text: Romania

text: National Peasants' Party

text: interior minister

text: Communist regime

text: Piteşti

text: University of Bucharest

text: University of Paris

text: Argeş

text: Chamber of Deputies

text: in 1937

text: independent

text: Senator

text: Banca Commerciale Italiana

text: Constantin Sănătescu

text: Romanian Communist Party

text: Teohari Georgescu

text: Siguranţa

text: Soviet occupation

text: World War II

text: prefects

text: commune

text: Arad

text: Brăila

text: Braşov

text: Târgovişte

text: Hunedoara

text: Ploieşti

text: Timişoara

text: Lugoj

text: Nicolae Rădescu

text: Iron Guard

text: Nazi Germany

text: Ghiţă Popp

text: Iuliu Maniu

text: Tămădău Affair

text: Ion Mihalache

text: Craiova

text: Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu

text: Nicolae Carandino

text: Bărăgan

text: Jilava

text: French President

text: Charles de Gaulle

text: Maurice Couve de Murville

text: asylum

text: Securitate

text: Transylvania

text: Nicolae Ceauşescu

text: CSCE

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: Nicolae Pleşiţă

text: Paul Goma

text: Miniştrii de interne (1862–2007)

categories: University of Paris alumni,University of Bucharest alumni,Romanian anti-communists,Romanian Ministers of Interior,Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania),1897 births,20th-century Romanian politicians,Romanian prisoners and detainees,1981 deaths,National Peasants' Party politicians,Romanian lawyers,Members of the Senate of Romania,People from Pitești

paragraph: Nicolae Penescu

paragraph: Nicolae Penescu (February 28, 1897 – February 28, 1981) was a Romanian lawyer and politician. A member of the National Peasants' Party (PNŢ), he served as interior minister from November 4 to December 6, 1944. After spending years in prison and internal exile, he emigrated to France, where he was active in denouncing the Communist regime.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early career and Interior Minister.

paragraph: Born in Piteşti, he attended primary and secondary school in his native city, followed by the Law faculty of the University of Bucharest. Admitted to the bar in 1921, he received his legal doctorate from the University of Paris in 1923. As a practising lawyer, he mainly represented business interests. He began his political career by joining the National Peasants' Party. Active in the Argeş area, he took advantage of a PNŢ legislator from the county leaving the party, and was himself elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1937. He held positions at the Bucharest Chamber of Commerce (which backed his election as an independent Senator in 1933) and Banca Commerciale Italiana (from 1942), and headed "Creditul Românesc".

paragraph: Named interior minister in the second Constantin Sănătescu cabinet, he fought against the imposition of communism and the transformation of Romania into a Soviet satellite, earning him sharp attacks from the Romanian Communist Party. His subordinates at the ministry included Teohari Georgescu, undersecretary for administration; and General Virgil Stănescu who, alongside Dimitrie Nistor, was in charge of the "Siguranţa" secret police. The day after the cabinet took office, dissension began to surface among the participating parties, against a backdrop of Soviet occupation and the Romanian Army fighting in World War II to the west. The parties disagreed on what the government should do, and particularly on how to solve domestic political problems. Thus, although the cabinet meeting of November 20 had agreed "in full solidarity" to replace incumbent prefects and had decided to let the county-level chapters of the respective parties to select replacements, Penescu did not adhere to the agreement. Several communist prefects took office by force and without interior ministry approval, which added to the tensions created by the war.

paragraph: Meanwhile, communists staged demonstrations against the new minister, instructing protesters to chant "Down with Penescu"; the party also began a virulent press campaign directed against him. Penescu also decided to hold commune-level elections, thought to be impossible as long as disagreement over the prefects continued. The government's repressive measures in response to popular demands hampered its ability to act, so that prefects and mayors were soon installed without ministry authorization in Arad, Brăila, Braşov, Târgovişte, Hunedoara, Ploieşti, Timişoara and Lugoj, with nearly all officeholders replaced by the end of November. An attempt to use force backfired, leading to the cabinet's fall on December 2 and its resignation four days later. Nicolae Rădescu was the next prime minister as well as interim interior minister.

paragraph: Penescu's time at the ministry saw the first groups of exiled Iron Guard members being parachuted in from Nazi Germany, with several hundred landings by the following February. Domestically, the security situation was uncertain, with agents working for the ministry informing on those being watched when they joined political parties, as well as on the disorder caused by the Soviet occupiers. The first stirrings of the Romanian anti-communist resistance movement began to appear. In December 1944, Penescu was elected secretary general of the PNŢ, replacing Ghiţă Popp. In August 1946, he was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt at the Piteşti tribunal that left two dead and sixteen injured, and Soviet pressures for the PNŢ and other historic parties to be dissolved were growing.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Persecution and emigration.

paragraph: With difficulty, Iuliu Maniu persuaded him to leave the country and continue the PNŢ's political struggle from abroad. He was arrested together with other PNŢ leaders as well as his wife on July 14, 1947, while boarding an airplane, as part of the Tămădău Affair. Put on trial, he was accused of intending to set up a rival government abroad; of plotting with Maniu and Ion Mihalache to bring about the violent overthrow of the government, aided by American and British "imperialist circles"; and of writing "calumnious" and misleading memoirs that were sent to the ambassadors of those two countries. Under pressure, he made statements partly disassociating himself from Maniu, calling him a "gloved dictator", and this collaboration allowed for his wife to be freed sooner. He was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and two years' deprivation of civic rights.

paragraph: Sent to prison in Craiova with other detainees who had issued denunciations, he was brought back to Bucharest during the investigation of Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu and used as a prosecution witness against him. During the investigation, he and Nicolae Carandino were re-sentenced, with Penescu receiving an 8 year-term. Released from prison in 1955 but forced to reside in the Bărăgan, he was provided for by his son. In 1959, following an order calling for detainees who were freed or sent into forced residence to be rearrested, he was given a show trial and a 15-year sentence. His son and a driver were also jailed for bringing him winter supplies. This time he was sent to Jilava prison, where in 1962 he received news of his wife Fulvia's death. In 1963, his "reeducation" began when he was taken to Bucharest and Ploieşti to witness the regime's "achievements". The following year he began, under orders, to write a self-critical memoir but was convinced by fellow inmates to drop the effort. He was freed in late July 1964.

paragraph: In 1968, when French President Charles de Gaulle visited Romania, one of the delegation members was the country's prime minister, Maurice Couve de Murville, whose doctoral colleague Penescu had been in Paris. The prime minister intervened on his behalf and Penescu received approval to visit France for six months. During his stay, he asked for asylum and did not return to Romania.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Exile activities and death.

paragraph: Once in France, he denounced those Romanians and Soviets he deemed responsible for his country's predicament. He founded a Romanian National Council in 1978, although his activities were undermined by rivals within the exile community. The "Securitate" secret police pressured his son Vladimir to visit him accompanied by one of their colonels, and the French authorities advised him to accept the visit and inform them of the "Securitate's" wishes. The agent asked Penescu to launch a campaign underlining the historic basis for Romania's claim to Transylvania and the purported risk of Hungary retaking the province. He refused, saying this would have abetted Nicolae Ceauşescu's regime. Under continued surveillance from Romania, he kept up his campaigns, for instance going to Madrid for the 1980 CSCE conference and handing delegates a document detailing his country's internal situation. He also worked to rebuild the PNŢ in exile.

paragraph: On February 3, 1981, he opened a package labeled as containing the memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev. The explosive inside seriously wounded him when he opened it, and he died of complications from his injuries in a Paris hospital at the end of that month. Nicolae Pleşiţă, a general in the "Securitate", was linked to the bomb; another one was sent the same day to dissident writer Paul Goma, who called the police instead of opening his package.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantin Grigore and Miliana Şerbu, "Miniştrii de interne (1862–2007)", Editura Ministerului Internelor şi Reformei Administrative, Bucharest 2007,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cicerone Ioniţoiu, "Victimele terorii comuniste. Arestaţi, torturaţi, întemniţaţi, ucişi. Dicţionar P", p. 162-64

description: Romanian politician

wikidata_label: Nicolae Penescu

wikipedia_title: Nicolae Penescu


text:
Croatia
Trpanj
Mia
screen
Occupation in 26 Pictures
Lordan Zafranović
The Fall of Italy
Dalmatia
Italian Fascists
sex symbol
Yugoslav
Zagreb
Brač
passenger
rollover
Occupation in 26 Pictures
The Fall of Italy
The Glembays
Charuga
The Three Men of Melita Žganjer
Četverored

categories: 1960 births,Croatian film actresses,Burials at Mirogoj Cemetery,Golden Arena winners,Road incident deaths in Croatia,People from Split, Croatia,2000 deaths

paragraph: Ena Begović

paragraph: Jelena "Ena" Begović (8 July 1960 – 15 August 2000) was a Croatian actress.

paragraph: She was born in Trpanj in family of mother Tereza Begović (b. 1935) on 8 July 1960. Three years after Ena, in 1963, her sister Mia, who is also an actress, was born.

paragraph: Begović began acting early, making her first screen appearance at the age of 18 through a small part in "Occupation in 26 Pictures", a 1978 film directed by Lordan Zafranović. She made her breakthrough role in Zafranović's next film, "The Fall of Italy" (1981), where she played Veronika, the daughter of a wealthy local from the Dalmatia coast who sided with occupying Italian Fascists. This debut established Ena Begović as one of the sex symbols of 1980s Yugoslav cinema, a status that she later successfully maintained despite appearing in relatively few films as her acting career shifted towards theater.

paragraph: In the 1990s she was kept in the public eye more due to her personal life than her acting. In 1996, while driving her car in Zagreb, she was involved in a traffic accident resulting in the death of a motorcyclist.

paragraph: On August 15, 2000, on the island of Brač, a few months after marrying the Croatian businessman Josip Radeljak and a month and a half after giving birth to their daughter, Lana, she was involved (as a passenger) in a traffic accident, a rollover, which claimed her life.

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Occupation in 26 Pictures" (1978)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Fall of Italy" (1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Glembays" (1988)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Charuga" (1991)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Three Men of Melita Žganjer" (1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Četverored" (1999)

description: Croatian porno actress

wikidata_label: Ena Begović

wikipedia_title: Ena Begović


text:
ban
Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia
Croatian
Knin
Coloman of Hungary
Battle of Gvozd Mountain
Franjo Rački
Snačić family
Twelve noble tribes of Croatia
Ferdo Šišić
Stephen II
Jelena or Ilona
Dmitar Zvonimir
Ladislaus I of Hungary
Drava
Coloman
Mount Gvozd
battle
Pacta conventa
Croatia
personal union with Kingdom of Hungary
Snačić family
Twelve noble tribes of Croatia
List of rulers of Croatia

categories: Kings of Croatia,Croatian Roman Catholics,11th-century monarchs in Europe,Roman Catholic monarchs,Medieval Croatian nobility,Year of birth unknown,Military personnel killed in action,1097 deaths,Monarchs killed in action

paragraph: Petar Snačić

paragraph: Petar Snačić (commonly misspelt Petar Svačić) was a feudal lord, notable for being one of the claimants of the Croatian throne during the wars of succession (c. 1093–1097). It is assumed that he began as a ban serving under king Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia and was then elected king by the Croatian feudal lords in 1093. Petar's seat of power was based in Knin. His rule was marked by a struggle for control of the country with Coloman of Hungary, dying at the Battle of Gvozd Mountain in 1097.

paragraph: Section::::Petar's ancestry.

paragraph: Early scholars, specifically Franjo Rački misread the letter "n" as a "v", creating a mistake which is common until today. There never existed a Svačić family, yet existed the Snačić family who were one of the Twelve noble tribes of Croatia, and certain Petar Snačić is mentioned in "Supetar Cartulary" (14th century addition) as Croatian ban during the rule of King Zvonimir. However the connection between Petar and this Petar Snačić is disputed, as is attempt by Ferdo Šišić to relate him to Petar Slaven, son of Slavac who was also a pretender to the throne.

paragraph: Section::::Struggle for the succession.

paragraph: He assumed the throne amid deep tension throughout the Kingdom. His predecessor, Stephen II (1089–1091) died without leaving an heir, sparking a major political crisis. Jelena or Ilona, the widow of King Dmitar Zvonimir (1074–1089) supported her brother, King Ladislaus I of Hungary, in the inheritance of the throne of Croatia. Meanwhile, as a part of Croatia's dignitaries and clergy did not support Ladislaus' claim, they elected nobleman Petar as King, who immediately deployed the military to defend Croatia's borders from Hungarian attack. However, it was too late. Ladislaus, who had probably devised a military strategy two years earlier, launched an offensive and managed to breach Croatian lines along the Drava River.

paragraph: Shortly after his army's success, Ladislaus died (1095), leaving his nephew Coloman to continue the campaign. King Petar's troops maintained their resistance repelling Hungarian assaults for nearly two years. Coloman grew frustrated at his army's impotence and in 1097 assembled an enormous force at the eastern foot of Mount Gvozd, where was held a battle which victory was brutal and absolute, resulting in Petar's death.

paragraph: Five years of negotiations between Croatia's remaining noblemen and Coloman followed thereafter. Finally, in 1102, a historic settlement was reached (Pacta conventa) by which the Croats agreed to recognize Coloman as king. In return, he promised to maintain Croatia as a separate kingdom, to guarantee Croatia's self-governance under a ban (royal governor), and to respect all the rights, laws and privileges of the Croatian Kingdom. Petar was the last native king of Croatia, and the personal union with Kingdom of Hungary lasted until 1918.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Snačić family

paragraph: BULLET::::- Twelve noble tribes of Croatia

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Croatia

description: King of Croatia

wikidata_label: Petar Svačić

wikipedia_title: Petar Snačić


text: British

text: England

text: FIA World Endurance Championship

text: AF Corse

text: 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship

text: 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans

text: Racing Steps Foundation

text: Cropthorne

text: Worcestershire

text: ICA Junior

text: Formula One

text: Sébastien Buemi

text: Jaime Alguersuari

text: Stefano Coletti

text: Jules Bianchi

text: ICA

text: Jean-Éric Vergne

text: Armando Parente

text: Formula A

text: Macau

text: Michael Christensen

text: British Formula Renault Championship

text: 2008 season

text: Fortec Motorsport

text: Snetterton

text: Oulton Park

text: Zolder

text: Spa-Francorchamps

text: Henry Surtees

text: 2009 season

text: Thruxton

text: Croft

text: Dean Smith

text: Wolverhampton

text: Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0

text: Barcelona

text: Le Mans

text: Albert Costa

text: British Formula 3 Championship

text: 2010 season

text: Carlin

text: Oliver Turvey

text: 2008 championship

text: Jean-Éric Vergne

text: GP3 Series

text: Lotus ART

text: Pedro Nunes

text: Richie Stanaway

text: Valtteri Bottas

text: Valencia

text: GP2 Series

text: Yas Marina

text: 2011 season

text: Lotus

text: 2012 season

text: Esteban Gutiérrez

text: Malaysia

text: Catalunya

text: Valencia

text: Hockenheim

text: Monza

text: Singapore

text: Max Chilton

text: Felipe Nasr

text: Autosport

text: 2013 season

text: Daniel Abt

text: Fabio Leimer

text: Sam Bird

text: Force India

text: Silverstone

text: Italian Grand Prix

text: Panasonic Jaguar Racing

text: AF Corse

text: 6 Hours of Silverstone

text: Toni Vilander

text: Gianmaria Bruni

text: 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps

categories: English people of Portuguese descent,Portuguese Formula Renault 2.0 drivers,English racing drivers,British Formula Renault 2.0 drivers,Formula Renault 2.0 NEC drivers,British Formula Three Championship drivers,European Le Mans Series drivers,Living people,GP2 Series drivers,24 Hours of Le Mans drivers,McLaren Autosport BRDC Award nominees,FIA World Endurance Championship drivers,1989 births,Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 drivers,People from Wychavon (district),24 Hours of Daytona drivers,GP3 Series drivers

paragraph: James Calado

paragraph: James John Calado (born 13 June 1989) is a British professional racing driver from England, currently competing in the FIA World Endurance Championship for AF Corse, winner in LMGTE Pro class of the 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans . His career has been funded by the Racing Steps Foundation.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Karting.

paragraph: Born in Cropthorne, Worcestershire, Calado had an extensive karting career, starting out at Cadets level in 1999. After being a member of the 2000 championship-winning England Inter-Nations Cadet Team, Calado won the British Cadet Championship in 2001, and also finished runner-up to Daniel Rowbottom in the Super 1 Cadet series, losing out by thirteen points. In 2002, Calado stepped up to TKM Juniors, finishing fifth in the Super 1 championship. 2003 saw Calado contest pan-European series for the first time, driving a Gillard Parilla kart for the PDB Racing Team in the ICA Junior class. He finished runner-up to Nicholas Risitano in the European Championship, beating future Formula One drivers Sébastien Buemi and Jaime Alguersuari.

paragraph: He moved to Tony Kart for the 2004 season, and once again finished in the top three of the European Championship; this time finishing third behind Stefano Coletti and Jules Bianchi. He also finished fifth in the Andrea Margutti Trophy, and ninth in the Italian Open Masters. He moved up to the ICA class in 2005, and won the European Championship ahead of his future team-mate Jean-Éric Vergne, and also finished runner-up to Armando Parente in the Italian Open Masters. He returned to the UK to contest the Renault Elite League in the Super Libre class, finishing seventh in the championship.

paragraph: Calado moved into the top class of international karting in 2006, moving into the Formula A class. Sixth in the Italian Open Masters, Calado went to Macau for the International Kart Grand Prix, where he finished as runner-up to Michael Christensen. His final season of karting, in 2007, saw his fourth top-five placing in the European Championship, as well as a third-place finish in the Margutti Trophy. He also placed ninth in the South Garda Winter Cup.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Formula Renault.

paragraph: Calado moved into the British Formula Renault Championship for the 2008 season, driving for Fortec Motorsport. With no prior single-seater experience, Calado was placed into the Graduate Cup for first-year drivers. Calado finished runner-up to Dean Stoneman in that championship, and he finished seventh in the overall championship. He took two pole positions at Snetterton and Oulton Park, with one victory coming at Snetterton from that pole. He also earned three other podium placings throughout the season. Calado also contested two rounds of the Formula Renault 2.0 Northern European Cup at Zolder and Spa-Francorchamps. He earned two top-five finishes en route to finishing 25th in the overall championship standings, amassing 38 points. At the conclusion of the season, Calado enter the Winter Series of both the British and Portuguese Formula Renault championships. Over the two championships' eight total races, Calado took five pole positions, six fastest laps and five victories en route to both championships; holding Henry Surtees off by just three points in the British Winter Series.

paragraph: Calado continued in the British series for the 2009 season, staying with Fortec for his sophomore campaign. Calado and Alpine Motorsport's Stoneman, both in their second season and boasting victories in their début season in the series, with pre-season testing further backing media predictions that the championship would most likely be decided between the pair. Calado was the most successful driver in the series, taking a total of eight victories, winning races at seven of the championship's ten meetings during the season. He also earned ten pole positions, and set the fastest lap of the race on seven occasions. However, retirements at Thruxton, Oulton Park and Croft took the title out of the hands of Calado and into the hands of Dean Smith, who joined the series at the second round of the championship. Calado ultimately finished as runner-up behind Smith, 34 points behind the Wolverhampton driver. Calado also contested three rounds of the Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 for Fortec, competing in Barcelona, Spa and Le Mans. He finished seventeenth in the championship, amassing ten points from a fifth in Barcelona and seventh at Spa. He lost a podium finish at Barcelona due to a puncture with two laps remaining, which could have ultimately turned into a win after the post-race disqualification of winner Albert Costa.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Formula Three (2010).

paragraph: Calado moved into the British Formula 3 Championship for the 2010 season, as part of a six-car title challenge by Carlin. He was the second RSF-funded driver to drive for the team, after Oliver Turvey finished runner-up in the 2008 championship. He took five victories to finish second in the championship, behind runaway leader Jean-Éric Vergne.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:GP3 Series (2011).

paragraph: Calado moved up to the GP3 Series for 2011, driving for the Lotus ART team alongside Pedro Nunes, Richie Stanaway and Valtteri Bottas. In a successful season for ART, Bottas won the championship whilst Calado backed him up with second in the drivers' standings, taking a single win at Valencia and five further podium finishes. ART also won the teams' championship.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:GP2 Series (2011-2013).

paragraph: Calado made his GP2 Series début by driving for ART in the non-championship race at Yas Marina which concluded the 2011 season. He had a victorious race in the sprint race, the second race of the weekend. He joined the Lotus-branded team full-time for the 2012 season, alongside second-year driver Esteban Gutiérrez. He continued his form from the non-championship race by winning the sprint race of the first round of the season in Malaysia. After taking pole positions for the Spanish rounds at Catalunya and Valencia, but not being able to convert them into victories, he won his second race of the season at Hockenheim. At this stage of the championship, he was third in the drivers' standings, but a poor run in the final four races—after crashing in practice at Monza and suffering from food poisoning in Singapore saw him overhauled by team-mate Gutiérrez and compatriot Max Chilton. Nevertheless, his fifth place in the championship meant that he finished the season as the series' most successful rookie driver, ahead of Felipe Nasr in tenth position. "Autosport" magazine rated Calado as the GP2 season's best driver, due to his inexperience compared to the drivers who finished ahead of him in the championship.

paragraph: Lotus GP became ART once again for the 2013 season and he was joined by rookie Daniel Abt. A consistent season saw him claim two sprint race wins and another five podiums meant he finished third in the standings on 157 points but quite a distance behind the top two Fabio Leimer and Sam Bird.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Formula One.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Formula One.:Force India (2013).

paragraph: Partway through the 2013 season, Formula One team Force India selected him for the Young Driver's test in July, held at Silverstone. He had a successful test, setting the fourth fastest time on the first day. As a result of this, and his good GP2 form, Force India announced that they had selected Calado as their third driver for the Italian Grand Prix on 2 September 2013, and that he would run in the first practice session.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Formula E.

paragraph: In June 2019, Calado partook in testing sessions with Panasonic Jaguar Racing.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:FIA World Endurance Championship.:AF Corse.

paragraph: For 2014, Calado joined Italian Davide Rigon at AF Corse, making his debut at the 6 Hours of Silverstone where the pair finished in 5th position behind their teammates, Finn Toni Vilander and Italian Gianmaria Bruni. Calado and Rigon celebrated a podium in the second race of the season at the 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps. For Calado it was his first podium in sportcars. For 2016 he joins Italian Gianmaria Bruni.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Career summary.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results.

paragraph: () (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in

paragraph: "italics" indicate fastest lap)

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete WeatherTech SportsCar Championship results.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

alias:
Calado, James
James John Calado

description: formula and sportscar racing driver, 2008 winner of the British and Portuguese Formula Renault 2.0 Winter Series

wikidata_label: James Calado

wikipedia_title: James Calado


text: Wernigerode

text: Copenhagen

text: doctor

text: physicist

text: engineer

text: University of Copenhagen

text: rector

text: electricity

text: medicine

text: speech synthesis

text: experimental physics

text: Denmark-Norway

text: Sachsen-Anhalt

text: Germany

text: Latin school

text: natural science

text: mechanics

text: physics

text: medicine

text: Halle

text: electricity

text: doctoral degrees

text: privatdozent

text: Academy of Sciences Leopoldina

text: Saint Petersburg

text: Leonhard Euler

text: Prussian Academy of Sciences

text: Berlin

text: navigation

text: Arkhangelsk

text: Norwegian

text: Kattegat

text: Baltic Sea

text: experimental physics

text: geology

text: physiology

text: physics

text: chemistry

text: riksdaler

text: Hans Christian Ørsted

text: transits of Venus

text: astronomer

text: Rundetårn

text: Latin

text: rector

text: vowel

text: human speech

text: speech synthesis

text: Hamburg

text: Frederiksberg

text: polymath

text: Enlightenment

text: Halle

text: polyp

text: parasites

text: tapeworms

text: Bordeaux

text: gas

text: vapor

text: drop of water

text: evaporation

text: electrostatic generator

text: electric current

text: pulse

text: perspiration

text: neurological disorder

text: electrotherapy

text: doctor Frankenstein

text: Mary Shelley

text: fluid

text: electric charge

text: vortices

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: high seas

text: compass

text: clock

text: longitude

text: Arkhangelsk

text: Saint Petersburg

text: Norwegian

text: transit of Venus

text: Edmund Halley

text: Rundetårn

text: Trondheim

text: Thomas Bugge

text: land surveyor

text: polar circle

text: midnight sun

text: Denmark-Norway

text: Christian VII

text: Vardø

text: Hungarian

text: Maximilian Hell

text: sound waves

text: Leonhard Euler

text: vocal folds

text: tract

text: vox humana

text: pipe organ

text: speech synthesizer

text: vowel

text: vocal tract

text: organ

text: resonant cavity

text: free reeds

text: harmonica

text: accordion

text: harmonium

text: bandoneon

text: sheng

text: "Akustik des Sprechens"

text: "Kratzenstein-Resonatoren"

categories: 1795 deaths,17th-century Lutherans,German physicists,1723 births

paragraph: Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein

paragraph: Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein (30 January 1723, Wernigerode – 6 July 1795, Copenhagen) was a German-born doctor, physicist and engineer. From 1753 to the end of his life he was a professor at the University of Copenhagen where he served as rector four times. He is especially known for his investigations of the use of electricity in medicine and the first attempts at mechanical speech synthesis. As a teacher he wrote the first textbook on experimental physics in the united kingdom of Denmark-Norway.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Kratzenstein was baptized on 2 February 1723 in Wernigerode, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany and grew up there in an academic family together with three brothers. His father gave them a good upbringing and education. During the years 1733-1742 he attended the Latin school in the same city. Already at this age he was recognized for his interests in reading and learning. He was especially fascinated by the latest discoveries within the natural sciences and mechanics.

paragraph: In 1742 Kratzenstein started to study physics and medicine at the university in Halle which at that time had a leading position in that region. His interests turned now to the investigations of electricity and in particular the effects on living organisms. After four years he received in 1746 doctoral degrees in physics and in medicine. He was then only 23 years old. After two years as a privatdozent he was in 1748 elected to the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina in the same city.

paragraph: At that time Kratzenstein had achieved international recognition and was in 1748 called to the science academy in Saint Petersburg. It is likely that Leonhard Euler, who had worked there earlier before he took up a new position at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, had used his influence in this connection. He had corresponded with Kratzenstein over a period of several years.

paragraph: In his new position Kratzenstein worked among other projects on improving instruments for navigation on the open seas. These were tried out in 1753 on a ship expedition from Arkhangelsk along the Norwegian coast through Kattegat and the Baltic Sea back to Saint Petersburg. During the voyage he had made a stop-over in Copenhagen and received a short time later an offer from the university there. In the fall of 1753 he was appointed professor of experimental physics and medicine. At the same time he was elected to the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. He would remain in that city until his death.

paragraph: Kratzenstein became known in a short time as an engaging lecturer and attracted a large audience of both regular students and interested persons from the citizenry. He covered topics ranging from the newest insights about plants and animals, through geology, physiology to physics and chemistry. At that time there were often rather diffuse separations between these disciplines. When he died, he had saved 12000 riksdaler which were bestowed to the university. A few years later this fund enabled Hans Christian Ørsted to build up his own laboratory for physical experiments.

paragraph: His work at the university strengthened the academic standards and manifested itself in many ways. Thus it was Kratzenstein who seized the initiative before the important transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 instead of the astronomers at the Rundetårn observatory. In order to spread the impact of his lectures he wrote a textbook in experimental physics. It was published in several editions and appeared in German, French and Latin in addition to the Danish version. As a result of all his efforts and engagements he served as rector at the university during four periods.

paragraph: During his time in Copenhagen he maintained contacts with his former colleagues in Saint Petersburg. The science academy there announced in 1778 a prize competition concerning the mechanisms behind the vowels A, E, I, O and U in human speech. Euler had previously been interested in this problem and it is likely that he was behind the formulation of the task. Kratzenstein won the first prize in 1780 by constructing a «vowel organ» which could produce these special sounds. This represents one of the first contributions to modern speech synthesis.

paragraph: By his wide range of engagements and temperament Kratzenstein would often end up in conflicts with his colleagues. In later years he suffered in addition from illnesses which could have been caused by his chemical experiments. After his wife Anna Margrethe Hagen, with whom he had four children, died in 1783, he actively sought a new wife and married the year after Anna Maria Thuun from Hamburg. At the big fire in Copenhagen 1795 he lost most of his possessions and scientific equipment. He moved out to the suburb Frederiksberg where he died a month later.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.

paragraph: Kratzenstein was a polymath and a typical representative of the Enlightenment. New ideas and discoveries were changing the understanding of the world. Observations and experiments should replace old dogmas and superstition. This conviction characterized the whole life of Kratzenstein whose curiosity led him in many directions. He excelled more by practical investigations and building of instruments than by developing new theoretical insights that would survive his own times.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.:Body and soul.

paragraph: As a student in Halle Kratzenstein made his first step to fame by his pamphlet "Beweis, dass die Seele ihren Körper baue" in 1743. This was typical for the philosophical discourse at the university at that time. In this work he discussed the location of the soul in the body and how living organisms can continue to function after amputations and other severe changes to the body. If animals also had a soul, one had to explain what it does in a polyp which can grow up from a smaller part of an existing polyp. Such questions continued to occupy him in the following years in Halle where he also investigated parasites in the human body, for example tapeworms.

paragraph: At the same time in 1744 he also wrote the essay "Théorie sur l'Elévation des Vapeurs et des Exhalaisons dans l'Air" in a prize competition announced by the science academy in Bordeaux. Here he is the physicist trying to arrive at a more microscopic explanation of what today is called gases and vapors. He estimated that a drop of water would transform into five hundred million smaller pieces by evaporation.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.:Electricity and electrotherapy.

paragraph: Already during his upbringing in Wernigerode had Kratzenstein become acquainted with electrostatic generators and seen the effects an electric current could have. This interest he widened during his studies in Halle with a special emphasis on the potential use of electricity in medicine. His thoughts in this direction he published in 1744 under the title "Abhandlung von dem Nutzen der Electricität in der Arzeneiwissenschaft". From experiments and observations he had seen how electricity could affect the human pulse and perspiration. In the same way he saw how electrical discharges could heal certain neurological disorders. These ideas were later taken up by others and developed into what today is generically called electrotherapy.

paragraph: Based on these ideas and investigations by Kratzenstein there have been speculations that he could have been a model for the fictitious doctor Frankenstein in the book of the same name written by Mary Shelley several decades later.

paragraph: Two years later Kratzenstein wrote the more theoretical work "Theoria electricitatis mores geometrica explicata" on the nature of electricity. Around this time he made measurements to find out how the electric force between two charged objects varied with their separation. On the theoretical side he argued that the electrical current was due to the motion of two fluids which today would correspond to the flow of positive and negative electric charges. The charges themselves should be due to vortices in these fluids. Around the same time Benjamin Franklin explained the same phenomena based on a one-fluid picture where negative charge was due to a lack of positive charge. It was this explanation that prevailed.

paragraph: Together with a similar thesis about bodily fluids and their properties, Kratzenstein received in 1746 a doctor's degree both in physics and in medicine.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.:Navigation.

paragraph: During the five years at the science academy in Saint Petersburg Kratzenstein was to a large extent occupied by improving methods and equipment for navigation on the high seas. The magnetic compass was made more reliable, astronomical observations should be made more precise together with the development of more accurate clocks to be used on ships for the determination of geographical longitude.

paragraph: These new instruments were tried out on the voyage from Arkhangelsk to Saint Petersburg in 1753 Kratzenstein discovered that the Norwegian coast was placed 150 km too far east on contemporary maps. This can seem unlikely due to the lack of accuracy of the watches being used. Many years later in 1793 Kratzenstein received a prize from the academy in Saint Petersburg for these observations and other magnetic measurements made on the same voyage.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.:Transits of Venus.

paragraph: After the first observed transit of Venus in 1619, Edmund Halley had stressed the importance of the two upcoming transits in 1761 and 1769. Also in the Nordic countries there was great interest in taking part in these observations. In Copenhagen it was the astronomers in the local observatory Rundetårn who formally were responsible for such activities. But in practice it was Kratzenstein who became the leader of this endeavour. In public lectures before the transit in 1761 he presented the theoretical background for this rare phenomenon and calculated transit times together with suggestions for suitable places of observation.

paragraph: For the first transit he thus knew that it would be important to make the measurements further nord. He thus organized an expedition to Trondheim consisting of two students. One of them was Thomas Bugge who was then 20 years old and later would become an astronomer and important land surveyor in Denmark. The other student was Urban Bruun Aaskow who was even younger and studied medicine. Because of bad weather their observations in Trondheim were of little use. In Copenhagen the weather conditions were much better, but there the observations in Rundetårn failed due to inaccurate clocks.

paragraph: The next transit in the summer of 1769 would take place during the night in the continental Europe and could thus not so easily be observed. But north of the polar circle there would be midnight sun and thus ideal for observations. The united kingdom Denmark-Norway could therefore make important contributions to this transit. Thus by a royal decree from Christian VII an expedition to the northernmost military post in Vardø was established. But in this process Kratzenstein was sidelined in favour of the Hungarian astronomer Maximilian Hell. The expedition was successful and the observations turned out to be of great value.

paragraph: A disappointed Kratzenstein had in the meantime organized a private expedition to Trondheim. On the way there it suffered a shipwreck where Kratzenstein saved himself by swimming ashore. He reached Tronheim barely in time but bad weather made meaningful observations impossible.

paragraph: Section::::Important contributions.:Speech synthesis.

paragraph: The physical understanding of sound waves was established around 1750 by Leonhard Euler and others. From 1766 Euler was again back at the science academy in Saint Petersburg. In a letter from 1773 he asked the question how speech could arise from the flow of air through the vocal folds and tract. An unanswered question was related to what tonal qualities characterised the different letters when spoken. Euler speculated that it should perhaps be possible to build some kind of musical instrument which could produce similar sounds and string them together to understandable words. One possibility was to build on the existing vox humana which could be found in some pipe organs. The result would then be a mechanical speech synthesizer. He pointed also out that the vowels would be of special importance.

paragraph: Kratzenstein had followed this discussion since he remained in contact with Euler and already from 1770 had been investigating the same problems. From his textbooks in experimental physics it is clear that he had a good understanding of the physics behind sound. It was therefore not so surprising that the academy in Saint Petersburg in 1778 announced a new prize problem exactly around these questions. The first part should investigate the tonal differences between the five vowels A, E, I, O and U, while the latter part asked for a device which could generate these sounds.

paragraph: At the final evaluation by the academy in 1780, it was Kratzenstein's "vowel organ" that got the first prize. His contribution "Tentamen resolvendi problema" was published the year after. It consisted of a first part describing how the vowels could be produced in the vocal tract. His medical background was here of great help. The second part was the construction of a new kind of organ with pipes for each of the vowels. Each pipe had a characteristic resonant cavity which should emulate the vocal tract for the corresponding vowel. In order to excite these resonators he made use of free reeds which at that time were little known.

paragraph: This instrument was demonstrated in Saint Petersburg to the full satisfaction of the academy, but was damaged and disappeared shortly afterwards. But the use of free reeds in musical instruments became later widespread and can today be found in the harmonica, accordion, harmonium and bandoneon. It is not known how Kratzenstein got the idea to use them, but they had for a long time been a central part of the Chinese musical instrument sheng.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sieghard Scheffczyk: "Aus Wernigerode nach Europa – Das bewegte Leben des Christian Gottlieb Kratzendsten". In "Neue Wernigeröder Zeitung"; 4, 2011, p. 21

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. Korpiun, "Akustik des Sprechens", Universität Duisburg-Essen.

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. Korpiun, "Kratzenstein-Resonatoren", Universität Duisburg-Essen.

description: German physicist

wikidata_label: Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein

wikipedia_title: Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein


text: philosopher

text: Middle Ages

text: economics

text: mathematics

text: physics

text: astrology

text: astronomy

text: philosophy

text: theology

text: Bishop of Lisieux

text: translator

text: Charles V of France

text: Fleury-sur-Orne

text: Caen

text: Normandy

text: diocese of Bayeux

text: College of Navarre

text: University of Paris

text: Paris

text: Jean Buridan

text: Albert of Saxony

text: Marsilius of Inghen

text: Magister Artium

text: regent master

text: William of Ockham

text: natural philosophy

text: theology

text: College of Navarre

text: Cathedral

text: Rouen

text: Aristotelian

text: Charles V

text: pension

text: bishop of Lisieux

text: rotation of the Earth

text: celestial spheres

text: Earth

text: Water

text: Air

text: irrational

text: conjunctions

text: oppositions

text: aspects

text: astrology

text: symbol

text: humours

text: Aristotelian

text: zodiac

text: precession of the equinoxes

text: free will

text: Alhacen

text: Robert Grosseteste

text: Roger Bacon

text: John Pecham

text: Witelo

text: co-ordinates

text: Galileo

text: divergence

text: harmonic series

text: integral test

text: Pietro Mengoli

text: Aristotle

text: Ethics

text: Politics

text: Economics

text: Middle French

text: commented

text: Albert the Great

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: Peter of Auvergne

text: monarchy

text: government

text: common good

text: king

text: tyrant

text: people

text: participate in government

text: anachronistically

text: popular sovereignty

text: Marsilius of Padua

text: right of rebellion

text: law

text: absolutist

text: Roman law

text: French king

text: sacred

text: Church

text: King Charles V's

text: line of succession

text: regency

text: underage king

text: king's council

text: Jean Gerson

text: Christine de Pizan

text: economic

text: List of multiple discoveries

text: Science in the Middle Ages

text: Oresme (crater)

text: Mean speed theorem

text: Livre de Politiques

text: Oresme biography

text: Article on Oresme's monetary theory

text: Latin

categories: University of Paris alumni,1320s births,People from Normandy,Medieval French mathematicians,14th-century Latin writers,14th-century French writers,1382 deaths,14th-century mathematicians,14th-century Roman Catholic bishops,Catholic clergy scientists,Bishops of Lisieux,14th-century philosophers

paragraph: Nicole Oresme

paragraph: Nicole Oresme (; c. 1320–1325 – July 11, 1382), also known as Nicolas Oresme, Nicholas Oresme, or Nicolas d'Oresme, was a significant philosopher of the later Middle Ages. He wrote influential works on economics, mathematics, physics, astrology and astronomy, philosophy, and theology; was Bishop of Lisieux, a translator, a counselor of King Charles V of France, and probably one of the most original thinkers of 14th-century Europe.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's life.

paragraph: Nicole Oresme was born c. 1320–1325 in the village of Allemagnes (today's Fleury-sur-Orne) in the vicinity of Caen, Normandy, in the diocese of Bayeux. Practically nothing is known concerning his family. The fact that Oresme attended the royally sponsored and subsidised College of Navarre, an institution for students too poor to pay their expenses while studying at the University of Paris, makes it probable that he came from a peasant family.

paragraph: Oresme studied the "arts" in Paris, together with Jean Buridan (the so-called founder of the French school of natural philosophy), Albert of Saxony and perhaps Marsilius of Inghen, and there received the Magister Artium. He was already a regent master in arts by 1342, during the crisis over William of Ockham's natural philosophy.

paragraph: In 1348, he was a student of theology in Paris. In 1356, he received his doctorate and in the same year he became grand master ("grand-maître") of the College of Navarre. In 1364, he was appointed dean of the Cathedral of Rouen. Around 1369, he began a series of translations of Aristotelian works at the request of Charles V, who granted him a pension in 1371 and, with royal support, was appointed bishop of Lisieux in 1377. In 1382, he died in Lisieux.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Cosmology.

paragraph: In his "Livre du ciel et du monde" Oresme discussed a range of evidence for and against the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis. From astronomical considerations, he maintained that if the Earth were moving and not the celestial spheres, all the movements that we see in the heavens that are computed by the astronomers would appear exactly the same as if the spheres were rotating around the Earth. He rejected the physical argument that if the Earth were moving the air would be left behind causing a great wind from east to west. In his view the Earth, Water, and Air would all share the same motion. As to the scriptural passage that speaks of the motion of the Sun, he concludes that "this passage conforms to the customary usage of popular speech" and is not to be taken literally. He also noted that it would be more economical for the small Earth to rotate on its axis than the immense sphere of the stars. Nonetheless, he concluded that none of these arguments were conclusive and "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the Earth."

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Critiques of astrology.

paragraph: In his mathematical work, Oresme developed the notion of incommensurate fractions, fractions that could not be expressed as powers of one another, and made probabilistic, statistical arguments as to their relative frequency. From this, he argued that it was very probable that the length of the day and the year were incommensurate (irrational), as indeed were the periods of the motions of the moon and the planets. From this, he noted that planetary conjunctions and oppositions would never recur in quite exactly the same way. Oresme maintained that this disproves the claims of astrologers who, thinking "they know with punctual exactness the motions, aspects, conjunctions and oppositions… [judge] rashly and erroneously about future events."

paragraph: Oresme's critique of astrology in his "Livre de divinacions" treats it as having six parts. The first, essentially astronomy, the movements of heavenly bodies, he considers good science but not precisely knowable.

paragraph: The second part deals with the influences of the heavenly bodies on earthly events at all scales. Oresme does not deny such influence, but states, in line with a commonly held opinion, that it could either be that arrangements of heavenly bodies signify events, purely symbolically, or that they actually cause such events, deterministically. Mediaevalist Chauncey Wood remarks that this major elision "makes it very difficult to determine who believed what about astrology".

paragraph: The third part concerns predictiveness, covering events at three different scales: great events such as plagues, famines, floods and wars; weather, winds and storms; and medicine, with influences on the humours, the four Aristotelian fluids of the body. Oresme criticizes all of these as misdirected, though he accepts that prediction is a legitimate area of study, and argues that the effect on the weather is less well known than the effect on great events. He observes that sailors and farmers are better at predicting weather than astrologers, and specifically attacks the astrological basis of prediction, noting correctly that the zodiac has moved relative to the fixed stars (because of precession of the equinoxes) since the zodiac was first described in ancient times.

paragraph: These first three parts are what Oresme considers the physical influences of the stars and planets (including sun and moon) on the earth, and while he offers critiques of them, he accepts that effects exist. The last three parts are what Oresme considers to concern (good or bad) fortune. They are interrogations, meaning asking the stars when to do things such as business deals; elections, meaning choosing the best time to do things such as getting married or fighting a war; and nativities, meaning the natal astrology with birth charts that forms much of modern astrological practice. Oresme classifies interrogations and elections as "totally false" arts, but his critique of nativities is more measured. He denies that any path is predetermined by the heavenly bodies, because humans have free will, but he accepts that the heavenly bodies can influence behaviour and habitual mood, via the combination of humours in each person. Overall, Oresme's skepticism is strongly shaped by his understanding of the scope of astrology. He accepts things a modern skeptic would reject, and rejects some things — such as the knowability of planetary movements, and effects on weather — that are accepted by modern science.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Sense perception.

paragraph: In discussing the propagation of light and sound, Oresme adopted the common medieval doctrine of the multiplication of species, as it had been developed by optical writers such as Alhacen, Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, John Pecham, and Witelo. Oresme maintained that these species were immaterial, but corporeal (i.e., three-dimensional) entities.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Mathematics.

paragraph: Oresme's most important contributions to mathematics are contained in "Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum". In a quality, or accidental form, such as heat, he distinguished the "intensio" (the degree of heat at each point) and the "extensio" (as the length of the heated rod). These two terms were often replaced by "latitudo" and "longitudo". For the sake of clarity, Oresme conceived the idea of visualizing these concepts by plane figures, approaching what we would now call rectangular co-ordinates. The intensity of the quality was represented by a length or "latitudo" proportional to the intensity erected perpendicular to the base at a given point on the base line, which represents the "longitudo". Oresme proposed that the geometrical form of such a figure could be regarded as corresponding to a characteristic of the quality itself. Oresme defined a uniform quality as that which is represented by a line parallel to the longitude, and any other quality as difform. Uniformly varying qualities are represented by a straight line inclined to the axis of the longitude, while he described many cases of nonuniformly varying qualities. Oresme extended this doctrine to figures of three dimensions. He considered this analysis applicable to many different qualities such as hotness, whiteness, and sweetness. Significantly for later developments, Oresme applied this concept to the analysis of local motion where the "latitudo" or intensity represented the speed, the "longitudo" represented the time, and the area of the figure represented the distance travelled.

paragraph: He shows that his method of figuring the latitude of forms is applicable to the movement of a point, on condition that the time is taken as longitude and the speed as latitude; quantity is, then, the space covered in a given time. In virtue of this transposition, the theorem of the "latitudo uniformiter difformis" became the law of the space traversed in case of uniformly varied motion; thus Oresme published what was taught over two centuries prior to Galileo's making it famous. Diagrams of the velocity of an accelerating object against time in "On the Latitude of Forms" by Jacobus de Sancto Martino (sometimes attributed to Oresme) have been cited to credit Oresme with the discovery of "proto bar charts".

paragraph: Significantly, Oresme developed the first proof of the divergence of the harmonic series. His proof, requiring less advanced mathematics than current "standard" tests for divergence (for example, the integral test), begins by noting that for any n that is a power of 2, there are n/2 - 1 terms in the series between 1/(n/2) and 1/n. Each of these terms is at least 1/n, and since there are n/2 of them they sum to at least 1/2. For instance, there is one term 1/2, then two terms 1/3+1/4 that together sum to at least 1/2, then four terms 1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8 that also sum to at least 1/2, and so on. Thus the series must be greater than the series 1 + 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/2 + ..., which does not have a finite limit. This proves that the harmonic series must be divergent. This argument shows that the sum of the first n terms grows at least as fast as formula_1.

paragraph: Oresme was the first mathematician to prove this fact, and (after his proof was lost) it was not proven again until the 17th century by Pietro Mengoli.

paragraph: He also worked on fractional powers, and the notion of probability over infinite sequences, ideas which would not be further developed for the next three and five centuries, respectively.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:On local motion.

paragraph: Oresme, like many of his contemporaries such as John Buridan and Albert of Saxony, shaped and critiqued Aristotle’s and Averroes’s theories of motion to their own liking. Taking inspiration from the theories of "forma fluens" and "fluxus formae", Oresme would suggest his own descriptions for change and motion in his commentary of "Physics". "Forma fluens" is described by William of Ockham as "Every thing that is moved is moved by a mover," and "fluxus formae" as "Every motion is produced by a mover." Buridan and Albert of Saxony each subscribed to the classic interpretation of flux being an innate part of an object, but Oresme differs from his contemporaries in this aspect. Oresme agrees with "fluxus formae" in that motion is attributed to an object, but that an object is “set into” motion, rather than “given” motion, denying a distinction between a motionless object and an object in motion. To Oresme, an object moves, but it is not a moving object. Once an object begins movement through the three dimensions it has a new “modus rei” or “way of being,” which should only be described through the perspective of the moving object, rather than a distinct point. This line of thought coincides with Oresme’s challenge to the structure of the universe. Oresme’s description of motion was not popular, although it was thorough. A Richard Brinkley is thought to be an inspiration for the modus-rei description, but this is uncertain.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Political thought.

paragraph: Oresme provided the first modern vernacular translations of Aristotle's moral works that are still extant today. Between 1371 and 1377 he translated Aristotle's "Ethics", "Politics" and "Economics" (nowadays considered to be pseudo-Aristotelian) into Middle French. He also extensively commented on these texts, thereby expressing some of his political views. Like his predecessors Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas and Peter of Auvergne (and quite unlike Aristotle), Oresme favours monarchy as the best form of government. His criterium for good government is the common good. A king (by definition good) takes care of the common good, whereas a tyrant works for his own profit. A monarch can ensure the stability and durability of his reign by letting the people participate in government. This has rather confusingly and anachronistically been called popular sovereignty. Like Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Peter of Auvergne and especially Marsilius of Padua, whom he occasionally quotes, Oresme conceives of this popular participation as rather restrictive: only the multitude of reasonable, wise and virtuous men should be allowed political participation by electing and correcting the prince, changing the law and passing judgement. Oresme, however, categorically denies the right of rebellion since it endangers the common good. Unlike earlier commentators, however, Oresme prescribes the law as superior to the king's will. It must only be changed in cases of extreme necessity. Oresme favours moderate kingship, thereby negating contemporary absolutist thought, usually promoted by adherents of Roman law. Furthermore, Oresme doesn't comply to contemporary conceptions of the French king as sacred, as promoted by in his "" or in his "Traité du sacre". Although he heavily criticises the Church as corrupt, tyrannical and oligarchical, he never fundamentally questions its necessity for the spiritual well-being of the faithful.

paragraph: It has traditionally been thought that Oresme's Aristotelian translations had a major impact on King Charles V's politics: Charles' laws concerning the line of succession and the possibility of a regency for an underage king have been accredited to Oresme, as has the election of several high-ranking officials by the king's council in the early 1370s. Oresme may have conveyed Marsilian and conciliarist thought to Jean Gerson and Christine de Pizan.

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Economics.

paragraph: With his "Treatise on the origin, nature, law, and alterations of money" ("De origine, natura, jure et mutationibus monetarum"), one of the earliest manuscripts devoted to an economic matter, Oresme brings an interesting insight on the medieval conception of money. Oresme’s viewpoints of theoretical architecture are outlined in Part 3 and 4 of his work from "De moneta," which he completed between 1356 and 1360. His belief is that humans have a natural right to own property; this property belongs to the individual and community. In Part 4, Oresme provides a solution to a political problem as to how a monarch can be held accountable to put the common good before any private affairs. Though the monarchy rightfully has claims on all money given an emergency, Oresme states that any ruler that goes through this is a “Tyrant dominating slaves”. Oresme was one of the first medieval theorists that did not accept the right of the monarch to have claims on all money as well as “his subjects’ right to own private property.”

paragraph: Section::::Oresme's scientific work.:Psychology.

paragraph: Oresme was known to be a well rounded psychologist. He practiced the technique of “inner senses” and studied the perception of the world. Oresme contributed to 19th and 20th century psychology in the fields of cognitive psychology, perception psychology, psychology of consciousness, and psychophysics. Oresme discovered the psychology of unconscious and came up with the theory of unconscious conclusion of perception. He developed many ideas beyond quality, quantity, categories and terms which were labeled “theory of cognition”.

paragraph: Section::::English translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nicole Oresme's De visione stellarum (On seeing the stars): a critical edition of Oresme's treatise on optics and atmospheric refraction", translated by Dan Burton, (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nicole Oresme and The marvels of nature: a study of his De causis mirabilium", translated by Bert Hansen, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1985)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Questiones super quatuor libros meteororum", in SC McCluskey, ed, "Nicole Oresme on Light, Color and the Rainbow: An Edition and Translation, with introduction and critical notes, of Part of Book Three of his" Questiones super quatuor libros meteororum (PhD dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1974)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nicole Oresme and the kinematics of circular motion: Tractatus de commensurabilitate vel incommensurabilitate motuum celi", translated by Edward Grant, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nicole Oresme and the medieval geometry of qualities and motions: a treatise on the uniformity and difformity of intensities known as Tractatus de configurationibus qualitatum et motuum", translated by Marshall Clagett, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Livre du ciel et du monde". A. D. Menut and A. J. Denomy, ed. and trans. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "De proportionibus proportionum" and "Ad pauca respicientes". Edward Grant, ed. and trans. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The De moneta of N. Oresme, and English Mint documents", translated by C. Johnson, (London, 1956)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of multiple discoveries

paragraph: BULLET::::- Science in the Middle Ages

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oresme (crater)

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mean speed theorem

paragraph: BULLET::::- Livre de Politiques

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (covers Oresme's monetary theory).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (SPC) MSS BH 100 COCH Volume of works by Nicole Oresme, Maffeo Vegio, and Jordanus von Osnabrück at OPenn

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oresme biography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Article on Oresme's monetary theory

paragraph: BULLET::::- The De Moneta of Nicholas Oresme and English Mint Documents (pdf)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tractatus de Origine, Natura, Jure et Mutationibus Monetarum (Latin)

description: French philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Nicole Oresme

wikidata_label: Nicole Oresme

wikipedia_title: Nicole Oresme


text:
Igló
Salzburg
Lőcse
Kassa
Pázmáneum
University of Budapest
Margitta
Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna
Eduard Peithner von Lichtenfels
Bacskó
Besztercebánya
Hungarian University of Fine Arts
Hall of Art
Arcadja Auctions: More works by Olgyai.

categories: 20th-century Hungarian painters,1929 deaths,1870 births,Hungarian engravers

paragraph: Viktor Olgyai

paragraph: Viktor Olgyai, originally Viktor Matirko (1 November 1870, Igló - 20 June 1929, Salzburg) was a Hungarian painter and graphic artist. His family's name was changed in 1892.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: His father was a retired district judge. When he was still a child, his family moved to Lőcse where he attended the public schools and began preparing for a career in the priesthood. He was then admitted to the seminary in Kassa and, as one of the best students there, was sent to study at the Pázmáneum in Vienna.

paragraph: In 1890, he returned to Lőcsé and experienced a sort of epiphany while spending time in the nearby pine forests. He decided to take up drawing but, unable to achieve the desired effects with a pencil, turned to using a pen instead.

paragraph: In 1891, he enrolled at the University of Budapest where he continued his linguistic and literary studies, but persevered with his drawing and sent one of sketch books to , who encouraged him to pursue his interest in art. After a visit to Tölgyessy's studio in Margitta, and with the support of his brother Bertalan, he enrolled at the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna and studied landscape painting with Eduard Peithner von Lichtenfels. He also took classes in etching from William Unger (1837-1932), which had a decisive influence on his work. He left the Academy in 1893 and began spending the winters with his family in Bacskó.

paragraph: In 1902, he became a lithographer and went to Besztercebánya, where he helped to create a literary and art magazine called "Havi Szemle" (Monthly Review), which he edited. His brother was a major contributor. It was published for only three years. In 1906, he was invited to become head of the graphics department at the Hungarian University of Fine Arts. He remained in that position until his death and was active in the organization and administration of several professional art societies.

paragraph: He committed suicide while vacationing in Austria. Shortly after, a major retrospective of his work was held at the Hall of Art.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arcadja Auctions: More works by Olgyai.

description: Hungarian artist

wikidata_label: Viktor Olgyai

wikipedia_title: Viktor Olgyai


text: theatre manager

text: Dublin

text: repertory theatre

text: Hamlet

text: Adelphi Theatre

text: Liverpool

text: provinces

text: dramatist

text: Lyceum Theatre, London

text: Charles Dillon's

text: The Athenaeum

text: Haymarket Theatre

text: Victor Hugo

text: Ruy Blas

text: Princess Theatre

text: Michael William Balfe

text: libretto

text: Satanella

text: Covent Garden

text: concert hall

text: Lyceum Theatre

text: The Times

text: John Banim

text: Haymarket Theatre

text: Boucicault's

text: The Colleen Bawn

text: melodrama

text: Adelphi Theatre

text: Theatre Royal, Drury Lane

text: Shakespeare

text: Macbeth

text: As You Like It

text: Henry IV

text: Romeo and Juliet

text: guineas

text: Her Majesty's Theatre

text: Broadway

text: Mark Twain

text: Tom Sawyer

text: Haymarket Theatre

text: Princess Theatre

text: Russell Square

text: Kensal Green Cemetery

text: Manchester Guardian

text: gentlemen's club

text: Savage Club

text: The Rose of Castille

text: John McCormack

text: John William Glover

text: libretto

text: Leopold Bloom

text: James Joyce

text: Ulysses

text: Sirens

text: "The Bequest of My Boyhood"

text: Details of Falconer's Adelphi days

text: Drury Lane page

text: Adelphi shows

categories: Irish male stage actors,19th-century Irish male actors,1874 deaths,19th-century Irish dramatists and playwrights,Irish librettists,1814 births,Irish male dramatists and playwrights

paragraph: Edmund Falconer

paragraph: Edmund Falconer (c.1814 – 29 September 1879), born Edmund O'Rourke, was an Irish poet, actor, theatre manager, songwriter and playwright, known for his keen wit and outstanding acting skills.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Edmund O'Rourke was born in Dublin around 1814. He entered the theatrical world as a child, however he did not achieve fame until he was over 40. The first half of his working life was spent playing in repertory theatre in Ireland and the provinces of England. While working as a jobbing actor, he published his first volume of poems – "Man's Mission" – in 1852.

paragraph: Section::::Midlife success.

paragraph: O'Rourke finally achieved success at the age of 41, when he performed two very diverse roles in Hamlet and the comedy "Three Fingered Jack" on the same night at the Adelphi Theatre in Liverpool in 1854. He received such rave reviews that he never had to tour the provinces again.

paragraph: Two years later he changed his stage name to Edmund Falconer and wrote his first successful play, "The Cagot" or "Heart for Heart". It was the start of his second career, that of a London dramatist. "Heart for Heart" was performed with great success for the first time at the Lyceum Theatre, London, under Charles Dillon's management, on 6 December 1856. "The Athenaeum" newspaper commented that 'the dialogue is remarkable for noble sentiment, although the verse is not always correct' (13 Dec 1856). His next piece was "A Husband for an Hour", produced at the Haymarket Theatre in June 1857.

paragraph: Section::::Writing and theatre management.

paragraph: The year 1858 saw Falconer translate Victor Hugo's "Ruy Blas", which was performed at the Princess Theatre in late 1858. During that same year, he began a profitable collaboration with Michael William Balfe by writing the libretto for his much-loved opera "The Rose of Castille". He was later to write librettos for several of Balfe's most successful productions, including "Satanella", which was produced at Covent Garden on 20 December 1858, and the popular song "Killarney", which remained a concert hall favourite well into the 20th century.

paragraph: Falconer, who was said to have had boundless energy, also turned his attention to theatre managing. It was on 26 August 1858, that he took over the Lyceum Theatre in London, sharing the manager's role with "Ben Webster". Falconer was not above using his position to stage his own plays. The first was "Extremes", a comedy of manners, which was performed on his opening night of 26 August.

paragraph: A reporter for "The Times" reviewed the show and said: "The characters are sharply defined and exactly of a kind to be perfectly intelligible to a large audience." Several more of Falconer's own pieces soon followed, including "Francesca" in March 1859.

paragraph: Falconer gave up his management of the Lyceum after just a couple of years, although he resumed the role once more in 1861. Yet more of his own plays soon followed, including "Woman, Love Against The World" in August 1861 and "Peep o' Day" in November 1861. It is for "Peep o' Day", a stage-version of John Banim’s novels "John Doe" and "The Nowlans", that Falconer is probably best remembered. It contained a scene in which the heroine is saved from live burial and ran until December 1862. Meanwhile, he contributed two comedies to the Haymarket Theatre, too, "Family Wills" and "Does He Love Me?", both starring Amy Sedgwick.

paragraph: Section::::Acting success.

paragraph: It was not until 1860 that Falconer managed to dominate the London stage with his acting skills, rather than his writing. In the first production of Boucicault's "The Colleen Bawn" he played the part of Danny Mann, the villain of the piece. The melodrama, staged at the Adelphi Theatre in July 1860, proved hugely popular and ran for 231 nights. Indeed, the show has recently enjoyed revived critical attention.

paragraph: Falconer made £13,000 in profit during his time as manager at the Lyceum, which he used in 1862 to buy a joint lease for the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, with Frederick Balsir Chatterton. Between 1863 and 1865 he wrote and produced "Bonnie Dundee", "Nature's above Art", "Night and Morning", and "Love's Ordeal". He also wrote "The O'Flahertys" and "Galway-go-bragh", a dramatization of Lever's "Charles O'Malley", in which he took the part of Mickey Free.

paragraph: Falconer's attempts, however, to popularise Shakespeare at the theatre proved a dreadful failure. Gambling on the Bard to turn a profit, he directed productions of "Macbeth", "As You Like It", "Henry IV" and "Romeo and Juliet". Despite hiring good actors, audiences were small and, by February 1866, he had lost his money. Falconer was arrested for failing to pay his mounting debts later that month and, on 26 April 1866, he was declared bankrupt and sent to prison. He remained in custody for several weeks, with his debts thought to total around 7,000 guineas.

paragraph: Falconer attempted to revive his fortunes by penning a five-act drama, "Oonagh", following his release, which was staged at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, in November 1866. It was such a failure, however, that it closed ten days later. By now desperately short of money, he decided to travel to America, where his play "Peep o' Day" had made him famous.

paragraph: Section::::Final years.

paragraph: Falconer spent three successful years in America, where he acted on Broadway and continued with his writing, creating three new dramas. One of his greatest fans was Mark Twain, author of "Tom Sawyer", as can be witnessed in letters written by Twain. Such was his US success, that publications of his plays went through several editions. He also married an American woman, who was his third wife.

paragraph: Falconer eventually returned to London in 1871, following the success of another of his plays, "A Wife Well Won", which was staged at the Haymarket Theatre, London, in his absence. A successful production of "Eileen Oge" at the Princess Theatre, London, followed later in 1871, which featured his song "Killarney". Falconer retired from the stage and writing soon after. He died at his home at 28 Keppel Street, Russell Square, London, on 29 September 1879 and was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery.

paragraph: In a report on his death, the Manchester Guardian newspaper revealed that although Falconer "had made what could be called a colossal fortune" out of "Peep O' Day", the dramatist "died penniless." Members of his gentlemen's club, the Savage Club, opened a subscription to pay for his funeral and help out his young widow.

paragraph: Section::::Falconer's works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1852: "Man’s Mission: A Pilgrimage to Glory’s Goal" (poem)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1855-1860: "The Power of Love" (ballad) Words-Falconer/music by M.W. Balfe.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1856: "The Cagot" or "Heart for Heart" (play)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1857: "The Rose of Castille" (libretto)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1857: "Killarney" (song) Later recorded by John McCormack in early 20th century.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1862: "Peep o'Day" - otherwise known as "Savoureen Deelish" (play)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1863: "The Bequest of My Boyhood" (poem)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1865: "O’Ruark’s Bride: The Blood Speck in the Emerald" (poem)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1866: Dramatised Lever’s "Charles O’Malley" as "Galway Go Bragh" (play)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1871: "Eileen Oge" - or "Dark the Hour Before Dawn" (melodrama)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1880: "The Deserted Village", opera in three acts to music by John William Glover (London: Duncan Davison, 1880).

paragraph: The International Broadway Database gives the following information for Falconer's performances in America:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Heartsease": Original play written by Edmund Falconer - 12 Sep 1870

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Innisfallen": Original play written by Edmund Falconer- 21 Feb 1870

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Firefly": Original play written by Edmund Falconer - 22 Nov 1869 (Mark Twain was a huge fan)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Charles O'Malley": Original play written and performed by Falconer - 18 Oct 1869

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fire Fly": Original musical written by Edmund Falconer - 10 Aug 1868 – 5 Sep 1868

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Rose of Castille": Revival of libretto by Falconer - 28 Jan 1867 – 31 Jan 1867

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Satanella": Original musical libretto by Edmund Falconer - 23 Feb 1863 - 14 Mar 1863

paragraph: Section::::James Joyce links.

paragraph: The opera "The Rose of Castille", for which Falconer wrote the libretto, was very popular for several decades after his death. Indeed, it was a favourite of Leopold Bloom, the hero of James Joyce's "Ulysses" (1922) In the novel, Bloom thinks quite a lot about the opera, and it features as one of the motifs of the Sirens episode (Chapter 11). Joyce even thinks up a dreadful pun on the title; one of the characters asks which opera has the same name as a train's tracks, and the answer is 'Rows of Cast Steel'. The pun crops up at various points throughout the novel.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Irish Literature Companion. The Concise Oxford Companion to Irish Literature". Copyright © 1996, 2000, 2003 by Oxford University Press.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Bequest of My Boyhood"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Details of Falconer's Adelphi days

paragraph: BULLET::::- "New York Times" article on Falconer from 19th century

paragraph: BULLET::::- Drury Lane page

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adelphi shows

description: Irish actor and writer

wikidata_label: Edmund Falconer

wikipedia_title: Edmund Falconer


text:
Japanese
Edo period
Kaga Province
Maeda clan
Kanō Tan'yū
farmers
Kiyohara Yukinobu

categories: Artists from Ishikawa Prefecture,Kanō school,17th-century Japanese people,17th-century Japanese artists,1690 deaths,17th-century Japanese painters,1620 births,17th-century painters

paragraph: Kusumi Morikage

paragraph: Kusumi Morikage (c. 1620–1690) was a Japanese painter of the Edo period. He came from Kaga Province, the centre of the lands of the Maeda clan. He fell afoul of his teacher, Kanō Tan'yū, and became the Maeda clan's official painter. His sympathy for farmers and the poor people of the Edo period is reflected in his works.

paragraph: His daughter, Kiyohara Yukinobu (1643–1682), was also an artist, one of the few female painters of the Edo period.

alias:
Kazunobu
Itchin
Hambei
Kusumi Morikage Kazonobu
Hanbei
Musegai
Bōin, Jūzan Musegai
Kazuhisa
Mugesai
Juzan
Boin
Morikage

description: Japanese artist

wikidata_label: Kusumi Morikage

wikipedia_title: Kusumi Morikage


text: Lord of Beirut

text: crusade

text: Ibelin family

text: Balian of Ibelin

text: Cyprus

text: Jerusalem

text: Isabella I of Jerusalem

text: constable of Jerusalem

text: Beirut

text: Maria of Montferrat

text: Henry I of Cyprus

text: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Balian

text: Nablus

text: Ibelin

text: Maria Comnena

text: Amalric I of Jerusalem

text: constable of Jerusalem

text: Isabella, Queen of Jerusalem

text: Ralph of Tiberias

text: Amalric II

text: Beirut

text: Saladin

text: Jerusalem kingdom

text: fresco

text: Trompe-l'oeil

text: Arsuf

text: Melisende of Arsuf

text: regent

text: Acre

text: Kingdom of Jerusalem

text: Maria of Montferrat

text: Hugh I of Cyprus

text: Alice of Champagne

text: King of Jerusalem

text: Henry II of Champagne

text: John of Brienne

text: Philip II of France

text: Kingdom of Cyprus

text: Fifth Crusade

text: Henry I of Cyprus

text: Lusignan

text: Guy of Lusignan

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Frederick II

text: Sixth Crusade

text: Isabella II

text: Nicosia

text: War of the Lombards

text: Battle of Agridi

text: Richard Filangieri

text: Jerusalem

text: Tyre

text: commune

text: Commune of Acre

text: Henry I of Cyprus

text: Bohemund IV of Antioch

text: Teutonic Knights

text: Knights Hospitaller

text: Pisa

text: Caesarea

text: Arsuf

text: Knights Templar

text: Genoese

text: Pope Gregory IX

text: excommunicated

text: Knights Templar

text: Acre

text: Melisende, Lady of Arsuf

text: Balian of Beirut

text: John II of Beirut

text: John of Arsuf

text: Balian of Arsuf

text: Hugh of Ibelin (died 1238)

text: Baldwin of Ibelin (died 1266)

text: Guy of Ibelin, constable of Cyprus

text: Joshua Prawer

categories: People temporarily excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church,House of Ibelin,1179 births,1236 deaths,Regents of Jerusalem,People of the Kingdom of Cyprus,13th-century viceregal rulers,Christians of the Sixth Crusade

paragraph: John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut

paragraph: John of Ibelin (c. 1179 – 1236), called the Old Lord of Beirut, was a powerful crusader noble in the 13th century, one of the best known representatives of the influential Ibelin family. The son of Balian of Ibelin and Maria Comnena, Queen consort of Jerusalem, he had close ties with the nobility of both Cyprus and Jerusalem, since he was the half-brother of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem. Before he was 20, he was appointed constable of Jerusalem, and a few years later became lord of Beirut, where he rebuilt the city after Saladin's conquest, and established the grand Ibelin family palace. He served as regent for two of his young relatives, Isabella's daughter Maria of Montferrat from 1205 to 1210, and then Henry I of Cyprus from 1228 until Henry came of age in 1232. John was known as a principled man, and was seen as the natural leader of the Christian barons in the Holy Land. He resisted the power-seeking of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, in Cyprus, and opposed the imperial forces until Henry came of age.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: He was the son of Balian, Lord of Nablus and Ibelin, and Maria Comnena, widow of Amalric I of Jerusalem. By 1198 he had become constable of Jerusalem; the fact that he was the half-brother of Isabella, Queen of Jerusalem gave him considerable influence. At the time he was a vassal of Ralph of Tiberias, who was exiled from the kingdom after being accused of attempting to assassinate king Amalric II. John attempted to mediate but Amalric would not back down.

paragraph: Section::::Lord of Beirut.

paragraph: Sometime before 1205 John relinquished the office of constable in exchange for the lordship of Beirut, which became the home of the Ibelin family for the rest of the century. He rebuilt the city, which had been completely destroyed during Saladin's conquest of the Jerusalem kingdom. He also constructed an opulent palace with art from both Muslim and Byzantine influences. A German ambassador in 1212, Wilbrand of Oldenburg, wrote an impressive account of the castle, describing fresco paintings, mosaics on the floors, and a marble fountain in the courtyard. Historian Peter Edbury described the ambassador's account as "A feature of the public rooms were the "Trompe-l'oeil" effects achieved with marble inlays, with a floor resembling the sea and a ceiling 'painted with such life-like colours that clouds pass across, the west wind blows, and there the sun seems to mark out the year and the months, the days and the weeks, the hours and the moments by its movement in the zodiac'. A marble fountain with a dragon as the centre-piece stood in the central hall, its jets cooling the air and the murmur of the water giving an altogether soothing effect." The castle was so well fortified, that in 1231–1232, it withstood a siege lasting several months.

paragraph: Beirut was effectively an independent state under John's rule; in 1207 John added Arsuf to his territory through his marriage to Melisende of Arsuf, making him one of the wealthiest nobles in the kingdom.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.

paragraph: From 1205 to 1210 John served as regent in Acre, the new capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, for Maria of Montferrat, Queen Isabella I's daughter. As regent, John helped arrange the marriage of Amalric II's son Hugh I of Cyprus to Alice of Champagne, daughter of Amalric's predecessor as King of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne. In 1210 he also helped arrange Maria of Montferrat's marriage to John of Brienne, who was suggested by king Philip II of France.

paragraph: By 1217 John and his brother Philip of Ibelin had become involved in the politics of the Kingdom of Cyprus as well. They had apparently alienated themselves from John of Brienne, but the two represented Cyprus at a council in Acre, which met to plan for the arrival of the Fifth Crusade. When Hugh I died in 1218, Philip became regent for Hugh's son Henry I of Cyprus, Philip's nephew. When Philip died in 1228, John took over the same office. Although both Philip and John were closely related to Henry I, as his uncles, they were still opposed on Cyprus by supporters of the Lusignan family, of which Henry was also a member; another of his uncles, Guy of Lusignan, and father Amalric, were the first two kings of Cyprus.

paragraph: Section::::Battle for Cyprus.

paragraph: In 1228, the power struggle was amplified when Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II arrived in Cyprus on the Sixth Crusade. Frederick was connected to the Jerusalem nobles by being married to Isabella II, John of Brienne's daughter, and Frederick attempted to use this to take power. He claimed the kingship of Jerusalem and the overlordship of Cyprus, as well as John of Ibelin's lordship of Beirut, which John naturally refused. When lured to a banquet and then confronted with Frederick's armed guards, John was forced to hand over the regency, and Cyprus, to Emperor Frederick's control. However, this was temporary, as John later resisted with military force. After Frederick departed from the island in April, John's forces defeated the remaining imperial bailiffs in a battle outside Nicosia on July 14, 1229, thus beginning the War of the Lombards. Frederick sent an army in 1231, under the marshal of the Empire, which attempted to invade Cyprus. John was able to repel the invasion at the Battle of Agridi, but the imperial fleet sailed to John's power center of Beirut, which they besieged and almost captured. The imperial marshal, Richard Filangieri, was able to establish himself in Jerusalem and Tyre, which he had regained by treaty in 1229, but not in Beirut or the capital in Acre.

paragraph: In Acre, John's supporters formed a commune, of which John himself was elected mayor when he arrived in 1232. The Commune of Acre was able to relieve the siege of Beirut, but in John's absence from Cyprus, the supporters of the Lusignans took control. In any case, the boy Henry I of Cyprus came of age in the same year, and John's regency was no longer necessary. When Henry I succeeded to the throne, both John and Riccardo immediately raced back to Cyprus, where the imperial forces were defeated in battle on June 15. Henry became undisputed king of Cyprus, and since he supported the Ibelins over the Lusignans, John's family remained influential.

paragraph: Conflict continued, as Filangieri remained in control of Jerusalem and Tyre, and had the support of Bohemund IV of Antioch, the Teutonic Knights, the Knights Hospitaller, and the Pisan merchants. John, for his part, was supported by his nobles on Cyprus, and in his continental holdings in Beirut, Caesarea, and Arsuf, as well as by the Knights Templar and the Genoese merchant community. Neither side could make any headway, and in 1234 Pope Gregory IX excommunicated John and his supporters. This was partly revoked in 1235, but still no peace could be made.

paragraph: In the last year of his life, John of Ibelin, as did many other elderly barons, joined the order of the Knights Templar, so that he could die as a Templar. His family was opposed to this, but John insisted, and was honored with a grand funeral in Acre in 1236.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: John was married twice. His first wife, in 1201/1202, was Helvis of Nephin. Little is known of the marriage except that the couple had five sons, all of whom died before Helvis died as well.

paragraph: In 1207, John married Melisende, Lady of Arsuf, with whom he had five sons and a daughter:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Balian of Beirut (d. 1247), who succeeded him as Lord of Beirut, and fathered John II of Beirut

paragraph: BULLET::::- John of Arsuf (c. 1211–1258), lord of Arsuf and constable of Jerusalem, father of Balian of Arsuf (1239–1277)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hugh of Ibelin (died 1238)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Baldwin of Ibelin (died 1266)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guy of Ibelin, constable of Cyprus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isabella, who became a nun

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J.L. La Monte, "John of Ibelin. The Old Lord of Beirut, 1177-1236." "Byzantion," xii, 1947.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joshua Prawer, "Crusader Nobility and the Feudal System" in "Crusader institutions", Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980, pp. 20–45.

wikidata_label: John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut

wikipedia_title: John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut


text:
Argentine
Intransigent Party
Maipú
Buenos Aires Province
University of La Plata
University of Buenos Aires
Republican Spain
Radical Civic Union
Argentine Chamber of Deputies
Intransigent Radical Civic Union
Arturo Frondizi
1963 elections
1973
1983
Biography

categories: University of Buenos Aires alumni,People from Buenos Aires Province,Radical Civic Union politicians,Candidates for President of Argentina,Argentine people of Galician descent,1996 deaths,1909 births,Governors of Buenos Aires Province,Members of the Argentine Chamber of Deputies,Argentine surgeons

paragraph: Oscar Alende

paragraph: Oscar Eduardo Alende (6 July 1909 – 22 December 1996) was an Argentine politician who founded the Intransigent Party.

paragraph: Alende was born in Maipú, Buenos Aires Province. He studied medicine at the University of La Plata, where he led the student union, and completed his medical studies at the University of Buenos Aires in 1933. He became head of gastro-intestinal surgery at Rawson Hospital, and a member of the Argentine Surgical Academy. He was co-founder of the Argentine Committee of Assistance to Republican Spain.

paragraph: In 1948 Alende became a provincial legislator in Buenos Aires Province for the Radical Civic Union (UCR), heading the UCR block from 1950. In 1952 he became a deputy in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, serving until its dissolution in 1955.

paragraph: Alende had joined the breakaway Intransigent Radical Civic Union (UCRI). In 1958 he was elected Governor of Buenos Aires Province and served until 1962. Alende became the leader of the UCRI following the 1962 overthrow of President Arturo Frondizi (who broke with the party), and stood as UCRI candidate for President in the 1963 elections. In 1972 he founded the Intransigent Party, the military having banned the use of the name UCRI. He stood once again for President in 1973 on behalf of the Popular Revolutionary Alliance.

paragraph: After the return of democracy in 1983, Alende became president of the Intransigent Party and stood again for President. He was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1985, and served in that capacity until his death in 1996.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography by the Intransigent Party

description: politician

wikidata_label: Oscar Alende

wikipedia_title: Oscar Alende


text:
Anglo-Norman
Benedictine
monk
abbot
Anglo-Norman
Benedictine
priory
Canterbury
Abbot of Dunfermline
Kingdom of Scotland
Prior
Abbot of Dunfermline
monastery of Dunfermline
Kingdom of Scotland
Lanfranc
Archbishop of Canterbury
Margaret of Wessex
Eadmer
David I
William de Corbeil
Robert
charter
Causantín
mormaer
Dunfermline
Romanesque

wikipedia_title:
Anglo-Normans
Benedictines
Monk
Abbot
Anglo-Normans
Benedictines
Priory
Canterbury
Abbot of Dunfermline
Kingdom of Scotland
Prior
Abbot of Dunfermline
Dunfermline Abbey
Kingdom of Scotland
Lanfranc
Archbishop of Canterbury
Saint Margaret of Scotland
Eadmer
David I of Scotland
William de Corbeil
Robert of Scone
Charter
Causantín, Earl of Fife
Mormaer
Dunfermline
Romanesque architecture

categories: Abbots of Dunfermline,11th-century births,1154 deaths,Burials at Dunfermline Abbey,Priors of Canterbury,Scoto-Normans

paragraph: Geoffrey of Canterbury

paragraph: Geoffrey (died 1154) was a 12th-century Anglo-Norman Benedictine monk and abbot. Of Anglo-Norman origin, he became monastic head of the Benedictine priory at Canterbury, before moving to Scotland to be the first Abbot of Dunfermline. As abbot he presided over the construction of the new monastery building, the immigration of English monks and settlers, and the accumulation of enough wealth to make Dunfermline Abbey the richest Benedictine monastic house in the Kingdom of Scotland.

paragraph: Section::::Canterbury.

paragraph: He rose to prominence in the 1120s, becoming Prior of Christ Church Cathedral Priory sometime after the death of Prior Conrad on 17 February 1127. He held this position for little more than a year, until in 1128 he was invited to become the first Abbot of Dunfermline, with the monastery of Dunfermline recently being promoted from a priory to an abbey, being refounded with thirteen monks from Canterbury.

paragraph: Section::::Canterbury and Dunfermline.

paragraph: Dunfermline was a daughter-house of Christ Church, while that Benedictine priory held significant influence in the Kingdom of Scotland. Such influence had been established by Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, in the reign of King Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (1058–1093) via the latter's consort, the English princess Margaret of Wessex. During the reign of King Alaxandair mac Maíl Choluim (1107–1124), there was an unsuccessful attempt to make Eadmer, one of Christ Church's monks, Bishop of St Andrews. Now in the reign of King David I (1124–1153), the Scottish monarchy was expanding the monastery at Dunfermline, and Geoffrey came to Scotland as part of royal plans to expand the size and promote the status of the house. Geoffrey was personally invited by the King of Scotland, who also sought and obtained the agreement of William de Corbeil, the archbishop.

paragraph: Section::::First Abbot of Dunfermline.

paragraph: After receiving a blessing by Robert, Bishop of St Andrews, Geoffrey began his career as Dunfermline's abbot. During his abbacy, Geoffrey witnessed a great number of royal charters and King David persistently treated him with more respect that any other abbot — he was usually the first abbot to be named in any witness list. Despite initial problem with Causantín, the local mormaer, Geoffrey's abbacy was generally one of successful expansion of property in which numbers of English immigrants arrived to settle in and around the town of Dunfermline. During his abbacy the abbey was transformed from a small church establishment into a large Romanesque monastery, finally dedicated in 1150.

paragraph: After this event in 1150, the abbot is not heard of again until the report of his death. The "Chronicle of Holyrood" recorded his death for the year 1154:Geoffrey, the abbot of Dunfermline died; and his nephew Geoffrey succeeded in his place. His death was reported for 9 June 1154. Abbot Geoffrey was buried in the abbey.

description: Anglo-Norman Benedictine monk and abbot. of Dunfermline

wikidata_label: Geoffrey of Canterbury

wikipedia_title: Geoffrey of Canterbury