text:
rhythm-and-blues
Leiber and Stoller's
Hound Dog
"Billboard" R&B chart
Ball 'n' Chain
Ariton, Alabama
Montgomery, Alabama
spittoon
Diamond Teeth Mary
Bessie Smith
Memphis Minnie
Peacock Records
Apollo Theater
Johnny Otis
Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller
Johnny Ace
Junior Parker
Esther Phillips
Elvis Presley
Janis Joplin
Arhoolie Records
American Folk Blues Festival
Buddy Guy
Fred Below
Eddie Boyd
Jimmy Lee Robinson
Walter "Shakey" Horton
Fred McDowell
Muddy Waters
Sammy Lawhorn
James Cotton
Otis Spann
Luther Johnson
Francis Clay
Monterey Jazz Festival
Wade in the Water
Edward "Bee" Houston
Big Brother and the Holding Company
Monterey Pop Festival
Cheap Thrills
Mercury Records
Billboard Top 200
Dixie Hummingbirds
Mahalia Jackson
Newport Jazz Festival
B.B. King
Eddie "Cleanhead" Vinson
Buddha Records
Vanguard Records
George "Harmonica" Smith
Doug Macleod
San Francisco Blues Festival
Sippie Wallace
Aretha Franklin
Apollo Theater
Alice Echols
Blues Hall of Fame
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
racial segregation in the United States
The New York Times Magazine
2008 Universal fire
List of blues musicians

categories: American blues harmonica players,1926 births,Alcohol-related deaths in California,People from Dale County, Alabama,1984 deaths,Vanguard Records artists,American blues drummers,Texas blues musicians,American female drummers,20th-century American drummers,Burials at Inglewood Park Cemetery,American rhythm and blues singers,American female singers,20th-century American singers,American blues singers,Musicians from Montgomery, Alabama,20th-century American women singers,African-American female singers

paragraph: Big Mama Thornton

paragraph: Willie Mae Thornton (December 11, 1926 – July 25, 1984), better known as Big Mama Thornton, was an American rhythm-and-blues singer and songwriter. She was the first to record Leiber and Stoller's "Hound Dog", in 1952, which became her biggest hit, staying seven weeks at number one on the "Billboard" R&B chart in 1953 and selling almost two million copies. Thornton's other recordings included the original version of "Ball 'n' Chain", which she wrote.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Thornton's birth certificate states that she was born in Ariton, Alabama, but in an interview with Chris Strachwitz she claimed Montgomery, Alabama, as her birthplace, probably because Montgomery was better known than Ariton. She was introduced to music in a Baptist church, where her father was a minister and her mother a singer. She and her six siblings began to sing at early ages. Her mother died young, and Willie Mae left school and got a job washing and cleaning spittoons in a local tavern. In 1940 she left home and, with the help of Diamond Teeth Mary, joined Sammy Green's Hot Harlem Revue and was soon billed as the "New Bessie Smith". Her musical education started in the church but continued through her observation of the rhythm-and-blues singers Bessie Smith and Memphis Minnie, whom she deeply admired.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early career.

paragraph: Thornton's career began to take off when she moved to Houston in 1948. "A new kind of popular blues was coming out of the clubs in Texas and Los Angeles, full of brass horns, jumpy rhythms, and wisecracking lyrics."

paragraph: She signed a recording contract with Peacock Records in 1951 and performed at the Apollo Theater in 1952. Also in 1952, she recorded "Hound Dog" while working with another Peacock artist, Johnny Otis. The songwriters, Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, were present at the recording, with Leiber demonstrating the song in the vocal style they had envisioned. "We wanted her to growl it," Stoller said, which she did, and it sold more than half a million copies, helping to bring in the dawn of rock 'n' roll. (March 2019. "Smithsonian." p. 42) The record was produced by Leiber and Stoller. Otis played drums after the original drummer was unable to play an adequate part. It was the first recording produced by Leiber and Stoller. The record went to number one on the R&B chart. The record made her a star, but she saw little of the profits. On Christmas Day 1954 in a Houston, Texas theatre she witnessed fellow performer Johnny Ace, also signed to Duke and Peacock record labels, accidentally shoot and kill himself while playing with a .22 pistol. Thornton continued to record for Peacock until 1957 and performed in R&B package tours with Junior Parker and Esther Phillips.

paragraph: Thornton's success with "Hound Dog" was followed three years later by Elvis Presley recording his hit version of the song. His recording at first annoyed Leiber who wrote, "I have no idea what that rabbit business is all about. The song is not about a dog, it's about a man, a freeloading gigolo." (Ibid. "Smithsonian." p. 42) But Elvis' version sold ten million copies, so today few fans know that "Hound Dog" began as "an anthem of black female power." (Ibid. "Smithsonian." p. 42) Similarly, Thornton originally recorded her song "Ball 'n' Chain" for Bay-Tone Records in the early 1960s, "and though the label chose not to release the song… they did hold on to the copyright"—which meant that Thornton missed out on the publishing royalties when Janis Joplin recorded the song later in the decade.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Success.

paragraph: As her career began to fade in the late 1950s and early 1960s, she left Houston and relocated to the San Francisco Bay area, "playing clubs in San Francisco and L.A. and recording for a succession of labels", notably the Berkeley-based Arhoolie Records. In 1965, she toured with the American Folk Blues Festival in Europe, where her success was notable "because very few female blues singers at that time had ever enjoyed success across the Atlantic." While in England that year, she recorded her first album for Arhoolie, "Big Mama Thornton – In Europe". It featured backing by blues veterans Buddy Guy (guitar), Fred Below (drums), Eddie Boyd (keyboards), Jimmy Lee Robinson (bass), and Walter "Shakey" Horton (harmonica), except for three songs on which Fred McDowell provided acoustic slide guitar.

paragraph: In 1966, Thornton recorded her second album for Arhoolie, "Big Mama Thornton with the Muddy Waters Blues Band – 1966", with Muddy Waters (guitar), Sammy Lawhorn (guitar), James Cotton (harmonica), Otis Spann (piano), Luther Johnson (bass guitar), and Francis Clay (drums). She performed at the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1966 and 1968. Her last album for Arhoolie, "Ball n' Chain", was released in 1968. It was made up of tracks from her two previous albums, plus her composition "Ball and Chain" and the standard "Wade in the Water". A small combo, including her frequent guitarist Edward "Bee" Houston, provided backup for the two songs. Janis Joplin and Big Brother and the Holding Company's performance of "Ball 'n' Chain" at the Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 and the release of the song on their number one album "Cheap Thrills" renewed interest in Thornton's career.

paragraph: By 1969, Thornton had signed with Mercury Records, which released her most successful album, "Stronger Than Dirt", which reached number 198 in the Billboard Top 200 record chart. Thornton had now signed a contract with Pentagram Records and could finally fulfill one of her biggest dreams. A blues woman and the daughter of a preacher, Thornton loved the blues and what she called the "good singing" of gospel artists like the Dixie Hummingbirds and Mahalia Jackson. She had always wanted to record a gospel record, and with the album "Saved" (PE 10005), she achieved that longtime goal. The album includes the gospel classics "Oh, Happy Day," "Down By The Riverside," "Glory, Glory Hallelujah," "He's Got the Whole World in His Hands," "Lord Save Me," "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," "One More River" and "Go Down Moses".

paragraph: By then the American blues revival had come to an end. While the original blues acts like Thornton mostly played smaller venues, younger people played their versions of blues in massive arenas for big money. Since the blues had seeped into other genres of music, the blues musician no longer needed impoverishment or geography for substantiation; the style was enough. While at home the offers became fewer and smaller, things changed for good in 1972, when Thornton was asked to rejoin the American Folk Blues Festival tour. She thought of Europe as a good place for herself, and, with the lack of engagements in the United States, she agreed happily. The tour, beginning on March 2, took Thornton to Germany, France, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Sweden, where it ended on March 27 in Stockholm. With her on the bill were Eddie Boyd, Big Joe Williams, Robert Pete Williams, T- Bone Walker, Paul Lenart, Hartley Severns, Edward Taylor and Vinton Johnson. As in 1965, they garnered recognition and respect from other musicians who wanted to see them.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Late career and death.

paragraph: In the 1970s, years of heavy drinking began to damage Thornton's health. She was in a serious auto accident but recovered to perform at the 1973 Newport Jazz Festival with Muddy Waters, B.B. King, and Eddie "Cleanhead" Vinson (a recording of this performance, "The Blues—A Real Summit Meeting", was released by Buddha Records). Thornton's last albums were "Jail" and "Sassy Mama" for Vanguard Records in 1975. Other songs from the recording session were released in 2000 on "Big Mama Swings". "Jail" captured her performances during mid-1970s concerts at two prisons in the northwestern United States. She was backed by a blues ensemble that featured sustained jams by George "Harmonica" Smith and included the guitarists Doug Macleod, Bee Houston and Steve Wachsman; the drummer Todd Nelson; the saxophonist Bill Potter; the bassist Bruce Sieverson; and the pianist J. D. Nicholson. She toured extensively through the United States and Canada, played at the Juneteenth Blues Fest in Houston and shared the bill with John Lee Hooker. She performed at the San Francisco Blues Festival in 1979 and the Newport Jazz Festival in 1980. In the early 1970s, Thornton's sexual proclivities became a question among blues fans. Big Mama also performed in the "Blues Is a Woman" concert that year, alongside classic blues legend Sippie Wallace, sporting a man's three-piece suit, straw hat, and gold watch. She sat at center stage and played pieces she wanted to play, which were not on the program. Thornton took part in the Tribal Stomp at Monterey Fairgrounds, the Third Annual Sacramento Blues Festival, and the Los Angeles Bicentennial Blues with BB King and Muddy Waters. She was a guest on an ABC-TV special hosted by actor Hal Holbrook and was joined by Aretha Franklin and toured through the club scene. She was also part of the award-winning PBS television special "Three Generations" of the blues with Sippie Wallace and Jeannie Cheatham.

paragraph: Thornton was found dead at age 57 by medical personnel in a Los Angeles boarding house on July 25, 1984. She died of heart and liver disorders due to her longstanding alcohol abuse. She had lost in a short time as a result of illness, her weight dropping from .

paragraph: Section::::Style.

paragraph: Thornton's performances were characterized by her deep, powerful voice and strong sense of self. She was given her nickname, "Big Mama," by Frank Schiffman, the manager of Harlem's Apollo Theater, because of her strong voice, size, and personality. Thornton stated that she was louder than any microphone and didn’t want a microphone to ever be as loud as she was. Alice Echols, the author of a biography of Janis Joplin, said that Thornton could sing in a "pretty voice" but did not want to. Thornton said, "My singing comes from my experience… My own experience. I never had no one teach me nothin’. I never went to school for music or nothin’. I taught myself to sing and to blow harmonica and even to play drums by watchin’ other people! I can't read music, but I know what I'm singing! I don't sing like nobody but myself."

paragraph: Her style was heavily influenced by gospel music that she listened to growing up at the home of a preacher, though her genre could be described as blues. Thornton was quoted in a 1980 article in the "New York Times": "when I was comin' up, listening to Bessie Smith and all, they sung from their heart and soul and expressed themselves. That's why when I do a song by Jimmy Reed or somebody, I have my own way of singing it. Because I don't want to be Jimmy Reed, I want to be me. I like to put myself into whatever I'm doin' so I can feel it".

paragraph: Scholars such as Maureen Mahon have praised Thornton for subverting traditional roles of African-American women. She added a female voice to a field that was dominated by white males, and her strong personality transgressed stereotypes of what an African-American woman should be. This transgression was an integral part of her performance and stage persona. Elvis Presley and Janis Joplin admired her unique style of singing and incorporated elements of it in their own work. Her vocal sound and style of delivery are key parts of her style and are recognizable in Presley's and Joplin's work.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: During her career, Thornton was nominated for the Blues Music Awards six times. In 1984, she was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame. In addition to "Ball 'n' Chain" and "They Call Me Big Mama," Thornton wrote twenty other blues songs. Her "Ball 'n' Chain" is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of the "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".

paragraph: It was not until Janis Joplin covered Thornton's "Ball 'n' Chain" that it became a hit. Thornton did not receive compensation for her song, but Joplin gave her the recognition she deserved by having Thornton open for her. Joplin found her singing voice through Thornton, who praised Joplin's version of "Ball 'n' Chain", saying, "That girl feels like I do."

paragraph: Thornton subsequently received greater recognition for her popular songs, but she is still underappreciated for her influence on the blues, rock & roll and soul music. Thornton's music was also influential in shaping American popular music. The lack of appreciation she received for "Hound Dog" and "Ball 'n' Chain" as they became popular hits is representative of the lack of recognition she received during her career as a whole.

paragraph: Many critics argue that Thornton's lack of recognition in the music industry is a reflection of an era of racial segregation in the United States, both physically and in the music industry. Scholars suggest that Thornton's lack of access to broader audiences (both white and black), may have been a barrier to her commercial success as both a vocalist and a composer.

paragraph: The first full-length biography of Thornton, "Big Mama Thornton: The Life and Music", by Michael Spörke, was published in 2014.

paragraph: In 2004, the nonprofit Willie Mae Rock Camp for Girls, named for Thornton, was founded to offer a musical education to girls from ages eight to eighteen.

paragraph: On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Big Mama Thornton among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Compilations.

paragraph: "Source":

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of blues musicians

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Spörke, Michael (2014). "Big Mama Thornton: The Life and Music." Jefferson, North Carolia: McFarland. .

alias:
Willie Mae Thornton
Willie Mae "Big Mama" Thornton

description: American rhythm and blues singer and songwriter

wikidata_label: Big Mama Thornton

wikipedia_title: Big Mama Thornton


text: Revolution

text: avant-garde

text: geometric abstraction

text: kinetic

text: Cubism

text: Futurism

text: Constructivism

text: Bauhaus

text: de Stijl

text: Abstraction-Création

text: negative space

text: Realistic Manifesto

text: Antoine Pevsner

text: Revolving Torsion

text: St Thomas Hospital

text: Tate Gallery

text: Museum of Modern Art

text: Guggenheim Museum

text: Rockefeller Center

text: Jewish

text: Russia

text: Bryansk

text: Antoine Pevsner

text: Kursk

text: Heinrich Wölfflin

text: Munich

text: abstract art

text: Wassily Kandinsky

text: Paris

text: Copenhagen

text: Oslo

text: Agit-prop

text: VKhUTEMAS

text: Tatlin

text: Rodchenko

text: kinetic sculpture

text: Realistic Manifesto

text: Cubism

text: Futurism

text: de Stijl

text: Bauhaus

text: Diaghilev

text: Abstraction-Creation

text: Piet Mondrian

text: World War II

text: Barbara Hepworth

text: Ben Nicholson

text: St Ives

text: Cornwall

text: art critic

text: Adrian Stokes

text: Margaret Mellis

text: John Wells

text: Peter Lanyon

text: Realistic Manifesto

text: Munich

text: 20th century

text: Moscow

text: avant garde

text: art historian

text: Heinrich Wölfflin

text: Einstein

text: Henri Bergson

text: First World War

text: contemporary art

text: Kandinsky

text: abstract art

text: surreal

text: Russian Revolution

text: Jewish

text: List of Russian artists

text: Naum Gabo at the Tate Gallery Archive

categories: Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire,Modern sculptors,20th-century Russian sculptors,Jewish sculptors,Russian avant-garde,Guggenheim Fellows,Constructivism (art),Russian Jews,People from Bryansk,People from Oryol Governorate,1977 deaths,1890 births,Vkhutemas faculty

paragraph: Naum Gabo

paragraph: Naum Gabo, born Naum Neemia Pevsner (23 August 1977) (Hebrew: נחום נחמיה פבזנר), was an influential sculptor, theorist, and key figure in Russia's post-Revolution avant-garde and the subsequent development of twentieth-century sculpture. His work combined geometric abstraction with a dynamic organization of form in small reliefs and constructions, monumental public sculpture and pioneering kinetic works that assimilated new materials such as nylon, wire, lucite and semi-transparent materials, glass and metal. Responding to the scientific and political revolutions of his age, Gabo led an eventful and peripatetic life, moving to Berlin, Paris, Oslo, Moscow, London, and finally the United States, and within the circles of the major avant-garde movements of the day, including Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, the Bauhaus, de Stijl and the Abstraction-Création group. Two preoccupations, unique to Gabo, were his interest in representing negative space—"released from any closed volume" or mass—and time. He famously explored the former idea in his "Linear Construction" works (1942-1971)—used nylon filament to create voids or interior spaces as "concrete" as the elements of solid mass—and the latter in his pioneering work, "Kinetic Sculpture (Standing Waves)" (1920), often considered the first kinetic work of art.

paragraph: Gabo elaborated many of his ideas in the Constructivist "Realistic Manifesto", which he issued with his brother, sculptor Antoine Pevsner as a handbill accompanying their 1920 open-air exhibition in Moscow. In it, he sought to move past Cubism and Futurism, renouncing what he saw as the static, decorative use of color, line, volume and solid mass in favor of a new element he called "the kinetic rhythms (…) the basic forms of our perception of real time." Gabo held a utopian belief in the power of sculpture—specifically abstract, Constructivist sculpture—to express human experience and spirituality in tune with modernity, social progress, and advances in science and technology. After working on a smaller scale in England during the war years (1936-1946), Gabo moved to the United States, where he received several public sculpture commissions, only some of which he completed. These include "Constructie", an 81-foot commemorative monument in front of the Bijenkorf Department Store (1954, unveiled in 1957) in Rotterdam, and "Revolving Torsion", a large fountain outside St Thomas Hospital in London. The Tate Gallery, London held a major retrospective of Gabo's work in 1966 and holds many key works in its collection, as do the Museum of Modern Art and Guggenheim Museum in New York. Work by Gabo is also included at Rockefeller Center in New York City and The Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller Empire State Plaza Art Collection in Albany, NY.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Gabo grew up in a Jewish family of six children in the provincial Russian town of Bryansk, where his father Boris (Berko) Pevsner worked as an engineer. His older brother was fellow Constructivist artist Antoine Pevsner; Gabo changed his name to avoid confusion with him. Gabo was a fluent speaker and writer in German, French, and English in addition to his native Russian. His command of several languages contributed greatly to his mobility during his career. “As in thought, so in feeling, a vague communication is no communication at all," Gabo once remarked.

paragraph: After school in Kursk, Gabo entered Munich University in 1910, first studying medicine, then the natural sciences, and attended art history lectures by Heinrich Wölfflin. In 1912 Gabo transferred to an engineering school in Munich where he discovered abstract art and met Wassily Kandinsky and in 1913-14 joined his brother Antoine (who by then was an established painter) in Paris. Gabo's engineering training was key to the development of his sculptural work that often used machined elements. During this time he won acclamations by many critics and awards like the $1000 Mr and Mrs Frank G. Logan Art Institute Prize at the annual Chicago and Vicinity exhibition of 1954.

paragraph: Section::::Constructivism.

paragraph: After the outbreak of war, Gabo moved first to Copenhagen then Oslo with his older brother Alexei, making his first constructions under the name Naum Gabo in 1915. These earliest constructions originally in cardboard or wood were figurative such as the "Head No.2" in the Tate collection. He moved back to Russia in 1917, to become involved in politics and art, spending five years in Moscow with his brother Antoine.

paragraph: Gabo contributed to the Agit-prop open air exhibitions and taught at 'VKhUTEMAS' the Higher Art and Technical Workshop, with Tatlin, Kandinsky and Rodchenko. During this period the reliefs and construction became more geometric and Gabo began to experiment with kinetic sculpture though the majority of the work was lost or destroyed. Gabo's designs had become increasingly monumental but there was little opportunity to apply them; as he commented, "It was the height of civil war, hunger and disorder in Russia. To find any part of machinery … was next to impossible". Gabo wrote and issued jointly with Antoine Pevsner in August 1920 a "Realistic Manifesto" proclaiming the tenets of pure Constructivism – the first time that the term was used. In the manifesto Gabo criticized Cubism and Futurism as not becoming fully abstract arts and stated that the spiritual experience was the root of artistic production. Gabo and Pevsner promoted the manifesto by staging an exhibition on a bandstand on Tverskoy Boulevard in Moscow and posted the manifesto on hoardings around the city.

paragraph: In Germany Gabo came into contact with the artists of the de Stijl and taught at the Bauhaus in 1928. During this period he realised a design for a fountain in Dresden (since destroyed). Gabo and Antoine Pevsner had a joint exhibition at the Galerie Percier, Paris in 1924 and the pair designed the set and costumes for Diaghilev's ballet "La Chatte" (1926) that toured in Paris and London. To escape the rise of the Nazis in Germany the pair stayed in Paris in 1932–35 as members of the Abstraction-Creation group with Piet Mondrian.

paragraph: Gabo visited London in 1935, and settled in 1936, where he found a "spirit of optimism and sympathy for his position as an abstract artist". At the outbreak of World War II he followed his friends Barbara Hepworth and Ben Nicholson to St Ives in Cornwall, where he stayed initially with the art critic Adrian Stokes and his wife Margaret Mellis. While in Cornwall he continued to work, albeit on a smaller scale. His influence was important to the development of modernism within St Ives, and it can be seen most conspicuously in the paintings and constructions of John Wells and Peter Lanyon, both of whom developed a softer more pastoral form of Constructivism.

paragraph: In 1946 Gabo and his wife and daughter emigrated to the United States, where they resided first in Woodbury, and later in Middlebury, Connecticut. Gabo died in Waterbury, Connecticut, in 1977.

paragraph: Section::::Gabo's theory of art.

paragraph: The essence of Gabo's art was the exploration of space, which he believed could be done without having to depict mass. His earliest constructions such as "Head No.2" were formal experiments in depicting the volume of a figure without carrying its mass. Gabo's other concern as described in the "Realistic Manifesto" was that art needed to exist actively in four dimensions including time.

paragraph: Gabo's formative years were in Munich, where he was inspired by and actively participated in the artistic, scientific, and philosophical debates of the early years of the 20th century. Because of his involvement in these intellectual debates, Gabo became a leading figure in Moscow’s avant garde, in post-Revolution Russia. It was in Munich that Gabo attended the lectures of art historian Heinrich Wölfflin and gained knowledge of the ideas of Einstein and his fellow innovators of scientific theory, as well as the philosopher Henri Bergson. As a student of medicine, natural science and engineering, his understanding of the order present in the natural world mystically links all creation in the universe. Just before the onset of the First World War in 1914, Gabo discovered contemporary art, by reading Kandinsky’s "Concerning the Spiritual in Art", which asserted the principles of abstract art.

paragraph: Gabo’s vision is imaginative and passionate. Over the years his exhibitions have generated immense enthusiasm because of the emotional power present in his sculpture. Gabo described himself as "making images to communicate my feelings of the world." In his work, Gabo used time and space as construction elements and in them solid matter unfolds and becomes beautifully surreal and otherworldly. His sculptures initiate a connection between what is tangible and intangible, between what is simplistic in its reality and the unlimited possibilities of intuitive imagination. Imaginative as Gabo was, his practicality lent itself to the conception and production of his works. He devised systems of construction which were not only used for his elegantly elaborate sculptures but were viable for architecture as well. He was also innovative in his works, using a wide variety of materials including the earliest plastics, fishing line, bronze, sheets of Perspex, and boulders. He sometimes even used motors to move the sculpture.

paragraph: Caroline Collier, an authority on Gabo’s work, said, "The real stuff of Gabo’s art is not his physical materials, but his perception of space, time and movement. In the calmness at the ‘still centre’ of even his smallest works, we sense the vastness of space, the enormity of his conception, time as continuous growth." In fact, the element of movement in Gabo’s sculpture is connected to a strong rhythm, more implicit and deeper than the chaotic patterns of life itself. The exactness of form leads the viewer to imagine journeying into, through, over and around his sculptures.

paragraph: Gabo wrote his "Realistic Manifesto", in which he ascribed his philosophy for his constructive art and his joy at the opportunities opened up by the Russian Revolution. Gabo saw the Revolution as the beginning of a renewal of human values. Five thousand copies of the manifesto tract were displayed in Moscow streets in 1920.

paragraph: Gabo had lived through a revolution and two world wars; he was also Jewish and had fled Nazi Germany. Gabo’s acute awareness of turmoil sought out solace in the peacefulness that was so fully realized in his “ideal” art forms. It was in his sculpture that he evaded all the chaos, violence, and despair he had survived. Gabo chose to look past all that was dark in his life, creating sculptures that though fragile are balanced so as to give us a sense of the constructions delicately holding turmoil at bay.

paragraph: Section::::Printmaking.

paragraph: Gabo made began printmaking in 1950, when he was persuaded to try out the medium by William Ivins, a former curator of prints at the Metropolitan Museum of Modern Art, New York. His first print was a wood engraving in a section of wood taken from a piece of furniture and printed onto a piece of toilet paper. He went on produce a significant and varied body of graphic work, including much more elaborate and lyrical compositions, until his death in 1977.

paragraph: Gabo as he eschewed the traditional notion that prints should be made in editions of identical impressions, instead preferring to use the monoprint format as a vehicle for experimentation.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Of Divers Arts" (1962). New York: Faber and Faber.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Russian artists

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naum Gabo at the Tate Gallery Archive

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naum Gabo at the Nasher Sculpture Center

alias:
Naum Neemia Pevsner
Naum Pevzner
Naum Borisovich Pevzner
Naum Gabo (Sir)
Nathanael Neemia Pevsner
Naum Abramovic Pevzner
Neemija Berkovic Pevzner
Nehemiah Borisovich Pevzner
Gabo

description: Russian sculptor

enwikiquote_title: Naum Gabo

wikidata_label: Naum Gabo

wikipedia_title: Naum Gabo


text: Italian

text: Occitan

text: Count of Jaffa and Ascalon

text: William V

text: Montferrat

text: Judith of Babenberg

text: Conrad

text: Boniface

text: Azalaïs

text: Renier

text: Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Louis VII of France

text: troubadour

text: Peire Bremon lo Tort

text: William of Tyre

text: Henry II of England

text: William I of Scotland

text: Eleanor of Aquitaine

text: Raymond III

text: count of Tripoli

text: Baldwin IV

text: king of Jerusalem

text: Sibylla

text: County of Jaffa and Ascalon

text: Reynald of Châtillon

text: Castilian

text: military order

text: Order of Montjoie

text: Ascalon

text: Baldwin V

text: Runciman, Steven

categories: Counts of Jaffa and Ascalon,1140s births,1177 deaths

paragraph: William of Montferrat, Count of Jaffa and Ascalon

paragraph: William of Montferrat (early 1140s – 1177), also called William Longsword (modern Italian "Guglielmo Lungaspada"; original Occitan "Guilhem Longa-Espia"), was the Count of Jaffa and Ascalon, the eldest son of William V, Marquess of Montferrat and Judith of Babenberg. He was the older brother of Conrad, Boniface, Azalaïs, and Renier, and a cousin of both Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor and Louis VII of France.

paragraph: The earliest surviving mention of William's epithet, "Longsword", said to refer to his military abilities, and differentiating him from his father, known as "William the Elder", is in the song "En abril, quan vei verdeyar", composed in late 1176-early 1177 by the troubadour Peire Bremon lo Tort:

paragraph: It was rendered into Latin as ""Longaspata"" by William of Tyre in his "Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum" (written in the early 1180s), whence it has been taken up by historians.

paragraph: Despite his eligibility as the eldest son of one of the greatest magnates in northern Italy, with many royal and imperial connections and the fair good looks of his family, he did not marry until he was well into his thirties. In 1167, his father had tried to arrange marriages for him and Conrad to daughters of Henry II of England or sisters of William I of Scotland - but these failed, the English match probably because of consanguinity (the boy's mother Judith was related to Eleanor of Aquitaine), the Scottish match because the princesses were already married.

paragraph: In 1176 William was chosen by Raymond III, count of Tripoli, and Baldwin IV, king of Jerusalem, to marry Baldwin's sister Sibylla. William also gained the County of Jaffa and Ascalon in the marriage. William of Tyre describes him as tall, blond, and handsome; brave, frank and unpretentious, but inclined to eat and drink copiously, though not to the impairment of his judgment.

paragraph: With the King's consent, William and Reynald of Châtillon gave a grant of land to the new Castilian military order, the Order of Montjoie, commanded by Count Rodrigo Alvarez de Sarria. However, William's activities in Outremer were cut short. He fell ill, probably from malaria, at Ascalon in April 1177, and died there in June, leaving Sibylla pregnant with the future king Baldwin V. His body was taken to Jerusalem and buried at the Hospital of St John.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Haberstumpf, Walter. "Dinastie europee nel Mediterraneo orientale. I Monferrato e i Savoia nei secoli XII–XV", 1995 (external link to downloadable text).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hamilton, Bernard. "The Leper King and His Heirs: Baldwin IV and the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem", 2000

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peire Bremon lo Tort, "En abril, quan vei verdeyar", with translation by James H. Donalson (external link)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Runciman, Steven. "A History of the Crusades", 1951–54, vol. 2

paragraph: BULLET::::- Usseglio, Leopoldo. "I Marchesi di Monferrato in Italia ed in Oriente durante i secoli XII e XIII", 1926

alias: Guillaume de Jaffa family tree of Guillaume de Montferrat

wikidata_label: William of Montferrat


text: Bloomsbury Group

text: Lytton Strachey

text: Hereford

text: Bedford High School

text: Slade School of Art

text: University College, London

text: Dorothy Brett

text: Paul Nash

text: Christopher R. W. Nevinson

text: Mark Gertler

text: John Nash

text: Omega Workshops

text: Hogarth Press

text: woodcut

text: Bloomsbury Group

text: Bohemian

text: Lytton Strachey

text: androgynous

text: Henrietta Bingham

text: Gerald Brenan

text: Crome Yellow

text: Aldous Huxley

text: Ottoline Morrell

text: Virginia Woolf

text: Tidmarsh

text: Ralph Partridge

text: ménage à trois

text: Ham Spray House

text: Wiltshire

text: Frances Marshall

text: Bernard ‘Beakus’ Penrose

text: Roland Penrose

text: surrealism

text: cancer

text: Bryan Guinness

text: David Garnett

text: Tate Gallery, London

text: Carrington

text: Emma Thompson

text: Lytton Strachey

text: Diana Mitford

text: Loved Ones

text: Gerald Brenan

text: South from Granada

text: Emma Thompson

text: Carrington

text: Christopher Hampton

text: Michael Holroyd

text: Jessica Kate Meyer

text: Goya Award

text: Al sur de Granada

text: Fernando Colomo

text: South from Granada

text: Gerald Brenan

text: Gerald Brenan

text: Dora Carrington Collection, 1912-1965

text: Harry Ransom Center

text: University of Texas at Austin

text: New York Public Library

text: Gerald Brenan Collection, 1911-1978

text: Harry Ransom Center

text: University of Texas at Austin

text: The Grove Dictionary of Art

text: "Farm at Watendlath" (1921)

text: Dora Carrington Collection

text: Harry Ransom Center

text: University of Texas at Austin

categories: 1932 deaths,Suicides by firearm in England,People educated at Bedford High School, Bedfordshire,People from Hereford,Bloomsbury Group,English women painters,LGBT artists from the United Kingdom,Female suicides,20th-century English painters,Artists who committed suicide,20th-century British women artists,1893 births,Alumni of the Slade School of Art

paragraph: Dora Carrington

paragraph: Dora de Houghton Carrington (29 March 1893 – 11 March 1932), known generally as Carrington, was an English painter and decorative artist, remembered in part for her association with members of the Bloomsbury Group, especially the writer Lytton Strachey.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Carrington was born in Hereford, England, to railway engineer Samuel Carrington and Charlotte (née Houghton). She attended the all-girls' Bedford High School which emphasized art. Her parents also paid for her to receive extra lessons in drawing. In 1910, she went to the Slade School of Art at University College, London where she subsequently won a scholarship; her fellow students included Dorothy Brett, Paul Nash, Christopher R. W. Nevinson and Mark Gertler. All at one time or another were in love with her, as was Nash's younger brother John Nash, who hoped to marry her. Gertler pursued Carrington for a number of years, and they had a brief sexual relationship during the years of the First World War.

paragraph: From her time at the Slade onwards, she was commonly known simply by her surname. She was not well known as a painter during her lifetime, as she rarely exhibited and did not sign her work. She worked for a while at the Omega Workshops, and for the Hogarth Press, designing woodcuts.

paragraph: Section::::Career and personal life.

paragraph: Carrington was not a member of the Bloomsbury Group, though she was closely associated with Bloomsbury and, more generally, with "Bohemian" attitudes, through her long relationship with the homosexual writer Lytton Strachey, whom she first met in 1916. Distinguished by her cropped pageboy hair style (before it was fashionable) and somewhat androgynous appearance, she was troubled by her sexuality; she is known to have had an affair with Henrietta Bingham. She also had a significant relationship with the writer Gerald Brenan. In his first novel "Crome Yellow," Aldous Huxley based the character of Mary Bracegirdle on Carrington, and described how she and he slept on the roof of "Lollipop Hall", based on Lady Ottoline Morrell's home. He chose the name "Bracegirdle" because of Dora's chastity.

paragraph: In June 1918, Virginia Woolf wrote of Carrington in her diary: "She is odd from her mixture of impulse & self consciousness. I wonder sometimes what she’s at: so eager to please, conciliatory, restless, & active... [B]ut she is such a bustling eager creature, so red & solid, & at the same time inquisitive, that one can’t help liking her." Carrington first set up house with Lytton Strachey in November 1917, when they moved together to Tidmarsh Mill House, near Pangbourne, Berkshire. Carrington met Ralph Partridge, an Oxford friend of her younger brother Noel, in 1918. Partridge fell in love with Carrington and eventually, in 1921, Carrington agreed to marry him, not for love but to hold the ménage à trois together. Strachey paid for the wedding, and also accompanied the couple on their honeymoon in Venice. The three moved to Ham Spray House in Wiltshire in 1924; the house had been purchased by Strachey in the name of Partridge.

paragraph: In 1926, Ralph Partridge began an affair with Frances Marshall, and left to live with her in London. His marriage to Carrington was effectively over, but he continued to visit her most weekends. In 1928 Carrington met Bernard ‘Beakus’ Penrose, a friend of Partridge’s and the younger brother of the artist Roland Penrose, and began an affair with him. The affair energized Carrington's artistic creativity, and she also collaborated with Penrose on the making of three films. However, Penrose wanted Carrington exclusively for himself, a commitment she refused to make because of her love for Strachey. The affair, her last with a man, ended when Carrington became pregnant and had an abortion.

paragraph: During her lifetime, Carrington's work received no critical attention. The lack of encouragement may have kept her from displaying her artwork. Carrington's work can be described as progressive, because it did not fit into the mainstream of art in England at the time. In fact, her work was not considered art at all. It featured Victorian-style pictures which were made from coloured tinfoil and paper. Carrington included pen sketches in letters to her friends, with the intention of entertaining them. She also created woodblock prints, which were highly regarded. Her lesser-known work included painted pub signs and murals, ceramics, fireplaces, and tin trunks.

paragraph: Carrington was better known for her landscape paintings, which have been linked to surrealism. Her landscapes blend the facts of visual perception with interior desires and fantasies. One work of art, "Mountain Ranges from Yegen, Andalusia", 1924, shows the split in perspectives. There is an intimate foreground, and there is in the distance a view of the mountains. The main focus, on the middle mountains, exhibit the texture of human skin. This merges the notion of the personal being made public.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Lytton Strachey died of stomach cancer at Ham Spray in January 1932. Carrington, who saw no purpose in a life without Strachey, committed suicide two months after his death by shooting herself with a gun borrowed from her friend, Hon. Bryan Guinness (later 2nd Baron Moyne). Her body was cremated and the ashes buried under the laurels in the garden of Ham Spray House.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: An accomplished painter of both portraits and landscape, she also worked in applied and decorative arts, painting on any type of surface she had at hand including inn signs, tiles and furniture. She also decorated pottery and designed the library at Ham Spray. In 1970 David Garnett published a selection of letters and extracts from her diary, since which time critical and popular appreciation of her work has risen sharply. In 1978, Sir John Rothenstein, for nearly thirty years Director of the Tate Gallery, London, called Dora Carrington "the most neglected serious painter of her time." "That is no longer the case. In 1995 she was the subject of a major retrospective exhibition at the Barbican Art Gallery in London." Two of her works are in the Tate Gallery, London.

paragraph: Carrington's life with Strachey was dramatized in the 1995 biographical film "Carrington", starring Emma Thompson in the title role.

paragraph: Section::::Relationship with Lytton Strachey.

paragraph: For many years, Carrington’s art was neglected by the public and her main notoriety was due to her relationship with Lytton Strachey. On the day she agreed to marry Partridge she wrote to Strachey, who was in Italy, what has been described as "one of the most moving love letters in the English language". She wrote "... I cried last night Lytton, whilst he slept by my side sleeping happily—I cried to think of a savage cynical fate which had made it impossible for my love ever to be used by you ..." Strachey wrote back "... you "do" know very well that I love you as something more than a friend, you angelic creature, whose goodness to me has made me happy for years, and whose presence in my life has been and always will be, one of the most important things in my life ..." On his deathbed Strachey said, "I always wanted to marry Carrington and I never did." His biographer calls this sentiment "not true; but he could not have said anything more deeply consoling". Upon his death, Strachey left Carrington £10,000 (the equivalent of £240,000 in 1994).

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.:Books.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diana Mitford, a close friend, profiles Carrington in "Loved Ones".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerald Brenan writes about Carrington's visit to him in Spain in his 1957 autobiographical work "South from Granada".

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.:Films.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emma Thompson portrays Carrington in the 1995 British biographical film "Carrington", written and directed by Christopher Hampton based on the book "Lytton Strachey" by Michael Holroyd.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jessica Kate Meyer portrays Carrington in the 2003 Goya Award winning Spanish film "Al sur de Granada", written and directed by Fernando Colomo, based on the 1957 autobiographical book "South from Granada" by Gerald Brenan.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerzina, Gretchen Holbrook (1989). "Carrington: A Life". New York, W.W. Norton & Co..

paragraph: BULLET::::- Haycock, David Boyd (2009). "A Crisis of Brilliance: Five Young British Artists and the Great War". London, Old Street Publishing. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hill, Jane (1994). "The Art of Dora Carrington". London, The Herbert Press Ltd.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerald Brenan, "Diarios sobre Dora Carrington y otros escritos (1925-1932)", editorial Confluencias, 2012.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Archival sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dora Carrington Collection, 1912-1965 (1.67 linear feet) are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lytton Strachey collection of papers, 1904-1934 (596 items) are housed at the New York Public Library

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerald Brenan Collection, 1911-1978 (8.75 linear feet) are housed at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Grove Dictionary of Art

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Farm at Watendlath" (1921)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dora Carrington Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin

paragraph: BULLET::::- 'Carrington (and Woolf) in Cambridge, 1928', by Peter Murray Jones, "Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society", Vol.XIII Pt.3, 2006

alias:
Dora de Houghton Carrington
Mrs. Ralph Partridge
Dora Partridge-Carrington

description: British painter and decorative artist

wikidata_label: Dora Carrington

wikipedia_title: Dora Carrington


text:
German
Anheuser-Busch
Eberhard Anheuser
August Busch IV
Anheuser-Busch InBev
Kastel
Mainz
Grand Duchy of Hesse
St. Louis, Missouri
Washington, Missouri
Eberhard Anheuser
Chicago
hops
American Civil War
Union Army
Cooperstown, New York
Budweiser
Manufacturers Railway
Dallas, Texas
Adolphus Hotel
Kirby Residences
National Historic Landmark
San Francisco
Adolphus Busch Hall
Eberhard Anheuser
St. Louis, Missouri
Adolphus Busch II
August Anheuser Busch I
Lindschied
Langenschwalbach
Bad Schwalbach
Lindschied
dropsy
August A.
Bellefontaine Cemetery
heart attack
pneumonia
Eberhard Anheuser
Jacob Best
Valentin Blatz
Adolph Coors
Gottlieb Heileman
Frederick Miller
Frederick Pabst
Joseph Schlitz
August Uihlein

categories: Hessian emigrants to the United States,Businesspeople from St. Louis,People from Wiesbaden,Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery,1839 births,Busch family,1913 deaths,American drink industry businesspeople,People from the Grand Duchy of Hesse,Deaths from edema

paragraph: Adolphus Busch

paragraph: Adolphus Busch (10 July 1839 – 10 October 1913) was the German-born co-founder of Anheuser-Busch with his father-in-law, Eberhard Anheuser. He introduced numerous innovations, building the success of the company in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He became a philanthropist, using his great wealth for education and humanitarian needs. His great-great-grandson, August Busch IV is now on the board of Anheuser-Busch InBev.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Busch was born on July 10, 1839, to Ulrich Busch and Barbara Pfeiffer in Kastel, then a district of Mainz in the Grand Duchy of Hesse. He was the twenty-first of twenty-two children. His wealthy family ran a wholesale business of winery and brewery supplies. Busch and his brothers all received quality educations, and he graduated from the Collegiate Institute of Belgium in Brussels.

paragraph: In 1857, at the age of 18, Busch emigrated with three of his older brothers to St. Louis, Missouri which was a major destination for German immigrants in the nineteenth century. Because he had so many siblings, Adolphus did not expect to inherit much of his father's estate and had to make his own way. Since St. Louis was home to so many German immigrants, the market for beer was large. The city also had two natural resources essential for manufacturing and storing beer in that time, before refrigeration: the river provided an ample water supply; and the city had many caves that would keep beer cool.

paragraph: His brother Johann established a brewery in Washington, Missouri. Ulrich Jr. married a daughter of Eberhard Anheuser in St. Louis, and settled in Chicago. Anton was a hops dealer who later returned to Mainz.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Busch's first job in St. Louis was working as a clerk in the commission house. He was also an employee at William Hainrichshofen's wholesale company. During the American Civil War Busch served in the Union Army for six months. During this period, he learned that his father had died and he had inherited a portion of the estate.

paragraph: Busch partnered with Ernst Battenberg in St. Louis to found the first of his businesses, a brewing supply company that sold to the three dozen breweries in the city. Eberhard Anheuser was one of Adolphus' customers. Anheuser was a soap manufacturer that lent money to the Bavarian Brewery. When the small brewery went bankrupt, Anheuser bought out the other creditors and renamed the company Anheuser. Adolphus married Eberhard's daughter Lilly in 1861.

paragraph: Returning to St. Louis after the Civil War, Busch entered his wife's family's brewery business. He bought out Eberhard's partner, William D'Oench. In 1879, the company was renamed Anheuser-Busch.

paragraph: At the death of Eberhard Anheuser in 1880, Busch became president of the business, and became wealthy due to the success of the brewery. He envisioned a national beer with universal appeal. His work was distinguished by his "timely adoption of important scientific and technological innovations, an expansive sales strategy geared largely toward external domestic and international population centers, and a pioneering integrated marketing plan that focused on a single core brand, Budweiser, making it the most successful nationally-distributed beer of the pre-Prohibition era."

paragraph: To build Budweiser as a national beer, Busch created a network of rail-side ice-houses and launched the industry's first fleet of refrigerated freight cars. However, throughout his life, he jokingly referred to his beer as "dot schlop" and preferred wine to drink.

paragraph: When Busch implemented pasteurization (1878) as a way to keep the beer fresh for longer, his company was able to profit from shipping beer across the country. Busch soon acquired breweries in Texas which allowed his operation to distribute to Mexico and California. Busch was an early adopter of bottled beer and founded the Busch Glass Company to make bottles for his product. In 1901 sales surpassed the one million barrels of beer benchmark.

paragraph: In addition to pasteurization and refrigeration, Busch was an early adopter of vertical integration, or buying all components of a business. He bought bottling factories, ice-manufacturing plants, stave makers, timberland, coal mines, and a refrigeration company. He also bought railways and bought the rights from Rudolf Diesel to assemble diesel engines in America. The Busch family also acquired hop farms in the area near Cooperstown, New York.

paragraph: His focus on the business extended to the flavor of the beer itself. Carl Conrad held the trademark for the name Budweiser and had Anheuser-Busch manufacture it for him. Conrad was an importer of wines and champagnes. Busch studied the pilsner process in Europe, which was used for brewing Budweiser. Adolphus bought the rights to Budweiser from Conrad in October 1882 when Conrad went bankrupt.

paragraph: Busch served as the president of the South Side Bank and the Manufacturers Railway. He had helped organize the latter as a short-line rail serving local industry. He also was a director of the Louisiana Purchase Company. Like other business leaders, he served as a director of the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, contributing to civic efforts.

paragraph: Busch invested in new buildings and businesses in Dallas, Texas, which was growing rapidly in the early 20th century as an industrial city. In 1912, Busch constructed the Adolphus Hotel there as the tallest building in the state. Another was the Busch Building, which has been adapted as the Kirby Residences, and is located at 1509 Main St. It is a National Historic Landmark.

paragraph: Section::::Philanthropy.

paragraph: From his early years, Busch contributed generously to charitable and education needs. With a lifelong interest in his homeland, he assisted in repairing devastation from the 1882 flooding of Mainz-Kastel by the Rhine River. He donated $100,000 (equivalent to $ million today) to San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake - $50,000 personally and $50,000 from his company.

paragraph: Busch contributed a total of $350,000 (equivalent to $ million today) to Harvard to endow a Germanic museum, named Adolphus Busch Hall.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Busch married Elise "Lilly" Eberhard Anheuser, the third daughter of Eberhard Anheuser, on 7 March 1861 in St. Louis, Missouri. They had thirteen children; eight sons, including Adolphus Busch II, August Anheuser Busch I and Carl Busch, and five daughters. The Busches often traveled to Germany where they built their mansion. They named it the Villa Lilly for Mrs Busch. It is located in Lindschied near Langenschwalbach, in present-day Bad Schwalbach.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Busch died in Lindschied in 1913 while on vacation. He had been suffering from dropsy since 1906. He was survived by his widow, five daughters and two sons, August A. and Carl Busch, both of St. Louis. His body was brought back to the United States in 1915 by ship, and transported by train to St. Louis.

paragraph: Almost thirty thousand people paid their respects to Adolphus Busch when his body lay in state in the family mansion in St. Louis. Notable guests included the U.S. secretary of agriculture, the president of Harvard University, and the president of the University of California. Twenty-five trucks were needed to transport all the flower arrangements to the cemetery and a 250 piece band led the funeral procession. The procession spanned twenty miles, from No. 1 Busch Place to Bellefontaine Cemetery, Adolphus' final resting place. As many as 100,000 mourners lined the streets for the procession. Five minutes of silence were observed at the request of Mayor Henry W. Kiel and the lights were turned off at the Jefferson and Planter's House hotels. Streetcars were also halted.

paragraph: Lilly Anheuser's parents had built a mausoleum at Bellefontaine Cemetery, but she felt that Adolphus needed something grander. She tore down the original structure, and had the other family members reinterred outside. She had Thomas Barnett design a new mausoleum in the Bavarian Gothic style. Constructed of stone quarried in Missouri, and completed in 1921, the new building cost $250,000 (equivalent to $ million today). It features grapevines representing both Adolphus' birthplace in German wine country, and his favorite beverage. Julius Caesar's words, "Veni, Vidi, Vici," or "I came, I saw, I conquered" are inscribed on the lintel.

paragraph: Lilly died of a heart attack and pneumonia on February 17, 1928 in Pasadena, California. Her body was brought back to St. Louis, and was buried beside her husband.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eberhard Anheuser

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jacob Best

paragraph: BULLET::::- Valentin Blatz

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adolph Coors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gottlieb Heileman

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frederick Miller

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frederick Pabst

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph Schlitz

paragraph: BULLET::::- August Uihlein

description: American businessman

wikidata_label: Adolphus Busch

wikipedia_title: Adolphus Busch


text: Neoplatonic

text: Tyre

text: Enneads

text: Plotinus

text: Euclid

text: "Elements"

text: Pappus of Alexandria

text: Isagoge

text: Latin

text: Arabic

text: Middle Ages

text: Constantine the Great

text: early Christians

text: Tyre

text: Athens

text: Cassius Longinus

text: grammar

text: rhetoric

text: Rome

text: Plotinus

text: Neoplatonism

text: Sicily

text: philosophy

text: Iamblichus

text: theurgy

text: Aristotle

text: Categories

text: categories of being

text: universal

text: Boethius

text: Arbor porphyriana

text: cladistics

text: Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ

text: Christianity

text: Paganism

text: Diocletian

text: Galerius

text: Lactantius

text: Eusebius

text: Theodoret

text: Augustine

text: John Philoponus

text: astrological

text: vegetarianism

text: Antiochus Epiphanes

text: Edward Gibbon

text: Anthony Collins

text: Modernist

text: Augustine

text: Socrates of Constantinople

text: theurgy

text: Iamblichus

text: Pierre Hadot

text: Pythagoras

text: vegetarianism

text: astrology

text: musical theory

text: vitae

text: Cyril of Alexandria

text: Pythagoras

text: Iamblichus

text: Ptolemy's "Harmonics"

text: Homer

text: Adolf von Harnack

text: Tetrabiblos

text: archive.org

text: Alice Zimmern

text: Basilides of Tyre

text: Macarius Magnes

text: John M. Dillon

text: "Porphyry"

text: "Porphyry Malchus"

text: JSTOR

text: Porphyry Malchus (mathematician)

text: Περὶ τοῦ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ τῶν Νυμφῶν Ἄντρου ("The Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey"), original Greek text.

text: Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὴν Ἀποτελεσματικὴν τοῦ Πτολεμαίου ("Introduction to Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos"), original Greek text.

text: Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book I

text: Thomas Taylor

text: Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book II

text: Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book III

text: Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book IV

text: Porphyry, "On the Cave of Nymphs"

text: Porphyry, "Auxiliaries to the Perception of Intelligible Natures"

text: Porphyry, "Isagoge"

text: "The Isagoge, or Introduction of Porphyry"

text: Porphyry, "On the Life of Plotinus"

text: Porphyry, "Comments on the Book of Daniel".

text: Additional texts, edited by Roger Pearse

categories: 3rd-century Romans,Critics of Christianity,Roman-era philosophers,Neoplatonists,Commentators on Aristotle,People from Tyre, Lebanon,Roman-era students in Athens,3rd-century philosophers,305 deaths,4th-century Romans,Commentators on Plato,234 births,Pagan anti-Gnosticism,Late Antique writers

paragraph: Porphyry (philosopher)

paragraph: Porphyry of Tyre (; , "Porphýrios"; , "Furfūriyūs"; c. 234 – c. 305 AD) was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre, in the Roman Empire. He edited and published the "Enneads", the only collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. His commentary on Euclid's "Elements" was used as a source by Pappus of Alexandria.

paragraph: He also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics. His "Isagoge", or "Introduction", is an introduction to logic and philosophy, and in the Latin and Arabic translations it was the standard textbook on logic throughout the Middle Ages. In addition, through several of his works, most notably "Philosophy from Oracles" and "Against the Christians", which was banned by emperor Constantine the Great, he was involved in a controversy with a number of early Christians.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Porphyry was born in Tyre. His parents named him "Malchus" ("king" in the Semitic languages) but his teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus, gave him the name Porphyrius ("clad in purple"), possibly a reference to his Phoenician heritage, or a punning allusion to his name and the color of royal robes. Under Longinus he studied grammar and rhetoric.

paragraph: In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years devoted himself to the practice of Neoplatonism, during which time he severely modified his diet. At one point he became suicidal. On the advice of Plotinus he went to live in Sicily for five years to recover his mental health. On returning to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and completed an edition of the writings of Plotinus (who had died in the meantime) together with a biography of his teacher. Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient Neoplatonic writings as his pupil, but this most likely means only that he was the dominant figure in the next generation of philosophers. The two men differed publicly on the issue of theurgy.

paragraph: In his later years, he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Little more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain.

paragraph: Section::::Introduction ("Isagoge").

paragraph: Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy. Apart from writing the "Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles" (Ἀφορμαὶ πρὸς τὰ νοητά; "Sententiae Ad Intelligibilia Ducentes"), a basic summary of Neoplatonism, he is especially appreciated for his "Introduction to Categories" ("Introductio in Praedicamenta" or "Isagoge et in Aristotelis Categorias commentarium"), a very short work often considered to be a commentary on Aristotle's "Categories", hence the title. According to , however, the correct title is simply "Introduction" (Εἰσαγωγή "Isagoge"), and the book is an introduction not to the "Categories" in particular, but to "logic" in general, comprising as it does the theories of predication, definition, and proof. The Introduction describes how qualities attributed to things may be classified, famously breaking down the philosophical concept of substance into the five components "genus", "species", "difference", "property", "accident".

paragraph: As Porphyry's most influential contribution to philosophy, the "Introduction to Categories" incorporated Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in particular the doctrine of the categories of being interpreted in terms of entities (in later philosophy, "universal"). Boethius' "Isagoge", a Latin translation of Porphyry's "Introduction", became a standard medieval textbook in European schools and universities, which set the stage for medieval philosophical-theological developments of logic and the problem of universals. In medieval textbooks, the all-important "Arbor porphyriana" ("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomy benefits from concepts in Porphyry's Tree, in classifying living organisms (see cladistics).

paragraph: The "Introduction" was translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ from a Syriac version. With the Arabicized name "Isāghūjī" (إيساغوجي) it long remained the standard introductory logic text in the Muslim world and influenced the study of theology, philosophy, grammar, and jurisprudence. Besides the adaptations and epitomes of this work, many independent works on logic by Muslim philosophers have been entitled Isāghūjī. Porphyry's discussion of "accident" sparked a long-running debate on the application of "accident" and "essence".

paragraph: Section::::"Philosophy from Oracles" ("De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda").

paragraph: Porphyry is also known as an opponent of Christianity and defender of Paganism; his precise contribution to the philosophical approach to traditional religion may be discovered in the fragments of "Philosophy from Oracles" (Περὶ τῆς ἐκ λογίων φιλοσοφίας; "De Philosophia ex Oraculis Haurienda"), which was originally three books in length. There is debate as to whether it was written in his youth (as Eunapius reports) or closer in time to the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian and Galerius.

paragraph: Whether or not Porphyry was the pagan philosopher opponent in Lactantius' "Divine Institutes", written at the time of the persecutions, has long been discussed. The fragments of the "Philosophy from Oracles" are only quoted by Christians, especially Eusebius, Theodoret, Augustine, and John Philoponus. The fragments contain oracles identifying proper sacrificial procedure, the nature of astrological fate, and other topics relevant for Greek and Roman religion in the third century. Whether this work contradicts his treatise defending vegetarianism, which also warned the philosopher to avoid animal sacrifice, is disputed among scholars.

paragraph: Section::::"Against the Christians" ("Adversus Christianos").

paragraph: During his retirement in Sicily, Porphyry wrote "Against the Christians" (Κατὰ Χριστιανῶν; "Adversus Christianos") which consisted of fifteen books. Some thirty Christian apologists, such as Methodius, Eusebius, Apollinaris, Augustine, Jerome, etc., responded to his challenge. In fact, everything known about Porphyry's arguments is found in these refutations, largely because Theodosius II ordered every copy burned in A.D. 435 and again in 448.

paragraph: Porphyry became one of the most able pagan adversaries of Christianity of his day. His aim was not to disprove the substance of Christianity’s teachings but rather the records within which the teachings are communicated.

paragraph: According to Jerome, Porphyry especially attacked the prophecy of Daniel because Jews and Christians pointed to the historical fulfillment of its prophecies as a decisive argument. But these prophecies, he maintained, were written not by Daniel but by some Jew who in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (d. 164 BC) gathered up the traditions of Daniel's life and wrote a history of recent past events but in the future tense, falsely dating them back to Daniel's time.

paragraph: The first part of Daniel, with the exception of the dream in Daniel 2, is historic, not prophetic. Porphyry, attacking only the prophetic portion, declares it to be merely a late anonymous narrative of past events, purporting to have been predicted long before by Daniel. Thus Porphyry's scheme was based on the supposed spuriousness of Daniel's prophecies.

paragraph: Porphyry devised his own interpretation where the third “prophetic kingdom” was Alexander, and assigned the Macedonian Ptolemies and Seleucids to the fourth kingdom. From among these he chose ten kings, making the eleventh to be Antiochus Epiphanes. In this way he threw his main strength against the book of Daniel, recognizing that if this pillar of faith be shaken, the whole structure of prophecy must tremble. If the writer was not Daniel, then he lied on a frightful scale, ascribing to God prophecies which were never uttered, and making claim of miracles that were never wrought. And if Daniel's authorship could be shown to be false, then Christ Himself would be proved to bear witness to an imposter. (Matt. 24: 15.) Porphyry's thesis was adopted by Edward Gibbon, the English deist Anthony Collins, and most Modernist scholars.

paragraph: Augustine and the 5th-century ecclesiastical historian Socrates of Constantinople, assert that Porphyry was once a Christian.

paragraph: Section::::Other subjects.

paragraph: Porphyry was opposed to the theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus. Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is dedicated to the defense of mystic theurgic divine possession against the critiques of Porphyry. French philosopher Pierre Hadot maintains that for Porphyry, spiritual exercises are an essential part of spiritual development.

paragraph: Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, an advocate of vegetarianism on spiritual and ethical grounds. These two philosophers are perhaps the most famous vegetarians of classical antiquity. He wrote the "On Abstinence from Animal Food" (Περὶ ἀποχῆς ἐμψύχων; "De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium"), advocating against the consumption of animals, and he is cited with approval in vegetarian literature up to the present day.

paragraph: Porphyry also wrote widely on astrology, religion, philosophy, and musical theory. He produced a "History of Philosophy" ("Philosophos historia") with "vitae" of philosophers that included a life of his teacher, Plotinus. His life of Plato from book iv exists only in quotes by Cyril of Alexandria. His book "Vita Pythagorae" on the life of Pythagoras is not to be confused with the book of the same name by Iamblichus. His commentary on Ptolemy's "Harmonics" ("Eis ta Harmonika Ptolemaiou hypomnēma") is an important source for the history of ancient harmonic theory.

paragraph: Porphyry also wrote about Homer. Apart from several lost texts known only from quotes by other authors, two texts survive at least in large parts: the "Homerian Questions" ("Homēriká zētḗmata", largely a philological comment on the Iliad and Odyssey) and "About the cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey" ("Peri tou en Odysseia tōn nymphōn antrou").

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ad Gaurum" (of uncertain attribution) – ed. K. Kalbfleisch. Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akadamie der Wissenschaft. phil.-hist. kl. (1895): 33-62.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ad Gedalium" (a lost commentary on Aristotle's "Categories" in seven books (see Simplicius, "In Aristotelis Categorias commentarium", 2.5-9), the "testimonia" are published in Andrew Smith (ed.), "Porphyrius, Porphyrii Philosophi fragmenta. Fragmenta Arabica David Wasserstein interpretante", Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1993

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Contra Christianos" – ed.: Adolf von Harnack, "Porphyrius, "Gegen die Christen," 15 Bücher: Zeugnisse, Fragmente und Referate." Abhandlungen der königlich preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: Jahrgang 1916: philosoph.-hist. Klasse: Nr. 1 (Berlin: 1916); in English translation, "Against the Christians".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Contra los Cristianos: Recopilación de Fragmentos, Traducción, Introducción y Notas" – E. A. Ramos Jurado, J. Ritoré Ponce, A. Carmona Vázquez, I. Rodríguez Moreno, J. Ortolá Salas, J. M. Zamora Calvo (Cádiz: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Cádiz 2006).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Corpus dei Papiri Filosofici Greci e Latini III: Commentari" – (Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1995). # 6 and #9 may or may not be by Porphyry

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De abstinentia ab esu animalium" – Jean Bouffartigue, M. Patillon, and Alain-Philippe Segonds, edd., 3 vols., Budé (Paris, 1979–1995).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De Philosophia ex oraculis haurienda" – G. Wolf, ed. (Berlin: 1956).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Epistula ad Anebonem" – A. R. Sodano ed. (Naples: L'arte Tipografia, 1958).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fragmenta" – Andrew Smith, ed. (Stvtgardiae et Lipsiae: B. G. Tevbneri, 1993).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Homeric Questions: a Bilingual Edition" – Lang Classical Studies 2, R. R. Schlunk, trans. (Frankfurt-am-Main: Lang, 1993).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Isagoge", Stefan Weinstock, ed., in Catalogus Codicum astrologorum Graecorum, Franz Cumont, ed. (Brussels, 1940): V.4, 187-228. (This is an introduction to the "Tetrabiblos" of Ptolemy, not to be confused with the more famous "Isagoge" on logic.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kommentar zur Harmonielehre des Ptolemaios" Ingemar Düring. ed. (Göteborg: Elanders, 1932).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Opuscula selecta" Augusts Nauck, ed. (Lipsiae: B. G. Tevbneri, 1886) (online at archive.org).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyrii in Platonis Timaeum commentarium fragmenta" A. R. Sodano, ed. (Napoli: 1964).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry, the Philosopher, to Marcella: Text and Translation with Introduction and Notes" Kathleen O’Brien Wicker, trans., Text and Translations 28; Graeco-Roman Religion Series 10 (Atlanata: Scholars Press, 1987).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pros Markellan" Griechiser Text, herausgegeben, übersetzt, eingeleitet und erklärt von W. Pötscher (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sententiae ad Intelligibilia Ducentes" – E. Lamberz, ed. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1975).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vie de Pythagore, Lettre à Marcella" – E. des Places, ed. and trans. (Paris: Les Belles Lettre, 1982).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Vie de Plotin" – Luc Brisson, ed. Histoire de l'antiquité classique 6 & 16 (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin: 1986–1992), 2 vols.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vita Plotini" – in "Plotinus", Armstrong, ed. LCL (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1968), 2-84.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Isagoge" – Mediaeval Sources in Translation 16, E. Warren, trans. (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry's Introduction". Translation of the 'Isagoge' with a Commentary by J. Barnes (Oxford, 2003).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry. On Aristotle's Categories". Translated by Steven K. Strange (Ithaca, New York, 1992).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Organon or Logical Treatises of Aristotle with the Introduction of Porphyry". Bohn's Classical Library 11–12, Octavius Freire Owen, trans. (London: G. Bell, 1908–1910), 2 vols.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Five Texts on the Mediaeval Problem of Universals: Porphyry, Boethius, Abelard, Duns Scotus, Ockham" Paul Vincent Spade, trans. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Select Works of Porphyry". Translated by T. Taylor (Guildford, 1994). Contains "Abstinence from Eating Animal Food", the "Sententiae" and the "Cave of the Nymphs".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Launching-Points to the Realm of Mind". Translation of the 'Sententiae' by K. Guthrie (Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1988).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Neoplatonic Saints: The Lives of Plotinus and Proclus". Translated Texts for Historians 35 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On Abstinence from Killing Animals" – Gilliam Clark, trans. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey A revised text with translation" by Seminar Classics 609, State University of New York at Buffalo, Arethusa Monograph 1 (Buffalo: Dept. of Classics, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1969).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On the Cave of the Nymphs" – Robert Lamberton, trans. (Barrytown, N. Y.: Station Hill Press, 1983).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry Against the Christians" – R. M. Berchman, trans., Ancient Mediterranean and Medieval Texts and Contexts 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2005).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry’s Against the Christians: The Literary Remains" – R. Joseph Hoffmann, trans. (Amherst: Prometheus Books, 1994).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Homeric Questions" – edited and translated by R. Schlunk (New York, 1993).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry's Letter to His Wife Marcella Concerning the Life of Philosophy and the Ascent to the Gods". Translated by Alice Zimmern (Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1989).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Porphyry the Philosopher, Introduction to the Tetrabiblos and Serapio of Alexandria, Astrological Definitions" – Translated by James Herschel Holden (Tempe, Az.: A.F.A., Inc., 2009).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Translations of several fragments are contained in Appendix 1 of "Religion and Identity in Porphyry of Tyre" by Aaron Johnson (Cambridge, 2013).

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Basilides of Tyre

paragraph: BULLET::::- Macarius Magnes – his work "Apocriticus" contains a series of excerpts from Porphyry's "Against the Christians"

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iamblichus: "De mysteriis". Translated with an Introduction and Notes by Emma C. Clarke, John M. Dillon and Jackson P. Hershbell (Society of Biblical Literature; 2003) .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barker, A. (2003). "Porphyry," in S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, eds., "Oxford Classical Dictionary", revised 3rd edition, pp. 1226–1227.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes, J. Trans. (2003). "Porphyry: Introduction". Clarendon Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Beutler, R. (1894–1980). "Porphyrios (21)" in A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, K. Witte, K. Mittelhaus and K. Ziegler, eds., "Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft", vol. 22.1.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bidez, J. (1913). "Vie de Porphyre". Ghent.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clark, Gillian, "Porphyry of Tyre on the New Barbarians," in R. Miles (ed), "Constructing Identities in Late Antiquity" (London: Routledge, 1999), 112–132; = in Eadem, "Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity" (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XIV.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clark, Gillian, "Philosophic Lives and the philosophic life: Porphyry and Iamblichus," in T. Hägg and P. Rousseau (eds), "Greek Biography and Panegyric in Late Antiquity" (Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2000), 29–51; = in Eadem, "Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity" (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XV.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clark, Gillian, "Fattening the soul: Christian asceticism and Porphyry On Abstinence," "Studia Patristica", 35, 2001, 41-51; = in Eadem, "Body and Gender, Soul and Reason in Late Antiquity" (Farnham; Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2011) (Variorum collected studies series, CS978), art. XVI.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Digeser, E. D. (1998). "Lactantius, Porphyry, and the Debate over Religious Toleration," "The Journal of Roman Studies" 88, pp. 129–146.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emilsson, E., "Porphyry". Retrieved April 19, 2009.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Girgenti, G. (1987) "Porfirio negli ultimi cinquant'anni: bibliografia sistematica e ragionata della letteratura primaria e secondaria riguardante il pensiero porfiriano e i suoi influssi storici" Milan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Connor, J. and E. Robertson, "Porphyry Malchus". Retrieved April 14, 2009.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sarton, G. (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World," "Osiris" 2, pp. 406–463. (In JSTOR.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Smith, Andrew (1987) "Porphyrian Studies since 1913", in W. Haase, ed., Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt II.36.2, pp. 717–773.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Smith, Andrew (1974) "Porphyry's Place in the Neoplatonic Tradition. A Study in post-Plotinian Neoplatonism", The Hague, Nijhoff.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wilken, R. (1979). "Pagan Criticism of Christianity: Greek Religion and Christian Faith," in W. Schoedel and R. Wilken, eds., "Early Christian Literature and the Classical Intellectual Tradition", pp. 117–134.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zuiddam, B. A. "Old Critics and Modern Theology," "Dutch Reformed Theological Journal" (South Africa), xxxvi, 1995, № 2.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry Malchus (mathematician) - entry in MacTutor History of Maths Archives.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Περὶ τοῦ ἐν Ὀδυσσείᾳ τῶν Νυμφῶν Ἄντρου ("The Cave of the Nymphs in the Odyssey"), original Greek text.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὴν Ἀποτελεσματικὴν τοῦ Πτολεμαίου ("Introduction to Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos"), original Greek text.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book I, translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book II, translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book III, translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Book IV, translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On the Cave of Nymphs", translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "Auxiliaries to the Perception of Intelligible Natures", translated by Thomas Taylor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "Isagoge", translated by .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Isagoge, or Introduction of Porphyry", translated by Thomas Taylor with an extensive preface by the translator.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "On the Life of Plotinus"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Porphyry, "Comments on the Book of Daniel".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Additional texts, edited by Roger Pearse

description: Neoplatonist philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Porphyry (philosopher)

wikidata_label: Porphyry

wikipedia_title: Porphyry (philosopher)


text: Arabic

text: Fatimah bint Muhammad

text: Ali ibn Abi Talib

text: Shia

text: Sunni

text: house was attacked

text: Umar

text: Islamic

text: Muhammad

text: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Husain ibn Ali

text: Arabic

text: Ḥ-S-N

text: Saqifah

text: Abu Bakr

text: caliph

text: Umar

text: Al-Tabari

text: Ibn Qutaybah

text: Al-Baladhuri

text: Mu'tazilite

text: Ibrahim al-Nazzam

text: Al-Ya'qubi

text: Al-Masudi

text: Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid

text: Kitab al-Irshad

text: Muhammad

text: Fatimah

text: Lesley Hazleton

categories: 7th-century Arabs,Family of Muhammad,Banu Hashim,Muslim martyrs,Arabs

paragraph: Muhsin ibn Ali

paragraph: Muhsin ibn Ali (Arabic: محسن بن علي, also spelled Mohsin ibn Ali) was a son of Fatimah bint Muhammad and Ali ibn Abi Talib who died in early childhood. The exact details of his death are disputed, with versions being primarily split on sectarian lines between Shia and Sunni denominations. Accounts indicate he was either miscarried by Fatimah when their house was attacked by Umar and his supporters, shortly after the death of his grandfather, the Islamic prophet Muhammad, or died in later childhood.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: The name "Muhsin," like the names of Muhsin's brothers Hasan ibn Ali and Husain ibn Ali, comes from the Arabic root Ḥ-S-N. "Muhsin" can mean "beneficent", "benefactor", or "one who does the act of helping." Several Islamic sources report that Hasan, Husain, and Muhsin were all named by their grandfather, the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

paragraph: Section::::Attack.

paragraph: At the gathering at Saqifah, Abu Bakr assumed political power; however, his rule was not universally considered legitimate. A group of people supporting Ali as caliph had gathered at the home he shared with Fatima. Reportedly, it was at this point that Umar, on Abu Bakr's orders, came to obtain Ali's allegiance. Several scholars, such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Qutaybah, narrate that Umar threatened to burn the building down if Ali refused to acknowledge Abu Bakr's authority. While the historian Al-Baladhuri states that the altercation ended here with Ali's compliance, some traditions add that Umar and his supporters violently entered the house, resulting in Fatimah's miscarriage of Muhsin. The Mu'tazilite theologian Ibrahim al-Nazzam elaborates that, "Umar hit Fatimah (sa) on the stomach such that the child in her womb died." Alternatively, Ibn Rustam Al-Tabari states that it was a client of Umar's named Qunfudh who caused the miscarriage, having struck her with the sheath of his sword.

paragraph: These events are usually disputed by Sunnis, with numerous early historical sources instead stating that Muhsin had died in early childhood. Historians Al-Baladhuri, Al-Ya'qubi and Al-Masudi all list Muhsin among the children of Fatimah, but without any mention of a miscarriage. Similarly, the Shia theologian Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, when writing his "Kitab al-Irshad", makes no mention of violence in relation to Muhsin's death. The earliest known reference of the miscarriage during the altercation only appears in the 10th century, in Ibn Qulawayh Al-Qummi's "Kamil al-ziyarat". Professor Coeli Fitzpatrick surmises that the story reflects the political agendas of the period and should therefore be treated with caution.

paragraph: Section::::Remembrance.

paragraph: Muhsin ibn Ali is mourned by many Muslims, especially Shia Muslims, and is often considered as a martyr. Shia Muslims mourn his death, along with the deaths of his grandfather Muhammad and his mother Fatimah, who all died within a very short time period. Shias also sometimes recite eulogies about Muhsin, as they do for other relatives of Muhammad. Muhsin is held in high regard by Muslims regardless of sect, and the name "Muhsin" has thus become commonly used by both Shia and Sunni Muslims.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam, By Lesley Hazleton

wikidata_label: Muhsin ibn Ali

wikipedia_title: Muhsin ibn Ali


text: United States Navy

text: Medal of Honor

text: Korean Expedition

text: color bearer

text: Marines

text: American Flag

text: ramparts

text: Boston, Massachusetts

text: List of Medal of Honor recipients

categories: United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients,Korean Expedition (1871) recipients of the Medal of Honor,People from York, Maine,United States Navy sailors,1843 births,1912 deaths

paragraph: Cyrus Hayden

paragraph: Cyrus Freeman Hayden (1839-1912) was a United States Navy sailor received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Korean Expedition on June 11, 1871. While serving as the color bearer for the 's crew and Marines, Hayden planted the American Flag on the ramparts under heavy enemy fire.

paragraph: Hayden enlisted in the Navy from Boston, Massachusetts in 1869.

paragraph: Section::::Medal of Honor citation.

paragraph: Rank and organization: Carpenter, U.S. Navy. Born: 1843, York, Maine Accredited to: Maine. G.O. No.: 169, February 8, 1872.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: On board the USS "Colorado" during the attack and capture of the Korean forts, 11 June 1871. Serving as color bearer of the battalion, Hayden planted his flag on the ramparts of the citadel and protected it under a heavy fire from the enemy.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients

paragraph: BULLET::::- General Orders and Circulars Issued by the Navy Department

wikidata_label: Cyrus Hayden

wikipedia_title: Cyrus Hayden


text:
French
dramatist
Rouen
Le Havre
Paris
Surrealist
Charles Dullin
Existentialist
communism
French resistance
Académie Goncourt
Une femme libre

categories: People from Le Havre,French Resistance members,1899 births,1989 deaths

paragraph: Armand Salacrou

paragraph: Armand Camille Salacrou (9 August 1899 – 23 November 1989) was a French dramatist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He was born in Rouen, but spent most of his childhood at Le Havre, and moved to Paris in 1917. His first works show the influence of the Surrealists.

paragraph: He was the owner of a profitable advertising firm, but sold it in order to devote his time to writing plays. Encouraged by Charles Dullin, he wrote in a wide range of styles and enjoyed great success from the mid-1930s. His later work is usually grouped with that of the Existentialists. He flirted with communism during the 1920s and criticized capitalism in his play "Boulevard Durand". During the Nazi occupation of France, he participated in the clandestine French resistance, an experience which he celebrated in "Les Nuits de la colère".

paragraph: He was a member of the Académie Goncourt, and a library in his home town is named after him.

paragraph: Section::::Plays.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1923 : "Magasin d'accessoires", "Histoire de cirque", "Le Casseur d'assiettes", "Les Trente Tombes de Judas"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1924 : "La Boule de Verre"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1925 : "Le Pont de l'Europe"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1925 : "Tour à terre"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1927 : "Patchouli, ou Les Désordres de l'amour"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1929 : "Atlas-Hôtel", "Les Frénétiques"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1931 : "La Vie en Rose"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1933 : "Une femme libre", "Poof"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1935 : "L'Inconnue d'Arras"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1936 : "Un homme comme les autres"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1937 : "La terre est ronde"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1939 : "Histoire de rire"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1941 : "La Marguerite"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1944 : "Les Fiancés du Havre"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1945 : "Le Soldat et la sorcière"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1946 : "Les Nuits de la colère"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1946 : "L'Archipel Lenoir, ou Il ne faut pas toucher aux choses inutiles", "Pourquoi pas moi?"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1950 : "Dieu le savait, ou la Vie n'est pas sérieuse"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1952 : "Sens Interdit, ou Les Âges de la Vie"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1953 : "Les Invités du Bon Dieu"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1953 : "Une femme trop honnête, ou Tout est dans la façon de le dire"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1954 : "Le Miroir"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1959 : "Boulevard Durand"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1964 : "Comme les Chardons"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1966 : "La Rue Noire"

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. van den Esch. "Armand Salacrou, dramaturge de l'angoisse." Paris, 1947

paragraph: BULLET::::- David Looseley. "A Search for Commitment: the Theatre of Armand Salacrou." University of Exeter, 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Juris Silenieks. "Themes and Dramatic Forms in the Plays of Armand Salacrou." University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1967.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fiorenza di Franco. "Le théâtre de Salacrou." Gallimard, Paris, 1970.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Annie Ubersfeld. "Armand Salacrou." Seghers, Paris, 1970.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippe Bébon. "Salacrou." Éditions universitaires, Paris, 1971.

description: French dramatist

wikidata_label: Armand Salacrou

wikipedia_title: Armand Salacrou


text:
Amsterdam
Santpoort
Amsterdam School
Expressionist architecture
Eduard Cuypers
Johan van der Mey
Michel de Klerk
Scheepvaarthuis
The Hague
CIAM
Rationalists
Cornelis van Eesteren
Amsterdamse Bos
Hildo Krop
Rationalist
Plan Zuid
Berlage
Michel de Klerk
Michel de Klerk
Amsterdamse Bos

categories: 1881 births,Dutch architects,Expressionist architects,1961 deaths

paragraph: Piet Kramer

paragraph: Pieter Lodewijk (Piet) Kramer (Amsterdam, 1 July 1881 – Santpoort, 4 February 1961) was a Dutch architect, one of the most important architects of the Amsterdam School (Expressionist architecture).

paragraph: From 1903 to 1911 Piet Kramer worked in the architectural practice of Eduard Cuypers, where he came into contact with the architects Johan van der Mey and Michel de Klerk. In 1911 van der Mey received the commission to design the Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House), a cooperative building for six Dutch shipping companies. Van der Mey sought the assistance of his former colleague-architects Piet Kramer and Michel de Klerk to realize this building. The Scheepvaarthuis (1913–1916) is considered the starting point of the Amsterdam School movement. Later Piet Kramer collaborated with Michel de Klerk on the well-known De Dageraad housing project in Amsterdam South (1919–1923). Outside Amsterdam he built one of his masterpieces, the De Bijenkorf Store in The Hague (1924–1926). After the death of Michel de Klerk in 1923, Piet Kramer was the leading architect of the Amsterdam School until the end of this movement in the beginning of the 1930s.

paragraph: In the years of economic crisis of the 1930s the expensive architecture of the Amsterdam School was passé. A new architecture and town planning was in process of development in Amsterdam, represented by CIAM-Rationalists like Cornelis van Eesteren and Ben Merkelbach. In the new architecture the principle of spatial corridors between functionalistic blocks was relevant. On the contrary, the Amsterdam School town planning was based on a town structure with streets and places.

paragraph: In the second half of his professional life, the main job of Piet Kramer was architect for canal bridges in the municipal public works department in Amsterdam (Gemeentelijke Dienst Publieke Werken). He made the drawings for more than 500 bridges. The total number of realized Piet Kramer bridges is 220, 64 of them in the Amsterdamse Bos park. Besides the bridges he often designed the additional bridge houses, ironwork and landscaping. The sculptural work was generally done by Hildo Krop.

paragraph: After the death of Piet Kramer in 1961, on the high point of the Rationalist movement, no architectural institution or museum was interested in his Expressionist work. For that reason all his drawings and models were burnt.

paragraph: Section::::Amsterdam South.

paragraph: De Dageraad (The Dawn), part of Plan Zuid (Plan South) by Berlage. Working-class Socialist housing by Piet Kramer and Michel de Klerk (1920–1923). The architectural contribution by Piet Kramer is shown in this article. See also Michel de Klerk.

paragraph: Section::::Amsterdam West.

paragraph: Plan West, working-class Socialist housing. Buildings by different architects of the Amsterdam School (1922–1927).

paragraph: Section::::Amsterdam Canal Bridges.

paragraph: Piet Kramer made the drawings for more than 500 bridges. The total number of realized Piet Kramer bridges is 220, 64 of them in the Amsterdamse Bos park.

paragraph: Section::::The Hague.

paragraph: De Bijenkorf Store, Grote Marktstraat / Wagenstraat (1924–1926)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bernhard Kohlenbach, "Pieter Lodewijk Kramer 1881-1961 - Architekt der Amsterdamer Schule", Wiese Verlag, Basel 1994 [German edition and Dutch edition]

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wim de Boer and Peter Evers, "Amsterdamse bruggen 1910-1950" (Amsterdam Canal Bridges), Amsterdam 1983 and 1995

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maristella Casciato, "The Amsterdam School", 010 Publishers, Rotterdam 1991

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph Buch, "A Century of Architecture in The Netherlands", NAI Publishers, Rotterdam 1995

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1911-16 (Wikipedia in Dutch)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1924-26 (Wikipedia in Dutch)

alias:
P. L. Kramer
Pieter Lodewijk Kramer

description: Dutch architect

wikidata_label: Piet Kramer

wikipedia_title: Piet Kramer