text: Roman emperor

text: Valens

text: eastern provinces

text: west

text: Alamanni

text: Quadi

text: Sarmatians

text: Battle of Solicinium

text: Count Theodosius

text: Africa

text: Great Conspiracy

text: Roman Britain

text: Picts

text: Scots

text: Saxons

text: Rhine

text: Danube

text: Valentinian Dynasty

text: Gratian

text: Valentinian II

text: Cibalae

text: Pannonia

text: Vinkovci

text: Croatia

text: Illyrian

text: Valens

text: Gratianus Major

text: Constantine I

text: Constans I

text: Comes

text: protector domesticus

text: Britannia

text: usurper

text: Magnentius

text: Gaul

text: Constantius II

text: Battle of Mursa Major

text: Battle of Mons Seleucus

text: Alamanni

text: Franks

text: Rhine

text: Julian

text: Barbatio

text: Lugdunum

text: Lyon

text: Bainobaudes

text: Cella

text: Chnodomarius

text: Sirmium

text: Gratian

text: Marina Severa

text: Jovian

text: Procopius

text: Memoridus

text: Constantinople

text: Ancyra

text: Nicaea

text: Sallustius

text: Aequitius

text: Dagalaifus

text: magister equitum

text: Zosimus

text: Pagan

text: Christianity

text: Sophists

text: Prefecture of Oriens

text: prefect

text: Salutius

text: Italy

text: Gaul

text: Africa

text: Illyricum

text: Constantinople

text: Mediolanum

text: Alamanni

text: Procopius

text: Constantinian dynasty

text: Paris

text: Durocortorum

text: Meuse river

text: Moguntiacum

text: Vithicabius

text: magister peditum

text: Main

text: Battle of Solicinium

text: Trier

text: Heidelberg

text: Saxons

text: Burgundians

text: Macrian

text: magister equitum

text: Theodosius

text: Po river

text: Hortarius

text: Picts

text: Attacotti

text: Scots

text: Comes litoris Saxonici

text: Nectaridus

text: Dux Britanniarum

text: Fullofaudes

text: Great Conspiracy

text: Samarobriva

text: Comes Britanniarum

text: Batavi

text: Heruli

text: Rutupiæ

text: Londinium

text: Civilis

text: vicarius

text: diocese

text: Dulcitius

text: London

text: Valentinus

text: vicarius

text: Maximinus

text: Valentia

text: Firmus

text: Quadi

text: Gabinius

text: Pannonia Valeria

text: Moesia

text: Theodosius

text: Carnuntum

text: Merobaudes

text: Aquincum

text: Savaria

text: Brigetio

text: A.H.M. Jones

text: Ammianus

text: Rome

text: Constantine I

text: Christian

text: Pope Damasus I

text: Socrates Scholasticus

text: polygamous

text: Justina

text: Marina Severa

text: Women in Ancient Rome

text: Arian

text: John Malalas

text: Chronicon Paschale

text: John of Nikiu

text: List of Byzantine emperors

text: Uchicago.edu

text: "De Imperatoribus Romanis"

text: Edward Gibbon

text: Ernst Stein

categories: 4th-century Christians,321 births,People from Vinkovci,4th-century Byzantine emperors,4th-century Roman emperors,Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles,Flavii,Imperial Roman consuls,Valentinian dynasty,375 deaths

image: 512px-INC-1558-a_Солид_Валентиниан_I_ок._364-367_гг._(аверс).png

paragraph: Valentinian I

paragraph: Valentinian I (; ; 3 July 32117 November 375), also known as Valentinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west.

paragraph: During his reign, Valentinian fought successfully against the Alamanni, Quadi, and Sarmatians. Most notable was his victory over the Alamanni in 367 at the Battle of Solicinium. His brilliant general Count Theodosius defeated a revolt in Africa and the Great Conspiracy, a coordinated assault on Roman Britain by Picts, Scots, and Saxons. Valentinian was also the last emperor to conduct campaigns across both the Rhine and Danube rivers. Valentinian rebuilt and improved the fortifications along the frontiers, even building fortresses in enemy territory.

paragraph: Due to the successful nature of his reign and the rapid decline of the empire after his death, he is often considered to be the "last great western emperor". He founded the Valentinian Dynasty, with his sons Gratian and Valentinian II succeeding him in the western half of the empire.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Valentinian was born in 321 at Cibalae in southern Pannonia (now Vinkovci in Croatia) into an Illyrian family. Valentinian and his younger brother Valens were the sons of Gratianus Major, a prominent commander during the reigns of emperors Constantine I and Constans I. He and his brother grew up on the family estate where they were educated in a variety of subjects, including painting and sculpting.

paragraph: Gratian the Elder was promoted to "Comes Africae" in the late 320s or early 330s, and the young Valentinian accompanied his father to Africa. However, Gratian was soon accused of embezzlement and was forced to retire. Valentinian joined the army in the late 330s and later probably acquired the position of "protector domesticus". Gratian was later recalled during the early 340s and was made "comes" of Britannia. After holding this post, Gratianus retired to the family estate in Cibalae.

paragraph: In 350, Constans I was assassinated by agents of the usurper Magnentius, a commander in Gaul proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. Constantius II, older brother of Constans and emperor in the East, promptly set forth towards Magnentius with a large army. The following year the two emperors met in Pannonia. The ensuing Battle of Mursa Major resulted in a costly victory for Constantius. Two years later he defeated Magnentius again in southern Gaul at the Battle of Mons Seleucus. Magnentius, now realizing the futility of continuing his revolt, committed suicide in August that year; making Constantius sole ruler of the empire. It was around this time that Constantius confiscated Gratianus' property, for supposedly showing hospitality to Magnentius when he was in Pannonia. Despite his father's fall from favor, Valentinian does not seem to have been adversely affected at this time, making it unlikely he ever fought for the usurper. It is known that Valentinian was in the region during the conflict, but what involvement he had in the war, if any, is unknown.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Constantius and Julian.

paragraph: The conflict between Magnentius and Constantius had allowed the Alamanni and Franks to take advantage of the confusion and cross the Rhine, attacking several important settlements and fortifications. In 355, after deposing his cousin Gallus but still feeling the crises of the empire too much for one emperor to handle, Constantius raised his cousin Julian to the rank of "Caesar". With the situation in Gaul rapidly deteriorating, Julian was made at least nominal commander of one of the two main armies in Gaul, Barbatio being commander of the other. Constantius devised a strategy where Julian and Barbatio would operate in a pincer movement against the Alamanni. However, a band of Alamanni slipped past Julian and Barbatio and attacked Lugdunum (Lyon). Julian sent the tribunes Valentinian and Bainobaudes to watch the road the raiders would have to return by. However, their efforts were hindered by Barbatio and his tribune Cella. The Alamanni king Chnodomarius took advantage of the situation and attacked the Romans in detail, inflicting heavy losses. Barbatio complained to Constantius and the debacle was blamed on Valentinian and Bainobaudes, who were cashiered from the army.

paragraph: With his career in ruins, Valentinian returned to his new family estate in Sirmium. Two years later his first son Gratian was born by his wife Marina Severa. Valentinian's actions and location become uncertain around this time, but he was likely exiled. Theodoret say that this was because he'd reacted angrily when a pagan temple attendant sprinkled water on him, saying "I am not purified, but defiled", and striking the priest.

paragraph: Section::::Rise to power.

paragraph: At the news of Julian's death on a campaign against the Sassanids, the army hastily declared a commander, Jovian, emperor. The army still found itself beleaguered by Persian attacks, forcing Jovian to accept humiliating peace terms. Jovian's authority within the empire was still insecure, so he sent a notary Procopius and the tribune Memoridus west to announce his accession. During Jovian's reign Valentinian was promoted to tribune of a "Scutarii" (elite infantry) regiment, and was dispatched to Ancyra. Jovian's rule would be short – only eight months – and before he could even consolidate his position in Constantinople he died en route between Ancyra and Nicaea. His death was attributed to either assassination by poisoning or accidental carbon monoxide poisoning. Jovian is remembered mostly for restoring Christianity to its previous favored status under Constantine and his sons.

paragraph: The army marched to Nicaea, and a meeting of civil and military officials was convened to choose a new emperor. The purple was offered to Sallustius, who had refused it once before on Julian's death. The prefect declined, and did so again on behalf of his son when the offer was extended to him. Two different names were proposed: Aequitius, a tribune of the first Scutarii, and Januarius, a relative of Jovian's in charge of military supplies in Illyricum. Both were rejected; Aequitius as too rough and boorish, Januarius because he was too far away. As a man well qualified and at hand, the assembly finally agreed upon Valentinian, and sent messengers to inform him in Ancyra.

paragraph: Section::::Emperor.

paragraph: Valentinian accepted the acclamation on 26 February 364. As he prepared to make his accession speech the soldiers threatened to riot, apparently uncertain as to where his loyalties lay. Valentinian reassured them that the army was his greatest priority. According to Ammianus the soldiers were astounded by Valentinian’s bold demeanor and his willingness to assume the imperial authority. To further prevent a succession crisis he agreed to pick a co-Augustus. His decision to elect a fellow-emperor could also be construed as a move to appease any opposition among the civilian officials in the eastern portion of the Empire. By agreeing to appoint a co-ruler, he assured the eastern officials that someone with imperial authority would remain in the east to protect their interests.

paragraph: Valentinian selected his brother Valens as co-Augustus at Constantinople on 28 March 364. This was done over the objections of Dagalaifus, the "magister equitum". Ammianus makes it clear that Valens was subordinate to his brother. The remainder of 364 was spent delegating administrative duties and military commands. According to the 5th century historian Zosimus, who as a Pagan was inclined to revile the restorer of Christianity, all the ministers and officials appointed by Julian were summarily dismissed in disgrace; modern authorities have qualified the assertion. It is certain that some reshuffling of commands occurred along with the division of the provinces, but the changes were strictly based on merit. The Sophists and philosophers who had proliferated in the court of the apostate, drawing large salaries for delusive services, were cashiered. Valentinian retained the services of Dagalaifus and promoted Aequitius to "Comes Illyricum". Valens was given the Prefecture of Oriens, governed by prefect Salutius. Valentinian gained control of Italy, Gaul, Africa, and Illyricum. Valens resided in Constantinople, while Valentinian’s court was at Mediolanum.

paragraph: Section::::Emperor.:Campaigns in Gaul and Germania.

paragraph: In 365 the Alamanni crossed the Rhine and invaded Gaul. Simultaneously, Procopius – the last scion of the Constantinian dynasty – began his revolt against Valens in the east. According to Ammianus, Valentinian received news of both the Alamanni and Procopius' revolt on 1 November while on his way to Paris. He initially sent Dagalaifus to fight the Alamanni while he himself made preparations to march east and help Valens. After receiving counsel from his court and deputations from the leading Gallic cities begging him to stay and protect Gaul, he decided to remain in Gaul and fight the Alamanni.

paragraph: Valentinian advanced to Durocortorum and sent two generals, Charietto and Severianus, against the invaders. Both generals were promptly defeated and killed. In 366, Dagalaifus was sent against the Alamanni but he was also ineffective. Late in the campaigning season Dagalaifus was replaced by Jovinus, a general from the court of Valentinian. After several victories along the Meuse river Jovinus pushed the Alamanni out of Gaul and was awarded the consulate the following year for his efforts.

paragraph: In early 367 Valentinian was distracted from launching a punitive expedition against the Alamanni due to crises in Britain and northern Gaul. The Alamanni promptly re-crossed the Rhine and plundered Moguntiacum. Valentinian succeeded in arranging the assassination of Vithicabius, an Alamannic leader, but Valentinian was more determined to bring the Alamanni under Roman hegemony. Valentinian spent the entire winter of 367 gathering a massive army for a spring offensive. He summoned the "Comes Italiae" Sebastianus, with the Italian and Illyrian legions, to join Jovinus and Severus, the "magister peditum". In the spring of 368 Valentinian, his eight-year-old son Gratian and the army crossed the Rhine and Main rivers into Alamannic territory. They did not encounter any resistance initially – burning any dwellings or food stores they found along the way. Finally, Valentinian fought the Alamanni in the Battle of Solicinium; the Romans were victorious but suffered heavy casualties. A temporary peace was reached and Valentinian returned to Trier for the winter. During 369, Valentinian ordered new defensive works to be constructed and old structures refurbished along the length of the Rhine’s west bank. Boldly, he ordered the construction of a fortress across the Rhine in the mountains near modern Heidelberg. The Alamanni sent envoys to protest, but they were dismissed. The Alamanni attacked the fortress while it was still under construction and destroyed it.

paragraph: In 370 the Saxons renewed their attacks on northern Gaul. Nannienus, the "comes" in charge of the troops in northern Gaul, urged Severus to come to his aid. After several modest successes, a truce was called and the Saxons handed over to the Romans young men fit for duty in the Roman military – in exchange for free passage back to their homeland. The Romans ambushed them and destroyed the entire invading force.

paragraph: Valentinian meanwhile tried to persuade the Burgundians – bitter enemies of the Alamanni – to attack Macrian, a powerful Alamannic chieftain. If the Alamanni tried to flee, Valentinian would be waiting for them with his army. Negotiations with the Burgundians broke down when Valentinian, in his usual high-handed manner, refused to meet with the Burgundian envoys and personally assure them of Roman support. Nevertheless, rumors of a Roman alliance with the Burgundians did have the effect of scattering the Alamanni through fear of an imminent attack from their enemies. This event allowed the "magister equitum" Theodosius to attack the Alamanni through Raetia – taking many Alamannic prisoners. These captured Alamanni were settled in the Po river valley in Italy, where they were still settled at the time Ammianus wrote his history.

paragraph: Valentinian campaigned unsuccessfully for four more years to defeat Macrian who in 372 barely escaped capture by Theodosius. Meanwhile, Valentinian continued to recruit heavily from Alamanni friendly to Rome. He sent the Alamannic king Fraomarius, as a Tribune, to Britain in 372-373 with an army in order to replenish troops there and made the noblemen Bitheridius and Hortarius commanders in his army although Hortarius was soon executed for conspiring with Macrian. Valentinian’s Alamannic campaigns, however, were hampered by troubles first in Africa, and later on the Danube river. In 374 Valentinian was forced to make peace with Macrian because the Emperor's presence was needed to counter an invasion of Illyricum by the Quadi and Sarmatians.

paragraph: Section::::Emperor.:The Great Conspiracy.

paragraph: In 367, Valentinian received reports from Britain that a combined force of Picts, Attacotti and Scots had killed the "Comes litoris Saxonici" Nectaridus and "Dux Britanniarum" Fullofaudes. At the same time, Frankish and Saxon forces were raiding the coastal areas of northern Gaul. The empire was in the midst of the Great Conspiracy – and was in danger of losing control of Britain altogether. Valentinian set out for Britain, sending "Comes domesticorum" Severus ahead of him to investigate. Severus was not able to correct the situation and returned to Gaul, meeting Valentinian at Samarobriva. Valentinian then sent Jovinus to Britain and promoted Severus to magister peditum. It was at this time that Valentinian fell ill and a battle for succession broke out between Severus, a representative of the army, and Rusticus Julianus, "magister memoriae" and a representative of the Gallic nobility. Valentinian soon recovered however and appointed his son Gratian as his co-Augustus in the west. Ammianus remarks that such an action was unprecedented. Jovinus quickly returned saying that he needed more men to take care of the situation. In 368 Valentinian appointed Theodosius as the new "Comes Britanniarum" with instructions to return Britain to Roman rule. Meanwhile, Severus and Jovinus were to accompany the emperor on his campaign against the Alamanni.

paragraph: Theodosius arrived in 368 with the Batavi, Heruli, Jovii and Victores legions. Landing at Rutupiæ, he proceeded to Londinium restoring order to southern Britain. Later, he rallied the remaining garrison which was originally stationed in Britain; it was apparent the units had lost their cohesiveness when Fullofaudes and Nectaridus had been defeated. Theodosius sent for Civilis to be installed as the new vicarius of the diocese and Dulcitius as an additional general.

paragraph: In 369, Theodosius set about reconquering the areas north of London; putting down the revolt of Valentinus, the brother-in-law of a vicarius, Maximinus. Subsequently, Theodosius restored the rest of Britain to the empire and rebuilt many fortifications – renaming northern Britain 'Valentia'. After his return in 369, Valentinian promoted Theodosius to "magister equitum" in place of Jovinus.

paragraph: In 372, the rebellion of Firmus broke out in the still-devastated African provinces. This rebellion was driven by the corruption of the "comes" Romanus. Romanus took sides in the murderous disputes among the legitimate and illegitimate children of Nubel, a Moorish prince and leading Roman client in Africa. Resentment of Romanus' peculations and his failure to defend the province from desert nomads caused some of the provincials to revolt. Valentinian sent in Theodosius to restore imperial control. Over the following two years Theodosius uncovered Romanus' crimes, arrested him and his supporters, and defeated Firmus.

paragraph: In 373, hostilities erupted with the Quadi, a group of Germanic-speaking people living on the upper Danube. Like the Alamanni, the Quadi were outraged that Valentinian was building fortifications in their territory. They complained and sent deputations to the "magister armorum per Illyricum" Aequitius, who promised to refer the matter to Valentinian. However, the increasingly influential minister Maximinus, now praetorian prefect of Gaul, blamed Aequitius to Valentinian for the trouble, and managed to have him promote his son Marcellianus to finish the project. The protests of Quadic leaders continued to delay the project, and to put an end to their clamor Marcellianus murdered the Quadic king Gabinius at a banquet ostensibly arranged for peaceful negotiations. This roused the Quadi to war, along with their allies the Sarmatians. During the fall, they crossed the Danube and began ravaging the province of Pannonia Valeria. The marauders could not penetrate the fortified cities, but they heavily damaged the unprotected countryside. Two legions were sent in but failed to coordinate and were routed by the Sarmatians. Meanwhile, another group of Sarmatians invaded Moesia, but were driven back by the son of Theodosius, "Dux Moesiae" and later emperor Theodosius.

paragraph: Valentinian did not receive news of these crises until late 374. The following spring he set out from Trier and arrived at Carnuntum, which was deserted. There he was met by Sarmatian envoys who begged forgiveness for their actions. Valentinian replied that he would investigate what had happened and act accordingly. Valentinian ignored Marcellianus’ treacherous actions and decided to punish the Quadi. He was accompanied by Sebastianus and Merobaudes, and spent the summer months preparing for the campaign. In the fall he crossed the Danube at Aquincum into Quadi territory. After pillaging Quadi lands without opposition, he retired to Savaria to winter quarters.

paragraph: Section::::Emperor.:Revolt in Africa and crises on the Danube.:Death.

paragraph: Without waiting for the spring he decided to continue campaigning and moved from Savaria to Brigetio. Once he arrived on 17 November, he received a deputation from the Quadi. In return for supplying fresh recruits to the Roman army, the Quadi were to be allowed to leave in peace. However, before the envoys left they were granted an audience with Valentinian. The envoys insisted that the conflict was caused by the building of Roman forts in their lands; furthermore individual bands of Quadi were not necessarily bound to the rule of the chiefs who had made treaties with the Romans – and thus might attack the Romans at any time. The attitude of the envoys so enraged Valentinian that he suffered a burst blood vessel in the skull while angrily yelling at them, provoking his death on November 17, 375.

paragraph: Section::::Reputation.

paragraph: A.H.M. Jones writes that although Valentinian I was "less of a boor" than his chief rival for election to the imperial throne, "he was of a violent and brutal temper, and not only uncultivated himself, but hostile to cultivated persons". According to Ammianus, "he hated the well-dressed and educated and wealthy and well-born". He was, however, an able soldier and a conscientious administrator, and took an interest in the welfare of the humbler classes, from which his father had risen. Unfortunately his good intentions were often frustrated by a bad choice of ministers, and "an obstinate belief in their merits despite all evidence to the contrary." He was a founder of schools, and provided medical attendance for the poor of Rome, by appointing a physician for each of the fourteen districts of the city. He also reissued an edict of Constantine I making infanticide a capital offence.

paragraph: Notwithstanding the benevolence of these more generous edicts, Valentinian was remarkable for cruelty and barbarism in his private affairs.

paragraph: He often had servants and attendants executed on trifling charges, and was reportedly accustomed to keep two bears, known as "Micca Aurea" ("golden camel"), and "Innocence", in an iron cage which was transported wherever he went, whom he employed to execute the sentence, which he often delivered, of capital punishment. At length "Innocence", when she was considered to have faithfully discharged her office, was released with the emperor's good wishes into her native wilds.

paragraph: Valentinian was a Christian but permitted liberal religious freedom to all his subjects, proscribing only some forms of rituals such as particular types of sacrifices, and banning the practice of magic. Again, Valentinian steadily set his face against the increasing wealth and worldliness of the clergy. He issued a pointed edict via Pope Damasus I, forbidding the grant of bequests to Christian clergy-men; and another forcing members of the sacerdotal order to discharge the public duties owed on account of their property, or else relinquish it.

paragraph: Socrates Scholasticus gives an interesting account in his Historia Ecclesiastica of Valentinian's marriages, that has inspired some to call this emperor polygamous. According to the text: the empress Justina "became known to Marina Severa, wife of the emperor Valentinian, and had frequent dialogue with the empress, until their intimacy at length grew to such an extent that they were accustomed to bathe together. When Severa saw Justina in the bath she was greatly struck with the beauty of the virgin, and spoke of her to the emperor; saying that the daughter of Justus was so lovely a creature, and possessed of such symmetry of form, that she herself, though a woman, was altogether charmed with her. The emperor, treasuring this description by his wife in his own mind, considered with himself how he could espouse Justina, without repudiating Severa, as she had borne him Gratian, whom he had created Augustus a little while before. He accordingly framed a law, and caused it to be published throughout all the cities, by which any man was permitted to have two lawful wives. The law was promulgated and he married Justina, by whom he had Valentinian the younger." (Book IV, chapt. 31.)

paragraph: This story is only known from Socrates and no trace of any edict by any emperor allowing polygamy exists. Valentinian I may have divorced Severa according to Roman Law, which allowed for divorce (see Women in Ancient Rome). However, since divorce was not acknowledged by Christians, Socrates contemptuously describes him as a bigamist. It is also possible that Socrates attempted to accuse Justina, who was an Arian, of fornication, a common aspersion against other cults. According to John Malalas, the Chronicon Paschale, and John of Nikiu, the empress Severa was banished by Valentinian I for conducting an illegal transaction, before he consorted with Justina. Barnes believes this story to be an attempt to justify the divorce of Valentinian I without accusing the emperor.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ammianus Marcellinus. Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt. W. Seyfarth, ed. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1978.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Consularia Constantinopolitana. T. Mommsen ed., Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Auctores Antiquissimi. Volume 9. Berlin, 1892.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Codex Theodosianus. T. Mommsen, P.M. Meyer, and P. Krüger, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum constitutionibus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes (2 vols.). Berlin, 1905.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Vol. 6. T. Mommsen, ed. Berlin, 1875.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Epitome de Caesaribus. F.R. Pichlmayr, ed. Leipzig, 1961.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jerome. Chronicon. R. Helm, ed., in Malcolm Drew Donalson, A Translation of Jerome’s Chronicon with Historical Commentary. Lewiston, NY, 1996.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orosius. Adversus paganos historiarum libri septem. Z. Zangemeister, ed. Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum 5. Vienna, 1882.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Socrates. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sozomen. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 67. Paris, 1864.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theoderet. Historia Ecclesiastica. J.P. Migne ed., Patrologia Graeca 82. Paris, 1864.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zosimus. Historia nova. François Paschoud, ed. and trans., Zosime: Histoire Nouvelle (3 vols.). Paris, 1971–89.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ammian, Books 26‑30 Uchicago.edu. English summaries. Main text in Latin.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Secondary accounts.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De Imperatoribus Romanis" English text.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward Gibbon, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", 1776.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Grant, "The Roman Emperors", 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schmidt-Hofner, Sebastian. "Reagieren und Gestalten: der Regierungsstil des spaetroemischen Kaisers am Beispiel der Gesetzgebung Valentinians I". Muenchen: Beck, 2008. 398 p. (Vestigia, Bd. 58).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ernst Stein, "Histoire du Bas-Empire," vol. i, chap. 4 (1959).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valentinian I relating to Christianity.

description: Roman emperor from 364 to 375

wikidata_label: Valentinian I

wikipedia_title: Valentinian I


text: Latin

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text: Juba II

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text: Encyclopædia Britannica

categories: Kings of Mauretania,1st-century rulers in Africa,1st-century disestablishments,Ptolemaic dynasty,1st-century Berber people,23 deaths,Kings of Numidia,50s BC births,1st-century BC Berber people,Berber writers,1st-century BC rulers in Africa

paragraph: Juba II

paragraph: Juba II (Latin: Iuba, "Juba"; or ) or Juba II of Mauretania (52/50 BC – AD 23) was the son of Juba I and King of Numidia and Mauretania. His first wife was Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of the Greek Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman triumvir Mark Antony.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Juba II was a Berber prince from Numidia, he was born in Hippo Regius (Annaba in actual Algeria). He was the only child and heir of King Juba I of Numidia; his mother's identity is unknown. In 46 BC, his father was defeated by Julius Caesar (in Thapsus, North Africa). Numidia became a Roman Province. His father had been an ally of the Roman General Pompey.

paragraph: Juba II was brought to Rome by Julius Caesar and he took part in Caesar's triumphal procession. In Rome he learned Latin and Greek, became romanized and was granted Roman citizenship. Through dedication to his studies, he is said to have become one of Rome's best educated citizens, and by age 20 he wrote one of his first works entitled "Roman Archaeology". He was raised by Julius Caesar and later by his great-nephew Octavian (future Emperor Caesar Augustus). While growing up, Juba II accompanied Octavian on military campaigns, gaining valuable experience as a leader. He fought alongside Octavian in the battle of Actium in 31 BC. They became long time friends.

paragraph: Section::::Restored to the throne.

paragraph: In 30 BC, Augustus restored Juba II as king of Numidia. Juba II established Numidia as an ally of Rome. Juba II would become one of the most loyal client kings that served Rome. Probably as a result of his services to Augustus in a campaign in present-day Spain, between 26 BC and 20 BC the Emperor arranged for him to marry Cleopatra Selene II, giving her a large dowry and appointing her queen. In 25 BC, Numidia became a Roman province and Juba II received Mauretania as his kingdom.

paragraph: Section::::Mauretania.

paragraph: When Juba II and Cleopatra Selene moved to Mauretania, they renamed their new capital "Caesaria" (modern Cherchell, Algeria), in honor of Augustus. The construction and sculpture projects at Caesaria and another city, Volubilis, display a rich mixture of Egyptian, Greek and Roman architectural styles.

paragraph: Cleopatra is said to have exerted considerable influence on Juba II's policies. Juba II encouraged and supported the performing arts, research of the sciences and research of natural history. Juba II also supported Mauretanian trade. The Kingdom of Mauretania was of great importance to the Roman Empire. Mauretania traded all over the Mediterranean, particularly with Spain and Italy. Mauretania exported fish, grapes, pearls, figs, grain, wooden furniture and purple dye harvested from certain shellfish, which was used in the manufacture of purple stripes for senatorial robes. Juba II sent a contingent to Iles Purpuraires to re-establish the ancient Phoenician dye manufacturing process. Tingis (modern Tangier), a town at the Pillars of Hercules (modern Strait of Gibraltar) became a major trade centre. In Gades, (modern Cádiz) and Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena) Spain, Juba II was appointed by Augustus as an honorary Duovir (a chief magistrate of a Roman colony or town), probably involving trade, and was also a Patronus Colonaie.

paragraph: The value and quality of Mauretanian coins became distinguished. The Greek historian Plutarch describes him as 'one of the most gifted rulers of his time'. Between 2 BC – AD 2, he travelled with Gaius Caesar (a grandson of Augustus), as a member of his advisory staff to the troubled Eastern Mediterranean. In 21, Juba II made his son Ptolemy co-ruler and Juba II died in 23. Juba II was buried alongside his first wife in the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania. Ptolemy then became the sole ruler of Mauretania.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and children.

paragraph: BULLET::::- First marriage to Greek Ptolemaic princess Cleopatra Selene II (40 BC – 6 AD). Their children were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ptolemy of Mauretania born in ca 10 BC – 5 BC

paragraph: BULLET::::- A daughter of Cleopatra and Juba, whose name has not been recorded, is mentioned in an inscription. It has been suggested that Drusilla of Mauretania was that daughter, but she may have been a granddaughter instead. Drusilla is described as a granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, or may have been a daughter of Ptolemy of Mauretania.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second marriage to Glaphyra, a princess of Cappadocia, and widow of Alexander, son of Herod the Great. Alexander was executed in 7 BC for conspiracy against his father. Glaphyra married Juba II in 6 AD or 7 AD. She then fell in love with Herod Archelaus, another son of Herod the Great and Ethnarch of Judea. Glaphyra divorced Juba to marry him in 7 AD. Juba had no children with Glaphyra.

paragraph: Section::::Author.

paragraph: Juba wrote a number of books in Greek and Latin on history, natural history, geography, grammar, painting and theatre. He compiled a comparison of Greek and Roman institutions known as Όμοιότητες ("Similarities"). His guide to Arabia became a bestseller in Rome. Only fragments of his work survived. He collected a substantial library on a wide variety of topics, which no doubt complemented his own prolific output. Pliny the Elder refers to him as an authority 65 times in the "Natural History" and in Athens, a monument was built in recognition of his writings. His extant writings are published and translated in Roller: "Scholarly Kings" (Chicago 2004).

paragraph: Section::::Author.:Natural history.

paragraph: Juba II was a noted patron of the arts and sciences and sponsored several expeditions and biological research. He also was a notable author, writing several scholarly and popular scientific works such as treatises on natural history.

paragraph: According to Pliny the Younger, Juba II sent an expedition to the Canary Islands and Madeira. Juba II had given the Canary Islands that name because he found particularly ferocious dogs ("canarius" – from "canis" – meaning "of the dogs" in Latin) on the island.

paragraph: Juba's Greek physician Euphorbus wrote that a succulent spurge found in the High Atlas was a powerful laxative. In 12 BC, Juba named this plant "Euphorbia" after Euphorbus, in response to Augustus dedicating a statue to Antonius Musa, Augustus's own personal physician and Euphorbus' brother. Botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus assigned the name "Euphorbia" to the entire genus in the physician's honour. "Euphorbia" was later called "Euphorbia regisjubae" ("King Juba's euphorbia") to honour the king's contributions to natural history and his role in bringing the genus to notice. It is now "Euphorbia regis-jubae". The palm tree genus "Jubaea" is also named after Juba.

paragraph: Flavius Philostratus recalled one of his anecdotes: "And I have read in the discourse of Juba that elephants assist one another when they are being hunted, and that they will defend one that is exhausted, and if they can remove him out of danger, they anoint his wounds with the tears of the aloe tree, standing round him like physicians."

paragraph: Section::::In fiction.

paragraph: Juba is a lead character in Michael Livingston's 2015 historical fantasy novel "The Shards of Heaven".

paragraph: A main character in "Cleopatra's Daughter" by Michelle Moran

paragraph: A key character in "Cleopatra's Moon"

paragraph: A main character in "Cleopatra's Daughter" by Andrea Ashton

paragraph: A recurring character in Stephanie Dray's trilogy focusing on Cleopatra Selene II.

paragraph: Identified with Iopas in Virgil's Aeneid by the scholar Timothy Power.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tyldesley, Joyce (2008), "Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt", Profile. p. 200.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Juba II king of Mauretania – Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Juba II Encyclopædia Britannica

description: King of Numidia

wikidata_label: Juba II

wikipedia_title: Juba II


text:
Nigrán
Galicia
Canciones para el tiempo y la distancia
guitar
drum kit
Laboratorio Ñ
Spanish
Argentinian
Buenos Aires
Amaral
Xoel López
Deluxe
Quique González
Las siete y media
mini-album
Mentiroso Mentiroso
Picninc Extraterrestre
Confesiones de un artista de mierda
solo
album
CD
Enrique Bunbury
Amparanoia
Pep Blay
Iván Ferreiro official page
Iván Ferreiro personal blog
Group of fans of Iván Ferreiro
Official webstore of Iván Ferreiro

categories: 21st-century Spanish singers,Spanish male singers,Galician singers,People from Vigo,1970 births,Living people

paragraph: Iván Ferreiro

paragraph: Iván Ferreiro Rodríguez (born 15 August 1970) is a Spanish singer-songwriter born in Nigrán, Galicia. He was the voice, leader and composer of the popular pop-rock band Los Piratas.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: After Los Piratas split, by late 2003, Iván kept playing with his brother Amaro in a pub in Vigo, called "El Ensanche". Due to the success of this set of concerts, he decided to record an album with new songs, "Canciones para el tiempo y la distancia", that was released in 2005. In the tour of the album, "Tournedo", Iván was accompanied by his brother on the guitar and Karlos Arancegui at the drum kit.

paragraph: In November 2005, Iván thought up a project called Laboratorio Ñ, consisting of collecting some Spanish and Argentinian musicians in a house at Buenos Aires, in order to write new songs among friends. Some of these musicians were Juan Aguirre and Eva Amaral (Amaral), Xoel López (singer of Deluxe) or Quique González.

paragraph: In October 2006, he released "Las siete y media", a mini-album with 8 songs (7 and a half, as in Iván words) written during the "Tournedo" tour. In 2008, he released a new album Mentiroso Mentiroso, followed by "Picninc Extraterrestre" in 2010 and his most recent album "Confesiones de un artista de mierda" recorded in 2011 live in front of an audience as a combination of new songs, collaborations and a new reading of some of "Los Piratas" and his own greatest hits.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: , Iván Ferreiro has released four solo albums.

paragraph: Collaborations

paragraph: "Més raons de pes. El tribut a Umpah-Pah" CD (2009), collaboration with Enrique Bunbury, Amparanoia and Pep Blay as art director.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iván Ferreiro official page

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iván Ferreiro personal blog

paragraph: BULLET::::- Group of fans of Iván Ferreiro

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official webstore of Iván Ferreiro

description: Spanish singer

wikidata_label: Iván Ferreiro

wikipedia_title: Iván Ferreiro


text:
Groton, New York
Syracuse
Lake County, Illinois
Racine, Wisconsin
Michigan
Bradley, Illinois
Sears, Roebuck and Co.
Sears
engines
Briggs and Stratton
Barre, Vermont
Libertyville
B. Harley Bradley House
Frank Lloyd Wright
Kankakee, IL
Mt. Vernon
Brooklyn
More History on David Bradley Tractors
The David Bradley walk-behind tractor
David Bradley group on yahoo.com

categories: 1899 deaths,People from Lake County, Illinois,Foundrymen,1811 births

paragraph: David Bradley (plowman)

paragraph: David Bradley (November 8, 1811 – February 19, 1899) was a "Pioneer Plowman".

paragraph: David Bradley was born in Groton, New York on November 8, 1811. After working with his brother, C. C. Bradley, for several years in Syracuse, he relocated to Chicago in 1835. Initially he was in the employ of Jones, King & Co. and helped to build the first foundry in Chicago, known as the "Chicago Furnace".

paragraph: From the late 1830s until the 1850s David Bradley farmed in Lake County, Illinois, made bricks, and later farm machinery, in Racine, Wisconsin, and was a lumberman in Michigan. In 1854, he returned to Chicago.

paragraph: Section::::Company.

paragraph: In 1884, he purchased a plow company from his brother in law, and soon partnered with Conrad Furst to creat Furst and Bradley. Furst and Bradley eventually grew to occupy an entire city block at Fulton and Desplaines Streets in Chicago. In 1884 David Bradley and his sons purchased Furst's share of the business, and the company was renamed the "David Bradley Manufacturing Company".

paragraph: In 1895 the company was relocated to North Kankakee (about 50 miles south of Chicago), which was later renamed "Bradley, Illinois" in honor of the man and the company.

paragraph: In 1910, the Bradley family sold the factory to Sears, Roebuck and Co., at which time it was renamed the "David Bradley Manufacturing Works". The name was subsequently changed to David Bradley Manufacturing Company and in 1958 the company introduced the Garden Riding Tractor and David Bradley became the largest manufacturer of garden riding tractors in the world. Sears also sold gasoline engines manufactured by Briggs and Stratton under David Bradley, replacing the previously used Economy name. In 1962 David Bradley Manufacturing Company and the Newark Ohio Company were merged into a single unit under the name Newark Ohio Company. The new company manufactured power lawn mowers, among other products. In 1964 another merger took place and the Newark Ohio Company was merged into the Geo. D. Roper Corporation with the plant in Newark, Ohio continuing to manufacture outdoor power equipment including riding and single power lawn mowers.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: On 25 Feb 1838 in Chicago, David Bradley married Cynthia Abbott (1817–1895) of Barre, Vermont. They had six children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Byron Chapman Bradley, b. 1 May 1839 Libertyville, Lake County, IL, of Kankakee, IL, m. Alice M. Wilbur. Their son B. Harley Bradley built a house called "Glenlloyd", or the B. Harley Bradley House, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, in Kankakee, IL.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edgar Bradley, b. 15 Jan 1841 Libertyville, IL; d. there 18 Sep 841.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mary Ellen Bradley, b. 14 Sep 1842 Racine, WI; of Chicago, IL; d. 1 Oct 1899 Mt. Vernon, Westchester County, NY; m. Chicago 10 Oct 1865 George Cadogen Morgan (1834/35- ).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph Harley Bradley, b. 30 Sep 1844 Racine, WI; of Chicago, IL; m. Brooklyn, NY 1 Mar 1871 Margina J. Richards (c1846-1896) of New York, NY.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adelbert Bradley, b. 15 Apr 1847 Racine, WI; d. there Sep 1848.

paragraph: BULLET::::- David Bradley, b. 15 Feb 1849 Chicago, IL; d. there 15 Feb 1849.

paragraph: David Bradley died on February 19, 1899.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- More History on David Bradley Tractors - DavidBradley.net (dead link)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The David Bradley walk-behind tractor (dead link)

paragraph: BULLET::::- David Bradley group on yahoo.com

description: American pioneer

wikidata_label: David Bradley

wikipedia_title: David Bradley (plowman)


text: fl.

text: Mann

text: an unsuccessful revolt

text: Battle of Ronaldsway

text: Crovan dynasty

text: Kingdom of Mann and the Isles

text: Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway

text: Alexander II, King of Scotland

text: Hebrides

text: Scottish realm

text: Alexander III, King of Scotland

text: Magnús Hákonarson, King of Norway

text: Treaty of Perth

text: bailiff

text: justiciar

text: Thomas fitz Roland, Earl of Atholl

text: Chronicle of Mann

text: Chronicle of Lanercost

text: Scottish Crown

text: Galloway

text: John de Vesci

text: John Comyn I, Lord of Badenoch

text: Alasdair Mac Dubhghaill, Lord of Argyll

text: Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí

text: common army

text: defeat

text: Wales

text: Alexander

text: Lord of Mann

text: royal appanage

text: Sheriff of Dumfries

text: English Crown

text: Aufrica de Connoght

categories: 13th-century Manx people,British rebels,Crovan dynasty,Illegitimate children of British monarchs,People of the Kingdom of the Isles,Year of birth unknown,Pretenders

paragraph: Guðrøðr Magnússon

paragraph: Guðrøðr Magnússon (fl. 1275), also known as Godred Magnusson, was an illegitimate son of Magnús Óláfsson, King of Mann and the Isles. In 1275, whilst Mann was under Scottish overlordship, Guðrøðr led an unsuccessful revolt on the island. According to a near contemporary source, over five hundred people lost their lives in the subsequent Scottish invasion and suppression of the Manx. It is not certain whether Guðrøðr escaped the decisive defeat of the rebels at Battle of Ronaldsway with his life or if he was among the slain.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Guðrøðr was a son of Magnús Óláfsson, King of Mann and the Isles, a member of the Crovan dynasty. Guðrøðr's father came to power in 1252, following a period of confusion and contention in the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, when Magnús' right to rule was acknowledged by Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway, his nominal overlord. In the previous decade, Alexander II, King of Scotland had made several attempts to incorporate the Hebrides into the Scottish realm. In the 1260s, Alexander's son and successor, Alexander III, King of Scotland, renewed his kingdom's struggle to wrest the region from Norwegian overlordship. In so doing, Alexander III provoked a retaliatory military response from Hákon, a campaign that ultimately ended in failure with the latter's weakening health and death in 1263.

paragraph: With Hákon's passing Alexander III seized the initiative, and oversaw a series of invasions into the Isles and northern Scotland. Recognising this dramatic shift in royal authority, Magnús Óláfsson submitted to Alexander III within the year, and in so doing, symbolised the complete collapse of Norwegian sovereignty in the Isles. The following year, Magnús died without a legitimate heir to succeed him, and proved to be the last ruling king of the Crovan dynasty. In 1266, Alexander III pacifically secured the Hebrides and Mann from Hákon's son and successor, Magnús Hákonarson, King of Norway, by way of the Treaty of Perth.

paragraph: Following the conclusion of the treaty, Alexander III entrusted control of Mann into the hands of royal officials. Four such bailiffs or justiciars are known to have been appointed to govern the island: a certain ""; Alan, illegitimate son of Thomas fitz Roland, Earl of Atholl; a certain "" / ""; and Reginald, the king's chaplain. Scottish exchequer records also reveal that the Scottish Crown held several Manx hostages as a means to ensure order on the island.

paragraph: Section::::Rise and fall.

paragraph: If the hostages were still held by the Scots a decade later, they may well have feared for their lives. For in 1275, the continuation of the twelfth-century "Historia rerum Anglicarum", the thirteenth- to fourteenth-century "Chronicle of Mann", and the fourteenth-century "Chronicle of Lanercost" reveal that Guðrøðr led a revolt on the island against the Scottish Crown. According to the continuation of "Historia rerum Anglicarum", Guðrøðr took possession of the island's strongholds, ejecting the Scottish representatives in the process. Alexander III quickly responded by sending a great fleet, drawn from the Hebrides and Galloway, to invade the island and restore Scottish royal authority. The commanders of this enterprise were: John de Vesci, John Comyn I, Lord of Badenoch, Alan, Alasdair Mac Dubhghaill, Lord of Argyll, and Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí. The identities of these men suggest that the Scottish force was composed of a small component of heavily armed knights, a contingent of infantry troops levied from the common army of Galloway, and a fleet of galleys gathered from the Hebrides.

paragraph: The Scots made landfall on the southern shores of Mann. According to the "Chronicle of Lanercost" and the "Chronicle of Mann", the invaders first attempted to resolve the uprising peaceably, demanding that the rebels stand down and submit to Alexander III. The account preserved in these sources suggest that lightly armed and poorly trained rebels were soundly crushed by well-armed Scottish warriors, with the "Annals of Lanerost" declaring that "the wretched Manxmen turned their backs, and perished miserably". Although the "Chronicle of Mann" specifies that five hundred thirty seven people were slaughtered by the Scots, it is possible that this tally owes itself to contemporary poetic convention, as the source further quotes the following rhyming lament: "ten times fifty, three times ten and five and two did fall; O Manx race, beware lest future catastrophe you befall". Although Guðrøðr may have died in the defeat, the continuation of "Historia rerum Anglicarum" reports that he and his wife managed to escape the carnage on Mann, and fled to Wales. If correct, this source is one of several that demonstrate strong connections between the Crovan dynasty and Wales spanning the eleventh- and thirteenth centuries.

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.

paragraph: Upon the successful subjugation of the Manx, Alexander III evidently installed his son, Alexander, as Lord of Mann. Although this eleven year-old child was too young to govern in person, his elevation to the lordship reinforced Scottish control of the island in dramatic fashion. The bestowal of Mann as a royal appanage openly designated the prince as the heir to the Scottish throne, and enabled the authority of the Scottish Crown to be personally represented on the island. Evidence of trouble faced by the Scots on Mann occurs in 1288, when the Sheriff of Dumfries rendered an account for the expense of guarding the lands of a person slain on the island in the service of the Scottish Crown. As it turned out, Scottish control was not long-lasting, and before end of the century the Manx placed themselves under the overlordship of the English Crown. Furthermore, Guðrøðr was not the last claimant to the island, as two women are known to have put forth claims of their own in the late thirteenth- and early fourteenth centuries: a certain Aufrica de Connoght, and Maria, daughter of Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson, King of Mann and the Isles.

description: 13th-century Manx rebel

wikidata_label: Guðrøðr Magnússon

wikipedia_title: Guðrøðr Magnússon


text: King of Mann and the Isles

text: Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles

text: Crovan dynasty

text: Mann

text: Hebrides

text: King of the Isles

text: Kings of Norway

text: Haraldr

text: Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson

text: Haraldr Guðrøðarson

text: Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway

text: Alexander II, King of Scots

text: Alexander III

text: vassals

text: Lennox

text: Battle of Largs

text: homage

text: Castle Rushen

text: Abbey of St Mary of Rushen

text: Máire

text: Guðrøðr

text: Kingdom of Scotland

text: Crovan dynasty

text: Norse-Gaelic

text: whose kingdom

text: Isle of Man

text: Hebrides

text: Inner Hebrides

text: Lewis and Harris

text: Skye

text: Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles

text: Fearchar, Earl of Ross

text: c.

text: Rǫgnvaldr

text: Guðrøðr

text: Haraldr

text: Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway

text: Rǫgnvaldr

text: Haraldr Guðrøðarson

text: fl.

text: Henry III, King of England

text: usurper

text: Eóghan Mac Dubhghaill, Lord of Argyll

text: Clann Somhairle

text: Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles

text: Dubhghall mac Ruaidhrí

text: Alexander II, King of Scots

text: Chronicle of Mann

text: Ronaldsway

text: St Michael's Isle

text: causeway

text: Justiciar of Ireland

text: John fitz Geoffrey

text: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd

text: Gwynedd

text: Alexander III, King of Scots

text: William I, Earl of Ross

text: Skye

text: Icelandic Annals

text: Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar

text: Caithness

text: Moray Firth

text: Kerrera

text: Bute

text: Murchadh

text: Rothesay Castle

text: Dunaverty Castle

text: Gigha

text: parley

text: Lennox

text: Loch Long

text: Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí

text: Loch Lomond

text: portage

text: isthmus

text: Arrochar

text: Tarbet

text: islands of the loch

text: the Cumbraes

text: Battle of Largs

text: Arran

text: Ruaidrí

text: terms of peace

text: magnates

text: Dumfries

text: Alexander's navy

text: Uilleam, Earl of Mar

text: Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan

text: Alan Durward

text: Gesta Annalia I

text: Magnúss saga lagabœtis

text: Ross

text: royal charter

text: Conishead Priory

text: seals

text: clinker-built

text: Abbey of St Mary of Rushen

text: Richard, Bishop of the Isles

text: usurper

text: knighted

text: Latin

text: Máire

text: Treaty of Perth

text: Magnús Hákonarson, King of Norway

text: merks

text: sterling

text: laws of Scotland

text: Chronicle of Lanercost

text: bailiff

text: exchequer

text: Guðrøðr

text: Battle of Ronaldsway

text: parliament

text: John, King of Scots

text: William I, Earl of Ross

text: Ardnamurchan

text: Wester Ross

text: Kintail

text: Lewis

text: Uist

text: Barra

text: Eigg

text: Rum

text: Google Books

categories: 13th-century Manx people,Crovan dynasty,13th-century monarchs in Europe,Monarchs of the Isle of Man,13th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles,1265 deaths,13th-century births

paragraph: Magnús Óláfsson

paragraph: Magnús Óláfsson (died 24 November 1265) was a King of Mann and the Isles. He was a son of Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles, and a member of the Crovan dynasty. Magnús' realm encompassed Mann and parts of the Hebrides. Some leading members of Magnús' family—such as his father—styled themselves "King of the Isles"; other members—such as Magnús and his brothers—styled themselves "King of Mann and the Isles". Although kings in their own right, leading members of the Crovan dynasty paid tribute to the Kings of Norway and generally recognised a nominal Norwegian overlordship of Mann and the Hebrides.

paragraph: In 1237, Óláfr died and was succeeded by his elder son, Haraldr, who later drowned in 1248. The kingship was then taken up by his brother, Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson. After a reign of only weeks, Rǫgnvaldr was slain and the kingship was taken up by Haraldr Guðrøðarson, a descendant of Óláfr's half-brother and deadly rival, Rǫgnvaldr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles. After a short reign, this Haraldr was removed from power by his overlord, Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway. In Haraldr's absence, Magnús and a relation of his, Eóghan Mac Dubhghaill, King in the Isles, unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mann. A few years later, Magnús successfully made his return to the island and was proclaimed king.

paragraph: In the 1240s, following attempts to purchase the Isles from Hákon, Alexander II, King of Scots resorted to warfare to win the region. His death in 1249 brought an abrupt end to his westward invasion, and it was not until the 1260s that a Scottish king again attempted to impose his authority into the Isles. In 1261, Alexander II's son and successor, Alexander III, attempted to purchase the Isles without success, before Scottish forces raided into the Hebrides. Hákon's response to Scottish aggression was to organise a massive fleet to re-assert Norwegian authority. In the summer of 1263, the fleet sailed down through the Hebrides. Although his forces gained strength as they sailed southwards, the Norwegian king received only lukewarm support from many of his Norse-Gaelic vassals—in fact, Magnús was one of the few who came out whole-heartedly for Hákon. At one point during the campaign, Hákon sent Magnús and some other vassals raiding deep into Lennox. Meanwhile, the main Norwegian force was occupied with the Battle of Largs—a famous, but inconclusive series of skirmishes against the Scots. Following this action, Hákon's demoralised fleet returned home having accomplished little. Not long after Hákon's departure and death, Alexander launched a punitive expedition into the Hebrides, and threatened Mann with the same. Magnús' subsequent submission to the Scottish king, and the homage rendered for his lands, symbolises the failure of Hákon's campaign, and marks the complete collapse of Norwegian influence in the Isles.

paragraph: Magnús, the last reigning king of his dynasty, died at Castle Rushen in 1265, and was buried at the Abbey of St Mary of Rushen. At the time of his death, he was married to Eóghan's daughter Máire. In the year after his death, the Hebrides and Mann were formally ceded by King of Norway to the King of Scots. Ten years after Magnús' death, Guðrøðr, a bastard son of his attempted to establish himself as king on Mann. Guðrøðr's revolt was quickly and brutally crushed by Scottish forces, and the island remained part of the Kingdom of Scotland. By the 1290s, the Hebridean portion of Magnús' former island-kingdom had been incorporated into a newly created Scottish sheriffdom.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Magnús was a member of the Crovan dynasty—a line of Norse-Gaelic sea-kings whose kingdom encompassed the Isle of Man (Mann) and the northern parts of the Hebrides, from the late eleventh century to the mid thirteenth century. Although the kingdom originally encompassed the entirety of the Hebrides, much of the Inner Hebrides was permanently lost in the mid twelfth century, but the dynasty retained control of the largest Hebridean islands of Lewis and Harris and Skye. Magnús was the son of Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles (died 1237). Although Óláfr is known to have had two wives, and no contemporaneous source names the mother of his children, Magnús' mother may have been Óláfr's second wife—Cairistíona, daughter of Fearchar, Earl of Ross, (died c.1251).

paragraph: Óláfr was a younger son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of Dublin and the Isles (died 1187). Before his death in 1187, Guðrøðr instructed that Óláfr should succeed to the kingship. However, Guðrøðr was instead succeeded by his elder son, Rǫgnvaldr (died 1229), who had popular support. Rǫgnvaldr and Óláfr, who are thought to have had different mothers, subsequently warred over the dynasty's kingdom in the early thirteenth century, until Rǫgnvaldr was slain battling Óláfr in 1229. Rǫgnvaldr's son, Guðrøðr (died 1231), who was also in conflict with Óláfr, took up his father's claim to the throne, and at his height co-ruled the kingdom with Óláfr in 1231. Guðrøðr was slain in 1231, and Óláfr ruled the entire kingdom without internal opposition until his own death in 1237. Óláfr was succeeded by his son, Haraldr, who later travelled to Norway and married a daughter of Hákon Hákonarson, King of Norway (died 1263), but lost his life at sea on his return voyage in 1248. In May 1249, Haraldr's brother, Rǫgnvaldr (died 1249), formally succeeded to the kingship of the Crovan dynasty's kingdom.

paragraph: Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson's reign was an extremely short one; only weeks after his accession, he was slain on Mann. His killer is identified by a contemporary source as a knight named Ívarr who may have been an ally of Rǫgnvaldr Óláfsson's second cousin once removed, Haraldr Guðrøðarson (fl. 1249), who seized the kingship immediately following the killing. Although at first Haraldr was recognised as a legitimate ruler of the kingdom by Henry III, King of England (died 1272), Haraldr was later regarded as a usurper by his Norwegian overlord, Hákon. In 1250, Hákon summoned Haraldr to Norway to answer for his seizure of the kingship, and Haraldr was kept from returning to the Isles.

paragraph: Section::::Eóghan of Argyll and the invasion of Mann.

paragraph: Eóghan Mac Dubhghaill, Lord of Argyll (died c.1268×1275) was a prominent member of Clann Somhairle, the descendants of Somhairle mac Giolla Brighde, King of the Isles (died 1164). Through Somhairle's wife, Ragnhildr, daughter of Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles (died 1153), several leading members of Clann Somhairle claimed kingship in the Hebrides. In 1248, Eóghan and his second cousin, Dubhghall mac Ruaidhrí (died 1268), travelled to Hákon in Norway and requested the title of king in the Hebrides. Hákon subsequently bestowed the title upon Eóghan, and the following year, upon learning of Haraldr Óláfsson's death, Hákon sent Eóghan westward to take control of the Isles (at least temporarily) on his behalf. Up until this point Eóghan had two overlords: the King of Norway, who claimed the Hebrides; and the King of Scots, who claimed Argyll and coveted the Hebrides. Unfortunately for Eóghan, soon after his return from Norway, Alexander II, King of Scots (died 1249) led an expedition deep into Argyll and demanded that Eóghan renounce his allegiance to Hákon. Eóghan refused to do so and was subsequently driven from his Scottish lordship.

paragraph: In 1250, following Haraldr Guðrøðarson's summons to Norway, the "Chronicle of Mann" records that Magnús and Eóghan arrived on Mann with a force of Norwegians. The exact intentions of the invaders are unknown; it is possible that they may have intended to install Magnús as king. At the very least, Eóghan was likely looking for some form of compensation for his dispossession from his mainland Scottish lordship. The chronicle states that the invaders made landfall at Ronaldsway, and entered into negotiations with the Manx people; although, when it was learned that Eóghan styled himself "King of the Isles", the Manxmen took offence and broke off all dialogue.

paragraph: The chronicle indicates that Eóghan had his men form-up on St Michael's Isle, an island that was attached to Mann by a tidal causeway. As evening drew near, the chronicle records that an accomplice of the knight Ívarr led a Manx assault on the island and routed the invading forces. The next day, the chronicle states that the invading forces left the shores of Mann. Ívarr's connection to the Manx attack on the invading forces of Eóghan and Magnús suggests that there was still considerable opposition on Mann by adherents of Haraldr to the prospect of Magnús' kingship there.

paragraph: The following year, Henry III commanded the Justiciar of Ireland, John fitz Geoffrey (died 1258), to prohibit Magnús from raising military forces in Ireland for an invasion of Mann. A year later Magnús succeeded to the kingship, as the chronicle records that he returned to Mann and, with the consent of the people, began his reign. There are indications that opposition to Magnús, and thus possibly support of Haraldr, continued into the mid 1250s. For example, the chronicle records that when Hákon bestowed upon Magnús the title of king in 1254, it further notes that when Magnús' opponents heard of this, they became dismayed and that their hopes of overthrowing him gradually faded away. Furthermore, a letter of protection, written on behalf of Henry to Magnús in 1256, orders Henry's men not to receive Haraldr and Ívarr, which may thus indicate that these two men were still alive and active. Although Magnús' eldest brother, Haraldr Óláfsson, appears to have ruled over the entirety of the dynasty's thirteenth-century sea-realm, as did Magnús from 1252 onwards, the situation during the years between Haraldr Óláfsson's death and Magnús' accession is uncertain, and it is possible that the kingdom was partitioned between feuding dynasts, as it had been during the bitter inter-dynastic strife of the twelfth- and thirteenth centuries. Clearly the situation in the Isles was unsettled in the 1250s. For example, Henry is known to have written letters to Alexander, Hákon, and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (died 1282), the co-ruler of Gwynedd, ordering them not allow their men invade Mann in Magnús' absence there in 1254.

paragraph: Section::::Scottish aggression.

paragraph: In 1244, Alexander made the first of several attempts by Scottish monarchs to purchase the Hebrides from the Kingdom of Norway. It was following this unsuccessful bid that Hákon sent Eóghan into the Isles in 1249, which in turn led to Eóghan's expulsion from the Scottish-mainland when Alexander launched a full-scale summer invasion into Argyll. Alexander's sudden death in the Hebrides brought an abrupt end to his westward invasion, and it was not until the 1260s that a Scottish king again attempted to impose his authority into the Isles.

paragraph: In 1261, Alexander III, King of Scots (died 1286) sent an emissary to Norway to discuss the Isles. Negotiations proved fruitless, and the following year William I, Earl of Ross (died 1274) is recorded to have launched a vicious attack on Skye. The assault was likely carried out on behalf of Alexander, in response to the failure of Scottish mission to Norway the year previous. In response, Hákon organised a massive military force to re-assert Norwegian control along the western seaboard of Scotland. At this time, the Norwegian king was at the height of his power, and his only son had just recently been recognised as heir to the throne.

paragraph: Section::::Norwegian retaliation.

paragraph: Late in the summer of 1263, Hákon's fleet reached the northern seaboard of Scotland. Although the precise size of the fleet is unknown, the Icelandic Annals remark that "so great a host that an equally great army is not known ever to have gone from Norway". Upon reaching the Scottish-mainland, the late thirteenth century "Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar" ("The Saga of Hákon Hákonarson"), states that Hákon levied a tax upon Caithness and considered plundering into the Moray Firth. It is possible that he intended these acts as a form of retribution for the Earl of Ross' savage attack on Skye. The fleet then made its way south along the western seaboard to Skye, where the saga records that Hákon was met by Magnús. The saga states that Hákon's fleet then sailed south to Kerrera, where Dubhghall and Magnús amongst others, were sent to lead fifty ships towards Kintyre, while a smaller group was sent to Bute. The fleet sent to Kintyre was likely tasked with obtaining the allegiance of Aonghus Mór mac Domhnaill, Lord of Islay (died c.1293) and a certain Murchadh, both who are stated by the saga to have afterwards submitted to Hákon. The saga records that several castles were secured by Hákon's forces: Rothesay Castle on Bute; and an unnamed castle in southern Kintyre, which was more than likely Dunaverty Castle. At Gigha, the saga relates that Eóghan surrendered himself to Hákon, and informed the Norwegian king that he had decided to side with the Scots from whom he held a larger grant of lands. At about the time when Hákon let Eóghan go free, the saga records that the first messengers from the King of Scots arrived to parley.

paragraph: The saga indicates that negotiations started peacefully enough, although as time drew on, and the weather grew worse, a time-pressed Hákon broke off all dialogue. He sent a detachment of ships deep into Lennox, through Loch Long—different versions of the saga number the force at forty and sixty ships—led by Magnús, Dubhghall, (Dubhghall's brother) Ailéan mac Ruaidhrí, Aonghus Mór, and Murchad. The saga states that the ships were dragged across land to Loch Lomond—which indicates that the invaders would have beached their ships and made portage across the isthmus between the two lochs (between what are today the settlements of Arrochar and Tarbet). The saga vividly describes how the invaders wasted the well-inhabited islands of the loch and the dwellings surrounding the loch. The fact that Hákon tasked his Norse-Gaelic magnates with leading this foray likely indicates that their boats were lighter than those of the Norwegians, and thus easier to portage from one loch to another; it could also indicate that the undertaking was meant to test their faithfulness to the Norwegian cause.

paragraph: While Lennox was being plundered, Hákon and his main force, stationed between the Cumbraes and the Scottish mainland, were occupied with the events surrounding the Battle of Largs, between 30 September and 3 October. Although claimed by later Scottish chroniclers as a great victory, in reality the so-called battle was nothing more than "a series of disorderly skirmishes", with relatively few casualties that achieved little for either side. Following the encounter, Hákon led his fleet northward up through the Hebrides. At Mull, he parted with his Norse-Gaelic lords: Dubhghall was rewarded with Eóghan's former island-domain; Murchad was given Arran, and a certain Ruaidrí was given Bute. The Norwegian fleet left the Hebrides and reached Orkney by the end of October, where an ill Hákon died in mid December. Despite the saga's claim that Hákon had been triumphant, in reality the campaign was a failure. Alexander's kingdom had successfully defended itself from Norwegian might, and many of Hákon's Norse-Gaelic supporters had been reluctant to support his cause.

paragraph: Section::::Hebridean-Manx subjugation.

paragraph: Within months of Hákon's abortive campaign, embassies were sent forth from Norway to discuss terms of peace. Meanwhile, Alexander seized the initiative and made ready to punish the magnates who had supported Hákon. In 1264, Alexander assembled a fleet and made ready to invade Mann. Without any protection from his Norwegian overlord, or from Henry III (who was held captive at the time), Magnús had no choice but to submit to the demands of the powerful King of Scots. The two monarchs met at Dumfries, where Magnús swore oaths to Alexander, rendered homage, and surrendered hostages. In return for Alexander's promise of protection against Norwegian retribution, Magnús was forced to provide Alexander's navy with several "pirate type galleys"—five of twenty oars and five of twelve oars. Alexander then ordered an invasion of the Western Isles, led by Uilleam, Earl of Mar (died ×1281), Alexander Comyn, Earl of Buchan (died 1289), and Alan Durward (died 1275). According to the thirteenth-century "Gesta Annalia I", the Scots invaders plundered and killed throughout the islands; the expedition itself is corroborated by the late thirteenth century "Magnúss saga lagabœtis" ("The Saga of Magnús the Lawmender"), which indicates that Scottish forces went into the Hebrides and secured the submission of Aonghus Mór amongst others. Another punitive expedition, possibly led by the Earl of Ross, was launched into Caithness and Ross. The submission forced upon the island-magnates, particularly that of Magnús, marked the complete collapse of Norwegian influence in the Isles.

paragraph: Section::::"Acta" and honours.

paragraph: Only twenty originals, copies, or abstract versions of royal charters of the kings of the Crovan dynasty are known. Of these, only three date to the reign of Magnús—one of which, a grant to Conishead Priory in 1256, is the only original royal charter of the dynasty in existence. Important devices attached to royal charters were double-sided waxen seals, used to authenticate such instruments. Although no seals of the dynasty now survive, there exists several seventeenth- and eighteenth-century descriptions and depictions of ones believed to have belonged to Magnús' uncle Rǫgnvaldr, and brother Haraldr. This limited evidence suggests that, in the twelfth- and thirteenth centuries, the kings of the dynasty bore a sailing ship upon their seals, which would have likely represented the clinker-built galley utilised in the Isles at the time. Borne by men whose strength lay in the power of armed galley-fleets, such a symbol would have represented their authority in the Isles.

paragraph: The "Chronicle of Mann", the only narrative source for the dynasty's realm, was compiled on Mann during Magnús' reign. Analysis of the document reveals that the main scribe's last entry dates to 1257, in an account which records the dedication of the Abbey of St Mary of Rushen in the presence of Magnús and Richard, Bishop of the Isles. The chronicle thus appears to have been commissioned by, or on behalf of, Magnús himself. The chronicle is somewhat biased in favour of one line of the dynasty over another—the line of Magnús's father, Óláfr, over that of Óláfr's rival half-brother Rǫgnvaldr. For example, Haraldr Guðrøðarson is depicted as a usurper and tyrant, in contrast to the legitimate kingship of his cousin, Magnús. In fact, one reason for the chronicle's composition may have been to legitimise the line of Óláfr which, at the time of the chronicle's compilation, was then represented by Magnús himself.

paragraph: Like his father and his brother Haraldr, Magnús is recorded within the "Chronicle of Mann" as having been knighted by Henry III. The knighthoods of Haraldr (in 1247) and Magnús (in 1256) appear to be confirmed by independent English sources. For example, within Henry's letter to Magnús in 1256, Magnús is described to have been invested with a military belt by the English king. Several of the leading members of the Crovan dynasty styled themselves in Latin ' ("King of the Isles"). Magnús and his aforesaid brother, Haraldr, styled themselves in Latin ' ("King of Mann and the Isles").

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Following his submission to Alexander, Magnús, the last reigning king of the Crovan dynasty, ruled peacefully until his death in 1265. According to the "Chronicle of Mann", the king died at Castle Rushen on 24 November, and was buried at the Abbey of St Mary of Rushen. There is a possibility that a coffin-lid found at Rushen, may be associated with the tomb of one of the three kings of the dynasty known to have been buried there. At the time of his death, Magnús is known to have been married to Eóghan's daughter, Máire (died 1302). As the last of a long line of Norse-Gaelic rulers of Mann, his death ended the island's so-called "golden-age" of Scandinavian sea-kings. The continuation of "Historia rerum Anglicarum" records simply, that on his death, "kings ceased to reign on Mann".

paragraph: Section::::Dismantled kingdom.

paragraph: Three years after the inconclusive skirmish at Largs, terms of peace were finally agreed upon between the kingdoms of Norway and Scotland. On 2 July 1266, with the conclusion of the Treaty of Perth, the centuries-old territorial dispute over Scotland's western seaboard was at last settled. Within the treaty, Magnús Hákonarson, King of Norway (died 1280) ceded the Hebrides and Mann to Alexander, who in turn agreed to pay 4,000 merks sterling over four years, and in addition to pay 100 merks sterling in perpetuity. Other conditions stipulated that the inhabitants of the islands would be subject to laws of Scotland; that they were not to be punished for their actions previous to the treaty; and that they were free to remain or leave their possessions peacefully. In 1266, the "Chronicle of Lanercost" records that Alexander ruled Mann through appointed bailiffs; Scottish exchequer accounts record that the Sheriff of Dumfries was given allowance for maintaining seven Manx hostages.

paragraph: In 1275, Magnús Óláfsson's illegitimate son, Guðrøðr, led a revolt on Mann and attempted to establish himself as king. According to the "Chronicle of Mann" and the "Chronicle of Lanercost", a Scottish fleet landed on Mann on 7 October, and early the next morning the revolt was crushed as the Scots routed the rebels at the Battle of Ronaldsway. Guðrøðr may very well have been slain in the defeat, although one source, the continuation of "Historia rerum Anglicarum", states that he, his wife and his followers escaped the carnage to Wales.

paragraph: By the end of the thirteenth century, the islands once ruled by Magnús and his fellow members of the Crovan dynasty before him, were incorporated into the Scottish realm. In 1293, the parliament of John, King of Scots (died 1314) established three new sheriffdoms within his kingdom. One of these three, the Sheriffdom of Skye, was granted to William I, Earl of Ross (died 1323). This sheriffdom included the seaboard north of Ardnamurchan (Wester Ross and Kintail), and the islands of Skye, Lewis, Uist, Barra, Eigg, and Rum. It is possible that parts of the sheriffdom may have been taken over earlier, sometime after the dismantling of the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles.

paragraph: Section::::References.

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paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnus, king of the Isles (d.1265) @ People of Medieval Scotland, 1093–1314

alias:
Magnus Olafsson
Magnus
Magnús

description: King of Mann and the Isles

wikidata_label: Magnús Óláfsson

wikipedia_title: Magnús Óláfsson