text: American

text: Christie suspension

text: World War II

text: Soviet

text: BT

text: British

text: Covenanter

text: Crusader

text: Cruiser tank

text: Comet heavy cruiser tank

text: Campbell-Christie House

text: New Milford, New Jersey

text: Delamater Iron Works

text: Cooper Union

text: New York City

text: submarine

text: Spanish–American War

text: naval artillery

text: front-wheel-drive

text: Readville Race Track

text: 1905 Vanderbilt Cup

text: Vincenzo Lancia

text: Lancia Lambda

text: 1907 French Grand Prix

text: Brunots Island Race Track

text: Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

text: Mark Baldwin

text: Major League Baseball

text: River Edge, New Jersey

text: Barney Oldfield

text: fwd

text: Alec Issigonis

text: BMC Mini

text: other manufacturers

text: universal joint

text: New York City Fire Department

text: First World War

text: United States Marine Corps

text: Eli K. Cole

text: Donald Roebling

text: Robert E. Coontz

text: Gallipoli landings

text: Smedley Butler

text: sloped armor

text: Fort Myer

text: Virginia

text: Charles P. Summerall

text: antitank

text: infrastructure

text: logistics

text: Cavalry

text: armored cars

text: George S. Patton

text: C.C. Benson

text: Cavalry tank

text: Poland

text: Soviet Union

text: Great Britain

text: OGPU

text: Amtorg

text: BT tank

text: Morris Motor

text: materiel

text: Cruiser Mk III

text: winged tank

text: World War II

text: Falls Church, Virginia

text: BT tank

text: Christie suspension

text: "Flying Tanks that Shed Their Wings"

text: The Christie Page

text: Christie and the Vanderbilt Races

text: George S. Patton Papers

text: Campbell-Christie House

categories: American engineers,People from New Milford, New Jersey,1944 deaths,People from River Edge, New Jersey,1865 births,American inventors

paragraph: J. Walter Christie

paragraph: John Walter Christie (May 6, 1865 – January 11, 1944) was an American engineer and inventor. He is best known for developing the Christie suspension system used in a number of World War II-era tank designs, most notably the Soviet BT and T-34 series, and the British Covenanter and Crusader Cruiser tanks, as well as the Comet heavy cruiser tank.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and career.

paragraph: Christie was born in the Campbell-Christie House in New Milford, New Jersey on May 6, 1865. He started working at the age of sixteen at the Delamater Iron Works while taking classes at the Cooper Union in New York City. He eventually became a consulting engineer for a number of steamship lines and in his spare time did some work on early submarine designs. Following the Spanish–American War he developed and patented an improved turret track for naval artillery.

paragraph: At the same time he was working on designs for a front-wheel-drive car, which he promoted and demonstrated by racing at various speedways in the United States, including the Readville Race Track and the 1905 Vanderbilt Cup race. His car was knocked out of the race by a collision with Vincenzo Lancia who was at the time leading the race in a Fiat. Lancia was enraged, but presumably noticed the Christie car's vertical-pillar coil-based independent front suspension: the then unusual configuration subsequently turned up on the Lancia Lambda.

paragraph: He was the first American to compete in the 1907 French Grand Prix: the V4 engine of 19,891 cc that powered his vehicle was the largest ever used in a Grand Prix race, but the car retired after four laps with "engine trouble". On September 9 of that same year, Christie was seriously injured in a crash when his car struck loose debris during a lap at Brunots Island Race Track in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In a twelve-car endurance race earlier that day, scheduled to run 50 miles, the Haynes car of driver Rex Reinertson had lost its right front tire with disastrous results, catapulting into the air and landing on its roof. Reinertson was crushed beneath the car, suffering injuries (including a skull fracture) that ultimately proved fatal, and his mechanic Clarence Bastion was ejected from the vehicle and thrown 50 feet through the air, breaking both of his arms and both of his legs. After ten more laps, the race was stopped so that the injured men could receive medical treatment, and the unlucky Reinertson's car was cleared off the track. Next up was Christie, driving the car he had used at the Grand Prix only a few months before. He was attempting to break the track's lap record of 58 seconds, and due to receive a $500 prize if he was successful. Christie completed the second half of his warmup lap in only 24 seconds, so he was well on pace for a new record, but at the 1/8 mile marker of his real lap his right front wheel struck part of Reinertson's car that remained on the track. Christie was thrown from the car, traveling twenty feet in the air and fifty feet across the ground, before coming to earth. Mark Baldwin, a former Major League Baseball player who became a doctor following his retirement from professional sports, happened to be in the stands as a spectator, and he ran to Christie and administered first aid until Christie could be placed in an ambulance and taken to the hospital, a task that was complicated by the large number of spectators who had climbed down from the grandstands and moved onto the track. Christie had been knocked unconscious by the impact. He also sustained a broken left wrist, a cut on his right eye from the broken glass of his goggles, and a significant injury to his back. Doctors who treated Christie expressed concern that he might be crippled as a result of his injuries, or lose the sight in his damaged eye, and news of his accident was kept from his wife, who was herself seriously ill at their home in River Edge, New Jersey. Christie remained in the St. John's Hospital until September 19, at which point he was discharged and returned to New York. Walter Christie built the 1909 front wheel drive Christie Racer driven by Barney Oldfield, Master Driver of the World and America's Legendary Speed King, the first to lap the Indianapolis Speedway over 100 MPH. on May 28, 1916, speed: 102.623 MPH, time: 1.27.70.

paragraph: Christie now switched his energies away from automobile racing to developing his fwd New York taxicab design. With benefit of hindsight, the taxi design's importance came in large part from the fact that it incorporated a transversely mounted engine/transmission assembly, applying a basic architecture that would be greeted as revolutionary when applied by Alec Issigonis in the BMC Mini fifty years later. However, in 1909 the idea of a 'conventional lay-out' was less firmly rooted than it would have become by 1959, and for Cristie the vehicle's more striking novelty lay the fact that the entire "forecarriage", incorporating all the key mechanical components, could be detached and replaced in "less than one hour", so that the vehicle could stay on the road while the engine maintenance took place. The car's radical lay-out was to necessitate the manufacture of many complex components in-house, and problems encountered subsequently by other manufacturers producing or finding a dependable universal joint make it hard to believe that the Christie vehicle was particularly dependable. Given the heavy steering resulting from the fwd lay-out and a published unit price in 1909 of $2,600, it is understandable that the denizens of the New York cab trade did not flock to buy the Christie taxi.

paragraph: In 1912 Christie began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which also utilized a front-wheel-drive system, and subsequently sold scores of them to fire departments around the country, most notably the New York City Fire Department. The tractors allowed the departments to keep their steam-powered pumps while ending the use of horses to pull them to the scene of the fire.

paragraph: In 1916, with the First World War raging in Europe, he developed a prototype four-wheeled gun carriage for the US Army Ordnance Board. But the Ordnance board had set out strict guidelines for weapons, and Christie refused to revise his designs to suit their requirements. Christie's own personal stubbornness and his habit of offending those in the US Army and Ordnance bureaucracy would have ramifications for the rest of his career.

paragraph: Christie's first major supporter, and success, however came not from the US Army, but the United States Marine Corps Major General Eli K. Cole who was an advocate of developing the Marine Corps amphibious capability. Christie had built an amphibious light tank a decade before Donald Roebling's "Alligator", and this was to be displayed during the Winter Maneuvers of 1924 at Culebra, Puerto Rico. In overall command of the exercise was Admiral Robert E. Coontz, USN. Along with trying out the "Beetle Boat," a copy of the armoured lighters used by the British during the Gallipoli landings in 1915 that served as a landing craft, would be Christie's amphibious tank first recommended by Brigadier General Smedley Butler. The tank was transported to the exercise area aboard the , and designated as the Marine Corps Tank (GC-2). It was then hoisted on board a waiting submarine prior to its launch toward the shore, then "As the "mother ship" submerged, the Christie tank proceeded to shore. Unable to maneuver through the heavy surf, the vehicle returned to the Wyoming without landing. The next day, when the surf had subsided, the Christie amphibian once again left its mooring aboard the submarine and made a perfect landing. Despite the fact that the vehicle came ashore after the exercise had been officially declared over, Cole stated that the tank possessed the capability of being developed into an extremely valuable weapon, especially in connection with landing operations."

paragraph: Section::::Later innovations and bureaucratic frustrations.

paragraph: Christie continued to submit designs to the Ordnance board, but none was deemed acceptable. A major reason was the poor cross-country performance, due to limited suspension capabilities. He turned his attention to this problem, and after five years of development (at a cost of $382,000) he produced the revolutionary prototype tank chassis M1928 (Model 1928) design. He proudly referred to it as the "Model 1940" because he considered it to be 12 years ahead of its time. The M1928 still retained large road wheels with no return rollers for the tracks from his earlier designs, so that the tracks could be removed for road travel, allowing for greater speed and range. What made this prototype revolutionary was its new "helicoil" suspension system, whereby each wheel had its own spring-loaded assembly. This reduced space in the interior of the tank, but (combined with a very light overall weight) allowed for unprecedented high-speed cross-country mobility, albeit at the cost of extremely thin armor. Another interesting feature of the M1928 and later Christie designs was sloped armor in front, which could better deflect projectiles. The sloped armor helped to compensate for its thinness. The Army purchased several of Christie's tank prototypes for testing purposes and Christie's patent, allowing them to produce prototypes based on his design.

paragraph: In October 1928, the M1928 was demonstrated at Fort Myer, Virginia. There the Army's Chief of Staff, General Charles P. Summerall, and other high-ranking officers were impressed and strongly recommend that the Infantry Tank Board conduct further, official tests of the new vehicle. However, the Tank Board was less than impressed. They pointed out that the vehicle's armor was very thin and could not survive penetration by the smallest armor-piercing antitank rifle or artillery piece. The Board also differed with Christie on guidelines for tank capabilities, which were based on a radically different theory of armored warfare than that adhered to by Christie. While Christie advocated the use of lightweight tanks with long range and high speed, designed to penetrate enemy lines and attack their infrastructure and logistics capabilities, they saw the tank as simply a supporting weapon to facilitate breakthroughs by the infantry, and help isolate and reduce enemy strongpoints near the front lines, much as they had been used in the previous world war. For the Infantry Tank Board, armor and firepower were far more important design criteria than mobility, and the M1928 prototype was passed to the Cavalry for further evaluation.

paragraph: The Cavalry's thinking at that time was geared toward armored cars, and wanted to develop the M1928 as an armored car chassis. Once again, Christie's concept of how his vehicles should be used, together with his difficult nature, resulted in clashes with Army officials. One member of the Cavalry Evaluation Board who appreciated both Christie's design and tank warfare concepts, was Lt. Colonel George S. Patton. Patton, and his friend Major C.C. Benson, strongly supported adoption of the M1928 as the basis for a Cavalry tank.

paragraph: Ultimately, the Secretary of War rejected mass production of the M1928, citing excessive acquisition costs. Embittered, Christie felt he was justified in selling his inventions to the highest bidder. He began looking to foreign governments to purchase his advanced chassis and suspension systems; Poland, the Soviet Union and Great Britain had all expressed interest in the designs. A long and complex series of exchanges between Christie and foreign governments followed. These were technically illegal, since Christie never obtained approval of the US Department of State, Army Ordnance, or the Department of War to transfer his designs to potentially hostile governments.

paragraph: Section::::Dealings with foreign governments.

paragraph: Initially, Christie promised to sell his M1928 tank design to the Polish government. In 1929, Captain Marian Rucinski of the Polish Military Institute of Engineering Research (WIBI) was sent to the US, and soon learned of the M1928 tank being constructed by Christie's company, the "US Wheel Track Layer Corporation" in Linden, New Jersey. Rucinski also learned of a design for an improved tank (later known as the Christie M1931) that had recently gone to blueprint. Rucinski's opinion was so enthusiastic that on February 16, 1930 a special acquisition commission was dispatched to the US, headed by the Chief of the Engineering Department, Colonel Tadeusz Kossakowski. The commission signed a contract with Christie in March for construction and delivery of a single M1928 tank, and paid a pre-payment to him. Christie later reversed course and failed to deliver on his contract obligations, and faced with potential litigation, eventually returned the payment made by the Polish government, which never obtained the tank they had ordered.

paragraph: Though the Soviet Union had no diplomatic relations with the US at the time, and was barred from obtaining military equipment or weapons, Soviet OGPU agents at the trade front organization AMTORG managed to secure plans and specifications for the Christie M1928 tank chassis in 1930 using a series of deceptions. On April 28, 1930 Christie's company, the U.S. Wheel Track Layer Corporation, agreed to sell Amtorg two M1931 Christie-designed tanks at a total cost of $60,000 US, with the tanks to be delivered not later than four months from date of signing, together with spare parts to the purchased tanks for the sum of $4,000. Rights were also transferred to the production, sale and use of tanks inside the borders of the U.S.S.R. for a period of ten years. The two Christie tanks, falsely documented as agricultural farm tractors, were sold without prior approval of the U.S. Army or Department of State, and were shipped without turrets to the Soviet Union. The Soviets later improved upon the basic Christie tank design, adopting its sloping front armor for its BT tank series of infantry tanks. The BT itself was further refined into the famous Soviet T-34 tank of WWII, retaining the sloping front armor design, now adopted for side armor as well.

paragraph: Following favorable reports on observation of the Soviet activities, the British War Office arranged purchase of Christie's last remaining prototype and licensing of a Christie design through the Morris Motors Group. The deal was done by phone for £8,000 however, the British discovered that Christie had already mortgaged the vehicle. Why payment necessary to secure the vehicle was not deducted from this figure is not clear but the net cost rose to £10,420 18s 4d, which included British Customs Duty and 'other expenses'. The US authorities refused its export as it was war materiel. The vehicle was dismantled sufficiently to meet specification as an "agricultural tractor" and so be exported. The removed parts were then shipped to the UK in crates marked as "grapefruit". Christie's design still had a number of faults that he had never addressed and though the general features were retained, the design was completely reworked to form the British Cruiser Mk III (A13).

paragraph: Section::::Later life and work.

paragraph: After the U.S. Army's rejection of the M1928, Christie continued to work on new designs throughout the 1930s, including a winged tank. Though the Army purchased several prototypes and developed its own experimental designs based on Christie designs, none of the Christie designs ever saw mass production by the US.

paragraph: Following the outbreak of World War II in 1939 and the US entry into hostilities in 1941, Christie again submitted tank designs to the army, all of which featured his suspension system and large, convertible road wheels. But as with his earlier dealings with the army, attempts to secure US government adoption ended largely in frustration and rejection.

paragraph: Christie died in Falls Church, Virginia on January 11, 1944, nearly broke, as the tanks based on his designs were shaping the course of history.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- BT tank

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christie suspension

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of Soviet espionage in the United States

paragraph: BULLET::::- T-34 Tank

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chambers, Whittaker (1952), "Witness", New York: Random House, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnuski, Janusz, "Armor in Profile 1/Pancerne profile 1", Warsaw: Pelta (1997), trans. by Witold Kaluzynski

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suvorov, Viktor (1990). "Icebreaker", London: Hamish Hamilton Ltd., .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zaloga, Steven J., James Grandsen (1984). "Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two", London: Arms and Armour Press, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- George F. Hofmann, "The Marine Corps's First Experience with an Amphibious Tank" and " Army Doctrine and the Christie Tank," in Hofmann and Donn A. Starry, eds., Camp Colt to Desert Storm: The History of U.S. Armored Forces", Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1999.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Flying Tanks that Shed Their Wings" by Lew Holt in "Modern Mechanics and Inventions", July 1932

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Christie Page, a site dedicated to the man and his tank designs

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christie and the Vanderbilt Races (VanderbiltCupRaces.com)

paragraph: BULLET::::- George S. Patton Papers, collection at the University of North Dakota, Grand Forks. Including "Christie Tank – Report on Acceptance Test, 1930" and a Letter from J. Walter Christie to Sereno Brett, dated 1943

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Los Angeles Fire Department's Nine Mechanical Horses by Walt Pittman, An interesting article mentioning Christie's fire engines

paragraph: BULLET::::- Campbell-Christie House, researched and Written by Kevin Wright: an article detailing the history of Christie's family and birthplace with pictures and a short bio of J. Walter himself

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christie's patent for his suspension system

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christie's patent for an endless track for truck tractors

alias:
J. Walter Christie
John Walter Christie/J.Walter Christie

description: American engineer

wikidata_label: John Walter Christie

wikipedia_title: J. Walter Christie


text:
JP
DL
FSA
Lord Mayor of London
Conservative Party
Tonbridge School
Rugby School
Trinity College, Cambridge
MA
LLD
Frederick Temple
Archbishop of Canterbury
Aviva
Alderman
Billingsgate
Sheriff of London
London School Board
Lord Mayor of London
Queen Victoria
Jubilee
Mansion House
knight
Henry Morton Stanley
Thomas Hughes
Tom Brown's Schooldays
Conservative
Member of Parliament
City of London
Royal Fusiliers
City of London Regiment
Highgate Cemetery
Sir Gerald Stanhope Hanson, 2nd Baronet
Sir Francis Stanhope Hanson
Knight Bachelor

categories: People educated at Rugby School,Sheriffs of the City of London,Members of Parliament of the United Kingdom for the City of London,Members of London County Council,Lord Mayors of London,UK MPs 1892–1895,Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge,Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies,1840 births,Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom,People educated at Tonbridge School,Knights Bachelor,UK MPs 1886–1892,UK MPs 1895–1900,1905 deaths

paragraph: Reginald Hanson

paragraph: Sir Reginald Hanson, 1st Baronet, JP, DL, FSA (31 May 1840 – 18 April 1905) was Lord Mayor of London and a British Conservative Party politician.

paragraph: The son of Samuel and Mary Hanson (née Choppin), Reginald was educated at Tonbridge School, Rugby School and Trinity College, Cambridge (MA, LLD). The then headmaster of Rugby School Dr Frederick Temple (later Archbishop of Canterbury) said of Hanson on his departure, "I have a most sincere and warm regard for him. The manly desire he shows to get rid of his faults, and to do his duty, will always deserve the respect of all who know him. There are a few from who I part with so much regret at my own loss". Indeed, this sense of duty was upheld and he held numerous positions of public office.

paragraph: Following graduation, the young Reginald joined the Commercial Union Assurance Company (now part of Aviva plc) which was previously co-founded by his father Samuel. Within a year he was appointed to the Board of directors where he remained until 1882. By this time, he had already joined the family wholesale grocery business, Samuel Hanson & Son Limited.

paragraph: He held a number of civic posts notably as an Alderman of Billingsgate (London) from 1880 and Sheriff of London and Middlesex, 1881-82. From 1882-85 Hanson was a member of the London School Board. In 1886, he was elected Lord Mayor of London, during which time Queen Victoria celebrated her Jubilee year. In 1887, Sir Reginald entertained Her Majesty at the Mansion House where he was created a Baronet by her, having previously been knighted. Guests that day included the explorer Henry Morton Stanley and Judge Thomas Hughes author of "Tom Brown's Schooldays".

paragraph: Conservative Member of Parliament for the City of London from 1891 to 1900, Hanson was also an Honorary Colonel of the 6th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment).

paragraph: He died in 1905 and is buried in Highgate Cemetery, leaving behind two sons, Gerald (Sir Gerald Stanhope Hanson, 2nd Baronet), Francis (Sir Francis Stanhope Hanson - Knight Bachelor) and two daughters, Violet and Maud.

description: Lord Mayor of London

wikidata_label: Reginald Hanson

wikipedia_title: Reginald Hanson


text: natural history of the Sierra Nevada

text: New York City

text: U.S.

text: Europe

text: Canada

text: John Muir

text: Yosemite National Park

text: University of California, Los Angeles

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: Stanford University

text: University of Minnesota

text: San Jose State University

text: Helen K. Sharsmith

text: biologist

text: botanist

text: Carl Linnaeus

text: San Jose, California

text: Carl W. Sharsmith Herbarium

text: San José State University

text: Helen Sharsmith

text: Mount Whitney

text: Sharsmith's draba ("Draba sharsmithii")

text: Mount Whitney

text: Sierra Crest

text: Mount Whitney

text: Yosemite National Park

categories: Scientists from California,1903 births,San Jose State University faculty,Yosemite National Park,Botanists with author abbreviations,1994 deaths,History of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.),University of California, Berkeley alumni,American naturalists,University of California, Los Angeles alumni,Ecology of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.),People from San Jose, California,People from Merced County, California

paragraph: Carl Sharsmith

paragraph: Carl W. Sharsmith (March 14, 1903 – October 14, 1994) was an American naturalist and Yosemite park ranger, notable for his knowledge and interpretation of the natural history of the Sierra Nevada. He taught botany at various universities, and was the first botanist to comprehensively document the alpine flora of the high Sierra Nevada.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born Karl Wilhelm Schaarschmidt II in New York City to Swiss and German parents, he grew up the U.S., Europe, and Canada.

paragraph: Sharsmith was inspired by the works of naturalist John Muir and became interested in the outdoors and nature. He dropped out of school at 14, but became inspired enough to finish his high school and college education.

paragraph: Sharsmith enrolled in the Yosemite School of Field Natural History in 1930 then was hired as a seasonal Ranger-Naturalist in Tuolumne Meadows, Yosemite National Park the following year.

paragraph: He received his BA from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1933, and his Ph.D. in botany from the University of California, Berkeley in 1940.

paragraph: Sharsmith would work each summer as a Ranger-Naturalist and spend the rest of the year teaching or performing herbarium research.

paragraph: He was said to have explored nearly every "nook and cranny" of Yosemite's High Sierra

paragraph: The rest of the year he taught or researched at various schools, that included Stanford University, the University of Minnesota, and San Jose State University. Sharsmith was Professor of Botany at San Jose State from 1950 to 1973.

paragraph: On his opinion of teaching he said, "people are not interested in facts. The greater appeal is to the heart." On nature walks, he would often kneel down and talk about a flower. One of his favorite flowers was Raggedy Aster ("Aster integrifolius"). When asked what he would do if he only had a day to see Yosemite he replied, "I'd sit by the Merced River and cry."

paragraph: Besides interpreting for visitors, Sharsmith did basic research on the alpine meadows of the High Sierra, gathering thousands of herbarium specimens, and publishing several research papers.

paragraph: Sharsmith retired from the National Park Service in 1993 at 90, the oldest active NPS park ranger in history.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Helen K. Sharsmith, his wife, was a biologist and botanist with a Ph.D. from UC Berkeley. They had a son John, named after John Muir, and a daughter Linnea, named after Carl Linnaeus. Sharsmith and his wife later divorced.

paragraph: His interests included botany, zoology, geology, classical music, Shakespeare, and singing opera.

paragraph: Carl Sharsmith died 1994 in his home at San Jose, California.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "National Park Service Meritorious Service Award" in 1956, the highest award for an NPS employee

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yosemite Award" in 1990, as the first recipient, recognized the "rich legacy he has given this park."

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Carl W. Sharsmith Herbarium at San José State University.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sharsmith's stickseed ("Hackelia sharsmithii") — named for him by I.M. Johnston, but discovered by Sharsmith and his wife Helen Sharsmith at Mirror Lake after climbing Mount Whitney

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sharsmith's draba ("Draba sharsmithii"), or Mount Whitney draba (Rollins and R.A. Price) — endemic to southern Sierra Crest in Mount Whitney area.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sharsmith Peak, informal name for Peak 12002 in Yosemite National Park, and proposed official name.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- O'Neill, Elizabeth Stone, "Mountain Sage: The Life of Carl Sharsmith Yosemite Ranger/Naturalist" 2d ed. (1996) .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sharsmith, John and Allan Shields, "Climb Every Mountain: A Portrait of Carl Sharsmith by" (1996). .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Boyer, David S., "Yosemite--Forever?," "National Geographic", 167(1):52- (January, 1985). Includes photos and text about Sharsmith.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Neeley, Will, “Dr. Carl W. ‘Zeke’ Sharsmith,” "Yosemite Nature Notes", 46(2):76-80 (August 1977)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bingaman, John, "Dr. Carl Sharsmith", "Guardians of the Yosemite" (1961)

alias:
Sharsm.
Karl Wilhelm Schaarschmidt
Carl William Sharsmith
Carl W. Sharsmith
C. W. Sharsmith

description: American botanist

wikidata_label: Carl Sharsmith

wikipedia_title: Carl Sharsmith


text: architect

text: Civil War

text: Battle of Chancellorsville

text: George Perkins Bissell

text: 25th Connecticut Infantry

text: Plainville, Connecticut

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: James A. Clough

text: Chicago, Illinois

text: Cass Chapman

text: Bissell Alderman

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: American Institute of Architects

text: People's Savings Bank

text: Free and Accepted Masons

text: Hartford, Connecticut

text: Terryville, Connecticut

text: Sacred Heart Church

text: New Britain, Connecticut

text: St. Michael the Archangel Church

text: Bridgeport, Connecticut

text: Clovis Robert Block

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Elmwood

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Chicopee, Massachusetts

text: Chicopee, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Steiger Building

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Mater Dolorosa Parish

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Ludlow, Massachusetts

text: Friedrich Block

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Chicopee, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: United States Post Office–Holyoke Main

text: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Port Richmond, New York

text: James A. Clough

text: Oscar Beauchemin

categories: American architects,1942 deaths,Architects of Roman Catholic churches,1862 births,People from Holyoke, Massachusetts

paragraph: George P. B. Alderman

paragraph: George Perkins Bissell Alderman (September 20, 1862 – November 3, 1942), often referred to as George P. B. Alderman was an American architect who was very active in western Massachusetts and Connecticut during the late 19th and early 20th Century.

paragraph: Section::::Childhood and architectural training.

paragraph: George Perkins Bissell Alderman was born September 20, 1862 to Eugene Clydon and Ellen Eliza (née Holmes) Alderman. His full name, including the two middle initials he displayed throughout his life, derived from his father's Civil War service. Wounded in the Battle of Chancellorsville, Eugene Alderman was given up for dead until Captain George Perkins Bissell of the 25th Connecticut Infantry noticed his movement. Picking up the soldier and strapping him to his horse, he rode him to the nearest hospital, and in a feeling of indebtedness, the elder Alderman chose to name his first-born son after the man who saved him. As a young child he worked on the family farm and as a carpenter, and also attended school in East Granby, CT. The family moved to Plainville, Connecticut, where he attended school for a year, then worked at country store. In 1879 his family moved to Holyoke, Massachusetts, where he worked with his father as a carpenter.

paragraph: Eventually Alderman realized that he really desired to be an architect and to that end he entered the office of James A. Clough, architect, of Holyoke, where he worked for 5 years. He then moved to Chicago, Illinois where he found work in the offices of Cass Chapman, a prominent architect.

paragraph: Section::::Architectural practice.

paragraph: In 1885, Mr. Alderman returned to Holyoke and opened his own architectural office where he was later joined by his brother, Henry. The firm name was George P. B. Alderman & Company. The business was very active from the start building churches, schools and public buildings for a varied clientele.

paragraph: Among these he would construct religious and meetinghouse buildings for a wide variety of groups, including Catholic, Lutheran, Episcopal, and Baptist Churches, as well as at least one synagogue, a Freemason temple, a labor union hall, and spaces for various ethnic benefit societies such as the Alsatian-Lorrainian Union. He and his firm would design buildings in a number of architectural styles, including but not limited to, Gothic Revival, Italianate, Neoclassical, Richardsonian Romanesque, Victorian, and a few later examples of Art Deco.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Alderman’s son, Bissell Alderman was also an architect who attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and had a long and distinguished career serving many New England clients. The younger Alderman would also serve two terms as president of the Western Chapter of the American Institute of Architects.

paragraph: Alderman was very active in civic affairs. He was a director of the Hadley Falls Trust Company, a trustee of the People's Savings Bank, and a member of the finance committee. He was a member of the Second Baptist Church of Holyoke, a member of the Holyoke Lodge of Odd Fellows, Mt. Tom Lodge, Free and Accepted Masons, and the Engineers' Society of Western Massachusetts.

paragraph: Section::::Works include.

paragraph: Section::::Works include.:Connecticut.

paragraph: BULLET::::- German Lutheran Church, Hartford, Connecticut (1901)

paragraph: BULLET::::- German Lutheran Church, Terryville, Connecticut (1901)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sacred Heart Church, New Britain, Connecticut (1903)

paragraph: BULLET::::- St. Michael the Archangel Church, Bridgeport, Connecticut (1921)

paragraph: Section::::Works include.:Massachusetts.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clovis Robert Block, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1881)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Childs Building, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1884)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Taber Block, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1884)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rigali Building, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1884)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chapel for the First Congregational Church, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1887)

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Methodist Episcopal Church, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1889)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rectory of the Precious Blood Church, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1891)

paragraph: BULLET::::- , commercial block, Elmwood, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1897)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Willimansett School (Chapin Elementary School), Chicopee, Massachusetts (1897)

paragraph: BULLET::::- French Roman Catholic Church, Willimansett section of Chicopee, Massachusetts (1898)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Senior Block, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1898)

paragraph: BULLET::::- German Lutheran Church, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1899)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Steiger Building, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1899)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Endeavor Baptist Chapel, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1900)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mater Dolorosa Parish, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1901)

paragraph: BULLET::::- , (1903)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rodphey Sholem Synagogue, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1903)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saint Jean-Baptiste Church, Ludlow, Massachusetts (1905)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Friedrich Block, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1908)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Union Club/The Brian Boru, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1909)

paragraph: BULLET::::- , Holyoke, Massachusetts (1911)

paragraph: BULLET::::- , Holyoke, Massachusetts (1912), now Dr. Mother Elouise Franklin Church

paragraph: BULLET::::- Willimansett School- North Addition, Chicopee, Massachusetts (1912)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mount Tom Lodge Masonic Temple, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1920)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second Baptist Church, Holyoke, Massachusetts alterations (1921)

paragraph: BULLET::::- , Holyoke, Massachusetts (1927)

paragraph: BULLET::::- United States Post Office–Holyoke Main, Holyoke, Massachusetts (1933)

paragraph: Section::::Works include.:New York.

paragraph: BULLET::::- German Lutheran Church, of St. John, Port Richmond, New York (1901)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- James A. Clough, whose firm Alderman once practiced at

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oscar Beauchemin, Holyoke architect who was a contemporary of Alderman

description: American architect

wikidata_label: George P. B. Alderman

wikipedia_title: George P. B. Alderman


text:
Sambyeolcho
Wonjong
Yuan dynasty
Goryeo
Wonjong
Gaeseong
Ganghwa Island
Wonjong
Sambyeolcho
Sambyeolcho
Ganghwa Island
Jindo Island
Jindo Island
Kim Tong-jeong
Ganghwa Island
Jeju Island
Sambyeolcho
육군본부, "한국의 명장:전사연구제5집"

paragraph: Bae Jung-son

paragraph: Bae, Jung-son (裵仲孫, ? ~ 1271) is one of the generals who led Sambyeolcho for a few monthes after Wonjong moved to Gaegyeong.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was opposed to Mongolians (Yuan dynasty) in China because he hated them. At 23 May 1270 when the King of Goryeo 'Wonjong' decided to return to Gaegyeong(now Gaeseong) from Ganghwa Island, he opposed and refused it. So king 'Wonjong' ordered disbandment to Sambyeolcho, but he refused it, too. Then he moved Sambyeolcho from Ganghwa Island to Jindo Island at 3 June 1270, and continued being opposed to Mongolian. But he died April, 1271 when Goryeo – Mongolian allies invaded and occupied Jindo Island.

paragraph: Section::::After he died.

paragraph: Some survivors such as Kim Tong-jeong escaped Ganghwa Island and moved to Jeju Island, but they vanished at 1273 by Goryeo-Mongolian allies. That was the end of Sambyeolcho.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 육군본부, "한국의 명장:전사연구제5집", p.128-139

description: Korean general

wikidata_label: Bae Jung-son

wikipedia_title: Bae Jung-son


text: Egypt

text: botanist

text: University of Cairo

text: B.Sc.

text: M.Sc.

text: University of Cambridge

text: desertification

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: Shura Council

text: upper house

text: Parliament of Egypt

text: Arabic

categories: Botanists active in Africa,2012 deaths,Botanists active in Egypt,Alumni of the University of Cambridge,1921 births,Cairo University alumni,Cairo University faculty,20th-century botanists

paragraph: Mohamed Kassas

paragraph: Dr. Mohamed Abdel Fattah Al-Kassas (also known as Mohamed Kassas, July 6, 1921 – March 21, 2012) was an Egyptian botanist and conservationist. He was professor emeritus for Botany at the University of Cairo and a specialist in Arid land Ecology.

paragraph: He studied at the University of Cairo, where he received a B.Sc. in 1944 and a M.Sc. in 1947, and at the University of Cambridge (Ph.D. in 1950). A specialist in the ecology of desert plants, and was among the first to publish on the topic of desertification. Kassas was an advisory member of the United Nations Environment Programme from its beginning, and from 1978 to 1984 president of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In 1981, he was appointed a member of the Shura Council, the upper house of the Parliament of Egypt. He was a fellow of the Indian National Academy of Science and the world Academy of Art and Science, and member of the Club of Rome. He was a founding member of the Arab Forum for Environment and Development (2007). He received Honorary Doctorate Degree from universities in the Sudan, Sweden, Egypt and USA, and was on the editorial boards of several international journals in fields of ecology and environmental sciences.

paragraph: His principle research interests during the last 55 years were in plant ecology, especially in arid lands. He and his students surveyed plant life in the deserts and coastal lands of Egypt, Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Iraq and contributed to the basic understanding of the ecology of the desert vegetation. He was among the pioneers who warned the world against hazards of desertification, contributed to the UNESCO Arid Lands Research Program, (1950-1960) and to the scientific preparation for the United Nations Conference on Desertification (1977) and was senior Advisor to the Intergovernmental committee that negotiated the Convention on Desertification (1992-1994).

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Egypt

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Order of Science and Arts (1959)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Order of the Republic (1978)

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Order of Merit (1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- State Science Prize (1982)

paragraph: BULLET::::- International

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Golden Order for Education (Sudan, 1978)

paragraph: BULLET::::- United Nations Prize for Environment (1978)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) Gold Medal (1978)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander in the Order of the Golden Ark (The Netherlands, 1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commander: the Swedish Royal Order of the Polar Star (1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zayed (UAE) International Prize for Environment (2001)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dr Mostafa K. Tolba, Former Executive Director, UNDP, Delivering his Eulogy in honor of Prof Kassas (Arabic).

alias:
Mohamed Al-Kassas
Mohamed Abdel Fattah Al-Kassas
M.A. Kassas

description: Egyptian botanist

wikidata_label: Mohamed Kassas

wikipedia_title: Mohamed Kassas


text:
lawyer
Attorney-general
consort
King James I
Anne of Denmark
House of Commons
Lawrence Hyde I
West Hatch
Heytesbury
Claverton
Henry Hyde
Nicholas Hyde
Lord Chief Justice
Magdalen Hall, Oxford
Member of Parliament
Chippenham
Middle Woodford
Salisbury
Middle Temple
Heytesbury
Marlborough
Attorney-general
Anne of Denmark
Benham
Sir Henry Hyde
royalist
the Continent
Sir Robert Hyde
Chief Justice of the King's Bench
Alexander Hyde
Bishop of Salisbury
Edward Hyde
royalist
divine
Dean of Windsor
Anglican
Lawrence Hyde

categories: English MPs 1586–1587,English MPs 1597–1598,English MPs 1604–1611,1562 births,English MPs 1601,1641 deaths

paragraph: Lawrence Hyde (attorney-general)

paragraph: Sir Lawrence Hyde II (1562 – 26 January 1641) was an English lawyer who was Attorney-general to the consort of King James I, Anne of Denmark. He sat in the House of Commons at various times between the years 1584 and 1611.

paragraph: Section::::Origins.

paragraph: Hyde was the second son of Lawrence Hyde I (d. 1590) of West Hatch, Wiltshire, MP for Heytesbury in 1584, by his second wife Anne Sibell, daughter of Nicholas Sibell of Farningham, Kent, and widow of Matthew Colthurst of Claverton, Somerset. He was the brother of Henry Hyde (c. 1563–1634), MP, and Sir Nicholas Hyde (c. 1572–1631), Lord Chief Justice.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford in around 1579, aged 17 and was awarded BA on 9 March 1580. He was elected Member of Parliament for Chippenham in 1586. He lived at Heale House, Middle Woodford, near Salisbury and was called to the bar at Middle Temple in 1589.

paragraph: Hyde was elected MP for Heytesbury in 1597 and for Marlborough in 1601 and 1604. He became Attorney-general to Anne of Denmark, consort of King James I, and was knighted on 27 November 1614. In 1616 he became treasurer of the Middle Temple.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage & progeny.

paragraph: Hyde married Barbara Castillion, daughter of John Baptista Castillion of Benham, Berkshire, by whom he had 12 sons and 5 daughters. Five of his sons rose to significant positions:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sir Henry Hyde (c. 1605–1650). An ardent royalist who accompanied Charles II to the Continent, and returning to England was beheaded in 1650.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sir Robert Hyde (1595–1665). Chief Justice of the King's Bench

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander Hyde (1598–1667). Bishop of Salisbury

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward Hyde (1607–1659). A royalist divine who was nominated Dean of Windsor in 1658, but died before taking up the appointment, and who was the author of many controversial works in Anglican theology.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lawrence Hyde (c.1610–1682). Member of Parliament for Winchester

wikidata_label: Lawrence Hyde

wikipedia_title: Lawrence Hyde (attorney-general)


text:
American football
long snapper
San Francisco 49ers
National Football League
Louisville
Pittsburgh Steelers
2017 NFL Draft
high school
football
baseball
Eastern High School
University of Louisville
Pittsburgh Steelers
2017 NFL Draft
Louisville Cardinal
Greg Warren
Kameron Canaday
Jacksonville Jaguars
Matt Overton
San Francisco 49ers
Kyle Nelson
San Francisco 49ers bio
Louisville Cardinals bio

categories: Sportspeople from Louisville, Kentucky,Living people,Pittsburgh Steelers players,Eastern High School (Louisville, Kentucky) alumni,Jacksonville Jaguars players,1993 births,Louisville Cardinals football players,American football long snappers,Players of American football from Kentucky

paragraph: Colin Holba

paragraph: Colin Holba (born July 8, 1994) is an American football long snapper for the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Louisville. Holba was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the sixth round (213th overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: While in high school, Colin played two years of football and three years of baseball. He also made honor roll for all four years of high school and graduated as valedictorian at Eastern High School.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: Colin played college football at the University of Louisville.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Holba was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the sixth round, 213th overall, in the 2017 NFL Draft. He was the first Louisville Cardinal to be drafted in the 2017 NFL Draft. On May 11, 2017, the Steelers signed Holba to a four-year, $2.52 million contract with a signing bonus of $129,314.

paragraph: He was selected in the draft to be the replacement for long time veteran Greg Warren. Throughout training camp he competed with Kameron Canaday. On September 2, 2017, Holba was waived after losing the competition for the vacant long snapper position to Canaday.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Jacksonville Jaguars.

paragraph: On November 14, 2017, Holba was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars after long snapper Matt Overton sustained a shoulder injury and was placed on injured reserve.

paragraph: On June 14, 2018, Holba was waived by the Jaguars.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:San Francisco 49ers.

paragraph: On December 5, 2018, Holba signed a two-year deal with the San Francisco 49ers as a replacement for suspended long-snapper Kyle Nelson.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- San Francisco 49ers bio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Louisville Cardinals bio

description: American football long snapper for Atlanta Legends

wikidata_label: Colin Holba

wikipedia_title: Colin Holba


text: Stanford University

text: Lewis Terman

text: Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales

text: Owatonna, Minnesota

text: Oberlin College

text: Frank Angell

text: Lewis Terman

text: Jeanne Block

text: San Jose, California

text: Ohio State University

text: Walter Reckless

categories: Stanford University alumni,1888 births,Oberlin College alumni,Stanford University faculty,American psychologists,1978 deaths

paragraph: Maud A. Merrill

paragraph: Maud Amanda Merrill (April 30, 1888 – January 15, 1978) was an American psychologist. Both an alumna and faculty member of Stanford University, Merrill worked with Lewis Terman to develop the second and third editions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Merrill was born in 1888 in Owatonna, Minnesota. As a child she lived at the Minnesota State Public School for Dependent and Neglected Children, an orphanage of which her father was the director. She earned a psychology degree from Oberlin College in 1911.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Employed by the Minnesota Bureau of Research, Merrill was a research assistant assigned to the Faribault Minnesota State Home for the Feeble Minded and she worked as an assistant to bureau head Fred Kuhlmann. After several years with the bureau, she decided to return to school to pursue a Ph.D. in psychology. Merrill wrote to Stanford to inquire about their graduate psychology program, but department head Frank Angell sent her a lukewarm reply asking her why she could not attend a school closer to her.

paragraph: Upon hearing about Angell's reply, Kuhlmann decided to intervene on Merrill's behalf. Kuhlmann wrote directly to educational psychology professor Lewis Terman, a well-known intelligence researcher with whom Merrill hoped to work. Merrill worked with Terman as she earned a master's degree in education. Terman later took over as head of the psychology department, and Merrill earned a Ph.D. in psychology from Stanford in 1923.

paragraph: Merrill became a faculty member at Stanford, where she continued to work with Terman. The pair collaborated on "Genetic Studies of Genius", a longitudinal study of highly intelligent people. Terman and Merrill published a second edition of his Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (1931). Though she retired in 1954 and Terman died in 1956, Merrill released a third edition of the scales in 1960. Merrill was a mentor to budding developmental psychologist Jeanne Block, who became known for her studies of twin and non-twin siblings.

paragraph: Merrill also worked as a consultant for the juvenile courts in San Jose, California. That work introduced her to Judge William Francis James, who she grew fond of and married in 1933. After her marriage she was occasionally referred to as Merrill-James (or Merrill James), but continued to use the name Merrill in her publications.

paragraph: The work for the juvenile courts also inspired her 1947 book, "Problems of Child Delinquency". That book explored the environments and temperaments of delinquent children. In a review of the book, Ohio State University professor Walter Reckless said that her work "gives ample reason to reconsider the factor of the broken-home family, which many sociologists have discounted in recent years, as well as the IQ level in determining delinquency..."

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Merrill died at her home in 1978. She lived on the Stanford University campus for nearly 60 years as a graduate student, faculty member and retiree. She was predeceased by her husband in 1966.

alias:
Maud Merrill
Maud Amanda Merrill James

description: American psychologist

wikidata_label: Maud Merrill James

wikipedia_title: Maud A. Merrill


text:
Italian architect
Renaissance architecture
Milan
High Renaissance
Rome
St. Peter's Basilica
Michelangelo
Tempietto
San Pietro in Montorio
Pope Julius II
Peter
Fermignano
Urbino
Luciano Laurana
Palazzo Ducale
arcaded
courtyard
Federico da Montefeltro
Melozzo da Forlì
Piero della Francesca
perspective
Mantegna
Milan
Ludovico Sforza
trompe-l'oeil
Santa Maria presso San Satiro
apse
bas-relief
dome
Santa Maria delle Grazie
Cloisters of Sant'Ambrogio
Pavia
Legnano
Cardinal Riario
Cardinal Della Rovere
Pope Julius II
Renaissance
Tempietto
San Pietro in Montorio
Janiculum
Sebastiano Serlio
St Peter's Basilica
crossing
Santa Maria della Consolazione
Todi
nave
transept
St Peter's Basilica
Santa Maria della Pace
Piazza Navona
Santa Maria presso San Satiro
Palazzo della Cancelleria
Santa Maria delle Grazie
Tempietto
San Pietro in Montorio
Santa Maria della Pace
St. Peter's Basilica
Cortile del Belvedere
Palazzo Caprini
Raphael's House
Leon Battista Alberti
Giorgio Vasari
Donato Bramante Source

categories: Italian Renaissance architects,1514 deaths,People from the Province of Pesaro e Urbino,1444 births,15th-century Italian architects

paragraph: Donato Bramante

paragraph: Donato Bramante (1444 – 11 April 1514), born as Donato di Pascuccio d'Antonio and also known as Bramante Lazzari, was an Italian architect. He introduced Renaissance architecture to Milan and the High Renaissance style to Rome, where his plan for St. Peter's Basilica formed the basis of design executed by Michelangelo. His Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio) marked the beginning of the High Renaissance in Rome (1502) when Pope Julius II appointed him to build a sanctuary over the spot where Peter was allegedly crucified.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Urbino.

paragraph: Bramante was born under the name Donato d'Augnolo, Donato di Pascuccio d'Antonio, or Donato Pascuccio d'Antonio in Fermignano near Urbino. Here, in 1467, Luciano Laurana was adding to the Palazzo Ducale an arcaded courtyard and other Renaissance features to Federico da Montefeltro's ducal palace. Bramante's architecture has eclipsed his painting skills: he knew the painters Melozzo da Forlì and Piero della Francesca well, who were interested in the rules of perspective and illusionistic features in Mantegna's painting.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Milan.

paragraph: Around 1474, Bramante moved to Milan, a city with a deep Gothic architectural tradition, and built several churches in the new Antique style. The Duke, Ludovico Sforza, made him virtually his court architect, beginning in 1476, with commissions that culminated in the famous trompe-l'oeil choir of the church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro (1482–1486). Space was limited, and Bramante made a theatrical apse in bas-relief, combining the painterly arts of perspective with Roman details. There is an octagonal sacristy, surmounted by a dome. In Milan, Bramante also built the tribune of Santa Maria delle Grazie (1492–99); other early works include the Cloisters of Sant'Ambrogio, Milan (1497–1498), and some other constructions in Pavia and possibly Legnano. However, in 1499, with his Sforza patron driven from Milan by an invading French army, Bramante made his way to Rome, where he was already known to the powerful Cardinal Riario.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Rome.

paragraph: In Rome, he was soon recognized by Cardinal Della Rovere, shortly to become Pope Julius II. For Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile or possibly Julius II, Bramante designed one of the most harmonious buildings of the Renaissance: the Tempietto (1510) of San Pietro in Montorio on the Janiculum. Despite its small scale, the construction has all the rigorous proportions and symmetry of Classical structures, surrounded by slender Doric columns, surmounted by a dome. According to a later engraving by Sebastiano Serlio, Bramante planned to set it within a colonnaded courtyard. In November 1503, Julius engaged Bramante for the construction of the grandest European architectural commission of the 16th century, the complete rebuilding of St Peter's Basilica. The cornerstone of the first of the great piers of the crossing was laid with ceremony on 17 April 1506. Very few drawings by Bramante survive, though some by his assistants do, demonstrating the extent of the team which had been assembled. Bramante's vision for St Peter's, a centralized Greek cross plan that symbolized sublime perfection for him and his generation (compare Santa Maria della Consolazione at Todi, influenced by Bramante's work) was fundamentally altered by the extension of the nave after his death in 1514. Bramante's plan envisaged four great chapels filling the corner spaces between the equal transepts, each one capped with a smaller dome surrounding the great dome over the crossing. So Bramante's original plan was very much more Romano-Byzantine in its forms than the basilica that was actually built. (See St Peter's Basilica for further details.)

paragraph: Bramante also worked on several other commissions. Among his earliest works in Rome, before the Basilica's construction was under way, is the cloister (1500–1504) of Santa Maria della Pace near Piazza Navona.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Santa Maria presso San Satiro, Milan, ca. 1482–1486

paragraph: BULLET::::- Palazzo della Cancelleria, Rome, ca. 1489-1513

paragraph: BULLET::::- Santa Maria delle Grazie (cloister and apse); Milan, 1492–1498

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Tempietto, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 1502

paragraph: BULLET::::- Santa Maria della Pace (cloister); Rome, 1504

paragraph: BULLET::::- St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, design 1503, ground breaking 1506

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cortile del Belvedere, Vatican City, Rome, 1506.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Palazzo Caprini (also known as Raphael's House), Rome, started around 1510 (demolished in the 17th century)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leon Battista Alberti

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giorgio Vasari

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Donato Bramante Source Information, Pictures & Documentaries about Donato.

alias:
Donino Bramante
Donato da Urbino
Donato Di Angelo di Antonio
Donnino di Angelo di Antonio
Donato Bramante da Urbino
Donnino Di Angelo di Antonio
Donnino di Angelo Di Antonio
Bramantes Asdryvaldinus
Bramante de Asdrubaldinis
Donato d' Angeli Lazzari
Donato D'Angeli Lazzari
Donato di Angelo Di Antonio
Donato d'Angelo Lazzari Bramante
Donato, da Urbino Bramante
Donato Lazzari
Donnino Bramante
Donato Lazari
Donato di Angelo di Antonio
Donato Bramanti
Lazzari Bramante Da Urbino
Donato Bramante Da Urbino
Donato D'Urbino
Bramante
Donato d'Angelo Lazzari
Bromarti
Urbino Bramante
Bramante da Urbino
Bramanti

description: architect, sculptor, graphic artist, fresco painter, painter

wikidata_label: Donato Bramante

wikipedia_title: Donato Bramante


text:
shōgun
Kamakura shogunate
Japan
kanpaku
Kujō Michiie
Minamoto no Yoritomo
Minamoto no Yoritomo
Minamoto no Yoriie
Chinese astrology
Tiger
Fujiwara clan
Kujō family
Kujō Michiie
Kujō Yoritsugu
"Sei-i Taishōgun"
Kamakura shogunate
regent
Hōjō Yoshitoki
Hōjō Masako
Karoku
Hōjō Yasutoki
shikken
Emperor Go-Horikawa
kuge
Kangi
Minamoto no Yoriie
Jōei
Tenpuku
Bunryaku
Katei
Rokuhara
Ryakunin
Ninji
Hōjō Yasutoki
Hōjō Tsunetoki
Kangen
Kujō Yoritsugu
Hōjō Tsunetoki
Kōgen
Fujiwara Yoritsune
Fujiwara Yoritsugu
era name
nengō
Karoku
Antei
Kangi
Jōei
Tenpuku
Bunryaku
Katei
Ryakunin
En'ō
Ninji
Kangen
Mass, Jeffrey P.
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric
"Japan encyclopedia".
OCLC 58053128
Titsingh, Isaac.
Nihon Ōdai Ichiran
"Annales des empereurs du Japon".
OCLC 5850691
Varley, H. Paul
Columbia University Press
OCLC 6042764

categories: 13th-century shōguns,Kamakura shōguns,1218 births,People of Kamakura-period Japan,13th-century Japanese people,1256 deaths

paragraph: Kujō Yoritsune

paragraph: , also known as Fujiwara no Yoritsune, was the fourth "shōgun" of the Kamakura shogunate of Japan. His father was "kanpaku" Kujō Michiie and his grandmother was a niece of Minamoto no Yoritomo. His wife was a granddaughter of Minamoto no Yoritomo and daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. He was born in the year (according to Chinese astrology) of the Tiger, in the month, on the day, and so his given name at birth was Mitora (三寅, "Triple Tiger").

paragraph: Yoritsune was a member of the great Fujiwara clan. The Kujō family was one of the five branches of the historically powerful Fujiwara clan of courtiers.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Father: Kujō Michiie

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mother: Saionji Rinko

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wife: Minamoto no Yoshiko (1202–1234)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Concubine: Omiya no Tsubone

paragraph: BULLET::::- Children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kujō Yoritsugu by Omiya

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kujō Michijo by Omiya

paragraph: BULLET::::- Minamoto no Meguhime by Omiya

paragraph: Section::::Events of Yoritsune's "bakufu".

paragraph: At the age of seven, in 1226, Yoritsune became "Sei-i Taishōgun" in a political deal between his father and the Kamakura shogunate regent Hōjō Yoshitoki and Hōjō Masako who set him up as a puppet shogun.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1225 ("Karoku 1, 11th month"): At Kamakura, Yoritsune's coming of age ceremonies took place at age 8; but control of all bakufu affairs remained entirely in the hands of Hōjō Yasutoki, the regent ("shikken").

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1226 ("Karoku 2, 1st month"): Emperor Go-Horikawa raised Yoritsune to the first rank of the fifth class in the apex of artistocratic court hierarchy (the "dōjō kuge").

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1230 ("Kangi 2, 12th month"): Yoritsune is married to the daughter of Minamoto no Yoriie. She is 15 years older than he is.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1231 ("Kangi 3, 2nd month"): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 4th class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1231 ("Kangi 3, 3rd month"): Yoritsune is created a general of the left.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1231 ("Kangi 3, 4th month"): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 4th class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1232 ("Jōei 1, 2nd month"): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the 3rd class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1233 ("Tenpuku 1, 1st month"): Yoritsune is granted the court post of provisional

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1234 ("Bunryaku 1, 12th month"): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the 3rd class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1235 ("Katei 1, 11th month"): Yoritsune is raised to the second rank of the second class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1236 ("Katei 2, 7th month"): Yoritsune is raised to the first rank of the second class in the "dōjō kuge".

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1237 ("Katei 3, 8th month"): Yoritsune ordered the building of a mansion in the Rokuhara section of Miyako.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1238 ("Ryakunin 1, 1st month"): Yoritsune leaves Kamakura en route to Miyako, accompanied by Yaskutoki and the troupes of several provinces. Fujiwara no Yukimitis stays at Kamakura to preserve order in the land.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1238 ("Ryakunin 1, 2nd month"): Yoritsune arrives in Miyako and begins to live in his new palace at Rokuhara.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1238 ("Ryakunin 1, 10th month"): Yoritsune leaves Miyako to return to Kamakura.

paragraph: BULLET::::- July 14, 1242 ("Ninji 3, 15th day of the 6th month"): Hōjō Yasutoki died at age 60. From "Gennin" 1, or during 19 years, Yasutoki had been the regent or prime minister ("shikken") of the Kamakura shogunate. Yasutoki's son, Hōjō Tsunetoki succeeded him as "shikken", but Yoritsune himself took charge of the bakufu.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1244 ("Kangen 2"): In the spring of this year, a number of extraordinary phenomena in the skies over Kamakura troubled Yoritsune deeply.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1244 ("Kangen 2, 4th month"): Yoritsune's son, Yoritsugu, had his coming-of-age ceremonies at age 6. In the same month, Yoritsune asked Emperor Go-Saga for permission to give up his responsibilities as shogun in favor of his son, Kujō Yoritsugu.

paragraph: BULLET::::- September 11, 1245 ("Kangen 3, 7th month"): Yoshitsune shaved his head and became a Buddhist priest.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1246 ("Kangen 4, 7th month"): Yoritsune's son, now Shogun Yoritsugu (who is only 7 years old) marries the sister of Hōjō Tsunetoki (who is himself only 16 years old).

paragraph: BULLET::::- September 1, 1256 ("Kōgen 1, 11th day of the 8th month"): Kujō Yoritsune, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsune, died at the age of 39 years.

paragraph: BULLET::::- October 14, 1256 ("Kōgen 1, 24th day of the 9th month"): Yoritsune's son and successor as Kamakura shogun, Kujō Yoritsugu, also known as Fujiwara Yoritsugu, died at the age of 18 years.

paragraph: Section::::Eras of Yoritsune's "bakufu".

paragraph: The years in which Yoritsune was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Karoku" (1225–1227)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Antei" (1227–1229)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kangi" (1229–1232)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jōei" (1232–1233)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tenpuku" (1233–1234)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bunryaku" (1234–1235)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Katei" (1235–1238)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ryakunin" (1238–1239)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "En'ō" (1239–1240)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ninji" (1240–1243)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kangen" (1243–1247)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mass, Jeffrey P. (1976). "The Kamakura bakufu: a study in documents". Stanford: Stanford University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- __________. (1974). "Warrior government in early medieval Japan: a study of the Kamakura Bakufu, shugo and jitō" New Haven: Yale University Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). "Japan encyclopedia". Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ōyama Kyōhei. "Kamakura bakufu" 鎌倉幕府. Tokyo: Shōgakkan 小学館, 1974.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). "Nihon Ōdai Ichiran"; ou, "Annales des empereurs du Japon". Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Varley, H. Paul. (1980). "A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa". New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 6042764

alias:
Fujiwara no Yoritsune
Kujo Yoritsune
Kujou Yoritsune

description: 4th shogun of the Kamakura shogunate

wikidata_label: Kujō Yoritsune

wikipedia_title: Kujō Yoritsune


text: Nigerian

text: United Nations

text: Economic Commission for Africa

text: Commander of the Federal Republic

text: Ijebu Ode

text: Lagos

categories: Yoruba politicians,Nigerian academics,Alumni of the University of London,Nigerian expatriates in the United States,Nigerian officials of the United Nations,Under-Secretaries-General of the United Nations,1930 births,2018 deaths,People from Ijebu Ode,Classical liberals,Yoruba diplomats,Obafemi Awolowo University faculty,Yoruba academics,John F. Kennedy School of Government alumni,Nigerian diplomats

paragraph: Adebayo Adedeji

paragraph: Adebayo Adedeji (21 December 1930 – 25 April 2018) was a Nigerian economist and academic. A full-fledged Professor at the age of 36 years, he was Nigeria's Federal Commissioner for Economic Development & Reconstruction from 1971 to 1975. He was responsible for the economic development and reconstruction of post-civil war Nigeria. In June 1975, he was appointed Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and remained in this position until July 1991. Adedeji wrote the Lagos Plan of Action of 1980 that was adopted by the UN and OAU. On his return to Nigeria, he founded the African Centre for Development and Strategic Studies (ACDESS), a non-governmental independent continental non-profit, think-tank dedicated to multi-disciplinary and strategic studies on and for Africa. He received the national honor of Commander of the Federal Republic.

paragraph: In December 2010, after turning 80, he retired from public life and spent the last years of his life quietly in his home town of Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Adebayo Adedeji was born on 21 December 1930 in Ijebu Ode, Nigeria.

paragraph: Adedeji died in the evening on 25 April 2018 in Lagos after suffering from a long illness. UNECA held a memorial symposium in his honor on 7 July in Lagos.

paragraph: Section::::Weblinks.

paragraph: BULLET::::- United Nations Economic Commission for Africa - Remembering Professor Adebayo Adedeji

description: politician

wikidata_label: Adebayo Adedeji

wikipedia_title: Adebayo Adedeji


text: Wessex

text: Ealhmund of Kent

text: Offa of Mercia

text: Beorhtric of Wessex

text: Mercia

text: Beornwulf of Mercia

text: Mercia's supremacy

text: Battle of Ellandun

text: Wiglaf of Mercia

text: Northumbria

text: Dore

text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

text: bretwalda

text: Æthelwulf

text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

text: Ealhmund of Kent

text: Ine of Wessex

text: Cerdic

text: House of Wessex

text: Frank Stenton

text: Dictionary of National Biography

text: Charlemagne

text: Francia

text: Alburga

text: Wilton Abbey

text: Wulfstan, ealdorman of Wiltshire

text: Abbess

text: Offa of Mercia

text: Offa

text: Cynewulf

text: Heahberht of Kent

text: Ecgberht II of Kent

text: Ealhmund

text: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

text: Beorhtric

text: Francia

text: Francia

text: Charlemagne

text: Eadberht

text: William of Malmesbury

text: Cenwulf

text: Hwicce

text: ealdorman

text: Æthelmund

text: Dumnonia

text: Cornwall

text: Gafulford

text: Beornwulf of Mercia

text: Ellandun

text: Wroughton

text: Swindon

text: Sigered

text: Dumnonia

text: Wulfred

text: Archbishop of Canterbury

text: Mercia

text: Wiglaf

text: London Mint

text: bretwalda

text: Ælle of Sussex

text: Oswiu of Northumbria

text: Penda

text: Dore

text: Sheffield

text: Eanred

text: Roger of Wendover

text: Æthelstan

text: Eardwulf

text: Louis the Pious

text: Carhampton

text: Danes

text: Battle of Hingston Down

text: Tamar

text: Ceolnoth

text: Alfred the Great

text: Alfred the Great

text: Edward the Elder

text: Egbert's charters

categories: 9th-century English monarchs,770s births,Kentish monarchs,Burials at Winchester Cathedral,Anglo-Saxon warriors,839 deaths,House of Wessex,Mercian monarchs,Founding monarchs

paragraph: Ecgberht, King of Wessex

paragraph: Ecgberht (771/775 – 839), also spelled Egbert, Ecgbert, or Ecgbriht, was King of Wessex from 802 until his death in 839. His father was Ealhmund of Kent. In the 780s Ecgberht was forced into exile by Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex, but on Beorhtric's death in 802 Ecgberht returned and took the throne.

paragraph: Little is known of the first 20 years of Ecgberht's reign, but it is thought that he was able to maintain the independence of Wessex against the kingdom of Mercia, which at that time dominated the other southern English kingdoms. In 825 Ecgberht defeated Beornwulf of Mercia, ended Mercia's supremacy at the Battle of Ellandun, and proceeded to take control of the Mercian dependencies in southeastern England. In 829 he defeated Wiglaf of Mercia and drove him out of his kingdom, temporarily ruling Mercia directly. Later that year Ecgberht received the submission of the Northumbrian king at Dore. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" subsequently described Ecgberht as a "bretwalda" or 'wide-ruler' of Anglo-Saxon lands.

paragraph: Ecgberht was unable to maintain this dominant position, and within a year Wiglaf regained the throne of Mercia. However, Wessex did retain control of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey; these territories were given to Ecgberht's son Æthelwulf to rule as a subking under Ecgberht. When Ecgberht died in 839, Æthelwulf succeeded him; the southeastern kingdoms were finally absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex after Æthelwulf's death in 858.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Historians do not agree on Ecgberht's ancestry. The earliest version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," the "Parker Chronicle," begins with a genealogical preface tracing the ancestry of Ecgberht's son Æthelwulf back through Ecgberht, Ealhmund (thought to be Ealhmund of Kent), and the otherwise unknown Eoppa and Eafa to Ingild, brother of King Ine of Wessex, who abdicated the throne in 726. It continues back to Cerdic, founder of the House of Wessex. Ecgberht's descent from Ingild was accepted by Frank Stenton, but not the earlier genealogy back to Cerdic. Heather Edwards in her Online Dictionary of National Biography article on Ecgberht argues that he was of Kentish origin, and that the West Saxon descent may have been manufactured during his reign to give him legitimacy, whereas Rory Naismith considered a Kentish origin unlikely, and that it is more probable that "Ecgberht was born of good West Saxon royal stock".

paragraph: Ecgberht's wife's name is unknown. A fifteenth century chronicle now held by Oxford University names Ecgberht's wife as Redburga who was supposedly a relative of Charlemagne that he married when he was banished to Francia, but this is dismissed by academic historians in view of its late date. He is reputed to have had a half-sister Alburga, later to be recognised as a saint for her founding of Wilton Abbey. She was married to Wulfstan, ealdorman of Wiltshire, and on his death in 802 she became a nun, Abbess of Wilton Abbey.

paragraph: Section::::Political context and early life.

paragraph: Offa of Mercia, who reigned from 757 to 796, was the dominant force in Anglo-Saxon England in the second half of the eighth century. The relationship between Offa and Cynewulf, who was king of Wessex from 757 to 786, is not well documented, but it seems likely that Cynewulf maintained some independence from Mercian overlordship. Evidence of the relationship between kings can come from charters, which were documents which granted land to followers or to churchmen, and which were witnessed by the kings who had power to grant the land. In some cases a king will appear on a charter as a subregulus, or "subking", making it clear that he has an overlord. Cynewulf appears as "King of the West Saxons" on a charter of Offa's in 772; and he was defeated by Offa in battle in 779 at Bensington, but there is nothing else to suggest Cynewulf was not his own master, and he is not known to have acknowledged Offa as overlord. Offa did have influence in the southeast of the country: a charter of 764 shows him in the company of Heahberht of Kent, suggesting that Offa's influence helped place Heahberht on the throne. The extent of Offa's control of Kent between 765 and 776 is a matter of debate amongst historians, but from 776 until about 784 it appears that the Kentish kings had substantial independence from Mercia.

paragraph: Another Ecgberht, Ecgberht II of Kent, ruled in that kingdom throughout the 770s; he is last mentioned in 779, in a charter granting land at Rochester. In 784 a new king of Kent, Ealhmund, appears in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". According to a note in the margin, "this king Ealhmund was Egbert's father [i.e. Ecgberht of Wessex], Egbert was Æthelwulf's father." This is supported by the genealogical preface from the A text of the "Chronicle", which gives Ecgberht's father's name as Ealhmund without further details. The preface probably dates from the late ninth century; the marginal note is on the F manuscript of the "Chronicle", which is a Kentish version dating from about 1100.

paragraph: Ealhmund does not appear to have long survived in power: there is no record of his activities after 784. There is, however, extensive evidence of Offa's domination of Kent during the late 780s, with his goals apparently going beyond overlordship to outright annexation of the kingdom, and he has been described as "the rival, not the overlord, of the Kentish kings". It is possible that the young Ecgberht fled to Wessex in 785 or so; it is suggestive that the "Chronicle" mentions in a later entry that Beorhtric, Cynewulf's successor, helped Offa to exile Ecgberht.

paragraph: Cynewulf was murdered in 786. His succession was contested by Ecgberht, but he was defeated by Beorhtric, maybe with Offa's assistance. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that Ecgberht spent three years in Francia before he was king, exiled by Beorhtric and Offa. The text says "iii" for three, but this may have been a scribal error, with the correct reading being "xiii", that is, thirteen years. Beorhtric's reign lasted sixteen years, and not thirteen; and all extant texts of the "Chronicle" agree on "iii", but many modern accounts assume that Ecgberht did indeed spend thirteen years in Francia. This requires assuming that the error in transcription is common to every manuscript of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"; many historians make this assumption but others have rejected it as unlikely, given the consistency of the sources. In either case Ecgberht was probably exiled in 789, when Beorhtric, his rival, married the daughter of Offa of Mercia.

paragraph: At the time Ecgberht was in exile, Francia was ruled by Charlemagne, who maintained Frankish influence in Northumbria and is known to have supported Offa's enemies in the south. Another exile in Gaul at this time was Odberht, a priest, who is almost certainly the same person as Eadberht, who later became king of Kent. According to a later chronicler, William of Malmesbury, Ecgberht learned the arts of government during his time in Gaul.

paragraph: Section::::Early reign.

paragraph: Beorhtric's dependency on Mercia continued into the reign of Cenwulf, who became king of Mercia a few months after Offa's death. Beorhtric died in 802, and Ecgberht came to the throne of Wessex, probably with the support of Charlemagne and perhaps also the papacy. The Mercians continued to oppose Ecgberht: the day of his accession, the Hwicce (who had originally formed a separate kingdom, but by that time were part of Mercia) attacked, under the leadership of their ealdorman, Æthelmund. Weohstan, a Wessex ealdorman, met him with men from Wiltshire: according to a 15th-century source, Weohstan had married Alburga, Ecgberht's sister, and so was his brother-in-law. The Hwicce were defeated, though Weohstan was killed as well as Æthelmund. Nothing more is recorded of Ecgberht's relations with Mercia for more than twenty years after this battle. It seems likely that Ecgberht had no influence outside his own borders, but on the other hand there is no evidence that he ever submitted to the overlordship of Cenwulf. Cenwulf did have overlordship of the rest of southern England, but in Cenwulf's charters the title of "overlord of the southern English" never appears, presumably in consequence of the independence of the kingdom of Wessex.

paragraph: In 815 the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that Ecgberht ravaged the whole of the territories of the remaining British kingdom, Dumnonia, known to the author of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" as the West Welsh; their territory was about equivalent to what is now Cornwall. Ten years later, a charter dated 19 August 825 indicates that Ecgberht was campaigning in Dumnonia again; this may have been related to a battle recorded in the "Chronicle" at Gafulford in 823, between the men of Devon and the Britons of Cornwall.

paragraph: Section::::Battle of Ellandun.

paragraph: It was also in 825 that one of the most important battles in Anglo-Saxon history took place, when Ecgberht defeated Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellandun—now Wroughton, near Swindon. This battle marked the end of the Mercian domination of southern England. The "Chronicle" tells how Ecgberht followed up his victory: "Then he sent his son Æthelwulf from the army, and Ealhstan, his bishop, and Wulfheard, his ealdorman, to Kent with a great troop." Æthelwulf drove Baldred, the king of Kent, north over the Thames, and according to the "Chronicle", the men of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex then all submitted to Æthelwulf "because earlier they were wrongly forced away from his relatives." This may refer to Offa's interventions in Kent at the time Ecgberht's father Ealhmund became king; if so, the chronicler's remark may also indicate Ealhmund had connections elsewhere in southeast England.

paragraph: The "Chronicle"s version of events makes it appear that Baldred was driven out shortly after the battle, but this was probably not the case. A document from Kent survives which gives the date, March 826, as being in the third year of the reign of Beornwulf. This makes it likely that Beornwulf still had authority in Kent at this date, as Baldred's overlord; hence Baldred was apparently still in power. In Essex, Ecgberht expelled King Sigered, though the date is unknown. It may have been delayed until 829, since a later chronicler associates the expulsion with a campaign of Ecgberht's in that year against the Mercians.

paragraph: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" does not say who was the aggressor at Ellandun, but one recent history asserts that Beornwulf was almost certainly the one who attacked. According to this view, Beornwulf may have taken advantage of the Wessex campaign in Dumnonia in the summer of 825. Beornwulf's motivation to launch an attack would have been the threat of unrest or instability in the southeast: the dynastic connections with Kent made Wessex a threat to Mercian dominance.

paragraph: The consequences of Ellandun went beyond the immediate loss of Mercian power in the southeast. According to the "Chronicle", the East Anglians asked for Ecgberht's protection against the Mercians in the same year, 825, though it may actually have been in the following year that the request was made. In 826 Beornwulf invaded East Anglia, presumably to recover his overlordship. He was slain, however, as was his successor, Ludeca, who invaded East Anglia in 827, evidently for the same reason. It may be that the Mercians were hoping for support from Kent: there was some reason to suppose that Wulfred, the Archbishop of Canterbury, might be discontented with West Saxon rule, as Ecgberht had terminated Wulfred's currency and had begun to mint his own, at Rochester and Canterbury, and it is known that Ecgberht seized property belonging to Canterbury. The outcome in East Anglia was a disaster for the Mercians which confirmed West Saxon power in the southeast.

paragraph: Section::::Defeat of Mercia.

paragraph: In 829 Ecgberht invaded Mercia and drove Wiglaf, the king of Mercia, into exile. This victory gave Ecgberht control of the London Mint, and he issued coins as King of Mercia. It was after this victory that the West Saxon scribe described him as a "bretwalda", meaning 'wide-ruler' or perhaps 'Britain-ruler', in a famous passage in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The relevant part of the annal reads, in the C manuscript of the "Chronicle":

paragraph: "⁊ þy geare geeode Ecgbriht cing Myrcna rice ⁊ eall þæt be suþan Humbre wæs, ⁊ he wæs eahtaþa cing se ðe Bretenanwealda wæs."

paragraph: In modern English:

paragraph: And the same year King Egbert conquered the kingdom of Mercia, and all that was south of the Humber, and he was the eighth king who was 'Wide-ruler'.

paragraph: The previous seven "bretwaldas" are also named by the Chronicler, who gives the same seven names that Bede lists as holding imperium, starting with Ælle of Sussex and ending with Oswiu of Northumbria. The list is often thought to be incomplete, omitting as it does some dominant Mercian kings such as Penda and Offa. The exact meaning of the title has been much debated; it has been described as "a term of encomiastic poetry" but there is also evidence that it implied a definite role of military leadership.

paragraph: Later in 829, according to the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", Ecgberht received the submission of the Northumbrians at Dore (now a suburb of Sheffield); the Northumbrian king was probably Eanred. According to a later chronicler, Roger of Wendover, Ecgberht invaded Northumbria and plundered it before Eanred submitted: "When Ecgberht had obtained all the southern kingdoms, he led a large army into Northumbria, and laid waste that province with severe pillaging, and made King Eanred pay tribute." Roger of Wendover is known to have incorporated Northumbrian annals into his version; the "Chronicle" does not mention these events. However, the nature of Eanred's submission has been questioned: one historian has suggested that it is more likely that the meeting at Dore represented a mutual recognition of sovereignty.

paragraph: In 830, Ecgberht led a successful expedition against the Welsh, almost certainly with the intent of extending West Saxon influence into the Welsh lands previously within the Mercian orbit. This marked the high point of Ecgberht's influence.

paragraph: Section::::Reduction in influence after 829.

paragraph: In 830, Mercia regained its independence under Wiglaf—the "Chronicle" merely says that Wiglaf "obtained the kingdom of Mercia again", but the most likely explanation is that this was the result of a Mercian rebellion against Wessex rule.

paragraph: Ecgberht's dominion over southern England came to an end with Wiglaf's recovery of power. Wiglaf's return is followed by evidence of his independence from Wessex. Charters indicate Wiglaf had authority in Middlesex and Berkshire, and in a charter of 836 Wiglaf uses the phrase "my bishops, "duces", and magistrates" to describe a group that included eleven bishops from the episcopate of Canterbury, including bishops of sees in West Saxon territory. It is significant that Wiglaf was still able to call together such a group of notables; the West Saxons, even if they were able to do so, held no such councils. Wiglaf may also have brought Essex back into the Mercian orbit during the years after he recovered the throne. In East Anglia, King Æthelstan minted coins, possibly as early as 827, but more likely c. 830 after Ecgberht's influence was reduced with Wiglaf's return to power in Mercia. This demonstration of independence on East Anglia's part is not surprising, as it was Æthelstan who was probably responsible for the defeat and death of both Beornwulf and Ludeca.

paragraph: Both Wessex's sudden rise to power in the late 820s, and the subsequent failure to retain this dominant position, have been examined by historians looking for underlying causes. One plausible explanation for the events of these years is that Wessex's fortunes were to some degree dependent on Carolingian support. The Franks supported Eardwulf when he recovered the throne of Northumbria in 808, so it is plausible that they also supported Ecgberht's accession in 802. At Easter 839, not long before Ecgberht's death, he was in touch with Louis the Pious, king of the Franks, to arrange safe passage to Rome. Hence a continuing relationship with the Franks seems to be part of southern English politics during the first half of the ninth century.

paragraph: Carolingian support may have been one of the factors that helped Ecgberht achieve the military successes of the late 820s. However, the Rhenish and Frankish commercial networks collapsed at some time in the 820s or 830s, and in addition, a rebellion broke out in February 830 against Louis the Pious—the first of a series of internal conflicts that lasted through the 830s and beyond. These distractions may have prevented Louis from supporting Ecgberht. In this view, the withdrawal of Frankish influence would have left East Anglia, Mercia and Wessex to find a balance of power not dependent on outside aid.

paragraph: Despite the loss of dominance, Ecgberht's military successes fundamentally changed the political landscape of Anglo-Saxon England. Wessex retained control of the south-eastern kingdoms, with the possible exception of Essex, and Mercia did not regain control of East Anglia. Ecgberht's victories marked the end of the independent existence of the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. The conquered territories were administered as a subkingdom for a while, including Surrey and possibly Essex. Although Æthelwulf was a subking under Ecgberht, it is clear that he maintained his own royal household, with which he travelled around his kingdom. Charters issued in Kent described Ecgberht and Æthelwulf as "kings of the West Saxons and also of the people of Kent." When Æthelwulf died in 858 his will, in which Wessex is left to one son and the southeastern kingdom to another, makes it clear that it was not until after 858 that the kingdoms were fully integrated. Mercia remained a threat, however; Ecgberht's son Æthelwulf, established as king of Kent, gave estates to Christ Church, Canterbury, probably to counter any influence the Mercians might still have there.

paragraph: In the southwest, Ecgberht was defeated in 836 at Carhampton by the Danes, but in 838 he won a battle against them and their allies the West Welsh at the Battle of Hingston Down in Cornwall. The Dumnonian royal line continued after this time, but it is at this date that the independence of one of the last British kingdoms may be considered to have ended. The details of Anglo-Saxon expansion into Cornwall are quite poorly recorded, but some evidence comes from place names. The river Ottery, which flows east into the Tamar near Launceston, appears to be a boundary: south of the Ottery the placenames are overwhelmingly Cornish, whereas to the north they are more heavily influenced by the English newcomers.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: At a council at Kingston upon Thames in 838, Ecgberht and Æthelwulf granted land to the sees of Winchester and Canterbury in return for the promise of support for Æthelwulf's claim to the throne. The archbishop of Canterbury, Ceolnoth, also accepted Ecgberht and Æthelwulf as the lords and protectors of the monasteries under Ceolnoth's control. These agreements, along with a later charter in which Æthelwulf confirmed church privileges, suggest that the church had recognised that Wessex was a new political power that must be dealt with. Churchmen consecrated the king at coronation ceremonies, and helped to write the wills which specified the king's heir; their support had real value in establishing West Saxon control and a smooth succession for Ecgberht's line. Both the record of the Council of Kingston, and another charter of that year, include the identical phrasing: that a condition of the grant is that "we ourselves and our heirs shall always hereafter have firm and unshakable friendships from Archbishop Ceolnoth and his congregation at Christ Church."

paragraph: Although nothing is known of any other claimants to the throne, it is likely that there were other surviving descendants of Cerdic (the supposed progenitor of all the kings of Wessex) who might have contended for the kingdom. Ecgberht died in 839, and his will, according to the account of it found in the will of his grandson, Alfred the Great, left land only to male members of his family, so that the estates should not be lost to the royal house through marriage. Ecgberht's wealth, acquired through conquest, was no doubt one reason for his ability to purchase the support of the southeastern church establishment; the thriftiness of his will indicates he understood the importance of personal wealth to a king. The kingship of Wessex had been frequently contested among different branches of the royal line, and it is a noteworthy achievement of Ecgberht's that he was able to ensure Æthelwulf's untroubled succession. In addition, Æthelwulf's experience of kingship, in the subkingdom formed from Ecgberht's southeastern conquests, would have been valuable to him when he took the throne.

paragraph: Ecgberht was buried in Winchester, as were his son, Æthelwulf, his grandson, Alfred the Great, and his great-grandson, Edward the Elder. During the ninth century, Winchester began to show signs of urbanisation, and it is likely that the sequence of burials indicates that Winchester was held in high regard by the West Saxon royal line.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Egbert's charters at Anglo-Saxons.net

paragraph: Section::::References.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edwards, Heather (2004) "Ecgberht", Oxford Online Dictionary of National Biography

alias: Ecgberht Ecgbert Ecgbriht Egbert

description: King of Wessex

wikidata_label: Egbert of Wessex

wikipedia_title: Ecgberht, King of Wessex


categories: Super GT drivers,Sportspeople from Osaka,All-Japan Formula Three Championship drivers,FIA Formula 3 European Championship drivers,1997 births,Living people,Japanese racing drivers

paragraph: Tadasuke Makino

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Career summary.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete Super GT results.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete FIA Formula 2 Championship results.

paragraph: Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete Super Formula Results.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

description: Japanese racing driver

wikidata_label: Tadasuke Makino

wikipedia_title: Tadasuke Makino


text: Cincinnati

text: Baltimore

text: Düsseldorfer Malerschule

text: Munich School

text: Bethany College

text: William Louis Sonntag

text: Düsseldorf

text: Worthington Whittredge

text: Emmanuel Leutze

text: William Washington

text: Thomas Buchanan Read

text: August Weber

text: Andreas Achenbach

text: Rudolf Wiegmann

text: Kunstakademie Düsseldorf

text: Adolf Heinrich Lier

text: New York Evening Mail

text: Poetry, Online

text: Online

text: ArtNet: More works by Tait.

categories: 1909 deaths,American emigrants to Germany,American landscape painters,1834 births,Bethany College (West Virginia) alumni,19th-century American painters

paragraph: John Robinson Tait

paragraph: John Robinson Tait (January 14, 1834, Cincinnati - July 29, 1909, Baltimore) was an American landscape painter, art critic, and travel writer. He spent many years in Germany, where he was associated with the Düsseldorfer Malerschule and the Munich School.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He received his higher education at Bethany College, where he published a student magazine called "The Stylus". In 1853, he made his first trip to Europe (primarily Italy) in the company of his teacher, William Louis Sonntag. He paid a short visit to Düsseldorf to see an old acquaintance, Worthington Whittredge. During his stay, he met Emmanuel Leutze and his student, fellow American William Washington, who encouraged Tait to study there.

paragraph: In 1855, he returned to the United States in the company of his childhood friend, Thomas Buchanan Read, whom he had met in Florence. Four years later, he wrote a book describing his experiences and, that same year, returned to Düsseldorf, where he remained until 1870 as a student of August Weber and Andreas Achenbach. He also worked with Rudolf Wiegmann at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf and, between 1873 and 1876, took further lessons with Adolf Heinrich Lier in Munich.

paragraph: He took two trips to the United States during this time, in 1866 and the early 1870s, where he exhibited at the "Cincinnati Industrial Exposition" of 1871 and was awarded first prize. He eventually settled in Baltimore and wrote art criticism for the "New York Evening Mail". Most of his extant paintings are in Europe.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dolce Far Niente", Parry and McMillan, Philadelphia 1859 (Poetry, Online)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "European Life, Legend, and Landscape", James Challen & Son, Philadelphia 1859 (Online)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Reminiscences of a Poet-Painter". In: "Lippincott’s Magazine of Popular Literature and Science", XIX, 17, March 1877, pg.307 ff. (Memories of his friend, Thomas Read, Online)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ArtNet: More works by Tait.

wikidata_label: John Robinson Tait

wikipedia_title: John Robinson Tait