text: Aeolic Greek

text: Archaic Greek

text: Lesbos

text: lyric poetry

text: lyre

text: Sappho's poetry

text: Ode to Aphrodite

text: Hellenistic

text: Brothers Poem

text: Phaon

text: antiquity

text: nine lyric poets

text: Hellenistic

text: love and desire between women

text: sapphic

text: lesbian

text: Mytilene

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text: Suda

text: Andros

text: Parian Chronicle

text: Menander

text: Leucadian cliffs

text: Phaon

text: heterosexual

text: lyric poetry

text: epigrams

text: elegiacs

text: iambics

text: Alexandrian scholars

text: Aristophanes of Byzantium

text: Aristarchus of Samothrace

text: Sapphic stanza

text: Tithonus poem

text: John Tzetzes

text: renaissance

text: Jerome Cardan

text: Gregory Nazianzen

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text: Pope Gregory VII

text: codices

text: Aeolic dialect

text: ancient Greek dialects

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text: Apuleius

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text: Arion

text: Terpander

text: Homer

text: Hesiod

text: Homeric epithet

text: hyperbole

text: Lydia

text: Sophocles

text: Demosthenes

text: Pindar

text: lesbian

text: Lesbos

text: Old Comedy

text: Ambrose Philips

text: Ode to Aphrodite

text: fragment 31

text: Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker

text: Karl Otfried Müller

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text: Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff

text: Alcaeus

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text: Nossis

text: Phaedrus

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text: Catullus

text: poem 51

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text: Ameipsias

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text: Edgar Lobel

text: Denys Page

text: Boccaccio

text: De Claris Mulieribus

text: Christine de Pisan

text: Book of the City of Ladies

text: La Pléiade

text: Romantic era

text: Alfred Lord Tennyson

text: A. E. Housman

text: Midnight poem

text: Imagists

text: Ezra Pound

text: H. D.

text: Richard Aldington

text: John Donne

text: Henry Thornton Wharton

text: Decadent Movement

text: Charles Baudelaire

text: Algernon Charles Swinburne

text: Michael Field

text: Amy Levy

text: Caroline Norton

text: New Woman

text: Ancient Greek literature

text: Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7

text: Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231

text: Commentaries on Sappho's fragments

text: Fragments of Sappho

text: Tithonus poem

text: Brothers poem

text: Sappho

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categories: 6th-century BC poets,Ancient Greek composers,6th-century BC Greek people,Ancient Eresians,6th-century BC women writers,Ancient LGBT people,7th-century BC births,Nine lyric poets,Female composers,Ancient Greek women poets,7th-century BC Greek people,Aeolic Greek poets,Ancient Greek erotic poets,7th-century BC women poets,Poets from Ancient Lesbos,570s BC deaths,7th-century BC poets

paragraph: Sappho

paragraph: Sappho (; Aeolic Greek "Psáppho"; c. 630 – c. 570 BC) was an Archaic Greek poet from the island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by a lyre. In ancient times, Sappho was widely regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets and was given names such as the "Tenth Muse" and "The Poetess". Most of Sappho's poetry is now lost, and what is extant has survived only in fragmentary form, except for one complete poem: the "Ode to Aphrodite". As well as lyric poetry, ancient commentators claimed that Sappho wrote elegiac and iambic poetry. Three epigrams attributed to Sappho are extant, but these are actually Hellenistic imitations of Sappho's style.

paragraph: Little is known of Sappho's life. She was from a wealthy family from Lesbos, though the names of both of her parents are uncertain. Ancient sources say that she had three brothers; the names of two of them are mentioned in the Brothers Poem discovered in 2014. She was exiled to Sicily around 600 BC, and may have continued to work until around 570. Later legends surrounding Sappho's love for the ferryman Phaon and her death are unreliable.

paragraph: Sappho was a prolific poet, probably composing around 10,000 lines. Her poetry was well-known and greatly admired through much of antiquity, and she was among the canon of nine lyric poets most highly esteemed by scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria. Sappho's poetry is still considered extraordinary and her works continue to influence other writers. Beyond her poetry, she is well known as a symbol of love and desire between women, with the English words "sapphic" and "lesbian" being derived from her own name and the name of her home island respectively.

paragraph: Section::::Ancient sources.

paragraph: There are three sources of information about Sappho's life: her "testimonia", the history of her times, and what can be gleaned from her own poetry — although scholars are cautious when reading poetry as a biographical source.

paragraph: "Testimonia" is a term of art in ancient studies that refers to collections of classical biographical and literary references to classical authors. The "testimonia" regarding Sappho do not contain references contemporary to Sappho. The representations of Sappho's life that occur in the "testimonia" always need to be assessed for accuracy, because many of them are certainly not correct. The "testimonia" are also a source of knowledge regarding how Sappho's poetry was received in antiquity. Some details mentioned in the "testimonia" are derived from Sappho's own poetry, which is of great interest, especially considering the "testimonia" originate from a time when more of Sappho's poetry was extant than is the case for modern readers.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Little is known about Sappho's life for certain. She was from Mytilene on the island of Lesbos and was probably born around 630 BC.

paragraph: Tradition names her mother as Cleïs, though ancient scholars may simply have guessed this name, assuming that Sappho's daughter Cleïs was named after her. Sappho's father's name is less certain. Ten names are known for Sappho's father from the ancient "testimonia"; this proliferation of possible names suggests that he was not explicitly named in any of Sappho's poetry. The earliest and most commonly attested name for Sappho's father is Scamandronymus. In Ovid's "Heroides", Sappho's father died when she was seven. Sappho's father is not mentioned in any of her surviving works, but Campbell suggests that this detail may have been based on a now-lost poem. Sappho's own name is found in numerous variant spellings, even in her own Aeolian dialect; the form that appears in her own extant poetry is Psappho.

paragraph: No reliable portrait of Sappho's physical appearance has survived; all extant representations, ancient and modern, are artists' conceptions. In the Tithonus poem she describes her hair as now white but formerly "melaina", i.e. black. A literary papyrus of the second century A.D. describes her as "pantelos mikra", quite tiny. Alcaeus possibly describes Sappho as "violet-haired", which was a common Greek poetic way of describing dark hair. Some scholars dismiss this tradition as unreliable.

paragraph: Sappho was said to have three brothers: Erigyius, Larichus, and Charaxus. According to Athenaeus, Sappho often praised Larichus for pouring wine in the town hall of Mytilene, an office held by boys of the best families. This indication that Sappho was born into an aristocratic family is consistent with the sometimes rarefied environments that her verses record. One ancient tradition tells of a relation between Charaxus and the Egyptian courtesan Rhodopis. Herodotus, the oldest source of the story, reports that Charaxus ransomed Rhodopis for a large sum and that Sappho wrote a poem rebuking him for this.

paragraph: Sappho may have had a daughter named Cleïs, who is referred to in two fragments. Not all scholars accept that Cleïs was Sappho's daughter. Fragment 132 describes Cleïs as "παῖς" ("pais"), which, as well as meaning "child", can also refer to the "youthful beloved in a male homosexual liaison". It has been suggested that Cleïs was one of Sappho's younger lovers, rather than her daughter, though Judith Hallett argues that the language used in fragment 132 suggests that Sappho was referring to Cleïs as her daughter.

paragraph: According to the Suda, Sappho was married to Kerkylas of Andros. However, the name appears to have been invented by a comic poet: the name "Kerkylas" comes from the word "κέρκος" ("kerkos"), a possible meaning of which is "penis", and is not otherwise attested as a name, while "Andros", as well as being the name of a Greek island, is a form of the Greek word "ἀνήρ" ("aner"), which means man. Thus, the name may be a joke name, and as such could be rendered as "Dick Allcock from the Isle of Man".

paragraph: Sappho and her family were exiled from Lesbos to Syracuse, Sicily, around 600 BC. The Parian Chronicle records Sappho going into exile some time between 604 and 591. This may have been as a result of her family's involvement with the conflicts between political elites on Lesbos in this period, the same reason for Sappho's contemporary Alcaeus' exile from Mytilene around the same time. Later the exiles were allowed to return.

paragraph: A tradition going back at least to Menander (Fr. 258 K) suggested that Sappho killed herself by jumping off the Leucadian cliffs for love of Phaon, a ferryman. This is regarded as unhistorical by modern scholars, perhaps invented by the comic poets or originating from a misreading of a first-person reference in a non-biographical poem. The legend may have resulted in part from a desire to assert Sappho as heterosexual.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: Sappho probably wrote around 10,000 lines of poetry; today, only about 650 survive. She is best known for her lyric poetry, written to be accompanied by music. The Suda also attributes to Sappho epigrams, elegiacs, and iambics; three of these epigrams are extant, but are in fact later Hellenistic poems inspired by Sappho, as are the iambic and elegiac poems attributed to her in the Suda. Ancient authors claim that Sappho primarily wrote love poetry, and the indirect transmission of Sappho's work supports this notion. However, the papyrus tradition suggests that this may not have been the case: a series of papyri published in 2014 contains fragments of ten consecutive poems from Book I of the Alexandrian edition of Sappho, of which only two are certainly love poems, while at least three and possibly four are primarily concerned with family.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Ancient editions.

paragraph: Sappho's poetry was probably first written down on Lesbos, either in her lifetime or shortly afterwards, initially probably in the form of a score for performers of Sappho's work. In the fifth century, Athenian book publishers probably began to produce copies of Lesbian lyric poetry, some including explanatory material and glosses as well as the poems themselves. Some time in the second or third century, Alexandrian scholars produced a critical edition of Sappho's poetry. There may have been more than one Alexandrian edition – John J. Winkler argues for two, one edited by Aristophanes of Byzantium and another by his pupil Aristarchus of Samothrace. This is not certain – ancient sources tell us that Aristarchus' edition of Alcaeus replaced the edition by Aristophanes, but are silent on whether Sappho's work, too, went through multiple editions.

paragraph: The Alexandrian edition of Sappho's poetry was based on the existing Athenian collections, and was divided into at least eight books, though the exact number is uncertain. Many modern scholars have followed Denys Page, who conjectured a ninth book in the standard edition; Yatromanolakis doubts this, noting that though "testimonia" refer to an eighth book of Sappho's poetry, none mention a ninth. Whatever its make-up, the Alexandrian edition of Sappho probably grouped her poems by their metre: ancient sources tell us that each of the first three books contained poems in a single specific metre. Ancient editions of Sappho, possibly starting with the Alexandrian edition, seem to have ordered the poems in at least the first book of Sappho's poetry – which contained works composed in Sapphic stanzas – alphabetically.

paragraph: Even after the publication of the standard Alexandrian edition, Sappho's poetry continued to circulate in other poetry collections. For instance, the Cologne Papyrus on which the Tithonus poem is preserved was part of a Hellenistic anthology of poetry, which contained poetry arranged by theme, rather than by metre and incipit, as it was in the Alexandrian edition.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Surviving poetry.

paragraph: The earliest surviving manuscripts of Sappho, including the potsherd on which fragment 2 is preserved, date to the third century BC, and thus predate the Alexandrian edition. The latest surviving copies of Sappho’s poems transmitted directly from ancient times are written on parchment codex pages from the sixth and seventh centuries AD, and were surely reproduced from ancient papyri now lost. Manuscript copies of Sappho's works may have survived a few centuries longer, but around the 9th century her poetry appears to have disappeared, and by the twelfth century, John Tzetzes could write that "the passage of time has destroyed Sappho and her works".

paragraph: According to legend, Sappho's poetry was lost because the church disapproved of her morals. These legends appear to have originated in the renaissance – around 1550, Jerome Cardan wrote that Gregory Nazianzen had Sappho's work publicly destroyed, and at the end of the sixteenth century Joseph Justus Scaliger claimed that Sappho's works were burned in Rome and Constantinople in 1073 on the orders of Pope Gregory VII. In reality, Sappho's work was probably lost as the demand for it was insufficiently great for it to be copied onto parchment when codices superseded papyrus scrolls as the predominant form of book. Another contributing factor to the loss of Sappho's poems may have been the perceived obscurity of her Aeolic dialect, which contains many archaisms and innovations absent from other ancient Greek dialects. During the Roman period, by which time the Attic dialect had become the standard for literary compositions, many readers found Sappho's dialect difficult to understand and, in the second century AD, the Roman author Apuleius specifically remarks on its "strangeness".

paragraph: Only approximately 650 lines of Sappho's poetry still survive, of which just one poem – the "Ode to Aphrodite" – is complete, and more than half of the original lines survive in around ten more fragments. Many of the surviving fragments of Sappho contain only a single word – for example, fragment 169A is simply a word meaning "wedding gifts", and survives as part of a dictionary of rare words. The two major sources of surviving fragments of Sappho are quotations in other ancient works, from a whole poem to as little as a single word, and fragments of papyrus, many of which were discovered at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. Other fragments survive on other materials, including parchment and potsherds. The oldest surviving fragment of Sappho currently known is the Cologne papyrus which contains the Tithonus poem, dating to the third century BC.

paragraph: Until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, only the ancient quotations of Sappho survived. In 1879, the first new discovery of a fragment of Sappho was made at Fayum. By the end of the nineteenth century, Grenfell and Hunt had begun to excavate an ancient rubbish dump at Oxyrhynchus, leading to the discoveries of many previously unknown fragments of Sappho. Fragments of Sappho continue to be rediscovered. Most recently, major discoveries in 2004 (the "Tithonus poem" and a new, previously unknown fragment) and 2014 (fragments of nine poems: five already known but with new readings, four, including the "Brothers Poem", not previously known) have been reported in the media around the world.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Style.

paragraph: Sappho clearly worked within a well-developed tradition of Lesbian poetry, which had evolved its own poetic diction, meters, and conventions. Among her famous poetic forebears were Arion and Terpander. Nonetheless, her work is innovative; it is some of the earliest Greek poetry to adopt the "lyric 'I'" – to write poetry adopting the viewpoint of a specific person, in contrast to the earlier epic poets Homer and Hesiod, who present themselves more as "conduits of divine inspiration". Her poetry explores individual identity and personal emotions – desire, jealousy, and love; it also adopts and reinterprets the existing imagery epic poetry in exploring these themes.

paragraph: Sappho's poetry is known for its clear language and simple thoughts, sharply-drawn images, and use of direct quotation which brings a sense of immediacy. Unexpected word-play is a characteristic feature of her style. An example is from fragment 96: "now she stands out among Lydian women as after sunset the rose-fingered moon exceeds all stars", a variation of the Homeric epithet "rosy-fingered Dawn". Sappho's poetry often uses hyperbole, according to ancient critics "because of its charm". An example is found in fragment 111, where Sappho writes that "The groom approaches like Ares[...] Much bigger than a big man".

paragraph: Leslie Kurke groups Sappho with those archaic Greek poets from what has been called the "élite" ideological tradition, which valued luxury ("habrosyne") and high birth. These elite poets tended to identify themselves with the worlds of Greek myths, gods, and heroes, as well as the wealthy East, especially Lydia. Thus in fragment 2 Sappho describes Aphrodite "pour into golden cups nectar lavishly mingled with joys", while in the Tithonus poem she explicitly states that "I love the finer things ["habrosyne"]". According to Page DuBois, the language, as well as the content, of Sappho's poetry evokes an aristocratic sphere. She contrasts Sappho's "flowery,[...] adorned" style with the "austere, decorous, restrained" style embodied in the works of later classical authors such as Sophocles, Demosthenes, and Pindar.

paragraph: Traditional modern literary critics of Sappho's poetry have tended to see her poetry as a vivid and skilled but spontaneous and naive expression of emotion: typical of this view are the remarks of H. J. Rose that "Sappho wrote as she spoke, owing practically nothing to any literary influence," and that her verse displays "the charm of absolute naturalness." Against this essentially romantic view, one school of more recent critics argues that, on the contrary, Sappho's poetry displays and depends for its effect on a sophisticated deployment of the strategies of traditional Greek rhetorical genres.

paragraph: Section::::Sexuality.

paragraph: Today Sappho, for many, is a symbol of female homosexuality; the common term "lesbian" is an allusion to Sappho, originating from the name of the island of Lesbos, where she was born. However, she has not always been so considered. In classical Athenian comedy (from the Old Comedy of the fifth century to Menander in the late fourth and early third centuries BC), Sappho was caricatured as a promiscuous heterosexual woman, and it is not until the Hellenistic period that the first "testimonia" which explicitly discuss Sappho's homoeroticism are preserved. The earliest of these is a fragmentary biography written on papyrus in the late third or early second century BC, which states that Sappho was "accused by some of being irregular in her ways and a woman-lover". Denys Page comments that the phrase "by some" implies that even the full corpus of Sappho's poetry did not provide conclusive evidence of whether she described herself as having sex with women. These ancient authors do not appear to have believed that Sappho did, in fact, have sexual relationships with other women, and as late as the tenth century the Suda records that Sappho was "slanderously accused" of having sexual relationships with her "female pupils".

paragraph: Among modern scholars, Sappho's sexuality is still debated – André Lardinois has described it as the "Great Sappho Question". Early translators of Sappho sometimes heterosexualised her poetry. Ambrose Philips' 1711 translation of the Ode to Aphrodite portrayed the object of Sappho's desire as male, a reading that was followed by virtually every other translator of the poem until the twentieth century, while in 1781 Alessandro Verri interpreted fragment 31 as being about Sappho's love for Phaon. Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker argued that Sappho's feelings for other women were "entirely idealistic and non-sensual", while Karl Otfried Müller wrote that fragment 31 described "nothing but a friendly affection": Glenn Most comments that "one wonders what language Sappho would have used to describe her feelings if they had been ones of sexual excitement" if this theory were correct. By 1970, it would be argued that the same poem contained "proof positive of [Sappho's] lesbianism".

paragraph: Today, it is generally accepted that Sappho's poetry portrays homoerotic feelings: as Sandra Boehringer puts it, her works "clearly celebrate eros between women". Toward the end of the twentieth century, though, some scholars began to reject the question of whether or not Sappho was a lesbian – Glenn Most wrote that Sappho herself "would have had no idea what people mean when they call her nowadays a homosexual", André Lardinois stated that it is "nonsensical" to ask whether Sappho was a lesbian, and Page duBois calls the question a "particularly obfuscating debate".

paragraph: One of the major focuses of scholars studying Sappho has been to attempt to determine the cultural context in which Sappho's poems were composed and performed. Various cultural contexts and social roles played by Sappho have been suggested, including teacher, cult-leader, and poet performing for a circle of female friends. However, the performance contexts of many of Sappho's fragments are not easy to determine, and for many more than one possible context is conceivable.

paragraph: One longstanding suggestion of a social role for Sappho is that of "Sappho as schoolmistress". At the beginning of the twentieth century, the German classicist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff posited that Sappho was a sort of schoolteacher, in order to "explain away Sappho's passion for her 'girls and defend her from accusations of homosexuality. The view continues to be influential, both among scholars and the general public, though more recently the idea has been criticised by historians as anachronistic and has been rejected by several prominent classicists as unjustified by the evidence. In 1959, Denys Page, for example, stated that Sappho's extant fragments portray "the loves and jealousies, the pleasures and pains, of Sappho and her companions"; and he adds, "We have found, and shall find, no trace of any formal or official or professional relationship between them, ... no trace of Sappho the principal of an academy." David A. Campbell in 1967 judged that Sappho may have "presided over a literary coterie", but that "evidence for a formal appointment as priestess or teacher is hard to find". None of Sappho's own poetry mentions her teaching, and the earliest "testimonium" to support the idea of Sappho as a teacher comes from Ovid, six centuries after Sappho's lifetime. Despite these problems, many newer interpretations of Sappho's social role are still based on this idea. In these interpretations, Sappho was involved in the ritual education of girls, for instance as a trainer of choruses of girls.

paragraph: Even if Sappho did compose songs for training choruses of young girls, not all of her poems can be interpreted in this light, and despite scholars' best attempts to find one, Yatromanolakis argues that there is no single performance context to which all of Sappho's poems can be attributed. Parker argues that Sappho should be considered as part of a group of female friends for whom she would have performed, just as her contemporary Alcaeus is. Some of her poetry appears to have been composed for identifiable formal occasions, but many of her songs are about – and possibly were to be performed at – banquets.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Ancient reputation.

paragraph: In antiquity Sappho's poetry was highly admired, and several ancient sources refer to her as the "tenth Muse". The earliest surviving poem to do so is a third-century BC epigram by Dioscorides, but poems are preserved in the "Greek Anthology" by Antipater of Sidon and attributed to Plato on the same theme. She was sometimes referred to as "The Poetess", just as Homer was "The Poet". The scholars of Alexandria included Sappho in the canon of nine lyric poets. According to Aelian, the Athenian lawmaker and poet Solon asked to be taught a song by Sappho "so that I may learn it and then die". This story may well be apocryphal, especially as Ammianus Marcellinus tells a similar story about Socrates and a song of Stesichorus, but it is indicative of how highly Sappho's poetry was considered in the ancient world.

paragraph: Sappho's poetry also influenced other ancient authors. In Greek, the Hellenistic poet Nossis was described by Marylin B. Skinner as an imitator of Sappho, and Kathryn Gutzwiller argues that Nossis explicitly positioned herself as an inheritor of Sappho's position as a woman poet. Beyond poetry, Plato cites Sappho in his "Phaedrus", and Socrates' second speech on love in that dialogue appears to echo Sappho's descriptions of the physical effects of desire in fragment 31. In the first century BC, Catullus established the themes and metres of Sappho's poetry as a part of Latin literature, adopting the Sapphic stanza, believed in antiquity to have been invented by Sappho, giving his lover in his poetry the name "Lesbia" in reference to Sappho, and adapting and translating Sappho's 31st fragment in his poem 51.

paragraph: Other ancient poets wrote about Sappho's life. She was a popular character in ancient Athenian comedy, and at least six separate comedies called "Sappho" are known. The earliest known ancient comedy to take Sappho as its main subject was the early-fifth or late-fourth century BC "Sappho" by Ameipsias, though nothing is known of it apart from its name. Sappho was also a favourite subject in the visual arts, the most commonly depicted poet on sixth and fifth-century Attic red-figure vase paintings, and the subject of a sculpture by Silanion.

paragraph: From the fourth century BC, ancient works portray Sappho as a tragic heroine, driven to suicide by her unrequited love for Phaon. For instance, a fragment of a play by Menander says that Sappho threw herself off of the cliff at Leucas out of her love for Phaon. Ovid's "Heroides" 15 is written as a letter from Sappho to her supposed love Phaon, and when it was first rediscovered in the 15th century was thought to be a translation of an authentic letter of Sappho's. Sappho's suicide was also depicted in classical art, for instance on a first-century BC basilica in Rome near the Porta Maggiore.

paragraph: While Sappho's poetry was admired in the ancient world, her character was not always so well considered. In the Roman period, critics found her lustful and perhaps even homosexual. Horace called her "mascula Sappho" in his "Epistles", which the later Porphyrio commented was "either because she is famous for her poetry, in which men more often excel, or because she is maligned for having been a tribad". By the third century AD, the difference between Sappho's literary reputation as a poet and her moral reputation as a woman had become so significant that the suggestion that there were in fact two Sapphos began to develop. In his "Historical Miscellanies", Aelian wrote that there was "another Sappho, a courtesan, not a poetess".

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Modern reception.

paragraph: By the medieval period, Sappho's works had been lost, though she was still known through later ancient authors such as Ovid. Her works began to become accessible again in the sixteenth century, first in early printed editions of authors who had quoted her. In 1508 Aldus Manutius printed an edition of Dionysius of Hallicarnassus, which contained Sappho 1, the "Ode to Aphrodite", and the first printed edition of Longinus' "On the Sublime", complete with his quotation of Sappho 31, appeared in 1554. In 1566, the French printer Robert Estienne produced an edition of the Greek lyric poets which contained around 40 fragments attributed to Sappho. In 1652, the first English translation of a poem by Sappho was published, in John Hall's translation of "On the Sublime". In 1681 Anne Le Fèvre's French edition of Sappho made her work even more widely known. Theodor Bergk's 1854 edition became the standard edition of Sappho in the second half of the 19th century; in the first part of the 20th, the papyrus discoveries of new poems by Sappho led to editions and translations by Edwin Marion Cox and John Maxwell Edmonds, and culminated in the 1955 publication of Edgar Lobel's and Denys Page's "Poetarum Lesbiorum Fragmenta".

paragraph: Like the ancients, modern critics have tended to consider Sappho's poetry "extraordinary". As early as the 9th century, Sappho was referred to as a talented woman poet, and in works such as Boccaccio's "De Claris Mulieribus" and Christine de Pisan's "Book of the City of Ladies" she gained a reputation as a learned lady. Even after Sappho's works had been lost, the Sapphic stanza continued to be used in medieval lyric poetry, and with the rediscovery of her work in the Renaissance, she began to increasingly influence European poetry. In the 16th century, members of La Pléiade, a circle of French poets, were influenced by her to experiment with Sapphic stanzas and with writing love-poetry with a first-person female voice. From the Romantic era, Sappho's work – especially her "Ode to Aphrodite" – has been a key influence of conceptions of what lyric poetry should be. Such influential poets as Alfred Lord Tennyson in the nineteenth century, and A. E. Housman in the twentieth, have been influenced by her poetry. Tennyson based poems including "Eleanore" and "Fatima" on Sappho's fragment 31, while three of Housman's works are adaptations of the Midnight poem, long thought to be by Sappho though the authorship is now disputed. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Imagists – especially Ezra Pound, H. D., and Richard Aldington – were influenced by Sappho's fragments; a number of Pound's poems in his early collection "Lustra" were adaptations of Sapphic poems, while H. D.'s poetry was frequently Sapphic in "style, theme or content", and in some cases, such as "Fragment 40" more specifically invoke Sappho's writing.

paragraph: It was not long after the rediscovery of Sappho that her sexuality once again became the focus of critical attention. In the early seventeenth century, John Donne wrote "Sapho to Philaenis", returning to the idea of Sappho as a hypersexual lover of women. The modern debate on Sappho's sexuality began in the 19th century, with Welcker publishing, in 1816, an article defending Sappho from charges of prostitution and lesbianism, arguing that she was chaste – a position which would later be taken up by Wilamowitz at the end of the 19th and Henry Thornton Wharton at the beginning of the 20th centuries. Despite attempts to defend her good name, in the nineteenth century Sappho was co-opted by the Decadent Movement as a lesbian "daughter of de Sade", by Charles Baudelaire in France and later Algernon Charles Swinburne in England. By the late 19th century, lesbian writers such as Michael Field and Amy Levy became interested in Sappho for her sexuality, and by the turn of the twentieth century she was a sort of "patron saint of lesbians".

paragraph: From the 19th century, Sappho began to be regarded as a role model for campaigners for women's rights, beginning with works such as Caroline Norton's "The Picture of Sappho". Later in that century, she would become a model for the so-called New Woman – independent and educated women who desired social and sexual autonomy – and by the 1960s, the feminist Sappho was – along with the hypersexual, often but not exclusively lesbian Sappho – one of the two most important cultural perceptions of Sappho.

paragraph: The discoveries of new poems by Sappho in 2004 and 2014 excited both scholarly and media attention. The announcement of the Tithonus poem was the subject of international news coverage, and was described by Marylin Skinner as "the "trouvaille" of a lifetime".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ancient Greek literature

paragraph: BULLET::::- Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 7 – papyrus preserving Sappho fr. 5

paragraph: BULLET::::- Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1231 – papyrus preserving Sappho frr. 15–30

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commentaries on Sappho's fragments, William Annis.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fragments of Sappho, translated by Julia Dubnoff.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tithonus poem, text, translation by M. L. West, and notes by William Harris.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brothers poem, translation by Tim Whitmarsh.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sappho, BBC Radio 4, "In Our Time".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sappho, BBC Radio 4, "Great Lives".

paragraph: BULLET::::- SORGLL: Sappho 1, read by Stephen G. Daitz. Archived from the original 10 May 2018. (Adobe Flash)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Text of Sappho's poems with translations by Sean Palmer

alias: Psappho Sapphus Sapfo Safo Safona Sapho Saffo Sapfó

description: ancient Greek lyric poet

enwikiquote_title: Sappho

wikidata_label: Sappho

wikipedia_title: Sappho


text: mathematician

text: physicist

text: philosopher

text: Leonhard Euler

text: Lagrange

text: Legendre

text: Gauss

text: elasticity theory

text: Paris Academy of Sciences

text: Fermat's Last Theorem

text: Sophie Germain Prize

text: goldsmith

text: bourgeoisie

text: États-Généraux

text: Constitutional Assembly

text: Work in Philosophy

text: Bastille

text: J. E. Montucla's

text: Archimedes

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: Leonhard Euler

text: Étienne Bézout

text: École Polytechnique

text: Joseph Louis Lagrange

text: number theory

text: Adrien-Marie Legendre

text: elasticity

text: Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem

text: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: Fermat's Last Theorem

text: prime number

text: Braunschweig

text: Olbers

text: Ernst Chladni

text: analysis

text: Denis Poisson

text: double integrals

text: differential equation

text: Kirchhoff–Love equation

text: Joseph Fourier

text: Augustin-Louis Cauchy

text: mean curvature

text: Honors in number theory

text: Sophie Germain's theorem

text: mod "P"

text: Fermat's Last Theorem

text: Correspondence with Legendre

text: psychology

text: Auguste Comte

text: humanities

text: Crelle's Journal

text: curvature

text: University of Göttingen

text: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: Sophie Germain prime

text: mean curvature

text: H. J. Mozans

text: Woman in Science

text: Claude-Louis Navier

text: Baron de Prony

text: Hypatia

text: Correspondence with Gauss

text: prodigy

text: Eiffel tower

text: David Auburn

text: Proof

text: film adaptation

text: The Last Theorem

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: Frederik Pohl

text: Fermat's Last Theorem

text: Sophie Germain Prize

text: Academy of Sciences

text: foundations of mathematics

text: Institut de France

text: Sophie Germain Counter Mode

text: Sophie Germain prime

text: Sophie Germain Prize

text: Sophie Germain's theorem

text: Timeline of women in science

text: Sheroes of History; Sophie Germain

text: Sophie Germain in the illustrated story

categories: French physicists,French women mathematicians,19th-century women scientists,19th-century French mathematicians,1831 deaths,Deaths from breast cancer,1776 births,Number theorists,18th-century women scientists,French women physicists,Deaths from cancer in France

paragraph: Sophie Germain

paragraph: Marie-Sophie Germain (; 1 April 1776 – 27 June 1831) was a French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. Despite initial opposition from her parents and difficulties presented by society, she gained education from books in her father's library, including ones by Leonhard Euler, and from correspondence with famous mathematicians such as Lagrange, Legendre, and Gauss. One of the pioneers of elasticity theory, she won the grand prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her essay on the subject. Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem provided a foundation for mathematicians exploring the subject for hundreds of years after. Because of prejudice against her sex, she was unable to make a career out of mathematics, but she worked independently throughout her life. Before her death, Gauss had recommended that she be awarded an honorary degree, but that never occurred. On June 27, 1831, she died from breast cancer. At the centenary of her life, a street and a girls’ school were named after her. The Academy of Sciences established the Sophie Germain Prize in her honor.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Family.

paragraph: Marie-Sophie Germain was born on April 1, 1776, in Paris, France, in a house on Rue Saint-Denis. According to most sources, her father, Ambroise-François, was a wealthy silk merchant, though some believe he was a goldsmith. In 1789, he was elected as a representative of the bourgeoisie to the États-Généraux, which he saw change into the Constitutional Assembly. It is therefore assumed that Sophie witnessed many discussions between her father and his friends on politics and philosophy. Gray proposes that after his political career, Ambroise-François became the director of a bank; at least, the family remained well-off enough to support Germain throughout her adult life.

paragraph: Marie-Sophie had one younger sister, named Angélique-Ambroise, and one older sister, named Marie-Madeline. Her mother was also named Marie-Madeline, and this plethora of "Maries" may have been the reason she went by Sophie. Germain's nephew Armand-Jacques Lherbette, Marie-Madeline's son, published some of Germain's work after she died (see Work in Philosophy).

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Introduction to mathematics.

paragraph: When Germain was 13, the Bastille fell, and the revolutionary atmosphere of the city forced her to stay inside. For entertainment she turned to her father's library. Here she found J. E. Montucla's "L'Histoire des Mathématiques", and his story of the death of Archimedes intrigued her.

paragraph: Sophie Germain thought that if the geometry method, which at that time referred to all of pure mathematics, could hold such fascination for Archimedes, it was a subject worthy of study. So she pored over every book on mathematics in her father's library, even teaching herself Latin and Greek, so she could read works like those of Sir Isaac Newton and Leonhard Euler. She also enjoyed by Étienne Bézout and by . Later, Cousin visited Germain at home, encouraging her in her studies.

paragraph: Germain's parents did not at all approve of her sudden fascination with mathematics, which was then thought inappropriate for a woman. When night came, they would deny her warm clothes and a fire for her bedroom to try to keep her from studying, but after they left, she would take out candles, wrap herself in quilts and do mathematics. As Lynn Osen describes, when her parents found Sophie "asleep at her desk in the morning, the ink frozen in the ink horn and her slate covered with calculations", they realized that their daughter was serious and relented. After some time, her mother even secretly supported her.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:École Polytechnique.

paragraph: In 1794, when Germain was 18, the École Polytechnique opened. As a woman, Germain was barred from attending, but the new system of education made the "lecture notes available to all who asked". The new method also required the students to "submit written observations". Germain obtained the lecture notes and began sending her work to Joseph Louis Lagrange, a faculty member. She used the name of a former student Monsieur Antoine-Auguste Le Blanc, "fearing", as she later explained to Gauss, "the ridicule attached to a female scientist". When Lagrange saw the intelligence of M. Le Blanc, he requested a meeting, and thus Sophie was forced to disclose her true identity. Fortunately, Lagrange did not mind that Germain was a woman, and he became her mentor. He visited her in her home, giving her moral support.

paragraph: Section::::Early work in number theory.

paragraph: Section::::Early work in number theory.:Correspondence with Legendre.

paragraph: Germain first became interested in number theory in 1798 when Adrien-Marie Legendre published . After studying the work, she opened correspondence with him on number theory, and later, elasticity. Legendre showed some of Germain's work in the to his second edition of the , where he calls it ("very ingenious"). See also Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem below.

paragraph: Section::::Early work in number theory.:Correspondence with Gauss.

paragraph: Germain's interest in number theory was renewed when she read Carl Friedrich Gauss' monumental work . After three years of working through the exercises and trying her own proofs for some of the theorems, she wrote, again under the pseudonym of M. Le Blanc, to the author himself, who was one year younger than her. The first letter, dated 21 November 1804, discussed Gauss' and presented some of Germain's work on Fermat's Last Theorem. In the letter, Germain claimed to have proved the theorem for "n" = "p" − 1, where "p" is a prime number of the form "p" = 8"k" + 7. However, her proof contained a weak assumption, and Gauss' reply did not comment on Germain's proof.

paragraph: Around 1807 (sources differ), during the Napoleonic wars, the French were occupying the German town of Braunschweig, where Gauss lived. Germain, concerned that he might suffer the fate of Archimedes, wrote to General Pernety, a family friend, requesting that he ensure Gauss' safety. General Pernety sent a chief of a battalion to meet with Gauss personally to see that he was safe. As it turned out, Gauss was fine, but he was confused by the mention of Sophie's name.

paragraph: Three months after the incident, Germain disclosed her true identity to Gauss. He replied:

paragraph: How can I describe my astonishment and admiration on seeing my esteemed correspondent M. Le Blanc metamorphosed into this celebrated person ... when a woman, because of her sex, our customs and prejudices, encounters infinitely more obstacles than men in familiarising herself with [number theory's] knotty problems, yet overcomes these fetters and penetrates that which is most hidden, she doubtless has the most noble courage, extraordinary talent, and superior genius.

paragraph: Gauss' letters to Olbers show that his praise for Germain was sincere. In the same 1807 letter, Sophie claimed that if formula_1 is of the form formula_2, then formula_3 is also of that form. Gauss replied with a counterexample: formula_4 can be written as formula_2, but formula_6 cannot.

paragraph: Although Gauss thought well of Germain, his replies to her letters were often delayed, and he generally did not review her work. Eventually his interests turned away from number theory, and in 1809 the letters ceased. Despite the friendship of Germain and Gauss, they never met.

paragraph: Section::::Work in elasticity.

paragraph: Section::::Work in elasticity.:Germain's first attempt for the Academy Prize.

paragraph: When Germain's correspondence with Gauss ceased, she took interest in a contest sponsored by the Paris Academy of Sciences concerning Ernst Chladni's experiments with vibrating metal plates. The object of the competition, as stated by the Academy, was "to give the mathematical theory of the vibration of an elastic surface and to compare the theory to experimental evidence". Lagrange's comment that a solution to the problem would require the invention of a new branch of analysis deterred all but two contestants, Denis Poisson and Germain. Then Poisson was elected to the Academy, thus becoming a judge instead of a contestant, and leaving Germain as the only entrant to the competition.

paragraph: In 1809 Germain began work. Legendre assisted by giving her equations, references, and current research. She submitted her paper early in the fall of 1811 and did not win the prize. The judging commission felt that "the true equations of the movement were not established", even though "the experiments presented ingenious results". Lagrange was able to use Germain's work to derive an equation that was "correct under special assumptions".

paragraph: Section::::Work in elasticity.:Subsequent attempts for the Prize.

paragraph: The contest was extended by two years, and Germain decided to try again for the prize. At first Legendre continued to offer support, but then he refused all help. Germain's anonymous 1813 submission was still littered with mathematical errors, especially involving double integrals, and it received only an honorable mention because "the fundamental base of the theory [of elastic surfaces] was not established". The contest was extended once more, and Germain began work on her third attempt. This time she consulted with Poisson. In 1814 he published his own work on elasticity and did not acknowledge Germain's help (although he had worked with her on the subject and, as a judge on the Academy commission, had had access to her work).

paragraph: Germain submitted her third paper, "", under her own name, and on 8 January 1816 she became the first woman to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences. She did not appear at the ceremony to receive her award. Although Germain had at last been awarded the , the Academy was still not fully satisfied. Sophie had derived the correct differential equation (a special case of the Kirchhoff–Love equation), but her method did not predict experimental results with great accuracy, as she had relied on an incorrect equation from Euler, which led to incorrect boundary conditions. Here is Germain's final equation for the vibration of a plane lamina:

paragraph: where "N" is a constant.

paragraph: After winning the Academy contest, she was still not able to attend its sessions because of the Academy's tradition of excluding women other than the wives of members. Seven years later this situation was transformed, when she made friends with Joseph Fourier, a secretary of the Academy, who obtained tickets to the sessions for her.

paragraph: Section::::Work in elasticity.:Later work in elasticity.

paragraph: Germain published her prize-winning essay at her own expense in 1821, mostly because she wanted to present her work in opposition to that of Poisson. In the essay she pointed out some of the errors in her method.

paragraph: In 1826 she submitted a revised version of her 1821 essay to the Academy. According to Andrea Del Centina, the revision included attempts to clarify her work by "introducing certain simplifying hypotheses". This put the Academy in an awkward position, as they felt the paper to be "inadequate and trivial", but they did not want to "treat her as a professional colleague, as they would any man, by simply rejecting the work". So Augustin-Louis Cauchy, who had been appointed to review her work, recommended her to publish it, and she followed his advice.

paragraph: One further work of Germain's on elasticity was published posthumously in 1831, her "". She used the mean curvature in her research (see Honors in number theory).

paragraph: Section::::Later work in number theory.

paragraph: Section::::Later work in number theory.:Renewed interest.

paragraph: Germain's best work was in number theory, and her most significant contribution to number theory dealt with Fermat's Last Theorem. In 1815, after the elasticity contest, the Academy offered a prize for a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem. It reawakened Germain's interest in number theory, and she wrote to Gauss again after ten years of no correspondence.

paragraph: In the letter, Germain said that number theory was her preferred field and that it was in her mind all the time she was studying elasticity. She outlined a strategy for a general proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, including a proof for a special case. Germain's letter to Gauss contained her substantial progress toward a proof. She asked Gauss whether her approach to the theorem was worth pursuing. Gauss never answered.

paragraph: Section::::Later work in number theory.:Her work on Fermat's Last Theorem.

paragraph: Fermat's Last Theorem can be divided into two cases. Case 1 involves all powers "p" that do not divide any of "x", "y", or "z". Case 2 includes all "p" that divide at least one of "x", "y", or "z". Germain proposed the following, commonly called "Sophie Germain's theorem":

paragraph: Let "p" be an odd prime. If there exists an auxiliary prime "P" = 2"Np" + 1 ("N" is any positive integer not divisible by 3) such that:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. if "x" + "y" + "z" ≡ 0 (mod "P"), then "P" divides "xyz", and

paragraph: BULLET::::2. "p" is not a "p"-th power residue (mod "P").

paragraph: Then the first case of Fermat's Last Theorem holds true for "p".

paragraph: Germain used this result to prove the first case of Fermat's Last Theorem for all odd primes "p"  100, but according to Andrea Del Centina, "she had actually shown that it holds for every exponent "p"  197". L. E. Dickson later used Germain's theorem to prove Fermat's Last Theorem for odd primes less than 1700.

paragraph: In an unpublished manuscript titled , Germain showed that any counterexamples to Fermat's theorem for "p"  5 must be numbers "whose size frightens the imagination", around 40 digits long. Sophie did not publish this work. Her brilliant theorem is known only because of the footnote in Legendre's treatise on number theory, where he used it to prove Fermat's Last Theorem for "p" = 5 (see Correspondence with Legendre). Germain also proved or nearly proved several results that were attributed to Lagrange or were rediscovered years later. Del Centina states that "after almost two hundred years her ideas were still central", but ultimately her method did not work.

paragraph: Section::::Work in philosophy.

paragraph: In addition to mathematics, Germain studied philosophy and psychology. She wanted to classify facts and generalize them into laws that could form a system of psychology and sociology, which were then just coming into existence. Her philosophy was highly praised by Auguste Comte.

paragraph: Two of her philosophical works, and , were published, both posthumously. This was due in part to the efforts of Lherbette, her nephew, who collected her philosophical writings and published them. is a history of science and mathematics with Sophie's commentary. In , the work admired by Comte, Sophie argues that there are no differences between the sciences and the humanities.

paragraph: Section::::Final years.

paragraph: In 1829 Germain learned that she had breast cancer. Despite the pain, she continued to work. In 1831 "Crelle's Journal" published her paper on the curvature of elastic surfaces and "a note about finding and in formula_8". Mary Gray records: "She also published in an examination of principles which led to the discovery of the laws of equilibrium and movement of elastic solids." On 27 June 1831, she died in the house at 13 rue de Savoie.

paragraph: Despite Germain's intellectual achievements, her death certificate lists her as a "" (property holder), not a "". But her work was not unappreciated by everyone. When the matter of honorary degrees came up at the University of Göttingen in 1837—six years after Germain's death—Gauss lamented: "she [Germain] proved to the world that even a woman can accomplish something worthwhile in the most rigorous and abstract of the sciences and for that reason would well have deserved an honorary degree".

paragraph: Section::::Honors.

paragraph: Section::::Honors.:Memorials.

paragraph: Germain's resting place in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris is marked by a gravestone. At the centennial celebration of her life, a street and a girls' school were named after her, and a plaque was placed at the house where she died. The school houses a bust commissioned by the Paris City Council.

paragraph: Section::::Honors.:Honors in number theory.

paragraph: E. Dubouis defined a "sophien" of a prime to be a prime where , for such that yield such that has no solutions when and are prime to .

paragraph: A Sophie Germain prime is a prime such that is also prime.

paragraph: The "Germain curvature" (also called mean curvature) is formula_9, where and are the maximum and minimum values of the normal curvature.

paragraph: "Sophie Germain's identity" states that for any },

paragraph: Section::::Criticisms.

paragraph: Section::::Criticisms.:Contemporary praise and criticisms.

paragraph: Vesna Petrovich found that the educated world's response to the publication in 1821 of Germain's prize-winning essay "ranged from polite to indifferent". Yet, some critics had high praise for it. Of her essay in 1821, Cauchy said: "[it] was a work for which the name of its author and the importance of the subject both deserved the attention of mathematicians". Germain was also included in H. J. Mozans' book "Woman in Science", although Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie claims that the biography "is inaccurate and the notes and bibliography are unreliable". Nevertheless, it quotes the mathematician Claude-Louis Navier as saying that "it is a work which few men are able to read and which only one woman was able to write".

paragraph: Germain's contemporaries also had good things to say relating to her work in mathematics. Osen relates that "Baron de Prony called her the Hypatia of the nineteenth century", and " wrote, in the , that she had probably penetrated the science of mathematics more deeply than any other of her sex." Gauss certainly thought highly of her and recognized that European culture presented special difficulties to a woman in mathematics (see Correspondence with Gauss).

paragraph: Section::::Criticisms.:Modern praise and criticisms.

paragraph: The modern view generally acknowledges that although Germain had great talent as a mathematician, her haphazard education had left her without the strong base she needed to truly excel. As explained by Gray, "Germain's work in elasticity suffered generally from an absence of rigor, which might be attributed to her lack of formal training in the rudiments of analysis." Petrovich adds: "This proved to be a major handicap when she could no longer be regarded as a young prodigy to be admired but was judged by her peer mathematicians."

paragraph: Notwithstanding the problems with Germain's theory of vibrations, Gray states that "Germain's work was fundamental in the development of a general theory of elasticity." Mozans writes, however, that when the Eiffel tower was built and the architects inscribed the names of 72 great French scientists, Germain's name was not among them, despite the salience of her work to the tower's construction. Mozans asked: "Was she excluded from this list ... because she was a woman? It would seem so."

paragraph: Concerning her early work in number theory, J. H. Sampson states: "She was clever with formal algebraic manipulations; but there is little evidence that she really understood the , and her work of that period that has come down to us seems to touch only on rather superficial matters." Gray adds that "The inclination of sympathetic mathematicians to praise her work rather than to provide substantive criticism from which she might learn was crippling to her mathematical development." Yet Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie recognizes that "Sophie Germain's creativity manifested itself in pure and applied mathematics ... [she] provided imaginative and provocative solutions to several important problems", and, as Petrovich proposes, it may have been her very lack of training that gave her unique insights and approaches. Louis Bucciarelli and Nancy Dworsky, Germain's biographers, summarize as follows: "All the evidence argues that Sophie Germain had a mathematical brilliance that never reached fruition due to a lack of rigorous training available only to men."

paragraph: Section::::Germain in popular culture.

paragraph: Germain was referenced and quoted in David Auburn's 2001 play "Proof." The protagonist is a young struggling female mathematician, Catherine, who found great inspiration in the work of Germain. Germain was also mentioned in John Madden's film adaptation of the same play in a conversation between Catherine (Gwyneth Paltrow) and Hal (Jake Gyllenhaal).

paragraph: In the fictional work "The Last Theorem" by Arthur C. Clarke and Frederik Pohl, Sophie Germain was credited with inspiring the central character, Ranjit Subramanian, to solve Fermat's Last Theorem.

paragraph: Section::::Sophie Germain Prize.

paragraph: The Sophie Germain Prize (), awarded annually by the Foundation Sophie Germain, is conferred by the Academy of Sciences in Paris. Its purpose is to honour a French mathematician for research in the foundations of mathematics. This award, in the amount of €8,000, was established in 2003, under the auspices of the Institut de France.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for specific exponents

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophie Germain Counter Mode

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophie Germain prime

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophie Germain Prize

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophie Germain's theorem

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timeline of women in science

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- reprinted as

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reprinted as

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reprinted as

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sheroes of History; Sophie Germain

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sophie Germain in the illustrated story at the Kids Love Science project

wikidata_label: Sophie Germain

wikipedia_title: Sophie Germain


categories: 1946 deaths,20th-century Japanese poets,Japanese male poets,Date of birth missing,Date of death missing,1877 births,People from Tottori Prefecture,Writers from Tottori Prefecture

paragraph: Seihaku Irako

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Louis Frédéric, Käthe Roth, "Japan Encyclopedia", Harvard University Press, 2002, page 393. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ohio State University library wiki entry

wikidata_label: Seihaku Irako

wikipedia_title: Seihaku Irako


text:
Warsaw
Poland
Polish
theatre director
Państwowy Instytut Sztuki Teatralnej
Syrena Theatre
National Theatre
Współczesny Theatre
Polish Radio
Polish Television
compère
Kabaret Szpak
Kabaret Wagabunda
Pod Egidą
Professor
Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Teatralna
Eroica
Głos z tamtego świata
Pierwszy dzień wolności
Marysia i Napoleon
Jak rozpętałem drugą wojnę światową
Wojna domowa

categories: Polish male stage actors,Polish television presenters,20th-century Polish male actors,Polish radio presenters,Polish theatre directors,20th-century comedians,1911 births,1976 deaths,Polish male television actors,World War II prisoners of war held by Germany,Polish cabaret performers,People from Warsaw,Polish male film actors

paragraph: Kazimierz Rudzki

paragraph: Kazimierz Rudzki (6 January 1911, in Warsaw, Poland – 2 February 1976, in Warsaw) was a Polish stage and film actor, theatre director.

paragraph: Studied directing at Państwowy Instytut Sztuki Teatralnej. Actor of Syrena Theatre (also director), National Theatre and Współczesny Theatre. Popular presenter on Polish Radio and Polish Television, compère of satirical theatres (cabarets): Kabaret Szpak, Kabaret Wagabunda, Kabaret Pod Egidą and others. Professor at Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Teatralna.

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Eroica" (1958)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Głos z tamtego świata" (1962)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pierwszy dzień wolności" (1964)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marysia i Napoleon" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jak rozpętałem drugą wojnę światową" (1969)

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.:TV series.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Wojna domowa" (1965–66)

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.:TV movie.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1964)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.e-teatr.pl/pl/osoby/2609,karierateatr.html - theatrical work and profile at e-teatr.pl

description: Polish actor, theatre director

wikidata_label: Kazimierz Rudzki

wikipedia_title: Kazimierz Rudzki


text: soccer

text: forward

text: Washington Spirit

text: NWSL

text: Castilleja School

text: Palo Alto, California

text: Stanford University

text: Teresa Noyola

text: Western New York Flash

text: 2012 WPS Draft

text: California Storm

text: Teresa Noyola

text: Rachel Quon

text: Arna-Bjørnar

text: Seattle Reign FC

text: NWSL

text: Sky Blue FC

text: Washington Spirit

text: Haiti national team

text: regular season

text: Washington Spirit

text: Washington Spirit

text: List of Stanford University people

text: Washington Spirit player profile

text: US Soccer player profile

text: Stanford player profile

categories: National Women's Soccer League players,African-American women's soccer players,Washington Spirit players,Reign FC players,Parade High School All-Americans (girls' soccer),American women's soccer players,Soccer players from California,1989 births,Women's association football forwards,Sportspeople from California,Stanford Cardinal women's soccer players,Living people

paragraph: Lindsay Taylor (soccer)

paragraph: Lindsay Taylor (born October 25, 1989) is an American professional soccer forward. She played for the Washington Spirit in the NWSL and was a member of the United States U-23 women's national soccer team.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Taylor was born in California to parents, Gary and Jennifer Taylor. She attended Castilleja School in her hometown of Palo Alto, California where she was a two-time NSCAA All-American and a four-year letterwinner. Taylor was named 2007 Parade Magazine All-American but did not play high school soccer. Instead, she played for the club team, Mountain View-Los Altos Mercury and won three consecutive Cal-North State Cup titles.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Stanford University.

paragraph: Taylor attended Stanford University where she broke the school record for most games started (98) in a career and is tied with teammate Teresa Noyola for most games played at 102. Taylor is ranked number five on Stanford's all-time scoring list with 133 points, number four on Stanford's all-time goals list with 53, and number seven on Stanford's all-time assist list with 27. She is Stanford's school record-holder in career shots with 349.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Club.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Club.:California Storm.

paragraph: In 2012, Taylor was selected as the first pick (sixth overall) by the Western New York Flash in the 2012 WPS Draft; however, the league folded before the season began. She did not play with the Flash in the 2012 WPSL Elite season, instead playing for the WPSL's California Storm with former Stanford teammates, Teresa Noyola and Rachel Quon.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Club.:Arna-Bjørnar.

paragraph: Taylor spent the last part of 2012 with Norwegian first division club Arna-Bjørnar. She made five appearances for the club, including two starts.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Club.:Seattle Reign FC.

paragraph: Taylor signed with the Seattle Reign FC as a free agent for the inaugural season of the NWSL. After recovering from an eye injury during the first few games of the season, Taylor made her debut for the team in a match against Sky Blue FC on May 11, 2013. She scored her first goal during the squad's subsequent match against the Washington Spirit on May 16, 2013 at Starfire Stadium. During a friendly match against the Haiti national team, she scored a hat trick helping lead the Reign to a 6–0 win. Taylor made six appearances for the Reign during the regular season and scored one goal before being traded mid-season to the Washington Spirit.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Club.:Washington Spirit.

paragraph: On July 1, 2013, it was announced that Taylor was traded to the Washington Spirit along with a "conditional fourth round pick" in the 2014 NWSL College Draft for the Spirit's second round pick.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:International.

paragraph: In 2006, Taylor represented the United States as a member of U-17 team. She was called into the United States U-23 camps in October 2011 and May 2012. She is currently a member of the U-23 team.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Stanford University people

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Washington Spirit player profile

paragraph: BULLET::::- US Soccer player profile

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stanford player profile

description: American professional soccer player

wikidata_label: Lindsay Taylor

wikipedia_title: Lindsay Taylor (soccer)


text:
Czech
German
ice hockey
Germany men's national ice hockey team
2006 Winter Olympics
2004 World Cup of Hockey
2005
2007
2008 IIHF World Championship

categories: Essen Mosquitoes players,Iserlohn Roosters players,German people of Czech descent,ERC Ingolstadt players,1977 births,People from Jindřichův Hradec,Ice hockey players at the 2006 Winter Olympics,Olympic ice hockey players of Germany,Czech ice hockey players,German ice hockey players,Living people,Thomas Sabo Ice Tigers players,HC Karlovy Vary players

paragraph: Petr Fical

paragraph: Petr Fical (born 23 September 1977) is a Czech-born German professional ice hockey player.

paragraph: Fical competed with the Germany men's national ice hockey team at the 2006 Winter Olympics. He also competed with Team Germany at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey, and at the 2005, 2007, and 2008 IIHF World Championships.

description: German-Czech ice hockey player and coach

wikidata_label: Petr Fical

wikipedia_title: Petr Fical


text: Persian

text: Prime Minister of Hyderabad

text: Nizam Ali Khan

text: Nizam

text: Nizam

text: Musheerabad

text: Battle of Kharda

text: Maratha

text: Daulatabad

text: Poona

text: Raja Shan Rai Rayan

text: Hyderabad

categories: Politicians from Hyderabad, India,1804 deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Arastu Jah

paragraph: Mu'inud-Daulah, Mushirul-Mulk, Azamul-Umara, Arastu Jah, a man of Persian descent, was the "Diwan" or the Prime Minister of Hyderabad during the reign of Nizam Ali Khan (Asaf Jah II) from 1778 until his death in 1804.

paragraph: Nawab Azim Ul Umra Arastu Jah was the only person outside of the Nizam's family on whom the title Jah was conferred. He never failed in his respect to the Nizam or presumed to act without first consulting his pleasure. Indeed, he sought to obtain his sanction for his every act in public life.

paragraph: The locality Musheerabad is named after him. His tomb is a heritage site in danger.

paragraph: Section::::Hostage of the Marathas.

paragraph: In the Battle of Kharda, which took place on 11 March 1795, Nizam being defeated by the Marathas, he was obliged to make a disastrous peace. He was forced to cede territories including Daulatabad, yielding an annual income of 15 lacs, and he pledged himself to liquidate the whole of the Maratha's claim amounting to 3 crores of rupees. The prime minister was also given in hostage to the Marathas and was detained in Poona until June 1797, when he succeeded in getting the treaty cancelled. The sudden termination of Arastu Jah's administration by captivity at the Maratha court deprived his Highness's government of the service of an able minister. The situation of the affairs until his return from captivity was very critical. Raja Shan Rai Rayan discharged the duties of minister in the presence of Nizam Ali Khan from the time Arastu Jah went to Poona until his return to Hyderabad in July 1797. Nawab Arastu Jah, during his captivity in Poona obtained much influence with the Marathas, so that before his return and reappointment as minister, which took place in July 1797, he obtained the restoration of the territories ceded by the Nizam after the Battle of Kharda, the abandonment of claims from Chauth on Bida, recession of the fort of Daulatabad and the extension of all the pecuniary claims on the part of the Maratha. One of the first acts of Arastu Jah on his return to Hyderabad and reinstatement in the ministry was to induce the Nizam to allow prince Mir Akbar Ali Khan Sikander Jah, Asaf Jah III to sign all public documents and sandas.

description: Indian diwan

wikidata_label: Arastu Jah

wikipedia_title: Arastu Jah


text: Cuban-American

text: graphic

text: fine

text: Miami, Florida

text: mural

text: live painting

text: sculpture

text: New York City

text: South Florida

text: Hollywood, Florida

text: Florida International University

text: Silver Knight Award

text: Broward County, Florida

text: International Museum of Cartoon Art

text: Florida International University

text: sportswriter

text: Dan Le Batard

text: The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz

text: postmodern

text: cartoon art

text: expressionism

text: street art

text: Johnson & Wales University

text: bicycle racks

text: American football

text: Ricky Williams

text: MTV Cribs

text: Thievery Corporation

text: Beastie Boys

text: Bela Fleck

text: Burning Spear

text: Disco Biscuits

text: Arturo Sandoval

text: cover art

text: Phish

text: Spam Allstars

text: Latin Grammys

text: Mexico City

text: site-specific art

text: Amazon

text: Ford Foundation

text: Bacardi

text: Adidas

text: Gibson Guitars

text: Nestle

text: Macy's

text: Miami Heat

text: Calvin Klein

text: Langerado Music Festival

text: flower show

text: mosaic

text: Venice, Italy

text: Norwegian Getaway

text: Norwegian Cruise Line

text: interview

text: leboart.com

categories: 1972 births,American people of Cuban descent,Living people,American muralists

paragraph: David Le Batard

paragraph: David Le Batard (also known by the nickname LEBO) (born November 19, 1972) is a Cuban-American graphic and fine artist based in Miami, Florida, best known for murals, live painting, and sculpture. He has been described as one of South Florida's "most recognizable artists", and "almost an institution" in the art world for his wide range of media, projects, and locations.

paragraph: Section::::Personal history.

paragraph: Le Batard was born in New York City in 1972 to Cuban immigrant parents, Gonzalo and Lourdes Le Batard. He was raised in South Florida, where he attended the Chaminade-Madonna College Preparatory School in Hollywood, Florida. then Florida International University. Overcoming a lack of support and encouragement from his preparatory school, he entered and won the 1990 Silver Knight Award for art in Broward County, Florida, and later judged that competition. He was a lecturer in residence at the International Museum of Cartoon Art while attending Florida International University, which he graduated in 1995.

paragraph: He is the younger brother of Miami sportswriter Dan Le Batard, who hosts the radio and television program "The Dan Le Batard Show with Stugotz". David occasionally makes appearances on his brother's show despite the fact that he has, by his own admission, never willingly attended a sporting event. He also serves as the show's art director, designing television graphics and its studio at the Clevelander Hotel.

paragraph: Section::::Themes and influences.

paragraph: LeBatard refers to his work as "postmodern cartoon art expressionism". He often depicts musicians and musical metaphors, inspired by street art and Cuban music. His visual style involves "soulful" line-based abstractions against bold flat color backgrounds.

paragraph: The obvious example in terms of art is the recent example of Shepard Fairey. But I think the cool thing about art, especially if you do public art - and I've done a lot of murals growing up and stuff like that - is that it really is one of the most democratic ways to deliver a message. So whether it's with voting or it's whatever you happen to believe in. We still have the right in this country to go and put an image on the side of a street, where everybody can see it and everybody can have an opinion about it. Nobody needs to pay for it to get something from it, and it engages. And then it’s open to whatever it’s going to be open to, but you can still deliver your message. So I think the role of artist is, is to take whatever it is they believe in, and put it out there so the public can see it.

paragraph: Some of it should be in the gallery system and the museums, but I definitely think some of it should be available to people that aren’t interested in any of that stuff. Because to me, being an artist you should -- for my method, I'm not saying all artists, but in the way that I try to produce art, and that’s part of the reason I do live stuff too -- you should try to be egalitarian about it, you should try and reach as many people as possible. Because I wouldn’t just want to reach people on a street level either. I like to have my work sometimes in an intellectual forum, where I am able to discuss it and I'm able to validate it and show the thought behind it. As well as put it on the street and have nobody even knows who did it or maybe its signed or whatever but they don’t really know who I am.

paragraph: So I think that art really plays an important role in communicating a message, and if that message happens to be about voter empowerment or diversity of parties or whatever it happens to be, art can definitely qualify.

paragraph: - LEBO, 2011 "Interview with SensibleReason.com"

paragraph: I think there’s an underlying message in what I do: it's a message of hopefulness. I really try to explore that in as many ways as I can. One main way that I do and that I'm doing now as well is really studying natural principles. So that can be studying botany, or organic science, or astronomy and really trying to extract the things that make us who we are by studying those different things and magnifying those things. The things that make us the same, basically, verses the things that make us different. Which is what I think I spend a lot of time doing. When I in my teens, it was all about, you know, "Well how am I different?" My way of thinking is like this, and these people's way is like that and so forth. So over the years I've kind of had a real strong penchant for philosophy, for the past 15 years. And I think the more I have come closer to that the more I have become interested in the things that make us the same, and particularly the positive things that make us the same, and those are the things I tend to really explore over and over again.

paragraph: Section::::Works, collaboration, and commissions.

paragraph: Le Batard's first public exhibit was at Johnson & Wales University in North Miami in 1996, after which he began selling paintings and receiving commissions. He has since exhibited in galleries throughout the United States. His works include a number of murals and other public art installations in Detroit, New Orleans, and South Florida and bicycle racks. A mural he painted for American football star Ricky Williams appeared on television when Williams' home was featured on MTV Cribs. Lebo was also painted contestants for a Miami-based challenge for the TV show "Russia's Next Top Model."

paragraph: LeBatard has collaborated extensively with various musicians. He appeared and toured with Thievery Corporation, the Beastie Boys, Bela Fleck, Burning Spear, Disco Biscuits, Cuban band Conjunto Progresso, and Arturo Sandoval, among others, creating live art while the groups performed. He has also designed CD cover art and other artwork for Phish, The Spam Allstars, and the Latin Grammys. He has appeared in Mexico City, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Jamaica for various site-specific art projects, including a trip to the Amazon funded by the Ford Foundation.

paragraph: LeBatard has been commissioned for commercial art by Bacardi, Adidas, Gibson Guitars, Nestle, Macy's, the Miami Heat, Calvin Klein, "Zo's Summer Groove", and the Langerado Music Festival.

paragraph: He has also worked in the media of fabric, aircraft exteriors, cruise ship hull artwork, stained glass, furniture (he collaborated with designer Ralh Pucci, among others), and flower shows. In 2008 he collaborated with an Italian tile manufacturer to design the world's largest mosaic mural in Venice, Italy.

paragraph: He also painted the hull art of the Miami-themed ship "Norwegian Getaway" by Norwegian Cruise Line.

paragraph: Section::::Support for Arts Education.

paragraph: From a 2011 interview with SensibleReason.com:

paragraph: In my experience I've never really relied on the government for anything and I don't believe in the government for anything. I think that anything they usually have their hands in kind of turns to shit. So even though it's unfortunate, I don’t think (a) it's a surprise and (b) I don't think they were doing that good of a job to begin with. I've never relied on anything from the government in my art career, and I didn’t go to public school. And even the school that I did go to, they were more private schools for working-class people, so they didn’t have arts programs.

paragraph: So ideally, I think it would be great if we valued art and the resounding effect it can have on our intellect outside of the art world. It’s like learning how to play chess: you know, you may know how to play chess really well, but the advantage comes in that it helps all of your other modes of thinking. And I think art does that too. But to me, this country and the government, they stopped caring about people a long time ago, and art is just one example. We can go down the list - whether it's medicine or even our road systems, they just don’t do a good job. So while it’s disappointing, it's not surprising at all.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- leboart.com - Official Website

description: American artist

wikidata_label: David Le Batard

wikipedia_title: David Le Batard


text: Chelsea School of Art and Design

text: Bournemouth

text: Hornsey College of Art

text: Chelsea School of Art and Design

text: cross section

text: Ikon Gallery

text: ACME Gallery

text: British art

text: visiting lecturer

text: art school

text: Chelsea College of Art and Design

text: Camberwell College of Arts

text: digital art

text: Khajuraho

text: V&A

text: LCD

text: Pompeii

text: Ostia Antica

text: digital image

text: Shelagh Cluett Trust

text: The Shelagh Cluett Trust website

text: "Art Monthly" Obituary

text: Shelagh Cluett — Chelsea Arts Club

categories: Academics of the University of the Arts London,Deaths from cancer in England,1947 births,English sculptors,2007 deaths,Alumni of the University of the Arts London,20th-century British women artists,20th-century British sculptors,English women sculptors

paragraph: Shelagh Cluett

paragraph: Shelagh Cluett (17 December 1947 – 25 July 2007) was an artist and fine art lecturer working in London, England, from the late 1960s until 2007. Cluett became a recognised figure on the London art scene in the early 1980s with exhibitions of her large metal sculptures appearing internationally. She worked at Chelsea School of Art and Design as a lecturer, and after 25 years, took up the position of Head of Postgraduate Studies in 2006.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Cluett was born in Bournemouth, Dorset, on 17 December 1947. She moved to London in 1968 as an undergraduate at Hornsey College of Art. In 1971, she went to Chelsea School of Art and Design to study on the postgraduate course.

paragraph: Section::::Early artistic career.

paragraph: Cluett's early artwork shows an interest in geological structures which remains traceable throughout her oeuvre. The landscape-like cross sections, seen in the images of her final show at Hornsey, quickly gave way to more resolutely abstract forms as her style progressed; tall sculptures inhabit their environs with strong lines, jumping and curving to and fro, as if enacting a complicated choreographed dance. Closer inspection reveals that these apparently weightless structures are in fact a complex combination of media. Wire, aluminium, wax, clay, wood and bitumen are systematically layered over each other creating a distinctly crafted effect, at odds with the overall appearance of the work. Accompanying her larger works are smaller 'thinking pieces', in which Cluett explored different colours, shapes, and ideas.

paragraph: With shows at the Ikon Gallery in 1979, and then at Nicola Jacobs Gallery and ACME Gallery in 1980 Cluett became established on the British art scene, subsequently showing extensively in the UK and abroad. During this period she also forged strong links in the world of art education, acting as visiting lecturer and examiner to many different art schools up and down the country. She set up the postgraduate course in sculpture at Chelsea College of Art in 1980.

paragraph: Section::::The 1980s and '90s.

paragraph: In the mid 1980s Cluett's work began to move away from linear forms to explore the influences of her travels in the Far East; they provided her with a new wealth of imagery and an intensified palette, lending greater freedom to her sculpture. Colours gathered greater importance; applied to more expansive hammered metal surfaces, they cause the work to shine and glisten. Though travel research was an integral part of Cluett's working process, it had to be fitted around her commitments at Chelsea College of Art and Design, where she had become a Principal Lecturer and head of the MA Sculpture course.

paragraph: She exhibited her works in Briain and internationally, in France, South Korea, India and the United States.

paragraph: Cluett became increasingly fascinated by the charged relationships between the spiritual and the physical in the buildings she saw – the sacred landscape of the architecture. She began to use the computer to manipulate temple plans, shaping them to position the viewer in relation to the structure. The plan was then sandblasted on to a stone slab, which left it in polished relief against the vulnerable surface of the exposed stone. Cluett believed this practice created tensions in her work; the juxtaposed surfaces at once drawing the viewer in with tactility of the stone, and pushing them away with the manipulation of the plan, eventually leaving them to float somewhere in between.

paragraph: Section::::Exploring the digital medium - later work.

paragraph: In the later works such as the "Maps Without Territories Series" (images/sculptures made in the 1990s and early 2000s) stone slabs were shown with images taken from deep within the temples. The photographs taken by Cluett at the end of her own journey into the building, served as a means of appropriation, and also to pinpoint a specific moment in the life of the building.

paragraph: Cluett's strong belief in the importance of computers as an artist's medium, was reflected both in her work as a sculptor and as a lecturer. She was a founding member of FADE (Fine Art Digital Environment), which operated between Camberwell College of Arts and Chelsea providing facilities and advice to students, and presented work at a number of 'digital art' conferences across the globe. The "Khajuraho Series" (2002–03) based on the Khajuraho temple complex, exhibited at the V&A (2003) in an exhibit called "Digital Responses", showcases the combination of digital imagery, video, and sculpture, which became increasingly typical in Cluett's work.

paragraph: Plans of the buildings were superimposed across photographs of sculpted figures, resembling tattoos, in an attempt to unite the bodies with the architecture and each other. Cluett then employed the tattooed figures as tools in her subsequent project, which sought to uncover a latent sensuality in the digital surface. The resultant work was "Under the Skin" (2003), a film made using LCD screens and video equipment. Using glitches which occurred in the different digital apparatus when zooming in and out of images on the screen, and layering them with other imagery, Cluett made a film with the depth and richness she desired.

paragraph: "Dead Ahead" (2004) and "Sea Fever" (2005) are two digital projects that reflect and develop the discoveries made by Cluett in "Under the Skin". Cluett's thoughts and ideas surrounding the sea and coastline – omnipresent elements in her life – are played out in imagery which presents the constant flux of the strand. By using the same image in several different programmes Cluett discovered that information often got scrambled, creating 'incidents' on the surface, and leaving behind a visual history of the image. She also realised that in slowing down or speeding up a recorded image, the corresponding sound accompaniment was effected in the same way, inadvertently providing a soundtrack to her work.

paragraph: Pursuing her interest in pixellation, and the breakdown of an image, Cluett's attentions turned to early mosaics – a type of primitive pixellation. On various trips to ancient sites of Roman inhabitation (such as Pompeii and Ostia Antica), Cluett documented a great number of mosaics and their surrounding context. This material was used to make two new films "Ostia I and II" (2006–07) as well as twisted and extruded digital images of mosaics, intended for projection on to unusual surfaces in an attempt at "cross fertilisation" of media. A project unfortunately left unfinished upon her death.

paragraph: Cluett died in London on 25 July 2007 after suffering an aggressive cancer.

paragraph: Section::::The Shelagh Cluett Trust.

paragraph: The Shelagh Cluett Trust has been set up in her name, and there is an extensive archive of her work which documents her career as a sculptor from the late 1960s until 2007.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Shelagh Cluett Trust website

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Art Monthly" Obituary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shelagh Cluett — Chelsea College of Art and Design

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shelagh Cluett — Chelsea Arts Club

description: British sculptor

wikidata_label: Shelagh Cluett

wikipedia_title: Shelagh Cluett


text:
World War II
X Army
Tellera
battle of Beda Fomm

categories: Italian soldiers,1882 births,Italian generals,Italian military personnel of World War II

paragraph: Ferdinando Cona

paragraph: Ferdinando Cona (25 April 1882 – unknown) was an Italian military officer who participated in World War II.

paragraph: His positions included C.O. XXI. Granatieri di Sardegna Infantry Brigade; C.O. XXIX. Infantry Brigade; Deputy Chief of Staff, East Africa (1935–36); General Officer Commanding 7th Division Leonessa (?–1939); General Officer Commanding XV Corps (1940); General Officer Commanding XX Corps, North Africa (1940–41).

paragraph: He took over as commander-in-chief of X Army when General Tellera was killed in action at the battle of Beda Fomm in February 1941. His command was short-lived as he was captured by Allied forces during the same battle.

description: Italian general

wikidata_label: Ferdinando Cona

wikipedia_title: Ferdinando Cona


text:
Ibsen
Nietzsche
Maeterlinck
Bârlad
Tenedos
Galați
Junimist
George Panu
Ion Luca Caragiale
Alexandru Vlahuță
Ioan Nădejde
Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea
Vasile Morțun
Constantin Stere
Barbu Brănișteanu
Christian Rakovsky
Adevărul
Sămănătorul
Luceafărul
Ramuri
Craiova
Henrik Ibsen
Friedrich Nietzsche
Catulle Mendès
Emile Verhaeren
Henri de Régnier
Paul Verlaine
Sully Prudhomme
Edmond Haraucourt
Maurice Maeterlinck
Anatole France
Lafcadio Hearn
Romanian Academy
Coca

categories: Romanian children's writers,Romanian women in business,19th-century Romanian poets,1878 births,Romanian translators,20th-century Romanian poets,Romanian magazine founders,People from Bârlad,Symbolist poets,1954 deaths,20th-century Romanian women writers,19th-century Romanian women writers,Romanian women poets,Romanian people of Greek descent,Romanian people of Turkish descent

paragraph: Elena Farago

paragraph: Elena Farago (born Elena Paximade; 29 March 1878–3 January 1954) was a Romanian poet and children's author. She also translated works by Ibsen, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck and many others into Romanian.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Origins and early life.

paragraph: Born in Bârlad, her parents were Francisc Paximade, who came from Tenedos and established a cereal export business at Galați, and Anastasia ("née" Thomaide); the two married in 1873. On her father's side, she descended from an old and noble Greek family; through her mother, she was of Greek, Turkish and Romanian origin. Orphaned at a young age, she was raised in the home of "Junimist" George Panu and briefly with Ion Luca Caragiale, through whom she came to know Alexandru Vlahuță and other contemporary writers. Between 1884 and 1890, she had an incomplete education at the Varlaam and Drouhet boarding schools in her native town. Through her husband, the bank clerk Francisc Farago, she was drawn into socialist circles, attending lectures by Ioan Nădejde, Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, Vasile Morțun and Constantin Stere, also meeting Barbu Brănișteanu and Christian Rakovsky.

paragraph: She made her debut with the 1899 poem "Gândul trudiților", which appeared in "România muncitoare". Her work also appeared in "Adevărul", "Epoca", "Sămănătorul", "Floarea darurilor", "Revista noastră", "Făt-Frumos", "Luceafărul" and "Ramuri". She sometimes signed with the pen names Fatma, Andaluza and Ellen. From 1921 until her death, she headed the Alexandru and Aurelia Aman foundation in Craiova, which today is the Elena Farago Memorial House. She also worked as an inspector for children's charity homes. Farago founded "Năzuința" magazine in 1922.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Mature work.

paragraph: Her first book was "Versuri" (1906), followed by poetry volumes "Șoapte din umbră" (1908), "Șoaptele amurgului" (1920) and "Nu mi-am plecat genunchii" (1926); these reappeared in editions she put together ("Poezii alese", 1924; "Poezii. 1906-1926", 1928; "Poezii", 1937), or posthumously, in partly re-edited versions ("Poezii", 1957; "Versuri", 1978). Farago also published poems for children ("Pentru copii", vol. I, 1913, vol. II, 1920; "Copiilor, 1913"; "Din traista lui Moș Crăciun", 1920; "Bobocica", 1921; "Să nu plângem", 1921; "A ciocnit cu ou de lemn", 1943; "Într-o noapte de Crăciun", 1944; "4 gâște năzdrăvane", 1944; "Plugușorul jucăriilor", 1944), and children's prose books ("Să fim buni", 1922; "Ziarul unui motan", 1924; "Într-un cuib de rândunică", 1926; "Să nu minți, să nu furi", 1944).

paragraph: She translated from Henrik Ibsen, Friedrich Nietzsche, Catulle Mendès, French classical and symbolist poetry (Emile Verhaeren, Henri de Régnier, Paul Verlaine, Sully Prudhomme, Edmond Haraucourt, Maurice Maeterlinck), Anatole France and Lafcadio Hearn. Some of these texts appeared only in magazines, while others were published in the "Biblioteca pentru toți" and "Lectura" series. She won prizes from the Romanian Academy (1909, 1921), the Femina Prize (1925) and the national prize for poetry (1937). An accomplished poet of chaste love, delicate confessions and motherhood, Farago is also among the more prominent names in Romanian children's literature. She died in Craiova. Her daughter Coca also became a writer.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantin D. Papastate, "Elena Farago". Craiova: Editura Scrisul Românesc, 1975.

description: Romanian poet, translator and children's author

wikidata_label: Elena Farago

wikipedia_title: Elena Farago


text:
Combe Hay
Somerset
Clifton, Bristol
Nina Frances Layard
Monkton Combe
Harrow School
Trinity College, Cambridge
called to the bar
Inner Temple
Marion Harry Spielmann
John Willoughby Layard

categories: 1857 births,English journalists,English barristers,English biographers,1925 deaths

paragraph: George Somes Layard

paragraph: George Somes Layard (1857–1925) was an English barrister and man of letters.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was the third son of Charles Clement Layard, rector of Combe Hay in Somerset, born at Clifton, Bristol; Nina Frances Layard was his sister. He was educated at Monkton Combe school and Harrow School. Matriculating at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1876, he graduated B.A. in 1881, and was called to the bar that year at the Inner Temple, which he had joined in 1877.

paragraph: Layard became an author, journalist and bibliophile.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life and Letters of Charles Samuel Keene" (1892)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tennyson and his pre-Raphaelite illustrators. A book about a book" (1894)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Portraits of Cruikshank by Himself" (1897)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mrs. Lynn Linton ; her life, letters, and opinions" (1901)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life and Work of Kate Greenaway" (A. & C. Black, London 1905) with Marion Harry Spielmann

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sir Thomas Lawrence's Letter-bag" (George Allen, London 1906)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Suppressed plates, wood engravings, &c., together with other curiosities germane thereto; being an account of certain matters peculiarly alluring to the collector" (A. & C. Black, London 1907)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Great "Punch" Editor: Being the Life, Letters, and Diaries of Shirley Brooks" (1907)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Headless Horseman: Pierre Lombart's Engraving, Charles or Cromwell?" (1922)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An Amateur Detective" (1925)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Catalogue Raisonné of Engraved British Portraits from altered plates" (Philip Allan & Co, London 1927)

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Layard married Eleanor Byng Gribble. John Willoughby Layard was their second child.

alias:
G. S. Layard
G. S. L.

description: British barrister, author and journalist

wikidata_label: George Somes Layard

wikipedia_title: George Somes Layard


text:
stage
film actress
impresario
Max Reinhardt
silent
sound era
Alessandro Moissi
Laugh Bajazzo
Cain
The Spies
A Thousand for One Night
Harvest
Flowers from Nice
Premiere

categories: People from Kaiserslautern,1884 births,1962 deaths,German film actresses,German stage actresses

paragraph: Johanna Terwin

paragraph: Johanna Terwin (1884–1962) was a German stage and film actress. In the theatre she appeared in works by the impresario Max Reinhardt. She appeared in around twenty films during the silent and sound eras.

paragraph: She was married to the Albanian-born actor Alessandro Moissi.

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Laugh Bajazzo" (1915)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Cain" (1918)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Spies" (1919)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Thousand for One Night" (1933)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Harvest" (1936)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Flowers from Nice" (1936)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Premiere" (1937)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. L. Styan. "Max Reinhardt". CUP Archive, 1982.

description: German actress

wikidata_label: Johanna Terwin

wikipedia_title: Johanna Terwin


text:
India
Indore
Nicotine
Cardiff
United Kingdom
Harare
Zimbabwe
Nirvana
Incubus
Chevelle
Rage Against the Machine
Indian rock

wikipedia_title:
India
Indore
Nicotine (band)
Cardiff
United Kingdom
Harare
Zimbabwe
Nirvana (band)
Incubus (band)
Chevelle (band)
Rage Against the Machine
Indian rock

categories: Indian rock singers,1989 births,Living people,Indian male singers

paragraph: Digvijay Bhonsale

paragraph: Digvijay Bhonsale (born March 31, 1989) is an Indian singer, guitarist and a songwriter.

paragraph: He is best known as the front-man of the first Metal band from Indore - ‘Nicotine’, widely recognised as the 'pioneers of Metal music in Central India'.

paragraph: Apart from playing and headlining many gigs and festivals with his band, he has also performed several times in Cardiff, United Kingdom as a solo musician while he lived there from 2010-2012, before coming back to India.

paragraph: After he moved to Harare, Zimbabwe in 2017, he played several solo acoustic gigs at Jam Tree, Queen of Hearts, Amanzi & Corky's.

paragraph: He collaborated with the drummer and bass guitarist of the band Evicted and played alongside Dividing The Element, Acid Tears, & Chikwata-263 at the 2018 Zimbabwean edition of the 'Metal United World Wide' concert at the Reps Theatre in Harare.

paragraph: He is majorly influenced by the bands - Nirvana, Incubus, Chevelle and Rage Against the Machine.

paragraph: Section::::Equipment.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jackson King V Electric Guitar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Line 6 Pod X3 Live Multieffects

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blackstar ID Core Amp

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ibanez Dreadnaught Acoustic Guitar

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Indian rock

wikidata_label: Digvijay Bhonsale

wikipedia_title: Digvijay Bhonsale


text:
American football
running back
Clinton High School
Clinton, Mississippi
quarterback
touchdowns
U.S. Army All-American Bowl
U.S. Army Player of the Year Award
Florida State University
2017 Independence Bowl
Dalvin Cook
2014

wikipedia_title: Clinton High School (Clinton, Mississippi)

wikipedia_title: All-American Bowl (high school football)

wikipedia_title: 2014 Florida State Seminoles football team

categories: Players of American football from Mississippi,1999 births,People from Clinton, Mississippi,American football running backs,Living people

paragraph: Cam Akers

paragraph: Cam Akers (born June 22, 1999) is an American football running back.

paragraph: Akers attended Clinton High School in Clinton, Mississippi. He played quarterback and running back. As a senior, he rushed for 2,105 yards and 34 touchdowns, and passed 3,128 passing yards and 31 touchdowns. For his career he had 13,243 yards and 149 touchdowns.

paragraph: Akers was named MS Gatorade Player of The Year

paragraph: Akers played in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl and won the U.S. Army Player of the Year Award in 2016.

paragraph: Akers was rated as a five-star recruit and was ranked among the top recruits in his class. He committed to Florida State University to play college football. During what was a generally forgettable 6-6 season, Akers set the team freshman record for rushing yards during the 2017 Independence Bowl, bringing his season total to 1,024 yards. This broke the previous record of 1,008 which was set by Dalvin Cook in 2014.

description: American football player

wikidata_label: Cam Akers

wikipedia_title: Cam Akers