text: courtesy name

text: Sun Ce

text: Eastern Han dynasty

text: Sun Quan

text: Cao Cao

text: Battle of Red Cliffs

text: Battle of Jiangling

text: Eastern Wu

text: Three Kingdoms

text: Yi Province

text: Sichuan

text: Chongqing

text: Records of the Three Kingdoms

text: Romance of the Three Kingdoms

text: Yoshikawa Eiji

text: Koide Fumihiko

text: Shucheng County

text: Anhui

text: Luoyang

text: Sun Jian

text: Campaign against Dong Zhuo

text: Shou County

text: Anhui

text: Sun Ce

text: Lady Wu

text: Xuancheng

text: Anhui

text: Sun Ce

text: Yuan Shu

text: Yang Province

text: Wu Jing

text: Sun Ben

text: Liu Yao

text: Yangtze River

text: He County

text: Yangtze

text: Nanjing

text: Ze Rong

text: Jiangning

text: Jurong

text: Danyang, Jiangsu

text: Sun Ce

text: Wu

text: Shanyue

text: Yuan Shu

text: Shou County

text: Anhui

text: Juchao District

text: Chaohu

text: Wu Commandery

text: Suzhou

text: Jiangsu

text: Fanchang County

text: Jing Province

text: Hubei

text: Hunan

text: Qianshan County

text: Huangmei County

text: Hubei

text: Liu Xun

text: Xinzhou District, Wuhan

text: Nanchang

text: Jiangxi

text: Ji'an

text: Xiajiang County

text: Sun Ce

text: Xu Gong

text: Sun Quan

text: Wu Commandery

text: Suzhou

text: Jiangsu

text: Zhang Zhao

text: Cao Cao

text: Emperor Xian

text: Yuan Shao

text: Battle of Guandu

text: Xuchang

text: Henan

text: Qin Song

text: Lady Wu

text: Sun Quan

text: Sun Yu

text: Huang Zu

text: Xinzhou District, Wuhan

text: Hubei

text: Jiujiang

text: Jiangxi

text: Wu Commandery

text: an attack on Jiangxia

text: Lü Meng

text: Ling Tong

text: Cao Cao

text: Jing Province

text: Hubei

text: Hunan

text: Liu Cong

text: Jiangdong

text: Wu

text: Yuan Shao

text: Yuan Shu

text: Lü Bu

text: Liu Biao

text: Pei Songzhi

text: Lu Su

text: Poyang County

text: Liu Bei

text: Cao Cao

text: Battle of Changban

text: Yangtze River

text: Lu Su

text: Dangyang

text: Sun Quan

text: Hankou

text: Zhuge Liang

text: Cheng Pu

text: Huang Gai

text: mengchong

text: li

text: Xuchang

text: Henan

text: Cao Ren

text: Jiangling County

text: Cheng Pu

text: Zhang Yide

text: Yangtze River

text: Shashi District

text: Jianli County

text: Gan Ning

text: Yichang

text: Lü Meng

text: Ling Tong

text: materiel

text: Sun Quan

text: Jiangling County

text: Liu Bei

text: Jing Province

text: Gong'an County

text: Zhenjiang

text: Jiangsu

text: Liu Zhang

text: Yi Province

text: Sichuan

text: Chongqing

text: Zhang Lu

text: Hanzhong Commandery

text: Sun Quan

text: Sun Yu

text: Ma Chao

text: Xiangyang

text: Jiangling County

text: Yueyang

text: Hunan

text: East Asian age reckoning

text: Lu Su

text: Wu Commandery

text: Suzhou

text: Jiangsu

text: Wuhu

text: retainers

text: Eastern Wu

text: Sun Ce

text: Qianshan County

text: Anhui

text: two daughters

text: Xiao Qiao

text: Sun Quan

text: Sun Deng

text: Eastern Wu

text: Sun Luban

text: Gong'an County

text: Ji'an

text: Jiangxi

text: Zhuge Jin

text: Bu Zhi

text: memorial

text: Zhu Ran

text: Quan Cong

text: Cao Cao

text: Jing Province

text: Sun Ce

text: Lady Wu

text: Sun Quan

text: Cheng Pu

text: Cao Cao

text: Jiang Gan

text: Zhenjiang

text: Jiangsu

text: Jing Province

text: Zhang Zhao

text: Qin Song

text: Lu Su

text: Battle of Red Cliffs

text: Romance of the Three Kingdoms

text: Three Kingdoms

text: Zhuge Liang

text: Battle of Red Cliffs

text: Battle of Jiangling

text: Cao Ren

text: Jiang Gan#In fiction

text: Huang Gai#In fiction

text: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Zhou Yu's death

text: Chinese opera

text: Kun opera

text: Zhang Fei

text: Hong Yuzhou

text: Romance of the Three Kingdoms

text: Tony Leung

text: Red Cliff

text: Victor Huang

text: Three Kingdoms

text: Ikki Tousen

text: Koutetsu Sangokushi

text: Koei

text: Dynasty Warriors

text: Warriors Orochi

text: Romance of the Three Kingdoms

text: Portal Three Kingdoms

text: Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

text: Chen, Shou

text: Records of the Three Kingdoms

text: Luo, Guanzhong

text: Romance of the Three Kingdoms

text: Pei, Songzhi

text: Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms

text: Sima, Guang

text: Zizhi Tongjian

categories: Politicians from Hefei,Political office-holders in Jiangxi,Sun Ce and associates,175 births,Musicians from Anhui,Generals under Sun Quan,210 deaths,Political office-holders in Hubei,Han dynasty musicians,Han dynasty politicians from Anhui,Officials under Sun Quan,Yuan Shu and associates

paragraph: Zhou Yu

paragraph: Zhou Yu () (175–210), courtesy name Gongjin, was a military general and strategist serving under the warlord Sun Ce in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. After Sun Ce died in the year 200, he continued serving under Sun Quan, Sun Ce's younger brother and successor. Zhou Yu is primarily known for his leading role in defeating the numerically superior forces of the northern warlord Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs in late 208, and again at the Battle of Jiangling in 209. Zhou Yu's victories served as the bedrock of Sun Quan's regime, which in 222 became Eastern Wu, one of the Three Kingdoms. Zhou Yu did not live to see Sun Quan's enthronement, however, as he died at the age of 35 in 210 while preparing to invade Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing). According to the "Records of the Three Kingdoms", Zhou Yu was described as tall, physically strong and having a beautiful appearance. He was also referred to as "Zhou the Youth" ("zhoulang" 周郎). However, his popular moniker "Zhou the Beautiful Youth" ("meizhoulang" 美周郎) does not appear in either the "Records" or the 14th-century historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms". Some Japanese literary scholars such as Yoshikawa Eiji and Koide Fumihiko believe that this was a later invention by Japanese storytellers.

paragraph: Section::::Family background.

paragraph: Zhou Yu was from Shu County (舒縣), Lujiang Commandery (廬江郡), which is present-day Shucheng County, Anhui. Two of his relatives – his greatuncle Zhou Jing (周景), and Zhou Jing's son Zhou Zhong (周忠) – served as the Grand Commandant (太尉) in the Han central government, the highest military official position. Zhou Yu's father, Zhou Yi (周異), was a prefect of the imperial capital, Luoyang.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Ce.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Ce.:Friendship.

paragraph: Around the year 191, Sun Jian raised an army to join the Campaign against Dong Zhuo and moved his family from Shouchun (寿春; around present-day Shou County, Anhui) to Zhou Yu's hometown in Shu County. Zhou Yu befriended Sun Jian's eldest son, Sun Ce, who was born in the same year as him. The two became very close friends. Zhou Yu not only offered to let Sun Ce and his family stay in the Zhou family home, but also paid respects to Sun Ce's mother Lady Wu as if she were his mother.

paragraph: The "Jiang Biao Zhuan" (江表傳) contains a slightly different account of how Zhou Yu and Sun Ce met each other. It mentions that Zhou Yu heard of Sun Ce's reputation and wanted to meet him, so he travelled from Shu County to Shouchun to visit Sun Ce. The two of them developed such a close friendship that Sun Ce heeded Zhou Yu's advice to bring along his family and relocate from Shouchun to Shu County.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Ce.:Conquering Jiangdong.

paragraph: Zhou Yu later travelled to Danyang Commandery (丹楊郡; around present-day Xuancheng, Anhui) to join his uncle Zhou Shang (周尚), who was serving as the Administrator (太守) of Danyang. Around 194, Sun Ce, then acting under orders from the warlord Yuan Shu, led troops into Yang Province to aid his relatives Wu Jing and Sun Ben against the encroachments of the warlord Liu Yao. While Sun Ce was preparing to cross the Yangtze River at Liyang (歷陽; present-day He County, Anhui) for an attack on Liu Yao, he sent a messenger to inform Zhou Yu about his plans. Zhou Yu led troops to assist Sun Ce, who gratefully told Zhou Yu: "With your aid, I can attain greatness!"

paragraph: Zhou Yu then joined Sun Ce in his conquests of Hengjiang (橫江; southeast of present-day He County, Anhui, on the northern shore of the Yangtze) and Dangli (當利; east of present-day He County, Anhui). They crossed the Yangtze River, conquered Moling (秣陵; in present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) and defeated Liu Yao's forces under Ze Rong and Xue Li (薛禮). They also conquered Hushu (湖孰; southeast of present-day Jiangning, Jiangsu), Jiangcheng (江乘; north of present-day Jurong, Jiangsu), and Qu'e (曲阿; present-day Danyang, Jiangsu). Liu Yao fled in the wake of his defeat and the strength of Sun Ce's forces increased to tens of thousands.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Ce.:Later service under Sun Ce.

paragraph: Sun Ce told Zhou Yu: "I now have sufficient military power to conquer Wu and pacify the Shanyue. You can return to Danyang and station there." Zhou Yu then made his way back to Danyang. Around 196, Yuan Shu had sent his cousin Yuan Yin (袁胤) to replace Zhou Shang as the Administrator of Danyang, so Zhou Shang and Zhou Yu went to Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui) to meet Yuan Shu. Yuan Shu wanted to recruit Zhou Yu to serve under him, but Zhou Yu foresaw Yuan Shu's downfall so he pretended to ask for the appointment of Chief (長) of Juchao (居巢; present-day Juchao District, Chaohu, Anhui) while secretly planning to leave Yuan Shu and join Sun Ce. After Yuan Shu approved his request, Zhou Yu travelled to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu) via Juchao.

paragraph: In 198, Zhou Yu arrived in Wu Commandery, where Sun Ce personally received and welcomed him. Sun Ce appointed Zhou Yu as General of the Household Who Establishes Might (建威中郎將) and put him in command of 2,000 troops and gave him 50 horses. Sun Ce said: "Zhou Gongjin is an extraordinary hero and talent. He's very close to me and we are like brothers. I still remember that time when he brought his troops and supplies from Danyang to assist me in my campaign. I can never repay him for his help and contributions."

paragraph: Zhou Yu was 23 years old at the time, and he was nicknamed "Zhou Lang" (周郎; literally "Zhou the youth") by the people in Wu. He was garrisoned in Lujiang Commandery (廬江郡) and later moved to Niuzhu (牛渚) before assuming his appointment as the Chief (長) of Chungu County (春穀縣; northwest of present-day Fanchang County, Anhui). When Sun Ce planned his attack Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), he appointed Zhou Yu as Central Protector of the Army (中護軍) and the Administrator (太守) of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡). Zhou Yu accompanied Sun Ce in the conquest of Wan (皖; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui). Zhou Yu then joined Sun Ce in attacking Xunyang County (尋陽縣; southwest of present-day Huangmei County, Hubei), where they defeated a minor warlord Liu Xun. They then invaded Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei) and subsequently pacified Yuzhang Commandery (豫章郡; around present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi) and Luling Commandery (廬陵郡; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi). Zhou Yu later returned to Baqiu (巴丘; present-day Xiajiang County, Jiangxi) and garrisoned there.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Advising Sun Quan not to send a hostage.

paragraph: Sun Ce was assassinated in the year 200 by the followers of Xu Gong, a commandery administrator whom he killed earlier. His younger brother, Sun Quan, succeeded him and took control of his territories. Zhou Yu rushed back to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu) to attend Sun Ce's funeral and remained in Wu Commandery after the funeral. Zhou Yu then held the appointment of Central Protector of the Army (中護軍). As Sun Quan was still relatively young and inexperienced then, Zhou Yu and Zhang Zhao assisted him in overseeing the day-to-day affairs in the Jiangdong territories.

paragraph: Around the time, the warlord Cao Cao, who controlled the Han court and the figurehead Emperor Xian, had recently defeated his rival Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu and was achieving success in his campaigns to unify northern China. In 202, Cao Cao wrote a letter to Sun Quan, demanding that Sun Quan send one of his sons to the imperial capital Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) as a hostage, so as to secure Sun Quan's allegiance towards him. Sun Quan gathered all his subjects, including Zhang Zhao and Qin Song, for a discussion, but they could not arrive at a conclusion.

paragraph: Sun Quan was reluctant to send one of his sons to be a hostage in the capital, so he had another discussion with only his mother Lady Wu and Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu said:

paragraph: Lady Wu agreed with Zhou Yu and she said: "What Gongjin said is true. Gongjin was around the same age as Bofu as he was only a month younger than Bofu. I see Gongjin as a son, so you should treat him like an elder brother." Sun Quan heeded their advice and did not send a hostage to Cao Cao.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Battles against Huang Zu.

paragraph: In 206, Zhou Yu and Sun Quan's cousin Sun Yu attacked bandits at Ma (麻) and Bao (保) counties and killed their chiefs and captured thousands of enemies. Later that year, Huang Zu, the Administrator (太守) of Jiangxia Commandery (江夏郡; around present-day Xinzhou District, Wuhan, Hubei), sent his subordinate Deng Long (鄧龍) to lead a few thousand troops to attack Sun Quan's forces in Chaisang Commandery (柴桑郡; around present-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi). Zhou Yu attacked Deng Long, captured him alive, and sent him as a prisoner-of-war to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu).

paragraph: In the spring of 208, Sun Quan ordered an attack on Jiangxia, which was defended by Huang Zu. Zhou Yu was assigned as the Chief Commander of the Front Army (前部大督) and he, along with Lü Meng, Ling Tong and others, scored a major victory over the enemy. Huang Zu was killed by Sun Quan's forces when attempting to escape.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Advising Sun Quan to go to war with Cao Cao.

paragraph: In the late autumn of 208, Cao Cao started a campaign aimed at wiping out all opposing forces in southern China. When his forces arrived in Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), the provincial governor Liu Cong surrendered without putting up any resistance. When Sun Quan's men heard that Cao Cao had obtained tens of thousands of Jing Province's land and naval troops, they were all very afraid because they knew Cao Cao's next target was Sun Quan's territories in Jiangdong. Cao Cao wrote a letter to Sun Quan as follows: "Of late, I have been leading a punitive campaign in accordance with an imperial decree. Liu Cong surrendered when I led the imperial army to the south. Now, I have 800,000 naval troops under my command, and I wish to participate in a hunting expedition in Wu with you, General." Sun Quan summoned all his subjects for a meeting to discuss how to counter an impending invasion by Cao Cao. Many of them turned pale when he showed them the letter.

paragraph: Some of Sun Quan's followers suggested to surrender to Cao Cao on the grounds that the strength of their armed forces was not comparable to Cao Cao's. Zhou Yu, however, had a different opinion and he said:

paragraph: Sun Quan replied: "The old villain has harboured the intention of usurping the Han dynasty for a long time, but he feared the two Yuans (Yuan Shao and Yuan Shu), Lü Bu, Liu Biao and me. Now, all the others have been destroyed and I am the only one left. The old villain and I cannot coexist together. Your idea of going to war coincides closely with my thoughts. This is a sign that Heaven has granted you to me." He then drew his sword, slashed the table in front of him and said: "Any of you who dares to speak of surrendering to Cao Cao shall end up like this table!"

paragraph: Later that night, Zhou Yu came to see Sun Quan and said:

paragraph: Sun Quan placed his hand on Zhou Yu's shoulder and replied:

paragraph: Pei Songzhi, who annotated Zhou Yu's biography in the "Sanguozhi", argued that Lu Su was actually the first person who urged Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao. Zhou Yu was at Poyang County before Sun Quan held the discussion with his subjects, and Lu Su suggested to Sun Quan to summon Zhou Yu back for the meeting. Zhou Yu and Lu Su gave similar advice to Sun Quan, which resulted in Sun Quan arriving at his decision to go to war with Cao Cao. Pei Songzhi argued that it was unfair to Lu Su because Zhou Yu's biography gave full credit to Zhou Yu for being the only person to urge Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao, and failed to mention that Lu Su had already urged Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao before Zhou Yu did.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Battle of Red Cliffs.

paragraph: Around the time, Liu Bei had recently been defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Changban, and he planned to lead his followers south across the Yangtze River. Liu Bei met Lu Su at Dangyang, where they discussed the formation of an alliance between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Liu Bei then moved to Xiakou (夏口; present-day Hankou, Hubei) and garrisoned there. At the same time, he also sent his adviser Zhuge Liang to accompany Lu Su to meet Sun Quan and discuss a Sun–Liu alliance. Sun Quan ordered Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu to lead his forces to join Liu Bei in resisting Cao Cao, and they rendezvoused at Red Cliffs (赤壁). A plague had broken out in Cao Cao's army, so Cao Cao lost to the allied forces in an early skirmish between both sides. Cao Cao then moved his camp to the northern bank of the Yangtze River while the allies remained at the south.

paragraph: Huang Gai, one of Sun Quan's generals, told Zhou Yu: "The enemy are superior in numbers in comparison with our side. I fear that we cannot last long. However, I observe that Cao Cao's ships are linked to each other. We can destroy them by fire." Huang Gai then prepared about ten "mengchong"s and "doujian"s (鬬艦; a type of warship) and filled them with the ingredients necessary for starting a fire. He also wrote a letter to Cao Cao, pretending that he wanted to surrender and defect to Cao Cao's side.

paragraph: Huang Gai then prepared some "zouge"s (走舸; a smaller type of boat), which would follow behind the "mengchong"s and "doujian"s, and his small fleet sailed towards Cao Cao's base. The wind was blowing strongly from the southeast. When Huang Gai's fleet reached the middle of the river, the ships all raised their sails, and Huang Gai lifted a torch and instructed his men to shout "We surrender!" Cao Cao's troops came out of the camp to look and they said Huang Gai was coming to join them. When Huang Gai was about 20 "li" away from the enemy base, he ordered his men to set the ships on fire and they boarded the smaller boats behind. As the wind was very strong, the flaming ships sailed towards Cao Cao's warships at fast speed and caused them to catch fire as well. Cao Cao's ships were all burnt down and the flames also spread quickly to his camps on land. Zhou Yu then ordered an attack on Cao Cao's base and scored a major victory. Cao Cao retreated north with his surviving troops after his defeat. Zhou Yu and Liu Bei led their respective forces in pursuit of Cao Cao, but Cao had already fled.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Battles of Jiangling.

paragraph: After his defeat at Red Cliffs, Cao Cao returned to Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) and left Cao Ren and others behind to defend Jiangling County, the capital of Nan Commandery (南郡). Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu led their troops towards Nan Commandery and were separated from Cao Ren's forces by the river. Liu Bei told Zhou Yu: "Cao Ren is defending Jiangling and he has much supplies in the city. He poses a big threat to us. I will send Zhang Yide with 1,000 men to accompany you, while you dispatch 2,000 troops to follow me. We will then cross the Xia River (夏水; a tributary of the Yangtze River starting from southeast of Shashi District and ending at north of Jianli County in Hubei) and attack Cao Ren's rear. When Cao Ren hears that we have infiltrated his rear, he will definitely retreat." Zhou Yu agreed to Liu Bei's suggestion.

paragraph: Zhou Yu later ordered Gan Ning to station at Yiling (夷陵; present-day Yichang, Hubei). Cao Ren sent a separate cavalry force to besiege Yiling, so Gan Ning sent an urgent request to Zhou Yu for reinforcements. Zhou Yu followed Lü Meng's advice and left Ling Tong to defend his current position while leading Lü Meng and others to help Gan Ning. After the siege at Yiling was lifted, Zhou Yu and his troops crossed the Yangtze River and attacked Jiangling, with Zhou personally participating in battle. He was hit on his right side by a stray arrow and had to retreat due to the severity of the wound. When Cao Ren heard that Zhou Yu was wounded and bedridden, he led his troops to outside Zhou Yu's camp and taunted the Wu troops. Zhou Yu got out of bed and personally inspected his men and encouraged them to raise their morale. Cao Ren saw that and retreated.

paragraph: By 209, Zhou Yu and Cao Ren had held up against each other for over a year and both sides had sustained heavy casualties. Cao Cao could no longer afford the continuous losses in personnel and materiel, so he ordered Cao Ren to withdraw from Jiangling.

paragraph: Section::::Service under Sun Quan.:Advice to Sun Quan on how to deal with Liu Bei.

paragraph: After the victory at the Battle of Jiangling, Sun Quan appointed Zhou Yu as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍) and the Administrator (太守) of Nan Commandery (南郡). Zhou Yu's headquarters were at Jiangling County while he was in charge of Xiajun (下雋), Hanchang (漢昌), Liuyang (瀏陽) and Zhouling (州陵) counties.

paragraph: Liu Bei assumed the appointment of Governor (牧) of Jing Province with his administrative centre at Gong'an County. When Liu Bei later met Sun Quan at Jing (京; present-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), Zhou Yu wrote to Sun Quan:

paragraph: Sun Quan considered that Cao Cao was still a threat in the north, so he thought it would be better for him to have more allies instead of creating hostility between him and Liu Bei. Besides, he was also worried that Liu Bei's men might not submit to him, so he rejected Zhou Yu's idea.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Around 210, Liu Zhang was serving as the Governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), and he faced the threat of his rival Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. Zhou Yu went to see Sun Quan and proposed: "Cao Cao is still recovering from his defeats and he faces internal threats, so he will not go to war with you any time soon. I seek your permission to let me and Sun Yu lead an army to invade Shu (Yi Province) and attack Zhang Lu after that. Sun Yu will then remain behind to defend the conquered territories and form an alliance with Ma Chao. I will join you in attacking Cao Cao at Xiangyang, and together we can conquer the north." Sun Quan agreed.

paragraph: Zhou Yu then headed back to Jiangling County to make preparations for the campaign. However, he died of illness at Baqiu (巴丘; present-day Yueyang, Hunan) on the way back. He was 36 years old (by East Asian age reckoning) at the time of his death.

paragraph: Before Zhou Yu's death, he recommended Lu Su to Sun Quan to be his successor.

paragraph: Sun Quan deeply mourned Zhou Yu's death. He shed tears and said: "Gongjin possessed the calibre of a talented adviser to a ruler. Now that he has died at such a young age, who can I still rely on?" He even wore plain garments to express his sorrow, which touched many people. After a funeral was held for Zhou Yu at Baqiu, his body was transported back to Wu Commandery (around present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu). Sun Quan received the procession at Wuhu and personally paid for all the expenses. He also issued an order allowing Zhou Yu's family to keep retainers.

paragraph: In 229, nearly two decades after Zhou Yu's death, when Sun Quan declared himself the emperor of the state of Eastern Wu, he told his subjects: "I wouldn't have become an emperor today if there wasn't Zhou Gongjin to assist me."

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Sometime between 198 and 199, Zhou Yu joined Sun Ce in the conquest of Wan (皖; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui). In Wan, they met a certain Elder Qiao (橋公), who had two daughters who were famed for their beautiful looks. Sun Ce married the elder sister while Zhou Yu married the younger one. Sun Ce joked with Zhou Yu: "Although Elder Qiao's daughters are exceptionally beautiful, with us as their husbands, it should be a happy enough match" (because Sun Ce and Zhou Yu were both known for being handsome youths).

paragraph: Zhou Yu had two sons and a daughter. It is unknown whether or not his three children were born to his wife Xiao Qiao.

paragraph: Zhou Yu's daughter married Sun Quan's eldest son Sun Deng, who was designated as the crown prince after his father became the emperor of Eastern Wu. Sun Deng later died at the age of 32, preceding his father.

paragraph: Zhou Yu's elder son, Zhou Xun (周循), resembled his father in personality, but died very early. He married Sun Quan's daughter Sun Luban and served as a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉) in Eastern Wu.

paragraph: Zhou Yu's younger son, Zhou Yin (周胤), married a woman from Sun Quan's clan. He served as the Commandant of Xingye (興業都尉) and was placed in command of 1,000 troops and garrisoned at Gong'an County. In 229, after Sun Quan became emperor, he granted Zhou Yin the title of a Marquis of a Chief District (都鄉侯). Zhou Yin was exiled to Luling Commandery (廬陵郡; around present-day Ji'an, Jiangxi) later for committing an offence. In 239, Zhuge Jin and Bu Zhi wrote a memorial to Sun Quan, requesting for Zhou Yin to be pardoned and restored of his marquis title and appointment on account of his father's contributions. Sun Quan was reluctant to do so, as he noted the severity of Zhou Yin's offence and said that Zhou Yin had not shown any sign of remorse. However, after much urging from Zhuge Jin, Bu Zhi, Zhu Ran and Quan Cong, Sun Quan eventually agreed, but Zhou Yin had died of illness in exile around the time when the pardon was issued.

paragraph: Zhou Jun (周峻), the son of Zhou Yu's elder brother, was appointed as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍) and placed in command of 1,000 men by Sun Quan because of his uncle's meritorious service. After Zhou Jun died, Quan Cong requested for Sun Quan to commission Zhou Jun's son, Zhou Hu (周護), as a military officer but Sun declined. Sun Quan replied, "In the past, we managed to defeat Cao Cao and obtain Jing Province because of Gongjin's efforts. I have never forgotten his contributions. When I heard of Zhou Jun's death, I intended to recruit Zhou Hu into the civil service, but I have also heard that Zhou Hu is ruthless and treacherous in his ways. I was worried he will cause trouble if he is given an official appointment so I decided to not recruit him. My memories of Gongjin are lasting. How can I ever stop missing him?"

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Zhou Yu was described to have a tall, strong physique and handsome looks. When Zhou Yu became close friends with Sun Ce, Sun Ce's mother Lady Wu told Sun Ce's younger brother Sun Quan to treat Zhou Yu like an elder brother. After Sun Quan succeeded Sun Ce, his subordinates did not observe the full protocol when they paid their respects to him. Zhou Yu was the only and the first person to follow all the formalities and etiquette when he paid respect to Sun Quan.

paragraph: Zhou Yu was known to be a magnanimous and generous man who won the hearts of many people with his character. However, there was one person he could not get along well with – Cheng Pu. Cheng Pu was much older than Zhou Yu, and he often insulted and belittled the latter, but Zhou Yu tolerated him. Cheng Pu was so impressed with Zhou Yu that he eventually changed his attitude towards Zhou Yu and treated him respectfully. He even remarked: "Being with Zhou Gongjin is like drinking the finest of wines. You get carried away and become drunk before even realizing it."

paragraph: Sometime early in Zhou Yu's career, Cao Cao heard of Zhou's talent and wanted to recruit Zhou Yu to serve under him, so he sent Jiang Gan to persuade Zhou Yu to defect to his side. However, Zhou Yu indirectly affirmed his loyalty to Sun Quan in front of Jiang Gan, and hinted to Jiang Gan that he cannot be persuaded to switch his allegiance. When Jiang Gan later returned to Cao Cao, he told Cao Cao that "Zhou Yu's magnanimity was too great to be described in words".

paragraph: Around 209, after visiting Sun Quan at Jing (京; present-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), Liu Bei was on his journey back to Jing Province when Sun Quan, along with Zhang Zhao, Qin Song, Lu Su and others, rushed to catch up with Liu Bei to see him off. Sun Quan then held a farewell banquet for Liu Bei. After the feast, the others left while only Liu Bei and Sun Quan remained behind. When they spoke of Zhou Yu, Liu Bei said: "Gongjin's talents and abilities are far greater than those of thousands of others. He possesses great ambitions and he may not be willing to remain subordinate for long." In another incident, after his defeat at the hands of Zhou Yu at the Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao remarked: "I am not ashamed of having lost the battle." He later wrote to Sun Quan: "At the Battle of Red Cliffs, my men were affected by a plague, so I burnt my warships and retreated of my own accord. That resulted in Zhou Yu claiming the glory (of winning the battle)." Zhou Yu's widespread fame incurred much jealousy towards him, which was why Cao Cao and Liu Bei attempted to slander him and sow discord between him and Sun Quan.

paragraph: Zhou Yu was known to be very learned in music from a young age. Even after three rounds of drinking at a banquet, he could still detect a mistake or a wrong note when a musical piece was being played. When that happened, he would look up at the musician. There was a saying at that time to describe this: "If there is a problem with the tune, Zhou Yu will look up."

paragraph: Section::::In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms".

paragraph: Zhou Yu is featured as a major character in the 14th-century historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. In the novel, Zhou Yu is depicted as a rival of Zhuge Liang. He is extremely jealous of Zhuge Liang's talent and relentlessly attempts to outwit the latter on several occasions but never succeeds. His roles in the events leading to, and during the Battle of Red Cliffs, are largely overshadowed by Zhuge Liang's. Furthermore, his death is heavily dramatised in the novel and intentionally triggered by Zhuge Liang. Zhou Yu sustains an arrow wound at the Battle of Jiangling against Cao Ren's forces, and his condition deteriorates after Zhuge Liang makes him angry by foiling his plans on three different occasions later. On the third time, Zhou Yu coughs blood and dies.

paragraph: See the following for some fictitious stories in "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" involving Zhou Yu:

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Zhuge Liang's diplomatic mission to Jiangdong

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jiang Gan#In fiction

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Borrowing arrows with straw boats

paragraph: BULLET::::- Huang Gai#In fiction

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Zhuge Liang prays for the eastern wind

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Liu Bei and Lady Sun's marriage

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Zhou Yu's death

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.:Chinese opera.

paragraph: In Chinese opera, Zhou Yu is cast as a "xiaosheng" (小生; young character) or "wusheng" (武生; character in military dress), even when he appears together with Zhuge Liang, who was actually younger than he was. In Kun opera, Zhou Yu appears as a "zhiweisheng", as in the scene "The Swaying Reeds", in which Zhang Fei captured him but released him later.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.:Film and television.

paragraph: Notable actors who have portrayed Zhou Yu in film and television include Hong Yuzhou ("Romance of the Three Kingdoms"), Tony Leung ("Red Cliff"), and Victor Huang ("Three Kingdoms").

paragraph: The anime "Ikki Tousen" and "Koutetsu Sangokushi" make references to Zhou Yu, in which he is known by his Japanese name "Shuuyu Koukin".

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.:Games.

paragraph: Zhou Yu is a playable character in Koei's "Dynasty Warriors" and "Warriors Orochi" video game series. He also appears in Koei's "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" strategy game series.

paragraph: In the collectible card game "" there is a card named "Zhou Yu, Chief Commander" in the "Portal Three Kingdoms" set.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Citations from "Sanguozhi" volume 54

paragraph: BULLET::::- Citations from other parts of the "Sanguozhi"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Citations from the "Sanguozhi zhu"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Other citations

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chen, Shou (3rd century). "Records of the Three Kingdoms" ("Sanguozhi").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" ("Sanguo Yanyi").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pei, Songzhi (5th century). "Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms" ("Sanguozhi zhu").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sima, Guang (1084). "Zizhi Tongjian".

alias:
Chau Yu
Chow Yu

description: General and politician serving under the Han dynasty warlord Sun Quan

wikidata_label: Zhou Yu

wikipedia_title: Zhou Yu


text:
Prime Minister
President
Gabon
Fang
customs agent
canton
Estuaire Province
complicit
Oubangui-Chari
customary law
persona non grata
Jean-Hilaire Aubame
coup d'état
Albert-Bernard Bongo
Fang ethnic tribe
Libreville
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza
Lieutenant-Governor
Ligue des droits de l'homme
Comintern
Estuaire Province
Bwiti
complicit
Oubangui-Chari
Bambari
Bria
customary law
persona non grata
Department
Brazzaville
John Holt
Gabonese Mixed Committee
African Democratic Rally
Félix Houphouët-Boigny
Senegal
Léopold Sédar Senghor
French Communist Party
Abidjan
Jean-Hilaire Aubame
legislative elections
territorial elections
Gabonese Democratic and Social Union
Gabonese Democratic Bloc
Paul Gondjout
Roland Bru
Franco-African Community
British Commonwealth
constitutional referendum
Pierre Péan
promulgated
Prime Minister
Jacques Foccart
Charles de Gaulle
Angouma
PUNGA
René-Paul Sousatte
arrest warrant
scrutin de liste
bloc voting
cult of personality
reshuffle the cabinet
motion of censure
executive power
state of emergency
foreign minister
André Gustave Anguilé
Fulbert Youlou
chicotte
Louis Bigmann
coup d'état
Ndjolé
Lambaréné
Paul Marie Yembit
Dakar
Brazzaville
Bob Maloubier
Elf Aquitaine
Pierre Guillaumat
Albert Bernard Bongo
Élysée Palace
Leon M'ba International Airport

categories: Leaders ousted by a coup,Deaths from cancer in France,People from Libreville,Gabonese Democratic Party politicians,People of French Equatorial Africa,Gabonese Roman Catholics,1902 births,Presidents of Gabon,Rassemblement Démocratique Africain politicians,1967 deaths,Prime Ministers of Gabon

paragraph: Léon M'ba

paragraph: Gabriel Léon M'ba (9 February 1902 – 28 November 1967) was the first Prime Minister (1959–1961) and President (1961–1967) of Gabon. A member of the Fang ethnic group, M'ba was born into a relatively privileged village family. After studying at a seminary, he held a number of small jobs before entering the colonial administration as a customs agent. His political activism in favor of black people worried the French administration, and as a punishment for his activities, he was issued a prison sentence after committing a minor crime that normally would have resulted in a small fine. In 1924, the administration gave M'ba a second chance and selected him to head the canton in Estuaire Province. After being accused of complicity in the murder of a woman near Libreville, he was sentenced in 1931 to three years in prison and 10 years in exile. While in exile in Oubangui-Chari, he published works documenting the tribal customary law of the Fang people. He was employed by local administrators, and received praise from his superiors for his work. He remained a "persona non grata" to Gabon until the French colonial administration finally allowed M'ba to return his native country in 1946.

paragraph: In 1946, he began his political ascent, being appointed prime minister on 21 May 1957. He served as prime minister until 21 February 1961. In 1958, he directed an initiative to include Gabon in the Franco-African community further than before. He became president upon independence from France on 17 August 1960. Political nemesis Jean-Hilaire Aubame briefly assumed the office of president through a coup d'état in February 1964, but order was restored days later when the French intervened. M'ba was reelected in March 1967, but died of cancer in November 1967 and was succeeded by his vice president, Albert-Bernard Bongo.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: A member of the Fang ethnic tribe, M'ba was born on 9 February 1902 in Libreville, Gabon. His father, a small business manager and village chief, once worked as the hairdresser to Franco-Italian explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza. His mother, Louise Bendome, was a seamstress. Both were educated and were among the first "evolved couples" in Libreville. M'ba's brother also played an important role in the colonial hierarchy; he was Gabon's first Roman Catholic priest.

paragraph: In 1909, M'ba joined a seminary to receive his primary education. From 1920, he was employed as a store manager, a lumberjack and trader before entering the French colonial administration as a customs agent. Despite his good job performance, M'ba's activism in helping black Gabonians, particularly for the Fangs, worried his superiors. In September 1922, M'ba wrote to Edmond Cadier, Lieutenant-Governor of Gabon:

paragraph: His remarks upset authorities, and he suffered the consequences in December 1922, when he was sentenced to prison after having committed a minor crime of providing a colleague with falsified documents.

paragraph: Section::::Under the colonial administration.:"Chef de canton".

paragraph: In either 1924 or 1926, M'ba reconciled with colonial authorities and was chosen to succeed the deceased "chef de canton" (similar to a village chief) of Libreville's Fang neighbourhood. As the leader of a group of young Libreville intellectuals, he ignored the advice of elder Fangs and quickly gained a reputation as a strong, confident, and able-minded man. He once wrote in a letter that he was "[m]issioned to enforce public order and defend the general interest" and that he did "not accept that people transgress the orders received from the authority that I represent."

paragraph: M'ba did not have an idealist vision of his job; he saw it as a way to become wealthy. With his colleague Ambamamy, he forced labour on the residents of the canton for his personal use, to cover his large expenditures. The colonial administration was aware of the embezzlement, but they chose to overlook it. However, beginning in 1929, the colonial administration started to investigate his activities after they intercepted one of his letters to a Kouyaté, secretary for the Ligue des droits de l'homme, who was accused of being an ally of the Comintern. Despite this suspected Communist alliance, the French authorities did not oppose M'ba's appointment as head chief of the Estuaire Province by his colleagues.

paragraph: In those years, M'ba, a member of the Ligue, distanced himself from Roman Catholicism, but did not break completely with his faith. He instead became a follower of the Bwiti religious sect, which Fangs were particularly receptive to. He believed this would help revitalise a society which he felt had been damaged by the colonial administration. In 1931, the sect was accused of murdering a woman whose remains were discovered outside a market in Libreville. Accused of complicity, even though his involvement in the crime was not proven, M'ba was removed from power and sentenced to three years in prison and ten years of exile. Officially this was for embezzlement of tax revenues and his abusive treatment of the local labour force.

paragraph: Section::::Under the colonial administration.:Exile in Oubangui-Chari.

paragraph: While exiled in the French territory of Oubangui-Chari, first in the towns of Bambari and then Bria, he continued to exert influence among Fangs via correspondence with his compatriots in Libreville. Worried by the situation, Governor-General Antonetti ordered in 1934, at the end of his prison sentence, that M'ba be placed under surveillance.

paragraph: During his years in exile, he wrote about the customary rights of the Fang people in the "Essai de droit coutumier pahouin" () and published it in "Bulletin de la société des recherches congolaises" in 1938. This work quickly became the main reference on Fang tribal customary law. By 1939, the native ex-chief remained a "persona non grata" to Gabon, as stated in the letter from the head of the Estuarie Department, Assier de Pompignan:

paragraph: In spite of being in exile, M'ba was employed by local administrators. Placed in secondary offices and having no proper power, he was an accomplished and valuable employee. Thanks to praiseworthy reports from his superiors, he was once again seen as a reliable indigenous element on which the colonial administration could rely on. In 1942, a sentence reduction was granted to him. Following his release, he became a civil servant in Brazzaville, where his prestige increased.

paragraph: Section::::Political ascension.

paragraph: Section::::Political ascension.:Return to Gabon and local politician.

paragraph: In 1946, M'ba returned to Gabon, where he was greeted exultantly by his friends. He was not reinstated as "chef de canton"; instead, he obtained an important position as store manager for the English trading house John Holt. That same year, he founded the Gabonese Mixed Committee (CMG), a political party close to the African Democratic Rally (RDA), an inter-African party led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny. The party's main objective was to obtain autonomy for its member states and oppose the Senegalese leader Léopold Sédar Senghor's idea of federalism. Playing on his past as a former exile, and through the network of Bwiti followers, M'ba managed to rally support from the Fang and Myènè peoples. His goal was to win indigenous administrative and judicial posts.

paragraph: Based on his success in Libreville, M'ba aspired, at one point, to become the head of the region, an idea which many notable Fangs supported during the Pahouin congress at Mitzic in February 1947. However, the colonial authorities refused to give him the position. Due to his relations with the RDA, which was linked to the French Communist Party, M'Ba was seen as a communist and propagandist in the colony; for the authorities, these suspicions had been confirmed when M'ba was involved in the 1949 RDA congress in Abidjan.

paragraph: In 1951, the CMG decided to break its ties with the Communists, siding with the moderate position favored by Houphouët-Boigny while he did the same. At the same time M'ba, while maintaining his "rebellious" image to the electorate, became close with the French administration. However, the administration was already supporting his main opponent, Congressman Jean-Hilaire Aubame, who was M'ba's protégé and his half-brother's foster son. In the legislative elections of 17 June 1951, Aubame was easily re-elected, as M'ba only received 3,257 votes, just 11% of the electorate. In the territorial elections of March 1952, Aubame's Gabonese Democratic and Social Union (UDSG) won 14 of the 24 contested seats, against two for the CMG; however, the CMG received 57% of the votes cast in Libreville.

paragraph: Section::::Political ascension.:Rise to power.

paragraph: Initially rejected by the Territorial Assembly, M'ba allied himself with French representatives in the assembly. However, using his charismatic traits and his reputation as a "man of the people", he managed to win a seat there in 1952.

paragraph: He left the CMG to join the Gabonese Democratic Bloc (BDG) led by Paul Gondjout in 1954, whom M'ba intended to overthrow. Gondjout, the secretary of the BDG, appointed M'ba secretary-general and formed a long term alliance against Aubame. In the legislative elections of 2 January 1956, M'ba received 36% of the votes versus 47% for Aubame. Though not elected, M'ba became the leader of the indigenous territory, and some of the UDSG began to ally themselves with him.

paragraph: In the municipal elections of 1956, M'ba received support from the French logging industry, especially Roland Bru, and was elected mayor of Libreville with 65.5% of the vote. On 23 November he was appointed the first mayor of the capital. This has been cited as the BDG's first significant victory over the UDSG. In the French practice of holding multiple posts known as "cumul des positions", M'ba served as both mayor and deputy.

paragraph: In the territorial elections of March 1957, his reputation as a "forester's man" worked against him; the BDG finished second again, winning 16 of the 40 contested seats, against 18 for the UDSG. Bru and other French foresters bribed several UDSG deputies to switch their political party to the BDG. M'ba's party won 21 seats against 19 for Aubame's party after a recount. However, in the absence of an absolute majority, both parties were obliged to submit on 21 May 1957, a list of individuals that both agreed were suitable for election into the government. That same day, M'ba was appointed vice president of the government council under the French governor. Soon, divisions grew within the government, and Aubame resigned from his position and filed a motion of censure against the government. The motion was rejected by a 21–19 vote. With M'ba's victory, many elected UDSG members joined the parliamentary majority, giving the party a majority with 29 of the 40 legislative seats. Well installed in the government, he slowly began to reinforce his power.

paragraph: After voting in favor of the Franco-African Community, similar to the British Commonwealth, in the constitutional referendum of 28 September 1958, Gabon became pseudo-politically independent. French journalist Pierre Péan asserted that M'ba secretly tried to prevent Gabonese independence; instead, he lobbied for it to become an overseas territory of France. In December 1958, the Assembly voted to establish the legislature, and then promulgated the constitution of the Republic of Gabon on 19 February 1959. On 27 February, M'ba was appointed Prime Minister. After M'ba openly declared for the departmentalization of Gabon in November 1959, Jacques Foccart, Charles de Gaulle's spin-doctor for African policy, told him that this solution was unthinkable. M'ba then decided to adopt a new flag by affixing the design of the national tree, the Angouma, over the French flag. Again, Foccart, as a loyal Frenchman, refused.

paragraph: From July 1958, a third political force tried to establish itself in Gabon: the Parti d'Union Nationale Gabonais (PUNGA), led by René-Paul Sousatte and Jean-Jacques Boucavel, created attempting to unite the southern Gabonese against the established BDG and UDSG. It was also supported by former UDSG members, "radical" students, and trade unionists. Though it voted against the constitutional referendum, PUNGA organised several events geared toward gaining independence and the holding of more parliamentary elections, which were also supported by the UDSG. In March 1960, after independence had already been obtained, M'ba cracked down on PUNGA, claiming its goal had already been reached. He filed an arrest warrant for Sousatte for conspiring against him and searched the houses of UDSG members, who he accused of complicity. Intimidated, three deputies of the UDSG joined the majority.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.:Consolidation of power.

paragraph: On 19 June 1960, legislative elections were organised through the "scrutin de liste" voting system, a form of bloc voting in which each party offers a list of candidates who the population vote for; the list that obtains a majority of votes is declared the winner and obtains all the contested seats. Through the redistricting of district and constituency boundaries, the BDG arbitrarily received 244 seats, while the UDSG received 77. In the month before full political independence of Gabon was achieved on 13 August, M'ba signed 15 cooperation agreements with France, pertaining to national defense, technical cooperation, economic support, access to materials, and national stability. On 17 August, independence was proclaimed. However, the Prime Minister realistically declared on 12 August, "We must not waste our chances by imagining that with independence, we now own a powerful fetish that will fulfill our wishes. In believing that with independence everything becomes easy and possible, there is a danger of descending into anarchy, disorder, poverty, famine."

paragraph: M'ba aspired to establish a democratic regime, which, in his view, was necessary for the development and attraction of investments in Gabon. He attempted to reconcile the imperatives of democracy and the necessity for a strong and coherent government. Yet in practice, the regime showed a fundamental weakness in attaining M'ba's goal in which he, who had by this time become known as "the old man", or "the boss", would have a high degree of authority. A cult of personality developed steadily around M'ba; songs were sung in his praise and stamps and loincloths were printed with his effigy. His photograph was displayed in stores and hotels across Gabon, in government buildings hung next to that of de Gaulle.

paragraph: In November 1960, a crisis broke out within the majority party. After deciding to reshuffle the cabinet without consulting Parliament, the president of the National Assembly, Paul Gondjout, a previous ally of M'ba's, filed a motion of censure. Gondjout supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage, and specifically sought the establishment of a strong parliament and a prime minister with executive power. M'ba, who did not share these ideas, reacted repressively. On 16 November, under the pretext of a conspiracy, he declared a state of emergency, ordering the internment of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after. Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961. Gondjout was sentenced to two years in prison. Sousatte, who also opposed the constitution, was also sentenced to the same amount of jail time. Upon their releases, M'ba appointed Gondjout president of the economic council and Sousatte Minister of Agriculture, both mostly symbolic posts.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.:"Hyperprésident" of Gabon.

paragraph: On 4 December, M'ba was elected to replace Gondjout as Secretary General of the BDG. He turned to the opposition to strengthen his position. With Aubame, he formed a number of sufficiently balanced political unions to appeal to the electorate. On 12 February, they won 99.75% of the vote. The same day, M'ba was elected President of Gabon, being the only candidate. In thanks for his help, M'ba appointed Aubame as foreign minister to replace André Gustave Anguilé.

paragraph: On 21 February 1961, a new constitution was unanimously adopted, providing for a "hyperpresidential" regime. M'ba now had full executive powers: he could appoint ministers whose functions and responsibilities were decided by him; he could dissolve the National Assembly by choice or prolong its term beyond the normal five years; he could declare a state of emergency when he believed the need arose, though for this amendment he would have to consult the people via a referendum. This was, in fact, very similar to the constitution adopted in favor of Fulbert Youlou at roughly the same time. A report from the French secret service summarized the situation as follows:

paragraph: The new constitution and the National Union (a political union they founded) suspended the quarrels between M'ba and Aubame from 1961 to 1963. Despite this, political unrest grew within the population, and many students held demonstrations on the frequent dissolutions of the National Assembly and the general political attitude in the country. The president did not hesitate to enforce the law himself; with a chicotte, he whipped citizens who did not show respect for him, including passersby who "forgot" to salute him. In addition, in February 1961, he decreed the internment of approximately 20 people for these demonstrations.

paragraph: On 9 February 1963, the President pardoned those arrested during the political crisis of November 1960. On 19 February, he broke his ties with Aubame; all UDSG representatives were dismissed, with the exception of M'ba supporter Francis Meye. In an attempt to oust Aubame from his legislative seat, M'ba appointed him President of the Supreme Court on 25 February. Thereafter, M'ba claimed that Aubame had resigned from the National Assembly, citing incompatibility with parliamentary functions. Aubame resolved the problem by resigning from his post on the Supreme Court, complicating matters for M'ba. Faced with reports of tension between the government and the National Assembly, even though 70% of it were BDG members, the Gabonese president dissolved the legislature on 21 January 1964 as an "economy measure".

paragraph: The electoral conditions were announced as such: The election 67 districts were reduced to 47. M'ba disqualified Aubame by announcing anyone who held a post recently was banned. Any party would have to submit 47 candidates who had to pay US$160 or none at all. Thus, over US$7,500 would be deposited without considering campaign expenses. M'ba's idea was that no party other than his would have the money to enter candidates. In response to this, the opposition announced its refusal to participate in elections that they did not consider fair.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.:1964 Gabon coup d'état.

paragraph: From the night of 17 February to the early morning of 18 February 1964, 150 Gabonese military personnel, headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone, arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann, French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer, On Radio Libreville, the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d'état had taken place, and that they required technical assistance and told the French not interfere in this matter. M'ba was instructed to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat. "The D-Day is here, the injustices are beyond measure, these people are patient, but their patience has limits", he said. "It came to a boil."

paragraph: During these events, no gunshots were fired. The people did not react strongly, which according to the military, was a sign of approval. A provisional government was formed, and the presidency was offered to Aubame. The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG, such as Paul Gondjout. The plotters were content to ensure security for civilians. The small Gabonese army did not intervene in the coup; composed mostly of French officers, they remained in their barracks.

paragraph: Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M'ba to Ndjolé, Aubame's electoral stronghold. However, due to heavy rain, the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village. The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné. Several hours later, they returned to Libreville. The new head of government quickly contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran, to assure him that the property of foreign nationals was protected and to ask him to prevent any French military intervention.

paragraph: But in Paris, de Gaulle decided otherwise. M'ba was one of the most loyal allies to France in Africa. While visiting France in 1961, M'ba said: "All Gabonese have two fatherlands: France and Gabon." Moreover, under his regime, Europeans enjoyed particularly friendly treatment. The French authorities therefore decided, in accordance with signed Franco-Gabon agreements, to restore the legitimate government. Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon. Since M'ba was otherwise occupied, the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon, Paul Marie Yembit, who had not been arrested. However, he remained unaccounted for; therefore, they decided to compose a predated letter that Yembit would later sign, confirming their intervention. Less than 24 hours later, French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M'ba back into power. Over the course of the operation, one French soldier was killed, while 15 to 25 died on the Gabonese side.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.:Under the tutelage of France.

paragraph: After he was reinstated into power, M'ba refused to consider the coup was directed against him and his regime. He believed it was a conspiracy against the state. Soon, however, anti-government demonstrations sprang up, with slogans such as ""Léon M'ba, président des Français!"" () or ones that called for the end of the "dictatorship". They showed solidarity after Aubame was charged on 23 March for his alleged involvement in the coup d'état. Despite the fact that he did not participate in the planning of the coup, Aubame was sentenced at his trial to 10 years of hard labor and 10 years of exile.

paragraph: Despite these events, legislative elections, which were planned before the coup, were held in April 1964. The major opposition parties were deprived of their leaders, who were prevented from participating in the elections due to their involvement in the coup. The UDSG disappeared from the political scene, and the opposition consisted of parties that lacked national focus and maintained only regional or pro-democracy platforms. The opposition still won 46% of the votes and 16 of 47 seats, while the BDG received 54% of the vote and 31 seats in the assembly.

paragraph: His French friends constantly surrounded him, protecting or providing him with counsel. A presidential guard was created by Bob Maloubier, a former French secret agent, and co-financed by French oil groups. The oil groups, active in the country since 1957, had strengthened their interests in 1962 after the discovery of offshore oil deposits. Gabon quickly became a major oil supplier for France. They carried such influence in Gabon that following the February 1964 coup, the decision to seek military intervention was taken by the CEO of Union Générale des Pétroles (UGP; now known as Elf Aquitaine), Pierre Guillaumat, Foccart, and other French businessmen and leaders. Later on, another UGP executive, Guy Ponsaillé, was appointed as political adviser to the president and became M'ba's representative in discussions with French companies. However, the Gabonese president was afraid of internal strife or assassination, so he remained secluded inside his heavily defended presidential palace. Ponsaillé helped M'ba obtain support from political moderates and accompanied him in his visits around the country in order to restore his reputation among the Gabonese people.

paragraph: French ambassador Cousseran and American ambassador Charles F. Darlington, suspected of sympathizing with Aubame, left shortly after the coup. The new French ambassador François Simon de Quirielle, a "traditional diplomat", was determined not to interfere in the internal affairs of Gabon. After a few months of misunderstandings with de Quirielle, M'ba contacted Foccart to tell him that he could no longer work with the Ambassador. Foccart recounted the events in his memoirs, "Foccart Speaks":

paragraph: As a result of this incident, Foccart appointed a "colonialist", Maurice Delauney, as the new French Ambassador to Gabon.

paragraph: Section::::President of Gabon.:Succession and legacy.

paragraph: From 1965, the French began looking for a successor for M'ba, who was aging and sick. They found the perfect candidate in Albert Bernard Bongo (later known as Alhaji Omar Bongo Ondimba), a young leader in the President's cabinet. Bongo was personally "tested" by General de Gaulle in 1965, during a visit to the Élysée Palace. Confirmed as M'ba's successor, Bongo was appointed on 24 September 1965 as Presidential Representative and placed in charge of defence and coordination.

paragraph: In August 1966, M'ba was admitted to the Hôpital Charles Bernard, a hospital in Paris. Despite his inability to govern, the president clung to his power. Only after a long insistence by Foccart did M'ba agree to appoint Bongo as Vice President in replacement of Yembit, announcing his decision through a radio and television message recorded in his room on 14 November 1966. A constitutional reform in February 1967 legitimized Bongo as M'ba's successor. The preparations for the succession were finalized by the early legislative and presidential elections held on 19 March 1967. Since no one dared to stand on the opposition ticket, M'ba was reelected with 99.9% of the vote, while the BDG won all seats in the Assembly.

paragraph: On 28 November 1967, just days after he took his presidential oath at the Gabonese embassy, M'ba died of cancer in Paris, where he had been treated since August of that year. He was survived by his wife, Pauline M'ba, and 11 children. The day after M'ba's death, Bongo constitutionally succeeded him as President of Gabon. Gabon's main airport, the Leon M'ba International Airport, was later named for him.

paragraph: Forty years after his death, the Léon M'ba Memorial was built in Libreville to honor his memory. President Bongo laid the cornerstone for the Memorial on 9 February 2007, and it was inaugurated by Bongo on 27 November 2007. In February 2008, it was opened to the public. In addition to serving as a mausoleum for M'ba, the Memorial is a cultural center.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

description: 1st President of Gabon

wikidata_label: Léon M'ba

wikipedia_title: Léon M'ba


text: Paiute

text: Ghost Dance

text: Northern Paiute language

text: Smith Valley

text: Carson City, Nevada

text: Wodziwob

text: rancher

text: Yerington, Nevada

text: Christian

text: Christian theology

text: Bible stories

text: prophet

text: solar eclipse of January 1, 1889

text: resurrection

text: North America

text: Ghost Dance

text: Lakota

text: Wounded Knee Massacre

text: Indian Office

text: U.S. War Department,

text: Ghost Shirts

text: Miniconjou

text: Short Bull

text: Kicking Bear

text: Peyotism

text: Schurz, Nevada

text: Redbone

text: "Wovoka"

text: Handsome Lake

text: John Slocum

text: Smohalla

text: Ghostdance.us Wovoka Information

categories: 1932 deaths,Religious figures of the indigenous peoples of North America,1850s births,Ghost Dance movement,20th-century apocalypticists,19th-century apocalypticists

paragraph: Wovoka

paragraph: Wovoka (c. 1856 - September 20, 1932), also known as Jack Wilson, was the Paiute religious leader who founded a second episode of the Ghost Dance movement. Wovoka means "cutter" or "wood cutter" in the Northern Paiute language.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Wovoka was born in the Smith Valley area southeast of Carson City, Nevada, around 1856. Quoitze Ow was his birth name. Wovoka's father was Numu-tibo'o (sometimes called Tavibo), who for several decades was incorrectly believed to be Wodziwob, a religious leader who had founded the Ghost Dance of 1870. From the age of eight until almost thirty Wovoka often worked for David Wilson, a rancher in the Yerington, Nevada area, and his wife Abigail, who gave him the name Jack Wilson when dealing with European Americans. David Wilson was a devout Christian, and Wovoka learned Christian theology and Bible stories while living with him.

paragraph: One of his chief sources of authority among Paiutes was his alleged ability to control the weather. He was said to have caused a block of ice to fall out of the sky on a summer day, to be able to end drought with rain or snow, to light his pipe with the sun, and to form icicles in his hands.

paragraph: Wovoka claimed to have had a prophetic vision during the solar eclipse of January 1, 1889. Wovoka's vision entailed the resurrection of the Paiute dead, and the removal of whites and their works from North America. Wovoka taught that in order to bring this vision to pass, the Native Americans must live righteously and perform a traditional round dance, known as the Ghost Dance.

paragraph: Anthropologists, historians, and theologians alike provide conflicting accounts on when and how Wovoka had his vision. One scholar of religions, Tom Thatcher, cites James Mooney's Smithsonian-sponsored anthropological report to claim that Wovoka received his first vision while chopping wood for David Wilson in 1887. Conversely, historian Paul Bailey utilized Mooney's work along interviews with Wovoka's contemporaries and interpreters to assert that he received the vision after entering a two-day trance, awaking in tears. Regardless, shortly after receiving the vision and its message, it moved quickly beyond his local Paiute community by word of mouth to Native American tribes further east, notably the Lakota.

paragraph: The Ghost Dance movement is known for being practiced by the victims of the Wounded Knee Massacre. Before the Ghost dance reached Native Americans on South Dakota plains reservations, interest in the movement came from U.S. Indian Office, U.S. War Department, and multiple Native American tribal delegations. Many tribes would arrive in Mason to listen to Wovoka intently, but language barriers existed. Visiting tribes came from different cultures, geographies, and linguistic traditions. Few delegation members could speak Wovoka's mother tongue of Paiute. This led to tribes adopting a militant form of Wovoka's teachings that emphasized an impending battle leading to the creation of the Ghost Shirts worn by Sioux and Lakota at the subsequent massacre. Other Native American Leaders, such as Miniconjou, Short Bull and Kicking Bear allegedly adopted violent interpretations that emphasized the possible elimination of whites. However, Wovoka never left his home in Nevada to become an active participant in the dance's dissemination in the U.S. interior.

paragraph: Indian Agents, soldiers, and other federal officials were predisposed towards a militaristic posture and outright violence upon encountering the movement.

paragraph: Section::::Post-Wounded Knee Life and Death.

paragraph: Wovoka was disheartened by how events unfolded at the massacre. He still remained a prominent Native American leader until his death. Sometime between 1894-1896, he was reported to have been a sideshow attraction at a San Francisco Midwinter Fair Carnival. In 1917, an agent for the Nevada Agency named L.A. Dorrington tracked down Wovoka to report on his whereabouts to Washington. Curious to see if the former Native American messiah had any ties to Native American Peyotism, Dorrington found that Wovoka was instead living a humble life in Mason. He abstained from the practice, worked as an occasional medicine man, and traveled to events on reservations across the United States.

paragraph: Wovoka died in Yerington on September 20, 1932, and is interred in the Paiute Cemetery in the town of Schurz, Nevada.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Native American band Redbone named their 1973 album "Wovoka", and the title song, after the prophet.

paragraph: In the 1971 film "Billy Jack", Billy, played by Tom Laughlin, teaches the Ghost Dance to indians and students of the Montessori Freedom School. In the moments leading up to this session, Billy's girlfriend Jean [played by Laughlin's wife, Delores Taylor], explains Wovoka and the Ghost Dance to an abused teenage girl hiding in sanctuary at the school from her abusive father. Jean says that once, even Christ appeared to Wovoka.

paragraph: The Dead Inklings, an American indie rock band, has written a song about Wovoka and the ghost dance entitled “Them Bones”.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Handsome Lake

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Slocum

paragraph: BULLET::::- Smohalla

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Hittman, "Wovoka and the Ghost Dance", Bison Books 1998,

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Norman, "Ghost Dance", Daw Books 1970, (a fictional account)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ghostdance.us Wovoka Information

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Messiah Letter" by Wovoka, translated by James Mooney

description: Founder of the Ghost Dance movement

wikidata_label: Wovoka

wikipedia_title: Wovoka


text:
KG
Redesdale
English
Hundred Years War
Kingdom of Scotland
Umfraville
north of England
mormaers of Angus
Percies
marcher
border with Scotland
Richard II
Battle of Otterburn
Henry "Hotspur" Percy
Henry Bolingbroke
Lancastrian
diplomat
embassies
Henry V
Hundred Years' War
Battle of Agincourt
chronicle
John Hardyng
Peebles
market
Battle of Baugé
Midlands
estates
Sir Thomas Umfraville
Northumberland
Earls of Angus
Redesdale
Regality of Redesdale
Nevilles
minor
wardship
Neville Earl of Westmorland
chronicle
John Hardyng
Battle of Otterburn
Henry Hotspur
Earl of Northumberland
King Richard II
Battle of Homildon Hill
indenture
invasion of Scotland
Fulhope Law
border
Warden of the Eastern March
John, Duke of Lancaster
middle march
Gilbert Umfraville
tenant–in–chief
enthronement
Bishop of Durham
Thomas Langley
King Henry IV
annuity
knight
historian
Henry Summerson
Archbishop Scrope
Shipton Moor
Order of the Garter
stall
Edmund, Earl of Kent
Battle of Shrewsbury
Royal Commission
Sheriff
Berwick Castle
keeping
Warkworth Castle
Constable
lordship
Langley
Battle of Bramham Moor
retainer
Lancastrian
affinity
Teviotdale
Jedburgh
Sir Thomas Beaufort,
Admiral of the seas
Firth of Forth
fire ship
John Neville
£
marks
Agincourt expedition
Henry V of England
Siege of Harfleur
Southampton Plot
Roxburgh Castle
Duke of Albany
Chamberlain
E. F. Jacob
Peebles
moniker
Caen
Bayeux
Lisieux
prisoners
Durham
confraternity
Prior of Durham
John Wessington
Durham Priory
title deed
manor
Farnacres
Newcastle upon Tyne
chantry chapel
executor
Battle of Baugé
Kyme
second Earl of Northumberland
patrimony
arbitrate
Heron
Ford Castle
Manners
feoffee
William Heron
James Raine
lawsuit
surety
chantries
tripartite Indenture
Sir William Tailboys
Lincolnshire
Chris Given-Wilson
King's Council
King Henry VI
Newminster Abbey
John Hardyng
Ellis, H.
Chambers, W.
Denham Tracts

categories: 1360s births,Medieval English knights,1436 deaths,Knights of the Garter,People from Northumberland,14th-century English people,People of the Hundred Years' War

paragraph: Robert de Umfraville

paragraph: Sir Robert Umfraville KG, Lord of Redesdale ( 1363–1437) was a late medieval English knight who took part in the later stages of the Hundred Years War, especially in the Kingdom of Scotland. The Umfraville family had been an important one in the north of England for centuries, and held major estates in Yorkshire. Among his ancestors, he counted the mormaers of Angus, and more recently his family had married into that of the Percies, a powerful local marcher family, with whom Umfraville was to be closely associated. Much of Sir Robert's career continued on the same path as his ancestors, which was primarily focused on defending the border with Scotland, which was in a state of semi-permanent warfare and had been so since the late thirteenth century. Umfraville fought under three English kings. Firstly, under Richard II, he began his career, probably fighting at the Battle of Otterburn with Henry "Hotspur" Percy. After King Richard was deposed by Henry Bolingbroke in 1399, Umfraville loyally served the new Lancastrian regime as both a bulwark against Scottish incursions and at the forefront of English aggression, whichever was required. Where necessary, however, he could also play the role of an effective diplomat, taking part in many embassies to Scotland and negotiating treaties when events made them possible.

paragraph: With the exception of Henry V's resumption of the Hundred Years' War in 1415–when Umfraville travelled with the King to France and took part in the Battle of Agincourt–all his martial activity was on the Scottish border. He was famed for his prowess; one contemporary chronicler, John Hardyng, who was also in Umfraville's service, praised him as the perfect knight. Umfraville's successes also attracted praise–and some reward–from the King. One campaign deep into Scottish territory resulted in his destroying Peebles and its market; he brought back so much booty that he was nicknamed "Robin Mendmarket." Umfraville, although he married, never had any children, and his closest relative–his nephew Gilbert–predeceased him, perishing at the Battle of Baugé in 1421. Although Umfraville remained in royal service almost to the last months of his life, it is uncertain how financially profitable this service was; most of his lands in the north would have been prone to frequent ravishing by marauding armies, so his Midlands estates may have been his main source of income. He carried out his last mission to Scotland in March 1436 and died early the next year.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Robert Ufraville was the youngest son of Sir Thomas Umfraville, who died in 1387, and his family had been an important one in Anglo-Scottish relations and on the border since the twelfth century, holding major estates in Northumberland and counting amongst their ancestors the Earls of Angus. They owned much land around the Redesdale area, consisting of the c. old Regality of Redesdale, although both the Scottish wars and the growth of other, newer regional families, such as the Nevilles, had led to a decline in their status by the fifteenth century. Indeed, Sir Robert himself, still a minor at his father's death, served his wardship under the first Neville Earl of Westmorland.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Robert Umfraville's career was predominantly a military one. The chronicler John Hardyng (who entered Umfraville's service sometime between 1402 and 1403) reports that Umfraville fought at the Battle of Otterburn in 1388, as part of the contingent of Henry Hotspur (the son of the Earl of Northumberland). This, says Hardyng, was followed by the first of many border raids Umfraville led into Scotland in 1390. These continued following the deposition of King Richard II, and he probably took part in the Battle of Homildon Hill in 1402. In fact, notwithstanding the regime change of 1399, Umfraville's duties were very much unchanged, and the "old truths remained: royal service, local administration and the defence of the realm." He was indentured to join Henry IV's invasion of Scotland in 1400, which came to very little; Umfraville subsequently inflicted a defeat on a large Scots army at Fulhope Law after an attempted a raid. He continued in defence of the border through the next decade, and his expertise in local politics helped him advise the Warden of the Eastern March, the King's son, John, Duke of Lancaster. Umfraville probably acted in the capacity of 'sub-warden' to the duke, in the now largely defunct middle march. In 1407, with his young nephew Gilbert Umfraville, he attended, as a tenant–in–chief, the enthronement of the new Bishop of Durham, Thomas Langley.

paragraph: Umfraville's loyalty to the new regime was appreciated by King Henry IV, who retained him for life for a annuity of forty pounds. At some point he was also knighted by the King; historian Henry Summerson has said this helped "to ensure his loyalty against the Percys, his former lords" who were growing increasingly dissatisfied with Henry. This paid off for the King, for, in 1405, when Archbishop Scrope rebelled, Umfraville joined the Earl of Westmorland in suppressing the uprising at Shipton Moor. Uncommonly for a younger son in the Middle Ages, and probably another reflection of the high standing in which he stood with the King, in 1408 Umfraville was elected to the Order of the Garter, whereupon he took the stall of Edmund, Earl of Kent, who had died that year. Umfraville's association with John Hardyng came about sometime after 1402, when Hardyng's previous patron, Hotspur, was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury, and Hardyng joined Umfraville's service after receiving a royal pardon to do so.

paragraph: In the 1390s that Umfraville began sitting on Royal Commissions in his home county of Northumberland and was appointed its Sheriff in 1401. Three years later, the Earl of Northumberland gave him the command of Berwick Castle, and Umfraville received the keeping of Warkworth Castle in 1405, and appointed Hardyng his Constable there. He was also granted the lordship of Langley the same year. Following the Earl of Northumberland's defeat and death at the Battle of Bramham Moor in 1408 (which Umfraville had persuaded Westmorland to undertake) and in acknowledgment of the role Sir Robert played in it, Westmorland re-appointed Umfraville to the keeping of Warkworth, while Umfraville's diplomatic work with Scotland also increased as the result of the Percies' fall. Umfraville was the only Percy retainer that King Henry IV made an effort to reconcile to the new Lancastrian regime; as a "border warlord with impeccable lineage." Umfraville earned great rewards from the crown while still commanding the respect of what remained of the Percy affinity in the north-west.

paragraph: Robert Umfraville had a close relationship with his nephew Gilbert, the son of Robert's elder brother Thomas, who had died in 1391. Through Gilbert, Robert also had a permanent connection to Ralph, Earl of Westmorland, as Gilbert married Ralph's daughter Anne. Robert was probably responsible for Gilbert's martial training, as the two spent the years of the late 1400s on the border; in 1408 they jointly-led a raid into Teviotdale: Harding describes how Robert was like an "olde dogge [that] hath grete joy to bayte his whelpe." The raids continued, with another soon after on Jedburgh. Robert's service for the King was not confined to the northern border, and neither was it confined to fighting on land. In 1410, he was appointed lieutenant to Sir Thomas Beaufort, the Admiral of the seas. In this capacity, following the burning of Roxburgh, Umfraville commanded a force of ten ships and 600 men and destroyed Scottish shipping sheltered in the Firth of Forth, capturing 13 or 14 of them. This may well have been the documented occasion on which Umfraville utilised fire ships against them. As a result of his successes, he was appointed Captain of Roxburgh in place of John Neville, the Earl of Westmorland's son. Umfraville was owed £666 for his naval expedition, and two years later, Bishop Langley paid Umfraville 100 marks to repair the walls of Berwick Castle, which by this time was in some disrepair.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:The 'Southampton Plot,' service in France and return.

paragraph: In 1415 he was part of the Agincourt expedition with Henry V of England, fighting at that battle and at the Siege of Harfleur. Henry confirmed him in his £40 annuity at this time. However, Henry Summerson has suggested that the reason for his presence in France rather than on the border was the result of the Southampton Plot against the King. The plot had been exposed to Henry just before the expedition sailed. Umfraville had been summoned–"by name"–to the King in August 1415, due to his military importance. This summons, says Summerson, was because Henry suspected Umfraville of "harbouring a residual loyalty to the Percys" and of "thus of being sympathetic to the Southampton plot of 1415, whose aims included a Percy restoration." In July 1411, Umfraville had been appointed Captain of Roxburgh Castle for a six-year term. However, he had been relieved of his appointment just prior to his summons to the King. Since Umfraville was indentured by the King to serve abroad in the following year's campaign, he presumably had cleared himself of suspicion in the King's eyes, and in any case, by 1417 he had returned to the Northumberland and the border. The Duke of Albany had launched a "foul raid" on the county of Northumberland–which broke the existing truce–against Berwick that year. On 3 August Umfraville (as Chamberlain of Berwick and Captain of Roxburgh) was informed that Albany intended to invade England with an army of 60,000 and besiege Berwick. E. F. Jacob has suggested that the leaders of the Southampton Plot had expected Umfraville's support, but that, in the end, if he did let the Scots over the border, it was ultimately "only to destroy them." Sir Robert led a series of retaliatory raids against Scotland in revenge, climaxing in 1419 with his assault upon the town of Peebles. As a result of his burning of the town on market day, Umfraville earned the moniker 'mendmarket.' John Hardyng's later verse proclaimed that Umfraville, being determined that not all the glory should be earned solely by those fighting the French, "made the warre on Scottes to have a name" for himself. As Alexander Rose put it, while Henry V was "sacking Caen and advancing into undefended Bayeux and Lisieux... Sir Robert Umfraville, his most ruthless lieutenant [had] free rein to tear south-eastern Scotland savagely apart for two years," and John Hardying commented benevolently upon Umfraville's consequent winning of prisoners and booty.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Later years.

paragraph: Sir Robert had married a woman known only as Isabella by 1419, when he is also recorded as taking membership of the Durham confraternity. He also appears to have been friends with the Prior of Durham, John Wessington (with whom he dined at Durham Priory on at least one occasion that we know of) who had not only granted him his letters of confraternity, but had been entrusted by Umfraville with important family title deeds. Umfraville had a degree of religious devotion; in 1428, he was licensed to grant his manor of Farnacres, near Newcastle upon Tyne for the use of a chantry chapel, one of the few that was free-standing. The chapel, Umfraville charged, should be devoted to the souls of himself, his wife, Kings Henry IV and V, and to each past, present and future member of the Order of the Garter.

paragraph: In 1421 Robert acted as his nephew's executor, following Gilbert's death in the disastrous English defeat at the Battle of Baugé. From his nephew, Umfraville inherited the Redesdale and Kyme estates; he had already lost his lordship of Langley in 1414 when the second Earl of Northumberland was restored to his patrimony. It was with this Henry Percy that Sir Robert spent much of the remainder of his military career in the north of England (this included not only fighting but diplomatic duties–for instance in 1425, he was sent to King James to assist the ongoing negotiations, although the results of this particular embassy is unknown). His duties also involved administrative work such as presiding over the Warden's Marcher Court, negotiating temporary truces, attending peace conferences, and travelling on embassies. He also continued to keep the peace in his home county as well, for example helping to arbitrate the dispute between the Northumberland gentry families of Heron (of Ford Castle) and Manners between 1428 and 1431, although as a feoffee to Sir William Heron–and being one of "the two most powerful knights in the county"–Sir Robert took the part of Heron's wife, Isabel, after Heron was killed by Manners. This event, said James Raine, "abounds with incident, characterising, at the same time, the pugnacious state of the borders, the total absence of every thing in the shape of legal redress, and the omnipotence of the church." In this arbitration, Prior Wessington acted as an umpire. In Umfraville's own words, he wished to see "gude rest and pece to be had in the cuntre." Eventually, through Wessington's and Langley's arbitration, Umfraville informed the former on 3 April 1428 that he would request Isabel's lawsuit in London be withdrawn if Manners would pay a surety of 400 marks to Heron's widow and help Umfraville redeem the Heron estates from royal custody (for which he would attempt to get the amount of compensation demanded by the widow reduced). On the 23rd of the month, Manners may have indentured himself to Umfraville's "lytill and esy tretye," as it was termed, to pay all Heron's debts and to establish chantries for those that died during the course of their dispute. A tripartite Indenture was eventually agreed and delivered at Newcastle on 24 May 1431, which Umfraville attended, and at which he received the first instalment of the 250 marks compensation he–and Heron's widow–were now due from John Manners.

paragraph: Since Gilbert had been his closest relative, and Robert and Isabelle had had no children, his estates passed to a distant relative, Sir William Tailboys. How much these lands were actually worth, however, Summerson has queried: although his manors around Redesdale covered over , Scotland and England were in a state of war, and he suggests it is likely that these estates had been greatly ravaged. Possibly the only lands of Umfraville's that were worth their full value at the time, Summerson says, were those in Lincolnshire, which could have been worth up to £400 per annum.

paragraph: Section::::Death and contemporary perception.

paragraph: Historian Chris Given-Wilson has described Umfraville as one of "the most renowned warriors of their day." This reflects the contemporary view of Robert Umfraville as something of a fifteenth-century hero: in 1426 the King's Council, on behalf of the then four-year old King Henry VI, had written to him, thanking him for his "great and notable services… to your most renowned honour and praise and to the advantage of us and our whole realm," whilst John Hardyng called Umfraville "a Jewell for a kynge, in wyse consayle and knyghtly dede of werre" as well as a "vision of the ideal knight... brave and wise in war, generous and loyal to his followers, a lover of justice and protector of the common good." Sir Robert received his last commission to organise a truce with Scotland in March 1436 and died on 27 January the following year. He was buried in Newminster Abbey, where his wife, who died less than two years later in 1438, was buried beside him.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Contemporary tracts and sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Chronicle of John Hardyng", ed Ellis, H., London 1812.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Beltz, G. F. "Memorials of the most noble Order of the Garter, from its foundation to the present time". London 1841.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chambers, W., "A History of Peebleshire", Edinburgh 1861.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Denham Tracts", ed. Hardy Dr. J., London 1892.

alias:
Robin Mend the Market
Robert Umfraville

description: English knight, Lord of Redesdale

wikidata_label: Robert de Umfraville

wikipedia_title: Robert de Umfraville


text:
Legendary saga
Ásmundar saga kappabana
Hildebrand
Huns
Völsunga saga
Brynhildr

categories: Mythological kings of Sweden,Völsung cycle,Nibelung tradition

paragraph: Buðli

paragraph: Buðli or "Budli" is the name of one or two legendary kings from the Scandinavian Legendary sagas.

paragraph: Section::::"Ásmundar saga kappabana".

paragraph: According to the "Ásmundar saga kappabana", Buðli was a Swedish king, and the father of Hildr.

paragraph: The saga relates that Hildr married Helgi, the son of Hildebrand, the king of the Huns. Helgi and Hildr had a son who was raised by his paternal grandfather and named Hildebrand after him.

paragraph: Hildebrand became a great warrior and was called the Hunnish champion. When his father Helgi had fallen in a war, his maternal grandfather, the Swedish king Buðli, was killed by a Danish king by the name Alf. This Alf took Hildrebrand's mother Hildr captive and gave her to the champion Aki with whom she had the son Asmund who is the protagonist of the saga.

paragraph: Section::::"Völsunga saga".

paragraph: In the "Völsunga saga", Buðli was the father of Brynhildr ("Brünnehilde").

wikidata_label: Buðli

wikipedia_title: Buðli


text: Canadian

text: Edinburgh, Scotland

text: Winnipeg

text: Winnipeg School of Art

text: Art Students League of New York

text: Robert Henri

text: Arts and Letters Club

text: Group of Seven

text: LeMoine Fitzgerald

text: Walter J. Phillips

text: Will Ogilvie

text: Alexander Chuhaldin

text: Amati

text: Natalia Goncharova

text: Le Coq d'Or

text: Art Gallery of Hamilton

text: Ontario College of Art and Design

text: University of Toronto

text: Charles Sheeler

text: A. Y. Jackson

text: Studio Building

text: Group of Seven

text: Toronto Stock Exchange

text: Samuel Hughes

text: Federation of Canadian Artists

text: Massey Report

text: Canada Council

text: Canadian Pacific Railway

text: mural

text: Park cars

text: Canadian

text: Banff National Park

text: Art Gallery of Toronto

text: National Gallery of Canada

text: Canadian Society of Graphic Art

text: Canadian Group of Painters

text: Mount Allison University

text: Royal Canadian Academy of Arts

text: Order of Canada

text: Royal Military College of Canada

text: Canadian National Railway

text: Hotel Vancouver

text: Captain George Vancouver

text: potlatch

text: Marius Barbeau

text: Roland Michener

text: University of British Columbia

text: Kwakiutl

text: David Neel

text: Jane Ash Poitras

text: Canadian official war artists

text: War artist

text: War art

text: Paintings by Charles Comfort

text: Interview with Charles Comfort

categories: Members of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts,Students of Robert Henri,OCAD University faculty,1900 births,Canadian war artists,World War II artists,Art Students League of New York alumni,Scottish emigrants to Canada,1994 deaths,Canadian architectural sculptors,Canadian muralists,20th-century Canadian painters,Officers of the Order of Canada,Artists from Winnipeg

paragraph: Charles Comfort

paragraph: Charles Fraser Comfort, (July 22, 1900 – July 5, 1994) was a Canadian painter, sculptor, teacher, writer and administrator.

paragraph: Section::::Career and biography.

paragraph: Section::::Career and biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Born near Edinburgh, Scotland, Comfort moved to Winnipeg in 1912 with his family. His father found work with the treasury department for the city of Winnipeg. Comfort as the eldest child had to work from a young age to help support his family. In 1914, he began work as a commercial artist at the newly established Brigdens Limited commercial art branch office in Winnipeg, and by 1916 Comfort started attending evening classes at the Winnipeg School of Art.

paragraph: Comfort saved money to attend the Art Students League of New York under Robert Henri and Euphrasius Tucker. Still working part-time for Brigdens commercial studio, he was temporarily transferred to Toronto in 1919. While in Toronto, Comfort joined the Arts and Letters Club, taking life-study classes and meeting members of the Group of Seven. Comfort visited the Group's inaugural 1920 exhibition, which inspired Comfort to work on landscape paintings, a theme he continued throughout his lifetime.

paragraph: Comfort returned to Winnipeg in 1922 for his first exhibition of watercolours at the Winnipeg Art Gallery. During this time, he met LeMoine Fitzgerald and Walter J. Phillips. It was not until 1925 that Comfort painted his first oil painting, when he returned to Toronto where he befriended Will Ogilvie, who may have influenced this switch to oil. In 1928 he painted a striking watercolour portrait of violinist Alexander Chuhaldin with his Amati violin, with a copy of the Natalia Goncharova set design for "Le Coq d'Or" in the background (painting now in the Art Gallery of Hamilton).

paragraph: Section::::Career and biography.:Mid-career and work as a war artist.

paragraph: In the 1930s, Comfort regularly worked as a commercial illustrator as well as a teacher at the Ontario College of Art and Design from 1935-1938. He subsequently held by a teaching position at the University of Toronto, a post he continued after the war until 1960. He taught primarily painting techniques, including mural-painting, and other studio courses later in his career at the university.

paragraph: He was commissioned to design a mural for Toronto's North American Life Building in 1932, the first in many he completed. The following year he met the American Precisionist Charles Sheeler. One of the artist's most celebrated works, "Tadoussac" of 1935, suggests the influence of Sheeler due to its clear crisp colours and shapes.

paragraph: In 1936, Comfort rented a studio next to a room occupied by A. Y. Jackson, in the Studio Building, a warehouse made famous by the Group of Seven artists, and the following year he designed the exterior frieze and interior murals for the Toronto Stock Exchange. He was one of the organizers of the 1941 Kingston Conference, a meeting of Canadian artists to discuss the role of art in society as well as other issues facing the arts at the time. Comfort helped to initiate Canada's World War II War Art program, serving as an official war artist in World War II, travelling by sea in November 1943 to work alongside Canadian forces in Italy with the field historian Samuel Hughes. He left an important body of work that records Canada's war effort abroad. Furthermore, he was a founding member of the Federation of Canadian Artists and contributed to the 1951 Massey Report, which led to the founding of the Canada Council. an organization that Comfort helped establish. In 1954 he was one of eighteen Canadian artists commissioned by the Canadian Pacific Railway to paint a mural for the interior of one of the new Park cars entering service on the new "Canadian" transcontinental train. Each of the murals depicted a different national or provincial park; Comfort's was Banff National Park.

paragraph: Section::::Career and biography.:Director of National Gallery 1960-65.

paragraph: After the war, Comfort served on the Board of Directors and various committees at the Art Gallery of Toronto, and was Director of the National Gallery of Canada from 1959 until 1965. He was also a member of the Canadian Society of Graphic Art, Canadian Society of Painters in Water Colour, and Canadian Group of Painters, and held executive positions in a number of art organizations. He received an honorary doctorate from Mount Allison University in 1958. He was a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

paragraph: His extensive involvement during his life with artist's organizations indicates his strong belief in the importance of art integrated within society. In 1972, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.

paragraph: Section::::Commissions.

paragraph: A posthumous 3/4 length portrait of No. 1557 Colonel William Reginald Sawyer, Director of Studies 1948-1967 standing in front of the Mackenzie Building and the Stone Frigate in his academic robes was commissioned by Charles Fraser Comfort (1900-1994) for the Royal Military College of Canada.

paragraph: Section::::First Nations criticism.

paragraph: The Canadian National Railway commissioned "Captain Vancouver" for Hotel Vancouver in 1939. After months of research and planning, Comfort decided to depict a hypothetical encounter between Captain George Vancouver and an unnamed Indian chief at a potlatch ceremony. Comfort researched the clothing of the era and consulted Aboriginal anthropologist Dr. Marius Barbeau and others. The painting was removed in 1969 when the hotel was renovated. The wife of Governor General of Canada Roland Michener discovered the work after it was briefly misplaced and donated it to the University of British Columbia. From this time aboriginal viewers have raised concern over the representation of the First Nations people, as Captain Vancouver physically stands triumphantly over the aboriginal men.

paragraph: In 1997, Kwakiutl artist David Neel made the "Captain Vancouver Portrait Mask", a carved mixed-media mask of the captain. Neel made this work to critique the mural and its depiction of First Nations history and society. Also in 1997, Edmonton-based artist Jane Ash Poitras painted a new mural representing the same scene with the intention to critique and re-negotiate Comfort's depiction of First Nations people.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Canadian official war artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- War artist

paragraph: BULLET::::- War art

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Charles Fraser Comfort: fifty years" Winnipeg: Winnipeg Art Gallery, 1972.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Charles Fraser Comfort, the war years." Ottawa : Canadian War Museum, 1979.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gray, Margaret. "Charles Comfort" Agincourt, Ontario: Gage Pub., c1976.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hughes, Mary Jo. "Take Comfort: The Career of Charles Comfort." Winnipeg: Winnipeg Art Gallery, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reid, Dennis "A Concise History of Canadian Painting" 2nd Edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paintings by Charles Comfort

paragraph: BULLET::::- Interview with Charles Comfort

description: British artist

wikidata_label: Charles Comfort

wikipedia_title: Charles Comfort