VII's mother-in-law, Yolande of Aragon, confirmed Joan's virginity and financed her departure to Orléans. Joan of Luxembourg, aunt to the count of Luxembourg who held custody of her after Compiègne, alleviated her conditions of captivity and may have delayed her sale to the English. Finally, Anne of Burgundy, the duchess of Bedford and wife to the regent of England, declared Joan a virgin during pretrial inquiries.

paragraph: Three separate vessels of the French Navy have been named after her, including a helicopter carrier that was retired from active service on 7 June 2010. At present, the French far-right political party "Front National" holds rallies at her statues, reproduces her image in the party's publications, and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem. This party's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image. The French civic , set in 1920, is the second Sunday of May.

paragraph: World War I songs include "Joan of Arc, They Are Calling You", and "Joan of Arc's Answer Song".

paragraph: Section::::Visions.

paragraph: Joan of Arc's religious visions have remained an ongoing topic of interest. She identified Saint Margaret, Saint Catherine, and Saint Michael as the sources of her revelations, although there is some ambiguity as to which of several identically named saints she intended.

paragraph: Analysis of her visions is problematic since the main source of information on this topic is the condemnation trial transcript in which she defied customary courtroom procedure about a witness oath and specifically refused to answer every question about her visions. She complained that a standard witness oath would conflict with an oath she had previously sworn to maintain confidentiality about meetings with her king. It remains unknown to what extent the surviving record may represent the fabrications of corrupt court officials or her own possible fabrications to protect state secrets. Some historians sidestep speculation about the visions by asserting that her belief in her calling is more relevant than questions about the visions' ultimate origin.

paragraph: A number of more recent scholars attempted to explain her visions in psychiatric or neurological terms. Potential diagnoses have included epilepsy, migraine, tuberculosis, and schizophrenia. None of the putative diagnoses have gained consensus support, and many scholars have argued that she didn't display any of the objective symptoms that can accompany the mental illnesses which have been suggested, such as schizophrenia. Dr. Philip Mackowiak dismissed the possibility of schizophrenia and several other disorders (Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and ergot poisoning) in a chapter on Joan of Arc in his book "Post-Mortem" in 2007.

paragraph: Dr. John Hughes rejected the idea that Joan of Arc suffered from epilepsy in an article in the academic journal "Epilepsy & Behavior".

paragraph: Two experts who analysed the hypothesis of temporal lobe tuberculoma in the medical journal "Neuropsychobiology" expressed their misgivings about this claim in the following statement:

paragraph: In response to another such theory alleging that her visions were caused by bovine tuberculosis as a result of drinking unpasteurized milk, historian Régine Pernoud wrote that if drinking unpasteurized milk could produce such potential benefits for the nation, then the French government should stop mandating the pasteurization of milk.

paragraph: Joan of Arc gained favor in the court of King Charles VII, who accepted her as sane. He would have been familiar with the signs of madness because his own father, Charles VI, had suffered from it. Charles VI was popularly known as "Charles the Mad", and much of France's political and military decline during his reign could be attributed to the power vacuum that his episodes of insanity had produced. The previous king had believed he was made of glass, a delusion no courtier had mistaken for a religious awakening. Fears that King Charles VII would manifest the same insanity may have factored into the attempt to disinherit him at Troyes. This stigma was so persistent that contemporaries of the next generation would attribute to inherited madness the breakdown that England's King Henry VI was to suffer in 1453: Henry VI was nephew to Charles VII and grandson to Charles VI. The court of Charles VII was shrewd and skeptical on the subject of mental health. Upon Joan's arrival at Chinon the royal counselor Jacques Gélu cautioned,

paragraph: She remained astute to the end of her life and the rehabilitation trial testimony frequently marvels at her astuteness:

paragraph: Her subtle replies under interrogation even forced the court to stop holding public sessions.

paragraph: Section::::Alleged relics.

paragraph: In 1867, a jar was found in a Paris pharmacy with the inscription "Remains found under the stake of Joan of Arc, virgin of Orleans." They consisted of a charred human rib, carbonized wood, a piece of linen and a cat femur—explained as the practice of throwing black cats onto the pyre of witches. In 2006, Philippe Charlier, a forensic scientist at Raymond Poincaré University Hospital (Garches) was authorized to study the relics. Carbon-14 tests and various spectroscopic analyses were performed, and the results determined that the remains come from an Egyptian mummy from the sixth to the third century BC.

paragraph: In March 2016 a ring believed to have been worn by Joan, which had passed through the hands of several prominent people including a cardinal, a king, an aristocrat and the daughter of a British physician, was sold at auction to the Puy du Fou, a historical theme park, for £300,000. There is no conclusive proof that she owned the ring, but its unusual design closely matches Joan's own words about her ring at her trial. The Arts Council later determined the ring should not have left the United Kingdom. The purchasers appealed, including to Queen Elizabeth II, and the ring was allowed to remain in France. The ring was reportedly first passed to Cardinal Henry Beaufort, who attended Joan's trial and execution in 1431.

paragraph: Section::::Revisionist theories.

paragraph: The standard accounts of the life of Joan of Arc have been challenged by revisionist authors. Claims include: that Joan of Arc was not actually burned at the stake; that she was secretly the half sister of King Charles VII; that she was not a true Christian but a member of a pagan cult; and that most of the story of Joan of Arc is actually a myth.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jean II, Duke of Alençon: Commander in the French Royal army

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gilles de Rais: Commander in the French Royal Army

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joanna of Flanders: Countess who led an army earlier in the Hundred Years' War

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jean V de Bueil: Count of Sancerre who served in the Royal army when Joan was there.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guy XIV de Laval: Count of Laval, wrote a famous letter mentioning Joan and served in the army.

paragraph: BULLET::::- André de Lohéac: Brother of the above, Lord of Lohéac, later Marshal of France, served in the army with Joan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marie of Anjou: Wife of Charles VII

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pierronne: Mystic who may have met Joan of Arc, and was burned at the stake for defending Joan's reputation

paragraph: BULLET::::- André César Vermare: Sculpted a famous statue of Joan of Arc

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alena Arzamasskaia was a famed female rebel fighter in 17th-century Russia, sometimes called the Russian Joan of Arc

paragraph: BULLET::::- Djamila Bouhired: FLN militant known as Algeria's Joan of Arc

paragraph: BULLET::::- María Pita and Agustina de Aragón: Spanish military heroines likened to Joan of Arc

paragraph: BULLET::::- Madeleine de Verchères: 17th-century New France colonist known as Canada's Joan of Arc

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Biographies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- , 19th century French classic

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Historiography and memory.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tumblety, Joan. "Contested histories: Jeanne d'Arc and the front national." "The European Legacy" (1999) 4#1 pp: 8–25.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan of Arc Archive – Online collection of Joan of Arc-related materials, including biographies and translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Blessed Joan of Arc" (written before her canonization) – "Catholic Encyclopedia" entry from the 1919 edition.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Online Saints – short biography from Catholic Online Saints.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan of Arc's Companions-in-arms – English version of page about soldiers who served alongside Joan of Arc.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joan of Arc Museum – Website for a museum in Rouen, France located near the place she was executed.

paragraph: BULLET::::- INRAP page on Orleans' fortifications: Article on the archaeological excavation of a portion of Orleans' fortifications dating from the siege in 1428–1429.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Location of Joan of Arc's Execution – Google Maps satellite map of the square in Rouen and monument marking the site of her execution.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Locations in Joan of Arc's campaigns and life – Google Maps feature showing locations from her birth until her death.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Saints page about Joan of Arc – Brief biography and hagiographic information from Catholic Saints.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Real Joan of Arc: Who Was She? – Long analysis of various issues and controversies, from 1000 Questions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- International Jeanne d'Arc Centre

paragraph: BULLET::::- Historical Association for Joan of Arc Studies – Research work and study reports

paragraph: BULLET::::- Protocol of the 1431st process and the Rehabilitation process

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jeanne d'Arc la pucelle cinematography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Films about Jeanne d'Arc, International Joan of Arc Society (with film clips)

paragraph: BULLET::::- filmrezension.de: Dossier on Jeanne d'Arc films from 1928 to the present

paragraph: BULLET::::- Centre Jeanne d'Arc at the Orleans Municipal Library (French)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Siege of Orleans", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anne Curry, Malcolm Vale & Matthew Bennett ("In Our Time", May 24, 2007)

alias:
The Maid of Orléans
Jeanne d'Arc
of Arc, Saint Joan
La Pucelle d'Orléans
Saint Joan of Arc
Jeanne d’ Arc
Sainte Jeanne d’Arc
Jeanne d’Arc
The Maid of Orleans
Jehanne d'Arc

description: French folk heroine and Roman Catholic saint

enwikiquote_title: Joan of Arc

wikidata_label: Joan of Arc

wikipedia_title: Joan of Arc


text: Boston

text: Massachusetts

text: spiritualists

text: abolitionists

text: Adin Ballou

text: Warren Chase

text: Lysander Spooner

text: Henry Clarke Wright

text: Washington Street

text: Cornhill

text: Nahum Capen

text: Folsom v. Marsh

text: Marsh, Bela 1797-1869

text: Bela Marsh, publisher

categories: 19th century in Boston,Spiritualism,Businesspeople from Boston,1797 births,1869 deaths,Abolitionism in the United States

paragraph: Bela Marsh

paragraph: Bela Marsh (1797-1869) was a publisher and bookseller in Boston, Massachusetts, in the 19th century. Authors under his imprint included spiritualists and abolitionists such as John Stowell Adams, Adin Ballou, Warren Chase, Lysander Spooner, and Henry Clarke Wright. Marsh kept offices on Washington Street (ca.1820-1832), Cornhill (ca.1847-1852), Franklin Street (ca.1854-1856), and Bromfield Street (ca.1858-1868). Among his business partners were Nahum Capen, Gardner P. Lyon, T.H. Webb, and George W. Williams. He belonged to the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association and the Physiological Society.

paragraph: Marsh was the defendant in the seminar copyright case, "Folsom v. Marsh" (C.C.D. Mass. 1841), for publishing a two-volume abridgment of George Washington's letters.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- WorldCat. Marsh, Bela 1797-1869

paragraph: BULLET::::- Open Library. Bela Marsh, publisher

paragraph: BULLET::::- Library of Congress. Position of the Democratic Party in 1852. "Freemen of America, how long will you be ledd by such leaders" (item sold by Marsh)

description: American publisher

wikidata_label: Bela Marsh

wikipedia_title: Bela Marsh


text:
Pasadena, California
cornet
world record holding
masters athlete
800 metres
Mile run
1500 metres
4x800 m relay
3000 meters
Marvin Gaye
Count Basie
David Byrne
Music for "The Knee Plays"
Teddy Edwards
Mississippi Lad
Marvin Gaye
Live at the London Palladium
Here, My Dear
John Handy
Where Go the Boats
Freddie Hubbard
Bundle of Joy
Carole King
Simple Things
Yanni
Niki Nana
Interview with Nolan Shaheed

categories: 21st-century trumpeters,Musicians from Pasadena, California,1949 births,World record holders in masters athletics,American male middle-distance runners,Living people,American jazz trumpeters,Sportspeople from Pasadena, California,American masters athletes,American male trumpeters,Jazz musicians from California,21st-century male musicians

paragraph: Nolan Shaheed

paragraph: Nolan Shaheed (born Nolan Andrew Smith, Jr.; July 18, 1949 in Pasadena, California) is an American jazz musician, specializing in the cornet and trumpet, and a world record holding masters athlete.

paragraph: Section::::Masters athletics.

paragraph: Shaheed has been in the masters world rankings over various middle distance races since he turned 40. He was the second 50-year-old to break the 2 minute barrier in the 800 metres where he holds the current world record. He added the M50 world record in the Mile run and since turning 60 has added the world record in the 800 metres and 1500 metres. Indoors he holds the world records in the mile in all age divisions between M50 and M60, plus was part of the M50 4x800 m relay team. Domestically he has added the indoor M55 and M60 1500m records and M50, M55, M60 records in the 3000 meters.

paragraph: Section::::Music.

paragraph: As Nolan Smith, he began his musical career in 1974, and was musical director for Marvin Gaye, lead trumpet with Count Basie, and has worked with various other musical acts.

paragraph: Section::::Music.:Discography.

paragraph: With David Byrne

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Music for "The Knee Plays"" (ECM, 1985)

paragraph: With Teddy Edwards

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mississippi Lad" (Verve/Gitanes, 1991)

paragraph: With Marvin Gaye

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Live at the London Palladium" (Tamla, 1977)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Here, My Dear" (Tamla, 1978)

paragraph: With John Handy

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Where Go the Boats" (Warner Bros., 1978)

paragraph: With Freddie Hubbard

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bundle of Joy" (Columbia, 1977)

paragraph: With Carole King

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Simple Things" (Avatar/Capitol, 1977)

paragraph: With Yanni

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Niki Nana" (Private Music, 1989)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Interview with Nolan Shaheed

description: Jazz musician, Masters athlete, middle distance runner

wikidata_label: Nolan Shaheed

wikipedia_title: Nolan Shaheed


text: Charleston, South Carolina

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: Charleston Post Office and Courthouse

text: National Historic Landmark

text: African Methodist Episcopal

text: Lutheran

text: County Wexford

text: Moultrieville

text: immigrant from Ireland as a young child

text: plasterer

text: Edward C. Jones

text: South Carolina's Lowcountry

text: sterling silver

text: tea set

text: Four Corners of Law

text: Second Renaissance Revival architecture

text: Congress

text: captain

text: Confederate Army

text: Fortress Monroe

text: Virginia

text: Robert E. Lee

text: Appomattox Court House

text: arteriosclerosis

text: Cerebral hemorrhage

text: sarcophagus

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: Charleston Historic District

text: AME Church

text: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

text: Gothic Revival

text: stonework

text: church architecture

text: The Stones of Venice

text: John Ruskin

text: Ablaq

text: Tower at 1301 Gervais

text: spiral

text: finial

text: Christopher Werner

text: stained glass

text: Sullivan's Island

text: Union Army

text: Second Empire style

text: mansard

text: conference room

text: Yankee

text: Bed and Breakfast

text: John H. Seymour

text: William Cullen Bryant

text: Alexander Jackson Davis

text: George S. Cook

text: Mathew Brady

text: great fire of 1838

text: Edward C. Jones

text: opera houses

text: Oscar Wilde

text: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Fanny Brice

text: Billie Burke

text: Eddie Foy

text: Lily Langtry

text: Lillian Russell

text: John Philip Sousa

text: Ziegfeld Follies

text: Art Deco

text: Charles C. Benton

text: Masonic Temple

text: Mason

text: Entered Apprentice Degree of Masonry

text: Tudor Gothic style

text: pic at Flickr

text: Gothic Revival

text: Italianate

text: upright-and-wing

text: naval stores

text: ship chandlery

text: Charleston Female Seminary

text: Sullivan's Island

text: whale's jawbones

text: ship's wooden figurehead of a lady

text: Gothic Revival architecture

text: List of tallest churches in the world

categories: Victorian architecture in South Carolina,1920 deaths,Federalist architects,American theatre architects,Gothic Revival architecture in South Carolina,American ecclesiastical architects,1840 births,Mediterranean Revival architects,American residential architects,Artists from Charleston, South Carolina,Greek Revival architects,Burials in South Carolina,Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923),Architects from South Carolina

paragraph: John Henry Devereux

paragraph: John Henry Devereux (26 July 1840 – 16 March 1920), also called John Delorey before 1860, was an American architect and builder best known for his designs in Charleston, South Carolina. According to the National Park Service, he was the "most prolific architect of the post-Civil War era" in the Charleston area. His works are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. His Charleston Post Office and Courthouse has been designated as a U.S. National Historic Landmark.

paragraph: In his career, Devereux also designed a theatre, a synagogue, a Masonic hall (he became a Mason to do it, though he was Catholic), and Catholic, African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church , and Lutheran churches. One of the latter was the tallest building in South Carolina for over a hundred years. He blended and mixed architectural influences and styles.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and family.

paragraph: Devereux was born on 26 July 1840 into a Catholic family in County Wexford, Ireland. His parents were Nicholas and Dorothy Delorey (as they were recorded in the United States.) In 1843, when he was three years old, his family immigrated to the United States. They settled in Charleston, South Carolina. He had an older brother James and a younger brother Nicholas, Jr. born after his family was in Charleston. In the 1860 census, all three sons were still living at home: James, 22, Devereux, 20, and Nicholas, Jr., 16.

paragraph: In 1863 Devereux married Agatha Eulalie Brandt, an immigrant from France. The 1870 Census shows Dorothy Devereux (John's mother), age 70, living with the young couple in Charleston. The household included their son John H. D. Devereux, 5, and daughter Eulalie, 3 years old. She was born in 1867, the same year that Devereux's wife died.

paragraph: In the 1880 census, Devereux was listed as widowed. His widowed mother Dorothy "Dolly" continued to live in his household. He was listed as a "Builder".

paragraph: The 1900 Census of Moultrieville, Charleston, South Carolina, shows him as divorced, which may have been an error. The 1880 and 1910 Censuses recorded him as widowed. Devereux's death certificate also said that he was a widower.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: An immigrant from Ireland as a young child, Devereux grew up in Charleston. He started work as a plasterer. After studying architecture under Edward C. Jones, a well-known Charleston architect and builder, Devereux became a noted architect of South Carolina's Lowcountry public buildings and churches.

paragraph: He designed and built St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in the period 1867–1872. As a bonus, the church gave him a sterling silver tea set.

paragraph: At 255 feet, St. Matthews was the tallest building in South Carolina until 1973.

paragraph: Much of Devereux's work in Charleston is proximate to the corner of Meeting and Broad streets, an area locally known as the "Four Corners of Law." The federal post office and courthouse, which he designed, exemplifies the importance of federal influence. Church and local government are additional components of the metaphor. During British colonial rule, the future US courthouse site was the location of the gallows for public executions.

paragraph: In 1885, Devereux was appointed as Superintendent of Construction and Repairs of the U.S. Treasury Department, which handled public buildings. While in that position, he designed the U.S. Post Office and Courthouse in Charleston. His choice of Second Renaissance Revival architecture expressed the nobility popularly "associated with public architecture" during that epoch. Congress authorized funds in 1887 for construction of the Post Office and Courthouse building. Devereux, as the architect, started the design in 1890 and finished construction of the building in 1896. The building was a lengthy project, completed in 1896 and costing $500,000.

paragraph: Section::::Military.

paragraph: During the American Civil War, Devereux was commissioned as a captain in the Confederate Army in 1864; he was taken prisoner on 25 February 1865. He was imprisoned in Fortress Monroe, Virginia in Casement no. 6. He was paroled 10 May 1865, a month after General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: According to his death certificate, "Colonel" Devereux died from general arteriosclerosis with a contributing preexisting factor of "paralysis from Cerebral hemorrhage". He was buried in Devereux Chapel in Charleston's Saint Lawrence Cemetery. This building was razed. A large sarcophagus with Devereux's name stands at the former site of the chapel.

paragraph: The National Park Service has recognized Devereux as Charleston's "most prolific architect of the post-Civil War era." A partial listing follows:

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:Charleston, South Carolina – United States Post Office and Courthouse.

paragraph: This Charleston building was completed by Devereux in 1896. The building was individually listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, and is also within the boundaries of the National Register and National Historic Landmark Charleston Historic District. Today, the building continues to operate as a post office and courthouse.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church.

paragraph: Devereux designed the large, Gothic church for its black congregation; it was erected starting in spring 1891 and completed in 1892. The AME Church was the first independent black congregation in the United States, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After the Civil War, its missionaries planted many new congregations in the South, including in Charleston.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:St Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church.

paragraph: Responding to the needs of a growing ethnic German community after a new wave of immigration following the 1848 revolutions, the German Lutherans purchased land on King Street on which to build a new church in 1867–72. They selected Devereux as the architect.

paragraph: Devereux chose a Gothic Revival design.

paragraph: The original facade was stucco, scored to resemble stonework and painted in different colors, using paint that was mixed with sand, simulating the look of stonework using different colors of stone. This "polychrome" effect reflected a motif for church architecture popularized at the time in "The Stones of Venice" by John Ruskin. As originally conceived, the black and white Ablaq facade was striking, although it has since been covered over.

paragraph: The church's steeple is the tallest in South Carolina, and for 101 years (until 1973) the church was the state's tallest building. Its height was not surpassed until 1973, when the Tower at 1301 Gervais was built.

paragraph: In the cyclone of 1885, the steeple fell. Its wrought iron spiral and finial built by Christopher Werner was destroyed, and not replaced due to cost. A fire in 1965 caused the steeple to topple; it fell to the ground, impaling the spire eighteen feet deep, where it remains embedded to this day. The church's stained glass was not affected. The church was restored after the fire.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:Stella Maris Church.

paragraph: Devereux designed the Stella Maris Church and supervised its construction on Sullivan's Island in Charleston.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:20 South Battery (aka "the Stevens-Lathers House" or "Battery Carriage House Inn").

paragraph: This house was originally built in 1843 for Samuel S. Stevens. Devereux was hired after the Civil War by its next owner, Colonel Richard Lathers, a Southerner who fought for the Union Army. He wanted the house at 20 South Battery to be remodeled in the popular Second Empire style. Devereux also added a library, with a mansard roof.

paragraph: He constructed a "ballroom", which Lathers used as a conference room, for meetings with his wealthy Yankee connections. His associations were unpopular and the townspeople forced him out of Charleston. According to the current owner, who operates the house as a Bed and Breakfast: "Charlestonians eventually told Lathers he was unwelcome so he took his Yankee blood money with him and left."

paragraph: Lathers used his conference room to meet with such notables as New York Governor and Presidential Candidates John H. Seymour and William Cullen Bryant, seeking sectional reconciliation. "[A]fter attempting for four years to restore good will between men of the North and the South, Lathers sold the house and returned to New York." In New York, Lathers was a patron of architect Alexander Jackson Davis, who created "Lathers' Hill" and associated gothic cottages for him.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:24 South Battery c.1790?

paragraph: The western half of this 18th-century double tenement (the eastern half was demolished) was remodeled in 1870 for George S. Cook, the noted photographer he has been called "the Southern Mathew Brady". Devereux was the architect.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:225–227 King St. Academy of Music/Riviera Theatre.

paragraph: In 1830 on this site was Kerrison's Department Store (see List of defunct department stores of the United States), which was reputed to be "the South's oldest department store still in operation." When the store was destroyed in the great fire of 1838, it was rebuilt by Kerrison. In 1852 it was purchased by Browning & Leman, dry goods merchants, and a new store was designed by Charleston architect Edward C. Jones.

paragraph: In 1869, architect John Henry Devereux remodeled the building, which became known as the Academy of Music. The theatre opened on 1 December 1869 with a 1200-seat capacity, and it would often have sold-out houses. The acoustics were first rate. It had a "Sun burner" gas-light chandelier illumination system, set in a faux "starlit sky" ceiling, and a proscenium arch "supported by gilded columns and moldings." For seven decades it was "one of America's best known theatres . . . patterned after European opera houses" with excellent acoustics. Performers included Oscar Wilde, Sarah Bernhardt, Fanny Brice, Billie Burke, Eddie Foy, Lily Langtry, Lillian Russell, John Philip Sousa and his band, the Ziegfeld Follies and others of similar international acclaim. Important movies opened there. The building's aura faded, and it was demolished and replaced by a new building.

paragraph: In 1939 the Academy of Music was replaced by an Art Deco building called the Riviera Theatre. Architect Charles C. Benton described his new design as "classic modern." It operated until 1977.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:249 King St..

paragraph: In 1875, Susan Wood contracted for a three-story brick building designed and built by Devereux, replacing an earlier structure destroyed by fire that year. Although the Italianate facade was remodeled early in the 20th century, its architectural integrity remains. In order, it housed a dry goods merchant, J.R. Read & Co., and then a studio and residence of George Bernard.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:270 King Street Masonic Temple.

paragraph: In order to undertake this contract to build a Masonic Temple and defuse any criticism that it was designed by someone not a Mason, Devereux, who was a Roman Catholic, took the Entered Apprentice Degree of Masonry. He fashioned his design in the Tudor Gothic style, and it was constructed of brick and stucco. Though remodeled several times, its original 1872 beauty persists to a degree. In a 1984 renovation, the "Gothic-arched storefronts were restored." See pic at Flickr.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:134 Broad Street John Klinck House.

paragraph: Designed for wealthy Charleston grocery store owner John Klinch, the house was constructed in 1872. It is a combination of Gothic Revival and Italianate stylings, an upright-and-wing structure with a prominent two story porch across the wing.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:152 Broad St. c.1885.

paragraph: John Henry Devereux was the architect for William M. Bird, who was a partner with H.F. Welch. Their company was William M. Bird & Co., "wholesale dealers in paints, oils, glass, naval stores and ship chandlery." Bird never resided there, and in 1889 sold it to Otto Tiedeman, a wholesale grocer. Architectural detail mimicks features on the house at 24 South Battery. "Similarities include the prominent two tiered bay window, window treatment, piazza collonettes and railings, and other decorations. The house is faced with novelty siding typical of the period and the foundation is of Stoney Landing brick, made locally in the 1880s."

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:68 St. Philip St. Brith Sholom Synagogue.

paragraph: The Orthodox Jewish congregation had its synagogue there in 1874–75. Abrahams & Seyle, architects designed the Classic Revival building, and Devereux was both an architect and contractor. In 1955–56. the building's interior was reconstructed inside the Brith Sholom Beth Israel Synagogue at 182 Rutledge Ave. See History of the Jews in Charleston, South Carolina.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:50 St. Philip St. Charleston Female Seminary.

paragraph: What is a now a parking lot includes the site of the Charleston Female Seminary, which was founded by Henrietta Aiken Kelley in 1870. "Miss Kelley's School", as it was called, was one of the South's leading girls' schools. Constructed in 1871, Devereux used "mixed Roman" or Italianate architecture, and "an arcaded and pedimented facade."

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:1914 Middle Street, Sullivan's Island Devereux Mansion.

paragraph: Devereux's personal mansion, built by himself in 1875, was expansive and opulent. The elaborate gate house and massive main "once dwarfed all others on the island". Devereux took up residence in Charleston and spent his summers on Sullivan's Island. His mansion gateway had whale's jawbones, and the garden contained a ship's wooden figurehead of a lady.

paragraph: All that remains today is the Gatehouse that was restored in 2005 under the direction of C. Jennings Smith of Sullivan's Island, SC

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:Camden, South Carolina – Opera House.

paragraph: This building was designed by Devereux in 1885.

paragraph: Section::::Selected architectural works.:Blackville, South Carolina - St. Matthew's.

paragraph: The plans for St. Matthew's were drawn in 1884.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charleston, South Carolina Art, architecture, literature, science

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gothic Revival architecture

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of tallest churches in the world

alias:
John Delorey
John Devereux

description: American architect

wikidata_label: John Henry Devereux

wikipedia_title: John Henry Devereux


text:
La Roche-sur-Yon
France
Paris
France
French
Arthur Rimbaud
A Season in Hell
Le Courrier français
Zutiste

categories: French poets,1937 deaths,French male poets,20th-century French writers,20th-century French male writers,1848 births

paragraph: Raoul Ponchon

paragraph: Raoul Ponchon (born December 30, 1848 in La Roche-sur-Yon, France, died December 3, 1937 in Paris, France) was a French poet. A friend of Arthur Rimbaud, he was one of only "seven known recipients" of the first edition of A Season in Hell.

paragraph: He was a contributor to the satirical weekly "Le Courrier français".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zutiste

description: French poet

wikidata_label: Raoul Ponchon

wikipedia_title: Raoul Ponchon


text:
Rio Preto, Minas Gerais
Brazil
herpetologist
ichthyologist
Paulo de Miranda-Ribeiro
zoologist
natural history
Buffon
Rio de Janeiro
National Museum of Brazil
Amazon
Candido Rondon
telegraph
Mato Grosso
fishery
herpetology
French Wikipedia

categories: Herpetologists,Brazilian ichthyologists,1874 births,People from Minas Gerais,Brazilian herpetologists,1939 deaths

paragraph: Alípio de Miranda-Ribeiro

paragraph: Alípio de Miranda-Ribeiro (21 February 1874, Rio Preto, Minas Gerais – 8 January 1939) was a Brazilian herpetologist and ichthyologist. His son, Paulo de Miranda-Ribeiro (1901-1965) was also a zoologist.

paragraph: From an early age Alípio de Miranda-Ribeiro had a passion for natural history; as an adolescent he translated works of Buffon into Portuguese. He studied medicine in Rio de Janeiro, and from 1894 worked as a preparator at the National Museum of Brazil. Here he later served as secretary (from 1899), and director of the department of zoology (from 1929).

paragraph: During his career he explored the Amazon region many times, and under the direction of Candido Rondon (1865-1958), he took part in installing the first telegraph through the Amazon and Mato Grosso. In 1911, after visiting museums and fishery programs in Europe and the United States, he founded a fisheries inspectorate in Brazil, the first official services on fisheries in the nation.

paragraph: In 1911 he published the highly regarded "Fauna brasiliensis-Peixes" (Brazilian fishes). He was also the author of numerous works in the field of herpetology.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- This article is based on a translation of an equivalent article at the French Wikipedia, namely: Kraig Adler (1989). Contributions to the History of Herpetology, Society for the study of amphibians and reptiles : 202 p. ()

alias:
Miranda-Ribeiro
Alipio de Miranda-Ribeiro

description: Brazilian zoologist and herpetologist

wikidata_label: Alípio de Miranda-Ribeiro

wikipedia_title: Alípio de Miranda-Ribeiro


text: track and field

text: world record

text: 440 yard dash

text: University of New Mexico

text: NCAA

text: Skyline Conference

text: Western Athletic Conference

text: Ulis Williams

text: Glenn Davis

text: 400 meters

text: See below

text: Brooklyn

text: New York City

text: United States Air Force

text: Colorado

text: Denver

text: Track and Field News

categories: 2015 deaths,American male sprinters,1938 births,United States Air Force airmen,Former world record holders in athletics (track and field),New Mexico Lobos men's track and field athletes

paragraph: Adolph Plummer

paragraph: Adolph Plummer (January 3, 1938 – November 30, 2015) was an American track and field athlete. He is best known for breaking the world record in the 440 yard dash in 1963, the last runner to hold the 400 m record with a time recorded for the longer 440 yards.

paragraph: Section::::Track career.

paragraph: During his time running at the University of New Mexico (UNM, 1959–1963), Plummer was a member of an outstanding Lobos track team. In 1961, Plummer became the NCAA champion in the 440 yards event. He was a three-time All-American and won four titles in the 440 yards event and three at 220 yards in the Skyline Conference and Western Athletic Conference (WAC).

paragraph: On May 25, 1963, running in his last race for UNM at the WAC Championships in Tempe, Arizona, Plummer shocked future Olympic champion Ulis Williams on his home track with a 44.9 second world record in the 440 yards (Williams also broke the old world record by 0.1 second). Plummer shattered the old mark set by Glenn Davis five years previously by the huge margin of 8 tenths of a second. Plummer's only memory of the race was hearing the starter say "set" before the race began. Plummer's time also tied the existing world record in the shorter 400 meters (440 yards is 402.34 meters). This was the first ever 440 run under 45 seconds.

paragraph: In 1964, Plummer attempted to qualify for the Olympic Games but trailed in his heat due to the flare-up of an arthritic knee, a condition that was to eventually end his athletics career.

paragraph: In 1965, Plummer returned to the track specializing in the 220 yard/200 meter event. That year he became USA national champion at 220 yards and was ranked number one in the world at that distance.(See below).

paragraph: Section::::Accolades and awards.

paragraph: In 1976, Plummer was inducted into the New Mexico Sports Hall of Fame.

paragraph: In 2012, Plummer was presented with a Living Legend Awards by the UNM Black Alumni Chapter.

paragraph: Plummer has also been inducted into the UNM Alumni Lettermen's Association Hall of Honor.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Plummer was a native of Brooklyn, New York City and served in the United States Air Force before attending UNM.

paragraph: After attending UNM, Plummer moved to Colorado and worked as an educator in the Denver public schools system.

paragraph: In the mid-1970s (1974–76 in particular), Plummer's tenure as an educator at Cole Junior H.S., in Denver, coincided with the earliest days of Court-Ordered Busing for Integration. His involvement was instrumental in fostering tolerance – resulting in a successful, peaceful learning environment for Denver's suburban and urban students suddenly exposed to new cohorts and lifestyles and attitudes.

paragraph: He also served for a time as an associate dean in the Athletic Department at UNM in charge of education.

paragraph: Plummer died on November 30, 2015 in Denver at the age of 77.

paragraph: Section::::Track and field rankings.

paragraph: Plummer was ranked among the best in the US and the world in the 440 yard/400 meter sprint event in the period 1961–64 and the 220 yard/200 meter sprint event in the period 1963–1966, according to the votes of the experts of "Track and Field News".

paragraph: Section::::USA Championships.

paragraph: Plummer competed in the 220 yard/220 meter and 440 yard/400 meter events in the USA National Track and Field Championships between 1961 and 1966.

description: American track and field athlete, sprinter, 400 meters & 440 meters

wikidata_label: Adolph Plummer

wikipedia_title: Adolph Plummer


text: Christian

text: martyr

text: saint

text: bishop of Lucera

text: Apulia

text: Italy

text: patron saint

text: Termoli

text: Saint Peter

text: Trajan

text: Nice

text: Dasius of Dorostoro

text: San Basso di Termoli historical website

text: Folkore of Termoli

text: Cupra Marittima: San Basso

categories: Saints from Roman Italy,118 deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Bassus of Lucera

paragraph: Saint Bassus of Lucera (; c 40/50–118) was a Christian martyr and saint, and traditionally the first bishop of Lucera in Apulia, Italy. He is the patron saint of Termoli.

paragraph: Section::::Legend.

paragraph: One of the earliest Christian communities is believed to have been established in Lucera. The legend of the saint relates that in about the year 60 Saint Peter passed through and put Bassus at the head of the nascent bishopric. Bassus was martyred under Trajan in 118.

paragraph: His feast day is 5 December.

paragraph: Section::::Disagreements on identity.

paragraph: There is some controversy regarding the identity of Bassus, in that there is potential confusion between Saint Bassus of Lucera and Saint Bassus of Nice (or Nicaea), who was also a bishop and martyr and whose feast day also falls on 5 December, although his martyrdom took place at Nice in about 250. There may also be confusion with a certain Saint Dasius of Dorostoro, also known as Bassus.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Santi, Beati e Testimoni: San Basso di Nizza

paragraph: BULLET::::- San Basso di Termoli historical website

paragraph: BULLET::::- Folkore of Termoli

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cupra Marittima: San Basso

wikidata_label: Bassus of Lucera

wikipedia_title: Bassus of Lucera


text:
"Giudice" (Judge) of Cagliari
history of Sardinia
William II
Massa
Serra
Gherardeschi
Visconti
Capraia
Republic of Pisa
William III
Rinaldo Cepolla
giudicato
Republic of Genoa
procurator
Malocello
Percivalle Doria
Ogerio Scoto
Giovanni Pontano
podestà
castellan
Castel di Castro
Gallura
Arborea
John Visconti
William of Capraia
Gherardo
Ugolino della Gherardesca
Santa Igia
Cagliari

categories: 1256 deaths,Judges (judikes) of Cagliari,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Torchitorio V of Cagliari

paragraph: Torchitorio V (died 1256), born John and known as Chiano or Chianni, was the "Giudice" (Judge) of Cagliari from 1250 to his death. His reign was brief but transformative in the history of Sardinia.

paragraph: He may have been the son of his predecessor William II. All that is certain about his family is that he was himself a Massa and that his mother was a Serra. His birthplace and date are unknown and he had no wife or children. The date of his succession is also presumptive, as there is a silence in the sources between the last mention of William II and the first of Torchitorio V.

paragraph: When he first appeared as Judge in 1254, he was ruling in name only; the real power in Cagliari was in the hands of the families of the Gherardeschi, Visconti, and Capraia. Chiano did homage to the Republic of Pisa for Cagliari. In 1254, he took over the palace in Cagliari, though probably not by force. On 23 September, he drew up a will, declaring his heirs to be his cousins William III and Rinaldo Cepolla.

paragraph: Frustrated by the increasing interference of Pisa in his "giudicato", Chiano cautiously turned to the Republic of Genoa for allies. In February 1256, he sent two envoys ("procuratores") to Genoa to sign a pact on 20 April. On 25 May, Chiano affirmed it in the cathedral chapel of his castle in the presence of Malocello and Percivalle Doria. By the terms of the treaty, both allies owed the other military assistance in all their wars. Chiano became a Genoese citizen and rendered homage to the two representatives of the Republic. Cagliari granted Genoa the tax-free export of salt. All Cagliaritan castles were to be shared between the alliance, but in reality Genoa controlled them. Chiano was left with only a house in Cagliari, but he was offered a palace in Genoa and the hand in marriage of daughter of Malocello's family, which he was constrained by the treaty to accept. Meanwhile, Ogerio Scoto and Giovanni Pontano were sent to Cagliari as "podestà" and castellan respectively. Chiano then expelled the Pisans from the Castel di Castro and granted it to the Genoese.

paragraph: Following this, the "filopisani" judges of Gallura and Arborea, John Visconti and William of Capraia, invaded Cagliari and besieged the eponymous chief city. Gherardo and Ugolino della Gherardesca brought eight ships to the siege on behalf of Pisa. Chiano, then in Genoa, left that city with twenty four galleys and followed the Tuscan coast, capturing some Pisan vessels along the way. He arrived at Cagliari too late, was defeated and captured. He was quickly assassinated by a Pisan at Santa Igia later that year. The battle and his death occurred sometime between 17 July and 15 October.

paragraph: He was succeeded on the throne by his cousin William III, in accordance with his will of 1254. There is a street named Via Giudice Chiano in Cagliari today.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Boscolo, A. "Chiano di Massa, Guglielmo Cepolla, Genova e la caduta del giudicato di Cagliari (1254–1258)." "Miscellanei di storia ligure". IV (1966), pp 7–18.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ghisalberti, Alberto M. "Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani". Rome.

paragraph: br

description: Sardinian ruler

wikidata_label: Torchitorio V of Cagliari

wikipedia_title: Torchitorio V of Cagliari


text: visual

text: illusion

text: New York City

text: Ruth Schonthal

text: Nazis

text: Jewish

text: New Rochelle, NY

text: New Rochelle High School

text: Cornell University

text: Los Angeles metropolitan area

text: Freethought

text: Bertrand Russell

text: Darwin fish

text: southern California

text: prop

text: public domain

text: paranormal

text: Extra-sensory perception

text: firewalking

text: James Randi

text: Peter Popoff

text: Los Angeles Times

text: amicus

text: U.S. Supreme Court

text: Edwards v. Aguillard

text: Louisiana

text: creation science

text: Jeffrey Lehman

text: Cornell University

text: Nobel

text: Murray Gell-Mann

text: evolution

text: leukemia

text: Michael Shermer

text: Los Angeles

text: The Skeptics Society

text: TED

text: World Economic Forum

text: Giuseppe Arcimboldo

text: Salvador Dalí

text: M. C. Escher

text: Rex Whistler

text: National Geographic Kids

text: A Coruña

text: Wellcome Trust

text: Francis Crick

text: Christie's

text: Watson

text: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

text: Craig Venter

text: J. Craig Venter Institute

text: "San Diego Reader"

text: "Tablet Magazine"

text: Los Angeles Superior Court

text: Jeffery Epstein

text: Little Saint James

text: Murray Gell-Mann

text: Leonard Mlodinow

text: Gerald Sussman

text: Edge Foundation

text: Gathering for Martin Gardner

text: X Prize Foundation

text: Pete Conrad

text: Denice D. Lewis

text: Isabel Maxwell

text: San Gabriel Valley Tribune

text: Recollections of Richard Feynman

categories: 2015 deaths,American skeptics,1958 births,Writers from New Rochelle, New York,American atheists,American people of German-Jewish descent

paragraph: Al Seckel

paragraph: Alfred Paul "Al" Seckel (September 3, 1958 – 2015) was an American author of books on visual and other types of sensory illusions.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Seckel was born September 3, 1958 in New York City, New York to Paul Bernard Seckel, a German-born painter and graphic artist, and Ruth Schonthal, a German-born pianist and classical composer. His mother was a refugee from the Nazis. Seckel was raised in a Jewish household. He grew up in New Rochelle, NY with his two older brothers, Ben and Bernard Seckel. Seckel graduated from New Rochelle High School in 1976. He attended Cornell University from 1976 to 1978 but left without receiving a degree.

paragraph: In 1981, Seckel moved to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, where he lived for nearly thirty years.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Freethought movement.

paragraph: Throughout the 1980s, Al Seckel was active in the Freethought movement. In this capacity he authored a number of articles and pamphlets. He also edited two books on the English rationalist philosopher Bertrand Russell. In 1983, Seckel and John Edwards co-created the Darwin fish design, which was first sold as a bumper sticker and on T-shirts in 1983–84 by a southern California group called Atheists United. Chris Gilman, a Hollywood prop maker, manufactured the first plastic car ornaments in 1990, and licensed the design to Evolution Design of Austin, Texas. When the emblem evolved into a million-dollar business, Evolution Design began threatening to sue distributors of look-alike and derivative products (like a Jewish ""gefilte"" fish). Seckel in turn sued Evolution Design for copyright infringement. Seckel did not seek royalties, but wanted Evolution Design to allow free use of the design by anyone authorized by him. Although Seckel was able to produce examples of the design that predated Gilman's claimed 1990 copyright date, the suit was settled when it became apparent that Seckel and Edwards had allowed the design to fall into public domain.

paragraph: In 1984, Seckel started the Southern California Skeptics (SCS), and became a spokesperson for science and its relationship to the paranormal. SCS co-sponsored and produced a monthly series of lectures held monthly at the California Institute of Technology, other meetings were also held on the campus of Cal State Fullerton, that explained alleged paranormal phenomena such as Extra-sensory perception and firewalking. Seckel also wrote about investigating various supernatural claims from the scientific perspective. One such investigation, led by James Randi, concerned faith healer Peter Popoff, who used a hearing transmitter to give the impression that he was psychic and hearing private information from God. Seckel also wrote a column for the Los Angeles Times and the "Santa Monica Monthly News" from 1987–1989, explaining apparently amazing or paranormal phenomena in scientific terms.

paragraph: In 1987, SCS and Seckel helped sponsor an amicus brief before the U.S. Supreme Court in the case Edwards v. Aguillard, challenging the constitutionality of a Louisiana law calling for the classroom inclusion of creation science. The brief was written by a group of attorneys led by Jeffrey Lehman (later president of Cornell University), and SCS board member and Nobel Laureate Murray Gell-Mann recruited the signatures of 72 Nobel Laureates, 17 State Academies of Science, and 7 other scientific organizations. It argued that "creation science" was counter not only to the study of evolution, but to all sciences. The court decided in a 7-2 vote that so-called "creation-science" was in fact, religion disguised as science, deliberately construed as such in order to circumvent the constitutional prohibitions of keeping Church and State separate, especially in the public science classroom. All of the opinions cited the brief, including the dissents.

paragraph: In late 1990, due to a sudden onset of leukemia, Seckel had to enter the hospital, where his health quickly deteriorated. The Southern California Skeptics folded. In 1991, Michael Shermer started a new Los Angeles-area skeptical group called The Skeptics Society, using SCS's mailing list and involving many of its original board members. Seckel started to recover from his illness in 1994, turning his full attention to studying the human brain, specifically vision and how it relates to perception.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Visual illusions.

paragraph: Seckel has written a number of books on visual illusions and has given invited talks at many universities around the world, and at many prestigious conferences, including TED and the World Economic Forum, Davos.

paragraph: His book, "Masters of Deception: Escher, Dali, and the Artists of Optical Illusion" (2004), collects the work of many prominent international visual illusion artists, including among others Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1527–1593), Salvador Dalí (1904–1989), M. C. Escher (1898–1972), and Rex Whistler (1905–1944). His book "The Art of Optical Illusions" placed first on the American Library Association's "Top 10 Quick Picks for Reluctant Young Adult Readers" list for 2001. Some of his other books on optical illusions and perception, which focus more on the science that mediates illusions and perception, have been used in college courses on visual perception.

paragraph: In 1994, Seckel designed and put up the first free interactive website on illusions and has developed visual illusion installation for museums around the world. Seckel has also written a series of optical illusion picture books for children including "Ambiguous Illusions" (2005), "Action Optical Illusions" (2005) and "Stereo Optical Illusions" (2006). Seckel wrote a monthly column on illusions for "National Geographic Kids" magazine.

paragraph: In 2005, Seckel was one of the judges at the first "Best Visual Illusion of the Year" contest held in A Coruña, Spain at the European Conference on Visual Perception. In 2006 he was listed as one of the contest's sponsors.

paragraph: Section::::Other activities.

paragraph: Section::::Other activities.:Rare book investment and sales.

paragraph: During the late 1990s, Seckel and rare-book dealer Jeremy Norman purchased, collected, and organized the original papers of many of the pioneers in the history of the development of molecular biology, so that these papers would be preserved together for scholarly use. At the time they were collected, the papers had no apparent market value and institutions were not interested in keeping the archives of their retired scientists. After the Wellcome Trust purchased the papers of Francis Crick for $2.4 million, Norman offered his collection for sale piecemeal through Christie's. Seckel brought forth a lawsuit against Norman and Christies to keep the collection in one piece. A settlement was reached where Norman through Christies was allowed to sell the collection in its entirety to preserve free access to scholars. Former colleagues and associates of Watson and Crick attempted to raise the asking price of $3.2 million so the collection could be donated to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory where Watson and Crick had done their pioneering research, but were unsuccessful. The collection was eventually acquired by molecular biologist J. Craig Venter, who has said he will keep the collection at the J. Craig Venter Institute.

paragraph: Section::::Other activities.:Lawsuits and disputes.

paragraph: Seckel was sued on several occasions after disputes over rare-book investment and sales.

paragraph: In a "San Diego Reader", article from 1994, Tom McIver (author of "Anti-Evolution: An Annotated Bibliography") accused Seckel of failing to disclose financial information as leader of the Southern California Skeptics and misrepresenting his academic credentials. Seckel sued the author, Tom McIver for libel. The suit was settled in 2007 under undisclosed terms.

paragraph: A 2015 profile of Seckel in "Tablet Magazine" detailed several first-person accounts from individuals who reported that Seckel still owed them money including the widow of one of his mentors, his lawyer, a graduate student, and those who had engaged in rare book deals. The article stated that there were at least 25 cases involving Seckel from 1992 to 2015 in the Los Angeles Superior Court database.

paragraph: Section::::Other activities.:Mindshift Conference with Jeffery Epstein.

paragraph: In 2009 Seckel was involved in organizing a science conference with financier and convicted sex offender Jeffery Epstein. The conference took place in 2010 on Epstein's private island Little Saint James. In attendance were Murray Gell-Mann, Leonard Mlodinow, and Gerald Sussman.

paragraph: An interview between Jeffrey Epstein and Al Seckel discussing perception appeared on Epstein's science website on October 17, 2010.

paragraph: Section::::Other activities.:Other professional associations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Seckel was a member of the Edge Foundation, an international association of scientists and writers.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Seckel was one of the organizers and contributors to the Gathering for Martin Gardner conference.

paragraph: BULLET::::- He has directed the X Prize Foundation (Ocean) and has served on the Board of the Pete Conrad Foundation.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Seckel married Laura Mullen in 1980; their daughter Elizabeth was born in 1987. Mullen and Seckel later divorced. His second marriage was to Denice D. Lewis in 2004 in Las Vegas, Nevada: it was never annulled. Seckel married for a third time to Alice Klarke; the union was dissolved in 2007. Seckel became involved with Isabel Maxwell from 2007 until his death in France in 2015.

paragraph: From approximately 2010 until his death in 2015, Seckel lived in France. According to his personal website and the "San Gabriel Valley Tribune" he died near his home in France. The day of death was not specifically listed.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Science and the Paranormal." SCS Publishing (1987)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bertrand Russell on God and Religion." (Seckel, editor), Prometheus Books (1986)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bertrand Russell on Sex, Marriage, and Morals." (Seckel, editor), Prometheus Books (1987)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Art of Optical Illusions." Carlton Books (2000)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Great Book of Optical Illusions." Firefly Books (2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Masters of Deception: Escher, Dali, and the Artists of Optical Illusion." Sterling Books (2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Incredible Visual Illusions." (with Rebecca Panayiotou and Tessa Rose, editors), Arcturus Books (2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Action Optical Illusions." Sterling Books (2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Impossible Optical Illusions." Sterling Books (2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Stereo Optical Illusions." Sterling Books (2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Optical Illusions: The Science of Visual Perception." Firefly Books (2006)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jeffrey Epstein Interviews Al Seckel on Science, Thinking Skills, Physics, and Perception

paragraph: BULLET::::- Recollections of Richard Feynman

description: American skeptic

wikidata_label: Al Seckel

wikipedia_title: Al Seckel