text: femme de lettres

text: salon

text: Madame du Deffand

text: lady in waiting

text: Duchesse de Chartres

text: Prince de Conti

text: Rouen

text: lady in waiting

text: Duchesse de Chartres

text: Palais-Royal

text: Prince de Conti

text: Orléans family

text: hôtel particulier

text: enclos du Temple

text: salon

text: Encyclopédistes

text: Denis Diderot

text: David Hume

text: Grimm

text: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

text: abbé Prévost

text: abbé Morellet

text: Beaumarchais

text: Madame du Deffand

text: Samuel Johnson

text: Horace Walpole

text: Château de Stors

text: Mme Panneau d'Arty

text: Versailles

text: Louis François, 6th Prince de Conti

text: Auteuil

text: Gustav III of Sweden

text: Germaine Necker

text: Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein

text: Fronsac

text: Reign of Terror

text: Revolutionary Tribunal

text: Data.bnf.fr

categories: French salon-holders,1800 deaths,People from Rouen,1724 births,French ladies-in-waiting,Women letter writers,French countesses,French letter writers

paragraph: Marie-Charlotte Hippolyte de Boufflers

paragraph: Marie-Charlotte Hippolyte de Campet de Saujon, by marriage Countess of Boufflers (6 September 1725- 1800), was a French femme de lettres and salon hostess. Nicknamed ""l'idole"" by Madame du Deffand, she was a lady in waiting to the Duchesse de Chartres and a mistress of Chartres' brother, the Prince de Conti.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Marie-Charlotte Hippolyte de Campet de Saujon was born in Rouen, the daughter of Charles-François de Saujon, Baron de la Rivère, and Louis-Angélique de Barberin de Reignac. She married Comte Édouard de Boufflers-Rouverel, cavalry captain in the régiment de Bellefonds, on 15 February 1746. They had one child, Louis-Édouard de Boufflers-Rouverel (1746-1795). Shortly after her marriage, she became lady in waiting to the Duchesse de Chartres. At the Palais-Royal, she got to know the duchess' brother, the Prince de Conti, and soon became his mistress.

paragraph: After an argument with the powerful Orléans family, she installed herself at a small hôtel particulier in enclos du Temple, next to the palace of the Grand Prior. Until 1789, she held a salon there, the main focus of Paris' then Anglomania. She received Encyclopédistes like Denis Diderot, David Hume, Grimm, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the abbé Prévost, the abbé Morellet, and Beaumarchais. Surrounded and fêted by learned society, Madame du Deffand nicknamed her "l'idole". Under the influence of the Encyclopédistes, the countess became author of some works of literature and light poetry.

paragraph: In 1763, she went to London during the peace negotiations to accompany the wife of the French ambassador, Madame d'Usson. There she was fêted once again and met Samuel Johnson and Horace Walpole, who she received in Paris and at the Château de Stors, granted to her by the Prince de Conti after the death of Mme Panneau d'Arty in 1765.

paragraph: She ignored Versailles, first going there in 1750 on the death of her father-in-law, and was only officially presented there in 1770, by her then lover the Maréchale de Luxembourg (Marshal of Luxembourg).

paragraph: On her husband's death in October 1764, she hoped to marry her lover Louis François, 6th Prince de Conti but in the end had to give up this dream due to his lack of interest.

paragraph: In 1773, the Comtesse de Boufflers bought a country house at Auteuil to which she retired on the death of the Prince de Conti in 1776. The old Temple circle met until 1789. She acted as an agent for King Gustav III of Sweden. According to tradition she arranged the 1786 marriage between Germaine Necker and the Swedish ambassador Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein (Baron de Staël).

paragraph: Among her houses was the Château de La Rivière à Fronsac (she sold it in 1794).

paragraph: Arrested during the Reign of Terror, she was acquitted by the Revolutionary Tribunal.

paragraph: She wrote several poems and works of literature.

paragraph: Her son Louis-Édouard de Boufflers-Rouverel (1746-1795) married Amelie Constance des Alleurs.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marie-Charlotte Hippolyte de Campet de Saujon on Data.bnf.fr

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dictionnaire historique, littéraire et bibliographique des Françaises et des étrangères naturalisées en France"

description: French countess and author

wikipedia_title: Marie-Charlotte Hippolyte de Boufflers


text: Dublin

text: The 4th Duke of Leinster

text: Mentone

text: The 1st Earl of Feversham

text: Major

text: KIA

text: World War I

text: Edward FitzGerald, 7th Duke of Leinster

text: The 11th Earl of Wemyss

text: stamp collection

text: Dublin Museum of Science and Art

text: Inverted Swan

text: Ducal House of Leinster

text: Pedigree at Genealogics

categories: FitzGerald dynasty,Members of the Privy Council of Ireland,1893 deaths,British philatelists,Fathers of philately,1851 births

paragraph: Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster

paragraph: Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster (16 August 1851 – 1 December 1893) was an Irish peer.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Leinster was born in Dublin, Ireland, the son of The 4th Duke of Leinster and Lady Caroline Sutherland-Leveson-Gower.

paragraph: He married Lady Hermione Wilhelmina Duncombe (30 March 1864 – Mentone, France, 19 March 1895), daughter of The 1st Earl of Feversham, in London on 17 January 1884. She died of tuberculosis at age 30.

paragraph: The Leinsters had the following children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maurice FitzGerald, 6th Duke of Leinster (1 March 1887 – 4 February 1922)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Major Lord Desmond FitzGerald (21 September 1888 – 3 March 1916), presumed KIA in the World War I

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward FitzGerald, 7th Duke of Leinster (6 May 1892 – 8 March 1976), whose alleged biological father was The 11th Earl of Wemyss.

paragraph: After the 5th Duke's death of typhoid fever, his stamp collection, which contained around ten thousand pieces, was bequeathed to the Dublin Museum of Science and Art. It included an Inverted Swan which he had discovered was inverted years after he took possession of it.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ducal House of Leinster

paragraph: BULLET::::- "DNA test the latest twist in aristocratic tale of a cowboy, a gambler and a web of deceit", "Scotsman", 4 November 2010

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pedigree at Genealogics

description: Irish duke

wikidata_label: Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster

wikipedia_title: Gerald FitzGerald, 5th Duke of Leinster


text:
Nara Narayan
Kamata kingdom
kite
Koch dynasty
Biswa Singha
Srimanta Sankardeva
Ek Saran Naam Dharma
Koch Hajo
Garhgaon
guerrilla warfare
Shivaji
Kamakhya temple
small pox
Ganges
Government of Assam

categories: People from Assam,Rulers of Bengal,History of Bengal

paragraph: Chilarai

paragraph: Shukladhwaja (; 1510–1571 AD), or more popularly Bir Chilarai (), was the younger brother of Nara Narayan, the king of the Kamata kingdom in the 16th century. He was Nara Narayan's commander-in-chief and got his name Chilarai because, as a general, he executed troop movements that were as fast as a "chila" (kite). Chilarai is known to have descended from the powerful founder of the Koch dynasty of Kamatapur, Biswa Singha. By his valour, he played a significant role in expanding the empire of his elder brother, Maharaja Nara Narayan. His valour ensured Koch supremacy over the Bhutia, Kachari kingdom and the Ahoms though several battles were fought between the Koches and Ahoms with countable victories for both sides.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Chilaray was the third son of Maharaja Biswa Singha (1523–1554 A.D.).

paragraph: Chilaray was instrumental in giving Srimanta Sankardeva protection and shelter, as well as marrying his niece Kamalapriya (alias Bhubaneswari). It was only due to his Royal Patronage that Sankardeva was able to establish the Ek Saran Naam Dharma in Assam and bring about his cultural renaissance. His son and grandson were responsible for breaking away of Koch Hajo from the parent kingdom.

paragraph: Shukladhwaj (also named Chilaray, which means 'Kite Prince') was perhaps the greatest general that Indian history ignored. A master military strategist, he was the commander of elder brother and Koch king Naranarayan's army. Chilaray's valour ensured Koch supremacy over the Bhutia, Kachari kingdom (of Hadimba, now dimapur) and the Ahoms (though several battles were fought between the Koches and Ahoms with countable victories for both sides). In June 1563 the Koches under the command of Chilaray managed to occupy the capital of Ahom, Garhgaon.

paragraph: Several kings, namely the then Raja of Manipur and the Khasi chief (Viryyavanta), submitted to the Koch army. Chilaray and his army also vanquished and killed the Jaintia Raja, and Rajas of Tippera(Tripura) and Sylhet. Chilaray is said to have never committed brutalities on unarmed common people, and even those kings who surrendered were treated with respect. They were harsh to kings and soldiers who refused to surrender, but the brothers never annexed conquered territories nor oppressed the people. They only collected tributes from the vanquished kings. They even treated enemy prisoners kindly, and gave them land-grants to settle.

paragraph: Chilaray also adopted guerrilla warfare successfully- even before Shivaji Maharaja of Maratha empire did.

paragraph: The duo (Chilaray and Naranarayan) turned towards Bengal, but unforeseen circumstances led to Chilaray's capture by the Afghan Sultan Sulaiman Karrani, while Naranarayan retreated to his capital. Much of the Koch kingdom was then captured by the Afghans. However Chilaray and Nara Narayan later rebuilt the Kamakhya temple that the Sultan's army had destroyed. They also patronized the great Vaishnavite movement of Sankardev.

paragraph: Chilaray died in 1577 of small pox on the bank of Ganges.

paragraph: Section::::Bir Chilaray Divas.

paragraph: The birth anniversary of Mahabir Chilaray is organised by Government of Assam annually from 2005. The Government also declares this day as state holiday.

paragraph: Section::::Bir Chilaray award.

paragraph: The Directorate of Cultural Affairs, Government of Assam instituted these awards in 2005. Theycomprise a shawl, a citation, and a cash award of Rs. 100,000

wikidata_label: Chilarai

wikipedia_title: Chilarai


text: Werdau

text: Saxony

text: East German

text: German

text: bobsled

text: FIBT World Championships

text: East Germany

text: Germany

text: 1992 Winter Olympics

text: Albertville

categories: Bobsledders at the 1992 Winter Olympics,Olympic bobsledders of Germany,German male bobsledders,1968 births,Living people

paragraph: Axel Jang

paragraph: Axel Jang (born 28 December 1968 in WerdauSaxony) is an East German-German bobsledder who competed in the early 1990s. He won three medals at the FIBT World Championships with two silvers (Two-man and four-man: both 1990 for East Germany) and one bronze (Four-man: 1991 for Germany).

paragraph: Jang also finished sixth in the four-man event at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bobsleigh two-man world championship medalists since 1931

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bobsleigh four-man world championship medalists since 1930

paragraph: BULLET::::- Four-man bobsleigh Winter Olympic results: 1988-2002

description: German bobsledder

wikidata_label: Axel Jang

wikipedia_title: Axel Jang


href: Italian%20People soprano Rome patron Metastasio opera%20seria

text:
Italian
soprano
Rome
patron
Metastasio
opera seria

categories: Italian operatic sopranos,1734 deaths,Singers from Rome,1680s births

paragraph: Marianna Bulgarelli

paragraph: Marianna Bulgarelli (c. 1684 – 26 February 1734), also known as Maria Anna Benti, was an Italian soprano of the 18th century.

paragraph: Bulgarelli was born and died in Rome; hence her nickname, "La Romanina." She is best remembered as an early patron of, and sympathizer with, the youthful Metastasio, whose work she encouraged and helped to develop. She was also a popular and successful singer of "opera seria", renowned for her acting ability in particular.

description: singer

wikidata_label: Marianna Bulgarelli

wikipedia_title: Marianna Bulgarelli


text:
lawyer
judge
barrister
Evening Standard
Bar
Gray's Inn
Beatles
John Lennon
George Harrison
Ringo Starr
Apple Corps Ltd
London School of Economics
Anthony Lester
Sir Geoffrey Bindman
Michael Zander
Society of Labour Lawyers
Royal Commission on the Press
London School of Economics
Dictionary of National Biography
Stephen Finer
Pallant House Gallery
Dictionary of National Biography
Pat Thane
Oxford University Press
Catalogue
LSE Archives
Catalogue
LSE Archives
Morris Finer Memorial Scholarships

categories: 1974 deaths,People educated at Kilburn Grammar School,1917 births,Place of birth missing,People associated with the London School of Economics,English lawyers,English judges,English Jews

paragraph: Morris Finer

paragraph: Sir Morris Finer QC (1917–1974) was a British lawyer and judge.

paragraph: As a young barrister Finer also wrote leaders for the London "Evening Standard". He was called to the Bar in 1943 and became a Queen's Counsel in 1963 and was elected a Master of the Bench of Gray's Inn in 1971. He was made a judge in 1972.

paragraph: As a commercial lawyer Finer was involved in several prominent cases, including acting for three of the Beatles: John Lennon, George Harrison, Ringo Starr and Apple Corps Ltd over the management of the Beatles in 1971.

paragraph: He was chairman of the Cinematograph Films Council and a governor and, later, vice chairman of the board of governors of the London School of Economics.

paragraph: In 1967 Finer chaired a committee that included Anthony Lester, Sir Geoffrey Bindman and Michael Zander, for the Society of Labour Lawyers. The resulting report was published as "Justice For All" in 1968.

paragraph: Under Finer's chairmanship the "Finer Report on One Parent Families" was published in the early 1970s and he was subsequently appointed chairman of the Royal Commission on the Press but died at 57 before its completion.

paragraph: A Morris Finer Memorial Scholarship is established at the London School of Economics.

paragraph: Additional information about Finer appears in the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". A painting of him by Stephen Finer is in the collection of Pallant House Gallery, Chichester, Sussex.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Company Law" (1948)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Justice For All" (1968) Society of Labour Lawyers

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dictionary of National Biography

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- " Sinners? Scroungers? Saints? Unmarried Motherhood in Twentieth-Century England " by Pat Thane and Tanya Evans, Oxford University Press, ISBNB 978-0-19-957850-4; , 2012

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catalogue of the Royal Commission on the Press papers at LSE Archives

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catalogue of the Committee on One Parent Families papers at LSE Archives

paragraph: BULLET::::- Morris Finer Memorial Scholarships

description: British judge

wikidata_label: Morris Finer

wikipedia_title: Morris Finer


text: Baltic German

text: geologist

text: Mining Institute

text: Saint Petersburg

text: Karl Ernst von Baer

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: List of Baltic German scientists

text: Kammeri Manor

categories: Estonian explorers,Recipients of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky,1885 deaths,Estonian geologists,Full Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences,People from Kambja Parish,German geologists,Baltic-German people,People from the Governorate of Livonia,19th-century geologists,Burials at Raadi cemetery,German explorers,Demidov Prize laureates,Founding members of the Russian Geographical Society,Imperial Russian cartographers,1803 births

paragraph: Gregor von Helmersen

paragraph: Gregor von Helmersen ( – ) was a Baltic German geologist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He received an engineering training and became major-general in the corps of Mining Engineers. In 1837 he was appointed professor of geology in the Mining Institute at Saint Petersburg of which he was also director.

paragraph: In 1839, along with Karl Ernst von Baer, he founded the first serial natural scientific publication in Russia known as "Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches."

paragraph: In 1850, he became an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. He founded and became the first head of the Russian Geological Committee in 1882.

paragraph: He was an author of numerous memoirs on the geology of Russia, especially on coal and other mineral deposits of the country; and he wrote also some explanations to accompany separate sheets of the geological map of Russia.

paragraph: His geological work was continued to an advanced age, one of the later publications being "Studien über die Wanderblöcke und die Diluvialgebilde Russlands" (1869 and 1882). Most of his memoirs were published by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Saint Petersburg.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Baltic German scientists

paragraph: Section::::Links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kammeri Manor, birthplace of Gregor von Helmersen at Estonian Manors Portal

description: Baltic German geologist

wikidata_label: Gregor von Helmersen

wikipedia_title: Gregor von Helmersen


text: Carl Zeiss Jena

text: Max Wolf

text: planetarium

text: World War I

text: Zeiss I model

text: Jena

text: latitude

text: World War II

text: Berlin

text: Düsseldorf

text: Rome

text: Paris

text: Chicago

text: Los Angeles

text: New York

text: Zeiss I planetarium

text: geodesic dome

text: icosahedron

text: Buckminster Fuller

text: Franklin Institute

text: Elliott Cresson Medal

text: Werner von Siemens Ring

text: East Germany

text: Heidenheim an der Brenz

text: 1553 Bauersfelda

text: Zeiss projector

text: Planetarium Dresden

categories: Werner von Siemens Ring laureates,German engineers,1879 births,1959 deaths

paragraph: Walther Bauersfeld

paragraph: Walther Bauersfeld (23 January 1879 – 28 October 1959) was a German engineer.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was employed by the Carl Zeiss Jena, who, on a suggestion by the German astronomer Max Wolf, started work on the first projection planetarium in 1912. This work was stopped by military needs during World War I, but resumed after the war. Bauersfeld completed the first planetarium, known as the Zeiss I model in 1923, and it was initially placed on the roof of a Zeiss building in the corporate headquarters town of Jena. This model projected 4,900 stars, and was limited to showing the sky only from Jena's latitude. Subsequently, Bauersfeld developed the Model 2 with 8,956 stars, and full latitude capability. Over a dozen were installed before World War II again suspended planetarium work. These inter-war planetariums were constructed in Berlin and Düsseldorf in Germany, as well as Rome, Paris, Chicago, Los Angeles and New York.

paragraph: The Zeiss I planetarium in Jena is also considered the first geodesic dome derived from the icosahedron, 26 years before Buckminster Fuller reinvented and popularized this design.

paragraph: Bauersfeld was awarded the Franklin Institute's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1933 and the Werner von Siemens Ring in 1941.

paragraph: Post-war, the Zeiss firm, like Germany, divided in two. Bauersfeld remained with the core firm in Jena, East Germany, where after 1953 he developed the ZKP-1 (Zeisskleinplanetarium, the Zeiss Small Planetarium #1). This was intended for small dome planetariums, and while it had latitude change capabilities, the operator had to turn a hand crank to accomplish this. The ZKP-2 added a motor for latitude change. Bauersfeld retired shortly after the ZKP-2 was introduced.

paragraph: He died on 28 October 1959 in Heidenheim an der Brenz.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The asteroid 1553 Bauersfelda, discovered by Karl Reinmuth in 1940, was named in his honor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A monthly newsletter named in Walther Bauersfeld's honor, "Bauersfeld's Folly", was circulated to mostly North American planetariums 1973 to 1983.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zeiss projector

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Geodesic Dome: Planetarium in Jena 1922 incl. patent information

paragraph: BULLET::::- Planetarium Dresden in German

description: German engineer, employed by the Zeiss Corporation

wikidata_label: Walther Bauersfeld

wikipedia_title: Walther Bauersfeld


text:
German
classical
philologist
Hohenstein
Province of Prussia
professor
Kiel University
Breslau University
Göttingen University
Philo of Alexandria
Otto Kern
Göttingen
divine providence
Greek philosophy
Anaximenes of Lampsacus
Judaism
Christianity
Early Christian
Leopold Cohn
WorldCat Identities

categories: People from the Province of Prussia,University of Breslau faculty,German philologists,1864 births,University of Kiel faculty,Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences,People from Olsztynek,1915 deaths,University of Göttingen faculty

paragraph: Paul Wendland

paragraph: (Johann Theodor) Paul Wendland (August 17, 1864 – September 10, 1915) was a German classical philologist.

paragraph: Born in Hohenstein, Province of Prussia, he taught as a professor at the Kiel University (from 1902), Breslau University (from 1906), Göttingen University (from 1909).

paragraph: He was co-author of an edition on Philo of Alexandria, "Philonis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt" (6 volumes, 1896-1915). With Otto Kern, he published ""Beiträge zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie und Religion"" (1895).

paragraph: He died in Göttingen.

paragraph: Section::::Literary works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philosophische Schrift über die Vorsehung", 1892 – Philosophical writings on divine providence.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Beiträge zur Geschichte der grieschischen Philosophie", 1895 (with Otto Kern) – Contribution to the history of Greek philosophy.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Anaximenes von Lampsakos", 1905 – Anaximenes of Lampsacus.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum", 1907 – Greco-Roman culture in its relations with Judaism and Christianity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die urchristlichen Literaturformen", 1912 – Early Christian literature forms.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die griechische Prosa und die römisch-christliche Literatur", 1912 – Greek prose and Roman-Christian literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Philonis Alexandrini opera quae supersunt", 6 volumes, (with Leopold Cohn), 1896-1915.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- WorldCat Identities Most widely held works by Paul Wendland.

description: German classical philologist

wikidata_label: Paul Wendland

wikipedia_title: Paul Wendland


text:
Dutch Golden Age
Haarlem
brothers Crabeth
Willem Thibaut
Hendrick Goltzius

categories: Dutch Golden Age painters,Dutch male painters,Dutch draughtsmen,Artists from Haarlem,1618 deaths,1580 births

paragraph: Cornelis IJsbrantsz Cussens

paragraph: Cornelis Cussens (1580 – 24 May 1618) was a Dutch Golden Age draughtsman and glass painter.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Cussens was born and died in Haarlem. According to Houbraken he was a contemporary of the brothers Crabeth and Willem Thibaut.

paragraph: According to Karel van Mander who called him Cornelis Ysbrandsz, he was an excellent glass painter who owned some works by Hendrick Goltzius.

paragraph: According to the RKD he was a draughtsman known for his figures.

alias:
Cornelis Cussens
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Cusseus
Cornelis Yzebrandsz Cussens
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Kussens
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Kuffaeus
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Kuffeus
Cornelis Yzebrandsz Kussens
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Kussaeus
Cornelis Ysbrantsz. Kuffens
Cornelis Kussens

description: Dutch Golden Age painter

wikidata_label: Cornelis IJsbrantsz Cussens

wikipedia_title: Cornelis IJsbrantsz Cussens


text:
Nabû
Babylon
Aramean
Nippur
šandabakku
Ninurta
duck weight
Layard
Religious Chronicle
Babylonia
Aramean

categories: 11th-century BC deaths,Babylonian kings,11th-century BC Babylonian kings

paragraph: Nabu-shum-libur

paragraph: Nabû-šumu-libūr, inscribed "-li-bur" or "na-bi-um-""-li-bur", meaning "O Nabû, may (my) progeny / the son stay in good health," (1033 – 1026 BC) was the 11th and last king of the 2nd Dynasty of Isin, the 4th Dynasty of Babylon. He ruled during a period of instability due to incursions of Aramean nomadic tribesmen in Northwest Babylonia.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: There is very little extant material for his reign. The legal text pictured is from his first year. It was found at Kār-Bēlet-Ilāni near Nippur, and details the reimbursement of Nusku-zêra-iddina, the "šandabakku", or governor of Nippur, with land, after he ransomed a man named Mudammiqu from the "enemy." The price was paid in kind, with the text listing various items provided by the purchaser with their cash equivalent, for a total of 420 shekels. It was first published in 1983 and the text provides the earliest recorded price for iron, where an iron dagger of unspecified weight was valued at 2 shekels of silver. It was witnessed by eleven individuals representing the role-call for the elite in Nippur and the god Ninurta is invoked as patron deity of boundaries.

paragraph: A stone duck weight inscribed Nabû-šuma-libūr, optimistically titled "šar kiššati" (“king of the world”), found its way to the Northwest palace of Nimrud, where it was preserved as an antique and rediscovered by Layard in the mid 19th century, and perhaps indicates continued trade. It was marked 30 minas (about 15 kilograms).

paragraph: Ominous portents dated for his reign, are included in a damaged Religious Chronicle of the Seleucid era. It records, “a lion was lying lurking and they killed it,” a prophecy fulfilled by the fall of the dynasty. The events at the end of his reign are not known, but northern Babylonia had been overrun by Aramean tribesmen from the west, and the dynasty was followed by the 2nd Dynasty of Sealand when a substantial part of southern Mesopotamia seceded.

wikidata_label: Nabu-shum-libur

wikipedia_title: Nabu-shum-libur


text: Van Nuys, California

text: Bonnie "Prince" Billy

text: Azita

text: Joan of Arc

text: Angel Olsen

text: Edith Frost

text: Jeff Harms

text: Joshua Abrams

text: Sonny Smith

text: Baby Dee

text: Beth Orton

text: Terry Reid

text: Scott Tuma

text: Joan of Arc

text: garage rock

text: Ty Segall

text: Emotional Mugger

text: Ty Segall

text: The Fall

text: OCS

text: Baby Dee

text: Drag City

text: The Wonder Show of the World

text: Narnack Records

text: Emotional Mugger

text: Ty Segall

text: Freedom's Goblin

text: The Wonder Show of the World

text: Drag City

text: Drag City

text: Drag City

text: Rob Mazurek

text: Polyvinyl Record Co.

text: Official site for The Cairo Gang

text: Emmett Kelly's page on Discogs

text: Emmett Kelly's page on allmusic

text: The Cairo Gang at Drag City Records

categories: Living people,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: Emmett Kelly (musician)

paragraph: Emmett Kelly is an American singer, songwriter and guitarist from Van Nuys, California. He is the primary songwriter and recording artist of The Cairo Gang, and has contributed vocal and instrumental work to a variety of international musical projects, appearing on recordings by the likes of Bonnie "Prince" Billy, Azita, Joan of Arc, Angel Olsen, Edith Frost, Women and Children, John Webster Johns, Jeff Harms, Chicago poet/singer Marvin Tate, Matteah Baim, Japanese musician Takuma Watanabe, and Joshua Abrams. Kelly has toured in several of the aforementioned acts in addition to with Sonny Smith, Baby Dee, Beth Orton, and Terry Reid; and in other instances, performed live with Scott Tuma, Joan of Arc, and Pillars and Tongues. He is also one half of the band The Surf, The Sundried, and a founding member of Chicago's Psychojail.

paragraph: In 2016, Kelly was a member of garage rock musician Ty Segall's backing band The Muggers, formed following the release of the studio album, "Emotional Mugger". Continuing to work with Segall, Kelly contributed to the recording of his ninth studio album, "Ty Segall" (2017), and is currently a member of his backing band, The Freedom Band.

paragraph: Section::::Music.

paragraph: Emmett’s primary focus is his band, The Cairo Gang, which released its self-titled debut album on Narnack Records in 2006. The Disneyland Reform Party, a label started by Kelly and New York artist, Stasiu Tokarski, released 2008’s Twyxt Wyrd, which was subsequently released as a limited edition LP by Sheffield, UK’s The Blackest Rainbow. Following Twyxt Wyrd, Kelly released the home recorded Holy Clover EP on San Francisco’s Empty Cellar Records and Coventry, UK’s Tin Angel.

paragraph: The Cairo Gang has toured with notable acts such as The Fall, OCS, Baby Dee, and Pillars and Tongues.

paragraph: Kelly has been a frequent collaborator of Will Oldham (A.K.A. Bonnie “Prince” Billy), and has lent his vocals and guitar to his recordings and performances since Oldham’s 2006 album, The Letting Go. In 2010 Drag City released the critically acclaimed album, The Wonder Show of the World, which featured compositional work by Kelly as The Cairo Gang, along with the single, Midday/You Win, and the 10’’, Island Brothers/New Wonder.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:The Cairo Gang.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Cairo Gang" (Narnack Records, 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Twyxt Wyrd" (The Disneyland Reform Party, 2008/The Blackest Rainbow, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Holy Clover EP" (Empty Cellar/Tin Angel, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Corner Man" (Empty Cellar, 2012)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mixtape No. 1" (Teen River, 2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tiny Rebels" (Empty Cellar / Burger Records, 2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Live at The Owl" (Parliament Tapes, 2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Live at Burger Records Vol. 3" (Burger Records, 2014)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Goes Missing" (Gurger and God?, 2015)

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Ty Segall.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Emotional Mugger" (2016)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ty Segall" (2017)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Freedom's Goblin" (2018)

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Collaborations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Wonder Show of the World" - Bonnie "Prince" Billy & The Cairo Gang (Drag City, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Midday/You Win 7"" - Bonnie "Prince" Billy & The Cairo Gang (Drag City, 2010)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Island Brothers/New Wonder 10"" - Bonnie "Prince" Billy & The Cairo Gang (Drag City, 2011)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "We Love Our Hole/I'll Be Alright 7"" - Bonnie "Prince" Billy & The Cairo Gang (Empty Cellar, 2014)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alien Flower Sutra" - Rob Mazurek & Emmett Kelly (International Anthem, 2016)

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Compilations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Presence Under The Tree" (Attack Nine, 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "13 Weeks of Summer" (Attack 9, 2007)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Joan of Arc Presents: Don't Mind Control" (Polyvinyl Record Co., 2010)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official site for The Cairo Gang

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emmett Kelly's page on Discogs

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emmett Kelly's page on allmusic

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empty Cellar Records Bio for The Cairo Gang

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Cairo Gang at Drag City Records

description: musician

wikidata_label: Emmett Kelly

wikipedia_title: Emmett Kelly (musician)


text: Warsaw

text: Polish

text: chemistry

text: Lipka Tatar

text: Achmatowicz reaction

text: Lithuanian Tatar

text: Mongolian

text: Golden Horde

text: Lithuania

text: Witold

text: St. Petersburg

text: Donetsk Basin

text: Stephen Batory

text: William Henry Perkin

text: FRS

text: Robert Robinson

text: pharmacognosy

text: University of Wilno

text: Technical University of Łódź

text: Royal Society

text: Stanisław Kopański

text: Stanisław Leszczycki

text: Polish Academy of Sciences

text: Chemical Society, London

text: UNESCO

text: British Association for the Advancement of Science

text: Queen-Mother

text: University of London

text: Wilton Park

text: Medal of the 10th Anniversary of People's Poland

text: Polonia Restituta

text: Banner of Labor

text: Technical University of Łódź

text: Polish Academy of Letters and Sciences

text: Warsaw Scientific Society

text: Polish Academy of Sciences

text: Chemical Society

text: American Chemical Society

text: Tetrahedron

categories: Polish chemists,Polish Muslims,1899 births,Polish people of Lipka Tatar descent

paragraph: Osman Achmatowicz

paragraph: Osman Achmatowicz (April 16, 1899 in Bergaliszki – December 4, 1988 in Warsaw) was a Polish professor of chemistry of Lipka Tatar descent. His son, Osman Achmatowicz Jr., (also a chemist) is credited with the Achmatowicz reaction in 1971.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Professor Osman Achmatowicz was a Polonised Lithuanian Tatar of Muslim denomination. Descended from the Mongolian Golden Horde, his ancestors came to Lithuania in great strength from Crimea in the 15th century, hired by the Grand Duke Witold as valiant, battle hardened and reliable mercenaries.

paragraph: The sixth of eight children in a noble family of an outstanding jurist Alexander Achmatowicz, he was born at the ancestral estate Bergaliszki, near Oszmania on 16 March 1899.

paragraph: Educated at the Royal Corps in St. Petersburg (named Petrograd in 1914,renamed Leningrad in 1924), he was admitted to higher studies at the Mining Institute of Petrograd in 1916, and after interruption of its functions caused by the Bolshevik uprising, went to the Ukrainian Industrial Region, where he found a temporary employment as an apprentice at the coal mine Golubowka in the Donetsk Basin.

paragraph: In 1919, after his arrival in Poland, freshly restored to independence (by The Versailles Treaty), he continued his studies at the faculty of Natural Sciences of the resurrected Vilnius University, named after the Polish king, Stephen Batory, and graduated with a diploma of a master of chemistry in 1924.

paragraph: His post graduate studies consisted of two consecutive parts:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Three years of pre-doctoral research work at the organic chemistry department of Vilnius University, under supervision of Professor Casimir Slawinski. His doctoral thesis was devoted to the terpenoid bicyclic hydrocarbon bornylen. He was then awarded the degree of chemistry in 1928.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Two years of advanced studies/scholarship from the National Culture Fund, Warsaw, Director St. Michalski at the Dyson Perrins Laboratory of the University of Oxford, where his supervisors were Professor William Henry Perkin FRS, and, after his untimely death in 1929, Professor Robert Robinson of the University of London, 1947 Nobel Prize Winner. At Oxford Osman Achmatowicz attained the degree of doctor of philosophy, on the grounds of his dissertation on studies on the structure of strychnine and brucine.

paragraph: On Return to Vilno, Achmatowicz rejoined the teaching staff of the organic chemistry department of the university, where he continued his research on the structure of strychnos alkaloids. He devised a new method of degradation using hydrogenolysis of quaternary ammonium salts containing nitrogen in allyl position, in the presence of palladinized charcoal as catalyst. This method became crucial in studies on organic compounds and was subsequently modified by other research workers over rupture of carbon-oxygen bonds.

paragraph: Achmatowicz’s discovery of catalytic hydrogenolysis was assessed by the board of faculty as an important contribution to the advancement of degradation methods in organic chemistry and for this work Achmatowicz received the title of docent in 1933.

paragraph: In the following year, 1934, Achmatowicz was appointed professor extraordinaire to the chair of pharmaceutical and toxicological chemistry, belonging to the faculty of pharmacy of the University of Warsaw.

paragraph: This appointment meant that Achmatowicz was allocated increased research funds and better research facilities, and in subsequent research he:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Extended the scope of his experiments on the constitution of strychnos alkaloids and within four years realised all three stages of Hofman degradation of dihydrosstrychnidine (co-authors: R. Robinson and, in part, Cz.Dybowski), dihydrobrucidine (co-authors: P. Lewi and R. Robinson), and dihydro vomicidine (co-worker: B. Racinski)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Confirmed the validity of catalytic hydrogenolysis for splitting nitrogen-carbon bonds in quaternary unsaturated ammonium salts of the brucine series (co-worker: B. Bochwic)

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Established the influence of position of the ethylenic linkage on the reactivity of quaternary salts in catalytic hydrogenolysis. (co-worker K.Lindenfeld).

paragraph: Achmatowicz carried out further work on the problems of strychnine chemistry in the 1960s with his son Selim, J. Skolik, M. Wiewiorowski and J. Szychowski. The paper resulting from this work was published in 1966 in the volume of Tetrahedron and dedicated to Sir Robert Robinson, founder of the journal.

paragraph: After joining the faculty of pharmacy Achmatowicz developed further research-programs with potential significance for medical sciences, as well as for pharmacy. He embarked on phytochemical research on Polish flora, specifically on physiologically active organic components of wild growing plants used in Polish folk-medicine.

paragraph: The following rare species were recommended by Professors J. Muszynski (pharmacognosy department, University of Wilno) and J. Modrakowski (department of experimental pharmacology, University of Warsaw):

paragraph: a) Club-Mosses (Lycopodium clavatum, B.selago, L.annotinum)

paragraph: b) Yellow water-lily (Nuphar luteum) and white water-lily (Nymphacea alba)

paragraph: After two years Achmatowicz in conjunction with the Polish pharmaceutical industry and Spiess and Son (scientific director Dr St. Otolski, chairman F. Wieckowski) succeeded in isolating and characterising, a number of hitherto unknown alkaloids.

paragraph: In September 1939 all research was halted by the outbreak of war and Achmatowicz’s laboratory and research files were destroyed in subsequent bombing.

paragraph: During the German occupation, all universities in Poland were closed and disbanded but Achmatowicz undertook secret underground teaching for student groups in Warsaw and Czestochowa.

paragraph: When the war finished Achmatowicz helped inaugurate the Technical University of Łódź. The first Rector, Professor B. Stefanowski, had suggested that it move from Warsaw to Łódź.

paragraph: Specifically he organised the chemical faculty of the Technical University of Łódź, as well as his own research workshop under the chair of organic chemistry. This was made possible by a generous grant from the Royal Society, London, facilitated by Sir Robert Robinson, president of the society. Other substantial financial aid was graciously rendered by General Stanisław Kopański, chief of staff of the Polish Armed Forces, stationed in Great Britain at that time. By 1948 the chemical faculty had its own premises with relatively modern research facilities.

paragraph: Cooperating with Polish chemical industry Achmatowicz undertook research:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. To determine beneficial applications for hitherto unused, components of coaltar (2-vinyl-pyridine)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. To explore convenient methods for preparation of new compounds for further examination of their chemotherapeutic activity.

paragraph: He succeeded in plotting new synthetic routes to hitherto unknown sulphones (in conjunction with E. Maruszewska-Wieczorkowska and J. Michalski)

paragraph: The work initiated by Achmatowicz, in 1938, on the structure and bases of club-mosses alkaloids was further developed by organic chemists in 1942 in Canada, and later still in Germany. Achmatowicz resumed his research on Lycopodium alkaloids, and on Nuphar alkaloids, in the 1950s, when his Łódź laboratory was sponsored by the National Culture Fund (director: Stanisław Leszczycki) and by the Polish Academy of Sciences.

paragraph: However, only in the 1960s was it possible for his laboratory to apply chromatographic and spectroscopic investigations and achieve significant and ground-breaking results, as annotated below:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Using only Lycopodium annotinum and L. Selago 17 alkaloids were separated into pure state (co-worker Wl. Rodewald).

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Out of Lycopodium clavatum Achmatowicz succeeded in separating and determining the structure of a new alkaloid named clavatine (co-worker H. Zajac)

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Organic acids connected with alkaloids were characterised (co-worker F. Werner-Zamojska).

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Formulas of annotoxine and annotin were amended (taxonomic dependences were taken into consideration) and the pharmacological activity of annotoxine and annotine was examined in conjunction with Professor P. Kubikowski, Dr J. Majerczyk and Dr J. Szymanska (all of the department of experimental pharmacology of the Medical Academy, Warsaw).

paragraph: Particularly important and fruitful were the studies on alkaloids of Nuphar luteum. In 1960-1962 Achmatowicz (co-workers; Z. Bellen and J. Wrobel) succeeded in separating four new alkaloids containing sulphur from this plant.

paragraph: Studies on the separation of these unusual bases were accompanied by studies on their structure (co-workers Mrs H. Banaszek and J. Wrobel). For the mass-spectroscopic examination involved the help of Dr G. Spiteller (Institute of Organic Chemistry, Vienna University) was enlisted. The new alkaloids were named: thiobinupharidine and neothiobinupharidine.

paragraph: The discovery of a new class of sulphur containing alkaloids was considered one of the most important achievements in organic chemistry of 1962 (“Highlights from Current Literature,” Chemistry and Industry, March 30, 1963).

paragraph: In addition to continuing his alkaloid studies research, Achmatowicz undertook studies in the field of organic synthesis and reaction mechanisms. Specifically, the study of carbonyl cyanide, a simple compound, synthesized for the first time in 1937 by outstanding Polish organic chemist, Professor R. Malachowski, who died in 1944 during the Warsaw Uprising.

paragraph: The team of Achmatowicz presented 15 publications on the most characteristic reactions of this compound, carbonyl cyanide. The team established that in the case of alkenes, which have hydrogen atoms in allylic position, carbonyl cyanide reacts to “ene” synthesis. The highly unstable intermediate product splits a molecule of hydrogen cyanide, thus forming beta-gamma unsaturated ketonitriles. On the other hand, in the case of alkenes which do not contain any hydrogen atoms in the allylic position, a transformation with CO (CN) consists in addition of a carbonyl group to the ethylene system, thus forming a 1.3-epoxypropane system (co-worker M.Leplawy).

paragraph: It was also found that carbonyl cyanide possessed dienophylic properties (co-worker A. Zamojski). In reaction of carbonyl cyanide with chain and alicyclic alcohols and phenols (co-worker M. Leplawy) leads in good yields to cyanoformates that have their application in the synthesis of peptides. Carbonyl cyanide also reacts violently with ketens, forming dicyanopropionic beta-lactones (co-worker M. Leplawy).

paragraph: Studies on reactions of carbonyl cyanide by the team headed by Achmatowicz, became the stimulus to undertake research in the domain of diene synthesis with systems of analogous structure.

paragraph: A published series of papers resulted from research on dienophiles dimethylmesoxalate, diethyl azodicarboxylate, and a number of dienes and diene reactions (co-authors: O. Achmatowicz, junior, J. Wrobel, A. Zamojski).

paragraph: Monoene type test reactions were carried out from which it was deduced that diethyl azodicarboxylate may be numbered among active enopholes (co-workers: F. Werner-Zamojska, K. Belniak, A. Zwiersak, Cz. Borecki, J. Szychowski).

paragraph: Additionally, Professor Achmatowicz assisted his associate, J. Michalski, to develop larger scale studies on the organic chemistry of phosphorus.

paragraph: In the period 1945-1952 Achmatowicz was the rector of the Technical University of Łódź, whilst holding the chair of organic chemistry and continuing his research.

paragraph: From 1952-1953 the research of the group directed by Achmatowicz was strengthened by incorporating the department of organic synthesis within the Polish Academy of Sciences.

paragraph: In 1953 Achmatowicz was appointed the undersecretary of state in the Ministry of Higher Education. Shortly afterwards he organized a research team at the Warsaw University. This scientific work in Warsaw was a continuation of his researches that were carried on in Łódź. After relinquishing his position in the Ministry of Higher Education in 1960 Achmatowicz devoted himself entirely to scientific work.

paragraph: In 1964 Achmatowicz left Warsaw and assumed the position of the director of the Institute of Polish Culture in London. After five years, during which he directed the institute with great success, he returned to Poland and in autumn 1969 he retired.

paragraph: In retirement his leisure interests were: classical music and the history of 18th-20th centuries.

paragraph: He was father to three children: a daughter, Emilia Kryczynska, author-translator; two sons, both organic chemist research workers: Osman, professor, director of the Chemical Institute at the Agriculture University (SGGW) in Warsaw; and Selim, head of a division of the Institute of Electronic materials Technology, in Warsaw.

paragraph: He died on 16 April 1988 and was buried in the family grave at the Moslem Cemetery in Warsaw.

paragraph: Section::::Ambassadorial representations.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Director of the Institute of Polish Culture, London (1964–1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Represented Polish chemistry at the celebrations of the centenary of the Chemical Society, London (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::3. UNESCO Paris General Assembly as a member of the Polish delegation and presided over the natural sciences section of the assembly (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Overseas guest of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Bristol (1955)

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Headed the Polish Universities delegation to Great Britain organised by the British Council (1957): received in audience by the Queen-Mother, Chancellor of the University of London.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Sat on the cultural committee of the Polish-British Round Table Conference at Jablonna in 1962 and at Wilton Park in 1967.

paragraph: Section::::Meritorious awards and positions.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. State Orders Minister of Higher Education: awarded individual State Prize of 1st degree (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Medal of the 10th Anniversary of People's Poland; the order of millennium (1966) for “discovering new alkaloids and studying their structure”

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Merited Culture Activist, Distinction (1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Officer Cross of the order of “Polonia Restituta” (1951)

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Commander Cross of the order of “Polonia Restituta” (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Order of the Banner of Labor, First Class (1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::7. Doctor Honoris Causa of the Technical University of Łódź (1960)

paragraph: BULLET::::8. Director of the Institute of Polish Culture in London (1964–1969)

paragraph: Section::::Scientific memberships and positions.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. 1945: Polish Academy of Letters and Sciences – corresponding member

paragraph: BULLET::::2. 1945: Warsaw Scientific Society – member

paragraph: BULLET::::3. 1945: Łódź Scientific Society – member

paragraph: BULLET::::4. 1952: Polish Academy of Sciences – corresponding member (full member from 1961)

paragraph: BULLET::::5. 1980: Polish Chemical Society – honorary member (served as deputy president 1937–1939)

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Chemical Society, London – life member

paragraph: BULLET::::7. American Chemical Society – member

paragraph: BULLET::::8. Swiss Chemical Society – member

paragraph: BULLET::::9. Scientific board of the chemical journal "Tetrahedron" - member

paragraph: BULLET::::10. Scientific board of "Index Chemicu" (Philadelphia) - member

paragraph: BULLET::::11. Main Council of Higher Education and Qualification Commission for Scientific Staff - member (1953–1958)

paragraph: BULLET::::12. Counsellor to the Minister of Higher Education (1960–1962)

description: chemist

wikidata_label: Osman Achmatowicz

wikipedia_title: Osman Achmatowicz


text: Roman jurists

text: praetorian prefect

text: Roman Emperor

text: Alexander Severus

text: Phoenicia

text: Padua

text: Italy

text: Septimius Severus

text: Caracalla

text: Elagabalus

text: Alexander Severus

text: Julia Avita Mamaea

text: Praetorian Guard

text: Ulpian

text: Aemilius Papinianus

text: Gordian III

text: Herennius Modestinus

text: Quintus Cervidius Scaevola

text: Javolenus Priscus

text: Quintus Cervidius Scaevola

text: Marcus Antistius Labeo

text: Salvius Julianus

text: Aemilius Papinianus

text: Macer

text: Herennius Modestinus

text: Roman Emperor

text: Theodosius II

text: Valentinian III

text: Digest

text: Byzantine

text: Justinian I

text: Corpus Juris Civilis

text: Ulpian

text: presumption of innocence

text: Digest

text: Aristotle

text: barter

text: Law of Citations

text: The Ancient Library

text: The Roman Law Library

categories: 3rd-century Romans,2nd-century Romans,Praetorian prefects,3rd-century writers,Ancient Roman jurists

paragraph: Julius Paulus Prudentissimus

paragraph: Julius Paulus Prudentissimus (; fl. 2nd century and 3rd century AD) was one of the most influential and distinguished Roman jurists. He was also a praetorian prefect under the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Little is known of the life and family of Paulus; he was a man of Greek descent, who originated from an unknown Phoenician town or from Patavium (modern Padua Italy). The possibility that Paulus could come from Patavium is based on a statue with an inscription found in Patavium dedicated to a Paulus.

paragraph: During the reign of emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, Paulus served as a jurist. He was exiled by the emperor Elagabalus and recalled from exile by his successor, emperor Alexander Severus. Severus and his mother Julia Avita Mamaea in 222, appointed him among the emperor’s chief advisers and between 228 and 235, he was the Praetorian prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Paulus was a contemporary of the jurist Ulpian. He partly followed the career path of former Praetorian prefect Aemilius Papinianus. Due to his cautious politic nature and opinion, the emperor Gordian III, awarded him the honorific title of "Prudentissimus".

paragraph: Section::::Paulus's legal works.

paragraph: The Roman jurist Herennius Modestinus describes Paulus, along with Ulpian and Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, as among "the last of the great jurists". Paulus’ work was held in high respect.

paragraph: He had written 319 various legal publications. His surviving works are extremely prolific, displaying a keen analysis of other opinions of jurists and Paulus expressed his legal views. He appears to have written on a great variety on legal subjects and had a thorough knowledge of legal subjects and law.

paragraph: Paulus comments on the jurists Javolenus Priscus, Quintus Cervidius Scaevola, Marcus Antistius Labeo, Salvius Julianus and Aemilius Papinianus. He is cited by the jurists Macer and Herennius Modestinus. His writing style is condensed and sometimes obscure; however, his work is just as good as the other Roman jurists. Paulus’ work has survived from excerpts, although his work needs to be carefully read to be understood.

paragraph: Paulus was one of the five jurists whose opinions were made constitutionally authoritative in 426 by Roman Emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III. Another legacy from Paulus is the inclusion of his writings in the "Digest" which was written and put together by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I.

paragraph: One sixth of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the "Digest" consists of Paulus’ work. He is the most excerpted Roman jurist in the "Digest", ahead of Ulpian. The "Digest" attributes to Paulus the first articulation of the presumption of innocence in Roman law: "Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat""Proof lies on him who asserts, not on him who denies". Paulus in the "Digest" is also referred in two passages, which he gave a contrary opinion to Alexander Severus, but Severus chose Papinianus‘ opinion.

paragraph: Section::::Pseudo-Pauline works.

paragraph: Due to his fame several other works have been attributed to him, in particular the 3rd century compilation "Pauli sententiae" ("Paul's Views" or "Sentences").

paragraph: From Paulus’ surviving works and works attributed to him, the "Sententiae ad Filium" have the longest fragments.

paragraph: Section::::Economics.

paragraph: In the "Digest", Paulus wrote a passage on money. Much as Aristotle did, Paulus described the nature of money, including how it arises from the inconvenience of barter.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Law of Citations

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Ancient Library

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Google book : "Latin Literature A History", Gian Biagio Conte

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Book I, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son

paragraph: BULLET::::- Book II, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son

paragraph: BULLET::::- Book III, The Opinions of Julius Paulus, Addressed to His Son

paragraph: BULLET::::- Julius Paulus, in ‘Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology’, ancientlibrary.com

description: jurist

wikidata_label: Julius Paulus Prudentissimus

wikipedia_title: Julius Paulus Prudentissimus


text: Pittstown

text: Rensselaer County, New York

text: New York

text: admitted to the bar

text: Troy

text: New York State Senate

text: New York state election, 1881

text: Democratic

text: New York Attorney General

text: Leslie W. Russell

categories: Politicians from Troy, New York,1821 births,Missing middle or first names,New York (state) Democrats,New York state senators,1904 deaths

paragraph: Roswell A. Parmenter

paragraph: Roswell A. Parmenter (September 20, 1821 Pittstown, Rensselaer County, New York – February 1, 1904) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was the son of Dr. Azel Fiske Parmenter (born 1786) and Lavina (Ray) Parmenter. He studied law, was admitted to the bar, and practiced in Troy.

paragraph: He was City Attorney of Troy from 1853 to 1854, and from 1871 to 1883.

paragraph: He was a member of the New York State Senate (12th D.) in 1874 and 1875.

paragraph: At the New York state election, 1881, he ran on the Democratic ticket for New York Attorney General, but was defeated by Republican Leslie W. Russell.

paragraph: Parmenter was Corporation Counsel of Troy from 1886 to 1890.

paragraph: He died on February 1, 1904 at age 82.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Life Sketches of Government Officers and Members of the Legislature of the State of New York in 1875" by W. H. McElroy and Alexander McBride (pg. 93ff) [e-book]

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Courts and Lawyers of New York: A History, 1609-1925" by Alden Chester & Edwin Melvin Williams (Vol. I; pg. 1065)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Annual Report: Including Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Bar Association" ("Obituaries", Vol. 27, pg. 848)

description: American politician

wikidata_label: Roswell A. Parmenter

wikipedia_title: Roswell A. Parmenter