text:
Middle Persian
shah
Sasanian Empire
Peroz I
Hephthalite
New Persian
Middle Persian
Parthian
Peroz I
Hephthalites
Battle of Herat
Christianity
de facto
Sukhra
Sasanian Armenia
Shapur Mihran
Ctesiphon
Armenians
Vahan Mamikonian
Christians
Zoroastrianism
marzban
Zarir
Kavad

categories: 5th-century Sasanian monarchs,Shahnameh characters,5th-century births

paragraph: Balash

paragraph: Balash (Middle Persian: "Wardākhsh/Walākhsh", ; in the Greek authors, "Balas"; the later form of the name "Vologases") was the nineteenth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire from 484 to 488. He was the brother and successor of Peroz I (457–484), who had died in a battle against the Hephthalite invasion of Iran from the east.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: "Balash" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian "Wardākhsh" (also spelled "Walākhsh"). The etymology of the name is unclear. The original form of the name seems to be the Parthian "Walagash"; a suggestion has been made that the name could mean "strength".

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Balash was made shah by the magnates of the empire following the death of his brother Peroz I, who was killed fighting the Hephthalites at the Battle of Herat. Immediately after ascending the throne, Balash sought peace with the Hephthalites, which cost the Sasanians a heavy tribute. Little is known about Balash, but he is perceived by eastern sources as a mild and tolerant ruler. He was very tolerant of Christianity, which earned him a reputation among Christian authors, who described him as a mild and generous monarch. Nevertheless, it would seem that Balash was only a nominee of the powerful nobleman and "de facto" ruler Sukhra.

paragraph: At the announcement of the death of Peroz, the Iranian nobles of Sasanian Armenia, including the prominent nobleman Shapur Mihran, became eager to go to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon to elect a new sovereign. This allowed the Armenians under Vahan Mamikonian to proclaim from the Sasanians. Given the situation of the weakness in Iran, Balash did not send an army to fight the rebels, which forced him to conclude peace with the Armenians. The conditions of the peace were: all existing fire-altars in Armenia should be destroyed and no new ones should be constructed; Christians in Armenia should have freedom of worship and conversions to Zoroastrianism should be stopped: land should not be allotted to people who convert to Zoroastrianism; the Iranian shah should, in person, administer Armenia and through the aid of governors or deputies. In 485, Balash appointed Vahan Mamikonian as the "marzban" of Armenia. A few months later, a son of Peroz named Zarir rose in rebellion. Balash, with the aid of the Armenians, put down the rebellion, captured and killed him. In 488, Kavad, another son of Peroz, revolted; although he was initially unsuccessful, he sought the assistance of Hephthalites and arrived in Ctesiphon at the head of a large Hephthalite contingent. As a result, Balash was deposed by Sukhra, and Kavad was installed as shah.

wikidata_label: Balash

wikipedia_title: Balash


text: Middle Persian

text: New Persian

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Kavad II

text: Anzoy the Roman

text: Byzantine Empire

text: Iranians

text: Wuzurgan

text: Mah-Adhur Gushnasp

text: al-Tabari

text: Narsi

text: Kashkar

text: Khosrau II

text: Shahrbaraz

text: Ctesiphon

text: Piruz Khosrow

text: spahbed

text: Nimruz

text: captured Ctesiphon

text: Meshan

categories: 621 births,Medieval child rulers,Rulers who died as children,Shahnameh characters,7th-century Sasanian monarchs,630 deaths,People of Byzantine descent,Murdered Persian monarchs

paragraph: Ardashir III

paragraph: Ardashir III (Middle Persian 𐭠𐭥𐭲𐭧𐭱𐭲𐭥, New Persian: اردشیر نیکوکار, "Ardashir"), (born c. 62127 April 630) was king of the Sasanian Empire from 6 September 628 to 27 April 630.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Ardashir was the son of king Kavad II (r. 628) and Anzoy the Roman, who was a princess from the Byzantine Empire, which made Ardashir less popular among the Iranians who had recently been in a long and devastating war against the Byzantines. In 628, a devastating plague spread through western Iran, which claimed the lives of half of the population, including Kavad II himself.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: After the death of Kavad II, the "Wuzurgan" elected Ardashir as his successor, who was only a 7-year-old boy. In reality, however, he exercised little power and his empire was controlled by his vizier Mah-Adhur Gushnasp, whose duty was to protect the empire until Ardashir became old enough to rule. The Iranian historian al-Tabari says the following thing about Mah-Adhur Gushnasp's administration of the Empire; "Mah-Adhur Gushnasp carried on the administration of the kingdom in [such] an excellent fashion, [and with such] firm conduct, [that] no one would have been aware of Ardashir III's youthfulness."

paragraph: During the same period, a brother of Mah-Adhur Gushnasp named Narsi, was granted with Kashkar as a part of his domains, However, even under a strong vizier, things were still looking grim in Iran; Factionalism had greatly increased among the Iranians, and several powerful factions which had emerged during the reign of Ardashir's grandfather Khosrau II, had gained firm control of important parts of Iran, while the Sasanian state was less-centralized than it had been under Ardashir's predecessors.

paragraph: One year later, Shahrbaraz with a force of 6,000 men marched towards Ctesiphon and besieged the city. Shahrbaraz, however, was unable to capture the city, and then made an alliance with Piruz Khosrow, the leader of the Parsig (Persian) faction, and the previous minister of the Empire during the reign of Ardashir's father. Shahrbaraz also made an alliance with Namdar Jushnas, the "spahbed" of Nimruz. With the aid of these two powerful figures, Shahrbaraz captured Ctesiphon and executed Ardashir III, along with Mah-Adhur Gushnasp himself, including other prominent Sasanian nobles. Shahrbaraz then ascended the Sasanian throne. According to Islamic sources, Ardashir was buried at an unknown place in Meshan.

description: Sasanian dynasty ruler

wikidata_label: Ardashir III

wikipedia_title: Ardashir III


text: shah

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Bahram II

text: viceroy

text: Sakastan

text: Bahram II

text: Armenia

text: Narseh

text: theophoric name

text: New Persian

text: Middle Persian

text: Old Iranian

text: Avestan

text: Vərəθraγna

text: Parthian

text: titles

text: Sakastan

text: Sistan

text: Bahram II

text: Pars

text: Wahnam

text: Adurfarrobay

text: Meshan

text: Armenia

text: Romans

text: Media

text: Narseh

text: Shapur I

text: Mesopotamia

text: Garamig

text: Zoroastrian

text: Ctesiphon

text: gold

text: deer

text: horns

text: Bishapur

categories: 3rd-century births,Sasanian governors of Sakastan,3rd-century Sasanian monarchs,Year of death unknown

paragraph: Bahram III

paragraph: Bahram III (, "Wahrām", , "Bahrām"), was the sixth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire. He was son and successor of Bahram II. He was appointed viceroy to the province of Sakastan after Bahram II's re-conquest of it sometime in the 280s.

paragraph: Bahram III ascended to the throne vacated by his father following his death in 293. Following his father's loss of Armenia, Bahram III was considered too weak to rule the kingdom by much of the nobility and many nobles challenged his succession, instead pledging allegiance to his grand-uncle Narseh. After reigning for a period of only four months, Bahram III was either captured or more likely killed during a campaign by Narseh who then ascended to the throne in Bahram's place.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: His theophoric name "Bahram" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian "Warahrān" (also spelled "Wahrām"), which is derived from the Old Iranian "Vṛθragna". The Avestan equivalent was Vərəθraγna, the name of the god of victory, whilst the Parthian version was "*Warθagn".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: In Sasanian Iran, it was customary for kings after conquering a land or people, to give their sons titles showing domination over them. Bahram III gained his title of "sākān shāh" presumably after his father's victory over the Sakastan (present day Sistan) region. Also following early Sasanian practices of giving appanage of provinces to princes, Bahram III was appointed to Sakastan due to the regions importance as being a defence against influential peoples on the eastern extremes of the kingdom.

paragraph: Following the death of Bahram II in 293, Bahram III was proclaimed king in Pars by a group of nobles led by Wahnam and supported by Adurfarrobay, King of Meshan. By the time of his ascension, he was still a minor and considered a weak character by much of the nobility. Bahram II's loss of Armenia undermined the integrity of the kingdom giving the Romans an easy route to invade Media and many western parts of the kingdom. Many amongst the nobility considered him too weak to properly handle the threat posed by the Romans and the possibility of invasion. Many of the nobility decided to instead challenge his succession to the throne and instead pledged allegiance to Narseh, the last remaining son of Shapur I, and someone who was perceived as being a stronger leader and one who would be able to bring glory to Iran.

paragraph: Four months into Bahram's reign, his grand-uncle Narseh was summoned to Mesopotamia at the request of many members of the Iranian nobility. He met them in the passage of Paikuli in the province of Garamig, where he was firmly approved and likely also declared shah for the first time. The reasons behind the nobles favour of Narseh might have been due to his jurisdiction as governor, his image as a advocate of the Zoroastrian religion and as a insurer for harmony and prosperity of the empire. His ancestry from the early Sasanian family probably also played a role.

paragraph: In order to avoid bloodshed, Narseh proposed to make peace with both Bahram III and Wahnam. Both seem to have agreed, as no accounts of battles have been made. The reason behind Bahram and Wahnam's quick agreement to peace may have been due to desertion amongst many of Bahram's men. Bahram abdicated as shah and was probably spared, whilst Wahnam was executed when Narseh entered the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. Narseh then summoned the aristocrats to take part in the royal referendum, a ritual which had been used since the first Sasanian shah, Ardashir I (), and which Narseh now made use of in order to gain the approval of the aristocracy as a legitimate ruler instead that of a usurper. Narseh was decisively voted in favour by the majority, and guaranteed "to enter the throne of our father and our forefathers with the help of the Gods, in their name and that of our forefathers."

paragraph: Section::::Artifacts.

paragraph: Many coins that could be attributed to him are small in number and due to uncertainty, many are often attributed to Narseh. Because many of the coins are attributed to him are smoother than usual the details of his crown are faint. It is believed that he is depicted wearing a gold crown with a crenelated lower rim and two large deer horns or at least replicas of them attached on each side. The Sasani sphere sits between the horns on the front of the crown.

paragraph: A low relief at the Bishapur archeological site depicts a figure being trampled by a horse. It is assumed that this scene is a representation of either the death of Bahram III or more likely his ally Wahnam.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Sassanian Inscription of Paikuli by Prods Skjærvø

description: Sassanid king

wikidata_label: Bahram III

wikipedia_title: Bahram III


text: New Persian

text: shah

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Shapur I

text: Sakastan

text: Sindh

text: Turan

text: Bahram III

text: Paikuli inscription

text: Old Iranian

text: theophoric name

text: Middle Persian

text: Parthian

text: Paikuli inscription

text: Naqsh-e Rustam

text: Greek

text: Syriac

text: Armenian

text: Coptic

text: Shapur I

text: Ardashir I

text: Sindh

text: Sakastan

text: Turan

text: Hormizd I

text: Bahram I

text: Zoroastrian

text: Kartir

text: Armenia

text: Roman

text: Bahram II

text: Bahram III

text: Pars

text: Wahnam

text: Meshan

text: Mesopotamia

text: Garamig

text: Zoroastrian

text: Ctesiphon

text: Paikuli inscription

text: Arsacid

text: Tiridates III

text: Peace of Nisibis

text: Galerius

text: Diocletian

text: Mesopotamia

text: Callinicum

text: Euphrates

text: Syria

text: Antioch

text: Battle of Satala

text: Valerian

text: Ingilene

text: Sophene

text: Arzanene

text: Corduene

text: Zabdicene

text: Moxoene

text: Rehimene

text: Zintha

text: Iberia

text: Hormizd II

categories: People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars,Shahnameh characters,3rd-century births,Sasanian governors of Sakastan,4th-century Sasanian monarchs,302 deaths,3rd-century Sasanian monarchs

paragraph: Narseh

paragraph: Narseh (, New Persian: , "Narsē", whose name is also sometimes written as Narses or Narseus) was seventh king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire from 293 to 302. He was the son of Shapur I ().

paragraph: During the rule of his father Shapur I, Narseh had served as the governor of Sakastan, Sindh and Turan. Prior to becoming shah of Iran, he held the title of "Great King of Armenia". Narseh overthrew the increasingly unpopular Bahram III in 293 with the support of most of the nobility, which thus makes him the first Sasanian shah to not ascend the throne as a crown prince. The circumstances of Narseh's rise to power are detailed in the Paikuli inscription. Narseh was known for his tolerance of other religions.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: The name of Narseh stems from the Old Iranian theophoric name of "*naryasa(n)ha-", meaning "men’s praise". Narseh's name is listed as "nrshy" in Middle Persian and "nryshw" in Parthian on the Paikuli inscription and Naqsh-e Rustam. The Greek version of his name is also listed in the inscriptions, as "Narsaiēs" or "Narsaios". However, other Greek sources generally spell his name as "Narsēs". The name of Narseh is known in other languages as; ; Syriac "Nrsy"; "Narsi"; Armenian "Nerseh"; Coptic "Narsaph", as well as "Narseos".

paragraph: Section::::Early life and governorship.

paragraph: Narseh seems to have been the youngest son of Shapur I, being born between 228-233 during the reign of his grandfather Ardashir I (). Narseh is quoted in an inscription by his father Shapur I as the governor of the eastern Sasanian provinces of Sindh, Sakastan and Turan. During his term as governor, he reportedly played an important role in the affairs of the eastern portion of the empire. Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by Hormizd I, whose rule only lasted one year due to death. Narseh's older brother Bahram I, who was never considered a candidate for succession of the throne by their father, probably due to having a mother of lowly origin, ascended the throne with the aid of the powerful Zoroastrian priest Kartir.

paragraph: He then made a settlement with Narseh to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province of Armenia, which was constantly the source of war between the Roman and Sasanian Empires. Narseh held the title of "Vazurg Šāh Arminān" ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper. Bahram I's reign however, lasted shortly, ending on September 274 with his death. His son Bahram II succeeded him as shah; he may have been aided by Kartir to ascended the throne instead of Narseh. This most likely frustrated Narseh, who had now been neglected from succession several times.

paragraph: Section::::Rise.

paragraph: Following the death of Bahram II in 293, his son Bahram III was unwillingly proclaimed shah in Pars by a group of nobles led by Wahnam and supported by Adurfarrobay, governor of Meshan. However, Bahram III was considered a weak ruler by the other nobles, who decided to pledge allegiance to Narseh, the last remaining son of Shapur, and someone who was perceived as being a stronger leader and one who would be able to bring glory to Iran. Four months into Bahram III's reign, Narseh was summoned to Mesopotamia at the request of many members of the Iranian nobility. He met them in the passage of Paikuli in the province of Garamig, where he was firmly approved and likely also declared shah for the first time. The reasons behind the nobles favour of Narseh might have been due to his jurisdiction as governor, his image as a advocate of the Zoroastrian religion and as a insurer for harmony and prosperity of the empire. His ancestry from the early Sasanian family probably also played a role.

paragraph: In order to avoid bloodshed, Narseh proposed to make peace with both Bahram III and Wahnam. Both seem to have agreed, as no accounts of battles have been made. The reason behind Bahram III and Wahnam's quick agreement to peace may have been due to desertion amongst many of Bahram III's men. Bahram III abdicated as shah and was probably spared, whilst Wahnam was executed when Narseh entered the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. Narseh then summoned the aristocrats to take part in the royal referendum, a ritual which had been used since the first Sasanian shah, Ardashir I (), and which Narseh now made use of in order to gain the approval of the aristocracy as a legitimate ruler instead that of a usurper. Narseh was decisively voted in favour by the majority, and guaranteed "to enter the throne of our father and our forefathers with the help of the Gods, in their name and that of our forefathers." Amongst those nobles who supported Narseh was the leading priest Kartir, which is attested in the Paikuli inscription.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:War with the Romans.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:War with the Romans.:Background.

paragraph: When Narseh ascended the throne, the eastern portion of Mesopotamia (since 244) and all of Armenia (since 252) were under Iranian rule. The traditional notion of the western part of Armenia had been given to the Arsacid prince Tiridates III has been dismissed. "It is quite certain" that the whole of Armenia continued to a part of the Sasanian Empire in the 3rd-century, until it was later ceded to the Romans in 298/9 after the Peace of Nisibis. The proposition of Narseh presumably following Shapur I's expansionistic approach does not match with his testimony in the Paikuli inscription; "And Caesar and the Romans were in gratitude (?) and peace and friendship with us." Contrary to the testimony, however, the two empires soon clashed with each other−in 296. From a Roman viewpoint, the mutual relations with Iran had been heavily strained due the aggressive and expansionistic approach of Ardashir I and Shapur I. However, the conclusive causes for the Roman offensive was possibly due to their territorial losses and the disadvantageous change in the sphere of authority and influence in the Mesopotamian-Armenian lands in the 240s and 250s.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:War with the Romans.:The war.

paragraph: Galerius, "Caesar" under Emperor Diocletian, invaded Mesopotamia, which Narseh had occupied hoping to check his advance. Three battles were fought subsequently, the first two of which were indecisive. In the third fought at Callinicum, Galerius suffered a complete defeat and was forced to retreat. Galerius crossed the Euphrates into Syria to join his father-in-law Diocletian at Antioch. On his arrival at Antioch, Galerius was rebuked by Diocletian who disgraced him for his shameful defeat at the hands of Narseh. Vowing to take revenge, Galerius made preparations throughout the winter of 297 and invaded Armenia with 25,000 men.

paragraph: Supported by the Armenians, Galerius surprised Narseh in his camp at the Battle of Satala and inflicted a crushing defeat on the latter, forcing him to flee in haste. His wife, prisoners, his sisters and a number of his children were captured apart from his prodigious military chest. Eastern Mesopotamia was recovered by the Romans and Tiridates was reinstated as the monarch of Armenia.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:War with the Romans.:Peace negotiations.

paragraph: Anxious to make peace with the Romans, Narseh dispatched his envoy Aphraban to Galerius with the following message:

paragraph: But Galerius dismissed Aphraban without giving any definite answer, at the same time accusing the Iranians of ill-treating Valerian. In the meantime, he consulted Diocletian at Nisibis, and he persuaded Galerius to offer terms of peace to the Iranians. Accordingly, terms of peace were agreed upon, and were ratified by a treaty concluded by Narseh with the Romans.

paragraph: According to this treaty,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Five provinces beyond the Tigris were to be ceded to the Romans. One writer gives these provinces as Ingilene, Sophene, Arzanene, Corduene, and Zabdicene; by another as Arzanene, Moxoene, Zabdicene, Rehimene, and Corduene.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The semi-independent kingdom of Armenia was to be extended up to the fortress of Zintha, in Media.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iran was expected to relinquish all her rights over Iberia.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Formal dealings between Iran and Rome would henceforth be conducted at Nisibis.

paragraph: Narseh did not survive for long after the conclusion of this humiliating treaty. He died in 302 and was succeeded by his son, Hormizd II.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Civilizations of the Ancient Near East Volume VII by George Rawlinson (Project Gutenberg)

description: Sasanian king

wikidata_label: Narseh

wikipedia_title: Narseh


text: shah

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Shahriyar

text: Khosrow II

text: figurehead

text: Turks

text: Khazars

text: Arab invasion of Iran

text: Marw

text: Old Iranian

text: Greek

text: Pahlavi

text: Syriac

text: Talmudic

text: Arabic

text: Shahriyar

text: Khosrow II

text: Kavad II

text: civil war lasting four years

text: Parthia

text: devastating plague

text: Ardashir III

text: Shahrbaraz

text: Farrukh Hormizd

text: Boran

text: Piruz Khosrow

text: Rostam Farrokhzad

text: Anahid fire-temple

text: Istakhr

text: House of Sasan

text: Mazun

text: Yemen

text: Arabian peninsula

text: Islam

text: Arsacid Empire

text: Pars

text: Sakastan

text: Khuzestan

text: Turks

text: Khazars

text: Armenia

text: Adurbadagan

text: war with the Byzantines

text: Allah

text: Azadbeh

text: Hira

text: Rostam Farrokhzad

text: Bahman Jadhuyih

text: Armenian

text: Jalinus

text: Battle of the Bridge

text: Rostam Farrokhzad

text: Ardashir I

text: Rostam Farrokhzad

text: battle of al-Qadisiyyah

text: Mushegh III Mamikonian

text: Ctesiphon

text: Hulwan

text: Media

text: Farrukhzad

text: besieged

text: Battle of Jalula

text: Nahavand

text: Ctesiphon

text: Umar

text: Kufa

text: Basra

text: Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin

text: Syria

text: Oman

text: al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin

text: Mardanshah

text: Piruz Khosrow

text: battle of Nahavand

text: Isfahan

text: Estakhr

text: Pars

text: Abdullah ibn Aamir

text: Basra

text: Kirman

text: marzban

text: margrave

text: Sakastan

text: Merv

text: Turks

text: Khorasan

text: Principality of Chaghaniyan

text: Marw

text: Turkmenistan

text: Badghis

text: the Cambridge History of Iran

text: Mahoe Suri

text: attack Transoxiana

text: Egypt

text: Asia Minor

text: reaching as a far as Constantinople

text: Ardashir I

text: Peroz III

text: Tang China

text: Zoroastrian religious calendar

text: regnal year

text: calendar era

text: Zoroaster

text: Oshedar

text: Death of Yazdgerd

text: Death of Yazdgerd (film)

categories: Medieval child rulers,7th-century Sasanian monarchs,624 births,651 deaths,People of the Muslim conquest of Persia,Murdered Persian monarchs

paragraph: Yazdegerd III

paragraph: Yazdegerd III (  "Yazdekert", meaning "made by God"; New Persian: "Yazdegerd"), was the last king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire from 632 to 651. His father was Shahriyar and his grandfather was Khosrow II.

paragraph: Ascending the throne at the age of merely eight, the young shah lacked authority and reigned as figurehead, whilst real power was in the hands of the army commanders, courtiers, and powerful members of the aristocracy, who were fighting amongst themselves and wiping out each other. The Sasanian Empire was falling apart swiftly due to internal conflicts, and was at the same time also invaded on all fronts−by the Turks in the east, and Khazars in the west. It was, however, the Arabs, united under the banner of Islam, who dealt the deadly blow to the empire. Yazdegerd was unable to contain the Arab invasion of Iran, and spent most of reign fleeing from one province to another, in hopes of raising an army to repel the Arabs, which ultimately proved unsuccessful, with Yazdegerd meeting his end at hands of a miller near Marw in 651, thus marking an end to the last pre-Islamic Iranian empire after more than 400 years of rule.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: The name of Yazdegerd is a combination of the Old Iranian "yazad yazata"- "divine being" and "-karta" "made", and thus stands for "God-made", comparable to Iranian "Bagkart" and Greek "Theoktistos". The name of Yazdegerd is known in other languages as; Pahlavi "Yazdekert"; Syriac "Yazdegerd", "Izdegerd", and "Yazdeger"; Talmudic "Izdeger" and "Azger"; Arabic "Yazdeijerd"; Greek "Isdigerdes".

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Yazdegerd was the son of prince Shahriyar and the grandson of the last prominent shah of Iran, Khosrow II (), who was in 628 overthrown and executed by his own son Kavad II, who proceeded to have all his brothers and half-brothers executed, including Shahriyar. This dealt a heavy blow to the empire, which it would never recover from. Furthermore, the fall of Khosrow II also culminated in a civil war lasting four years, with the most powerful members of the nobility gaining full autonomy and starting to create their own government. The hostilities between the Persian ("Parsig") and Parthian ("Pahlav") noble-families were also resumed, which split up the wealth of the nation. A few months later, a devastating plague swept through the western Sasanian provinces, killing half of its population including Kavad II. He was succeeded by his eight year old son Ardashir III, who was killed two years later by the distinguished Sasanian general Shahrbaraz, who was in turn murdered forty days later in a coup by the "Pahlav" leader Farrukh Hormizd, who installed the daughter of Khosrow II, Boran, on the throne. She was deposed a year later, and a succession of rulers followed one another, until Boran was sovereign once more in 631, only to be killed the following year, seemingly by the "Parsig" leader Piruz Khosrow. The most powerful magnates in the empire, Rostam Farrokhzad and Piruz Khosrow, now threatened by their own men, eventually agreed to work together, and installed Yazdegerd III on the throne, thus putting an end to the civil war. He was crowned in the Anahid fire-temple in Istakhr, where he had been hiding during the civil war. He was almost the last living member of the House of Sasan. Most scholars agree that Yazdegerd was eight years old at his coronation.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Conditions of the empire.

paragraph: Yazdegerd, however, did not have the authority required to bring stability to his extensive empire, which was swiftly falling apart due to ceaseless internal conflicts between the army commanders, courtiers, and powerful members of the aristocracy, who were fighting amongst themselves and wiping out each other. Many of the governors of the empire had proclaimed independence and carved out their own kingdom. The governors of the provinces of Mazun and Yemen had already asserted their independence during the civil war of 628–632, thus resulting in the disintregation of Sasanian rule in the Arabian peninsula, which was uniting under the banner of Islam. The empire was starting to look more like the Parthian feudal system before the fall of the Arsacid Empire. Yazdegerd, although being acknowledged as the rightful monarch by both the "Parsig" and "Pahlav" factions, does not seem to have held sway over all of his empire. Indeed, during the first years of his rule coins were only minted in Pars, Sakastan, and Khuzestan, approximately corresponding to the regions of the southwest ("Xwarwarān") and southeast ("Nēmrōz"), where the "Parsig" was based. The "Pahlav", who were mainly based in the northern portion of the empire, refused to mint coins of him.

paragraph: The empire was also at the same time invaded on all fronts; by the Turks in the east, and by Khazars in the west, who raided Armenia and Adurbadagan. The Sasanian army had been heavily weakened due to the war with the Byzantines and internal conflict. The circumstances were so chaotic, and the condition of the nation so alarming, that "the Persians openly spoke of the immanent downfall of their empire, and saw its portents in natural calamities."

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Early clash with the Muslim Arabs.

paragraph: Yazdegerd later negotiated with fourteen Arab negotiators, and asked them about the reasons for their aggressive behavior towards his Empire. One of the fourteen Arabs shortly replied, "Allah commanded us, by the mouth of His Prophet, to extend the dominion of Islam over all nations." In May, the Muslims defeated a Sasanian force under the Azadbeh near the important strategic Sasanian city of Hira, which was shortly afterwards occupied. After the fall of Hira, Yazdegerd began to pay greater attention to the Muslims; Rostam Farrokhzad sent an army under the Persian military officer Bahman Jadhuyih and the Armenian military officer Jalinus against the Muslims. Rostam is known to have told Bahman secretly that: "if Jalinus returns to the like of his defeat, then cut off his head." The Sasanian army managed to defeat the Muslims at the Battle of the Bridge.

paragraph: In 636, Yazdegerd III ordered Rostam Farrokhzad to subdue the invading Arabs and then told him: "Today you are the [most prominent] man among the Iranians. You see that the people of Iran have not faced a situation like this since the family of Ardashir I assumed power." Envoys then came to Yazdegerd III asking him to consider the dismissal of Rostam in order to replace him with someone around whom the people would rally.

paragraph: Yazdegerd III asked Rostam for an assessment of the Arab forces since they had camped at Qadisiyyah. Rostam Farrokhzad stated that the Arabs were "a pack of wolves, falling upon unsuspecting shepherds and annihilating them." Yazdegerd III responds to Rostam by saying,

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Last stand.

paragraph: However, the Sasanian army suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of al-Qadisiyyah, with Rostam, Bahman, Jalinus and two Armenian princes named Grigor II Novirak and Mushegh III Mamikonian being killed during the battle. The Arabs then marched towards the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon without meeting any resistance. Yazdegerd took his treasury, and along with 1,000 of his servants fled to Hulwan in Media, leaving Rostam Farrokhzad's brother Farrukhzad in charge of Ctesiphon. Farrukhzad, however, did not attempt any resistance and also went to Hulwan. The Arabs subsequently reached Ctesiphon, besieged the western parts of the city, and soon occupied all of it. The Iranian defeat at battle of al-Qadisiyyah has often been described as a turning point in the Arab invasion of Iran. However, in reality, it was far from it. The battle served as a wake-up call for the Iranian armies, who became conscious that persistent factionalism could result in their inevitable destruction. Al-Tabari emphasizes this, stating that after the fall of Ctesiphon "the people... were about to go their separate ways, they started to incite one another: ‘If you disperse now, you will never get together again; this is a spot that sends us in different directions’."

paragraph: In April 637, the Arabs defeated another Sasanian army at the Battle of Jalula. After this defeat, Yazdegerd fled deeper into Media. He subsequently raised a new army and send it to Nahavand to retake Ctesiphon and prevent any further Muslim advances. The army that Yazdegerd sent seemed such a serious threat that it led Umar to combine the Arab forces of Kufa and Basra under Al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin and send them against the Sasanians with reinforcements from Syria and Oman. The battle is said to have lasted several days. It resulted in major losses on both sides, including the death of al-Nu'man ibn Muqrin and the Iranian generals Mardanshah and Piruz Khosrow. The battle of Nahavand in 642 was the second military disaster for the Sasanians after the battle of al-Qadisiyyah.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Flight.

paragraph: After the Sasanian disaster, Yazdegerd fled to Isfahan, and raised a small army under a certain military officer named Siyah, who had lost his property to the Arabs. However, Siyah and the rest of the army mutinied against Yazdegerd, and agreed to help the Arabs in return for places to live. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd had arrived in Estakhr, where he tried organizing a base for resistance in the province of Pars. However, in 650, Abdullah ibn Aamir, the governor of Basra, invaded Pars and put an end to the Persian resistance. Estakhr was made into ruins after the battle and a force of 40,000 defenders including many Persian nobles were killed. After the Arab conquest of Pars, Yazdegerd fled to Kirman while being pursued by an Arab force. Yazdegerd managed to flee from the Arab force in a snowstorm at Bimand.

paragraph: After arriving at Kirman, Yazdegerd became unfriendly with the "marzban" (general of a frontier province, "margrave") of Kirman, and then left Kirman for Sakastan. Another Basran army later arrived which defeated and killed the "marzban" of Kirman in a bloody fight. When Yazdegerd arrived at Sakastan he lost the support of the governor of Sakastan by demanding tax from him. Yazdegerd then headed for Merv to join the leader of the Turks. However, when he arrived in Khorasan the inhabitants did not agree with Yazdegerd's decision to continue waging war and told him that it was better if he made peace with the Arabs; Yazdegerd, however, refused. Sakastan was later taken by the Arab forces after a bloody fight around 650-652. Yazdegerd was also supported by the Principality of Chaghaniyan, which sent him troops to aid him against the Arabs. When Yazdegerd arrived in Marw (in what is today's Turkmenistan) he demanded tax from the "marzban" of Marw, losing also his support and making him ally with Nezak Tarkan, the Hephthalite ruler of Badghis, who helped him defeat Yazdegerd and his followers.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Death, burial and legacy.

paragraph: After his defeat, Yazdegerd sought refuge at a miller near Marw, who, however, murdered him in 651. According to Kia, the miller had reportedly killed Yazdegerd in order to obtain his jewelry, whilst the Cambridge History of Iran states that the miller was sent by Mahoe Suri. Regardless, the death of Yazdegerd marked the end of the Sasanian Empire, and made it less difficult for the Arabs to conquer the rest of Iran. All of Khorasan was soon conquered by the Arabs, who would use it as a base to attack Transoxiana. The death of Yazdegerd thus marked the end of the last pre-Islamic Iranian empire after more than 400 years of rule. An empire–which had a generation earlier briefly conquered Egypt and Asia Minor, even reaching as a far as Constantinople, fell to a force of lightly equipped Arabs that were used to skirmishes and desert warfare. The heavy Sasanian cavalry was too sluggish and systematized to contain them; employed light-armed Arab or East Iranian mercenaries from Khorasan and Transoxiana would have been much more successful.

paragraph: Yazdegerd was according to tradition buried by Christian monks in a tall tomb that was situated in a garden decorated with silk and musk. The monks cursed Mahoe and made a hymn to Yazdegerd, mourning the fall of a "combative" king and the "house of Ardashir I." Whether this event was factual or not, it emphasizes that the Christians of the empire remained loyal to the Zoroastrian Sasanians, even possibly more than the Iranian nobles who had deserted Yazdegerd. Indeed, there were close links between the late Sasanian rulers and Christians, whose conditions had greatly improved compared to that of the early Sasanian era. Yazdegerd's wife was according to folklore a Christian, whilst his son and heir, Peroz III was seemingly an adherant of Christianity, and even had a church built in Tang China, where he had taken refuge. Yazdegerd became remembered in history as a martyred prince; many rulers and officers would later claim being an descendant of him in Islamic Iran.

paragraph: Section::::Zoroastrian calendar.

paragraph: The Zoroastrian religious calendar, which is still in use today, uses the regnal year of Yazdegerd III as its base year, and its calendar era (year numbering system) is accompanied by a Y.Z. suffix. Magians took Yazdegerd III's death as the end of the millennium of Zoroaster and the beginning of the millennium of Oshedar.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Death of Yazdgerd

paragraph: BULLET::::- Death of Yazdgerd (film)

description: Sasanian king of Iran

wikidata_label: Yazdegerd III

wikipedia_title: Yazdegerd III


text: New Persian

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Shapur II

text: Ardashir II

text: Zruanduxt

text: Khosrov IV of Armenia

text: Shapur II

text: Ardashir II

text: Romans

text: Sasanians

text: Ardashir II

text: treaty

text: Armenia

text: vassal

text: Arsaces III (Arshak III)

text: Manuel Mamikonian

text: Papas (Pap)

text: Arsaces II (Arshak II)

text: Julian the Apostate

text: Arshakuni

text: Khosrov IV

text: Christian

text: Rome

text: Persia

text: Bahram IV

text: Kermanshah

text: Pahlavi

text: Hormizd

text: Narseh

text: Hormizd

text: Shapur II

text: Sasanians

categories: Shahnameh characters,4th-century births,388 deaths,4th-century Sasanian monarchs,Murdered Persian monarchs

paragraph: Shapur III

paragraph: Shapur III (, New Persian: ), was the twelfth king of the Sasanian Empire from 383 to 388. He was the son of Shapur II (r. 309–379) and succeeded his uncle Ardashir II (r. 379–383). Shapur's cousin Zruanduxt married the King Khosrov IV of Armenia.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Accession.

paragraph: In 379, Shapur II designated Ardashir II as his successor, and made him vow to abdicate when Shapur II's son, Shapur III reached adulthood. This led to some Armenian writers to wrongly state that Ardashir was Shapur's son. Ardashir was later killed in 383 by the Iranian nobility. The reason behind his murder was due to his continuation of Shapur II's policy of restricting the authority of power-hungry nobles. Shapur III then succeeded him. Knowing about the murder of many Sasanian kings by the nobility, Shapur III declared to them in his accession speech, that he would not allow deceit, greed or self-righteousness at his court. However, in the opinion of the nobility, this was unacceptable.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Treaty with Rome.

paragraph: Negotiations between the Romans and the Sasanians which had begun in the reign of Ardashir II culminated in a treaty of mutual friendship in the year 384. The Persian diplomat who was part of this negotiation was a certain Yazdan-Friy-Shabuhr.

paragraph: According to this treaty, Armenia was partitioned between the Romans and the Persians. Therefore, two kingdoms were formed, one a vassal of Rome and the other, of Persia. The smaller of these, which comprised the more western districts, which was assigned to Rome was committed to the charge of the Arsaces III (Arshak III) who had been made king by Manuel Mamikonian, the son of the unfortunate Papas (Pap), and the grandson of Arsaces II (Arshak II) contemporary with Julian the Apostate. The larger portion, which consisted of the regions lying towards the east, passed under the suzerainty of Persia, and was handed over to an Arshakuni, named Khosrov IV, a Christian. Thus friendly relations were established between Rome and Persia which survived for thirty-six years.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Death.

paragraph: Shapur III died in 388, after reigning a little more than five years. He was a man of simple tastes, and was fond of spending his time outdoors in his tents. He died when some nobles cut the ropes of a large tent that he had erected in one of his palace courts, so that the tent fell on top of him. He was succeeded by his son Bahram IV.

paragraph: Section::::Memorials of Shapur III's Reign.

paragraph: Shapur III left behind him a sculptured memorial, which is still to be seen in the vicinity of Kermanshah. It consists of two very similar figures, looking towards each other, and standing in an arched frame.

paragraph: On either side of the figures are inscriptions in the Old Pahlavi character, whereby we are enabled to identify the individuals represented with the second and the third Shapur.

paragraph: They are identical in form, with the exception that the names in the right-hand inscription are "Shapur, Hormizd, Narseh," while those in the left-hand one are "Shapur, Shapur, Hormizd."

paragraph: It has been supposed that the right-hand figure was erected by Shapur II and the other afterwards added by Shapur III; but the unity of the whole sculpture, and its inclusion under a single arch, seem to indicate that it was set up by a single sovereign, and was the fruit of a single conception.

paragraph: If this be so, we must necessarily ascribe it to the later of the two monarchs commemorated, i.e. to Shapur III, who must be supposed to have possessed more than usual filial piety, since the commemoration of their predecessors upon the throne is very rare among the Sasanians.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Inscription of Shapour II and Shapour III in Taq-e Bostan

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 'The Civilizations of the Ancient Near East' by George Rawlinson, Project Gutenberg

description: Shah of Persia

wikidata_label: Shapur III

wikipedia_title: Shapur III


text: shah

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Shapur III

text: Bahram IV

text: Eastern Roman Empire

text: Western Roman Empire

text: Theodosius

text: Arcadius

text: Christianity

text: Zoroastrian

text: Jews

text: Kayanid

text: xwarrah

text: vizier

text: Mihr Narseh

text: Armenia

text: Shapur II

text: Shapur IV

text: Armenia

text: Ctesiphon

text: Khosrow

text: Bahram V

text: Old Iranian

text: Greek

text: Pahlavi

text: Syriac

text: Talmudic

text: Arabic

text: Shapur III

text: Shapur IV

text: Bahram V

text: Bahram IV

text: Ostrogoth

text: Gaul

text: Thessalonika

text: Arbogastes

text: Roman Empire

text: Africa

text: Goths

text: Alaric

text: Arcadius

text: Honorius

text: Theodosius

text: Arcadius

text: Constantinople

text: Jews

text: Talmud

text: Ameimar

text: Rav Ashi

text: Mar Zutra

text: Christian

text: bishop

text: Ctesiphon

text: Fire temple

text: George Rawlinson

text: Magi

text: Mesopotamia

text: Ctesiphon

text: Procopius

text: Pars

text: magi

text: AD

text: pyramid

text: Ahura Mazda

text: Mihr Narseh

text: wuzurg framadār

text: vizier

text: prime minister

text: Artaxias IV

text: Khosrov IV

text: Shapur IV

text: Gurgan

text: Tus

text: Ferdowsi

text: Al-Hira

text: Khorasan

text: Ardeshir

text: Sasanian Empire

text: Bahram V

categories: 5th-century Sasanian monarchs,420 deaths,Shahnameh characters,4th-century births,5th-century murdered monarchs,4th-century Sasanian monarchs,Murdered Persian monarchs

paragraph: Yazdegerd I

paragraph: Yazdegerd I (  "Yazdekert", meaning "made by God"; New Persian: "Yazdegerd") was the twelfth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire, ruling from 399 to 420. He was the son of Shapur III (383–388). He succeeded to the Sasanian throne on the assassination of his brother Bahram IV in 399 and ruled for twenty-one years till his death in 420.

paragraph: Yazdegerd I's reign was largely uneventful. The shah is described as being of a peaceful disposition. There were cordial relations between Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire as well as between Persia and the Western Roman Empire. Early during his reign, Yazdegerd was entrusted the care of the Roman prince Theodosius by his father Arcadius on the latter's death in 408, and Yazdegerd faithfully defended the life, power and possessions of the Roman prince.

paragraph: Yazdegerd promoted Christianity in the early years of his reign and later opposed it. He is known in Sasanian sources (and also in Islamic Persian sources who use Sasanian sources as their references) as "the Sinner". However, this was propaganda made by the Zoroastrian aristocrats and priests due to his persecution of them due to their opposition towards him, and his tolerance towards his non-Zoroastrian subjects, such as the Christians and the Jews. Yazdegerd also used the title of "Ramshahr" ("who maintains peace in his dominion"), which fitted to him, due to his peace with the Romans and tolerance towards his subjects. The title of "Ramshahr" was used by the legendary Kayanid kings, and thus starts the Sasanian interest in Kayanid history, where they later would adopt the title of "Kay" and use the slogan "xwarrah". However, due to the Christians' use of his tolerance to attack the Zoroastrians, the appointment of the intolerant vizier Mihr Narseh, resulted in persecutions of the Christians, and also the struggle to convert Armenia to Zoroastrianism.

paragraph: Since the death of the powerful Sasanian shah Shapur II (r. 309–379), the aristocrats and priests had expanded their influence and authority at the cost of the Sasanian government, nominating, dethroning, and murdering shahs, which included Yazdegerd, who was murdered in 21 January 420. They then sought to stop the sons of Yazdegerd from the ascending the throne—Shapur IV, who was the eldest son of Yazdegerd and governor of Armenia, quickly rushed to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon, and ascended the throne. He was, however, shortly murdered by the nobles and priests, who elected a son of Bahram IV, Khosrow, as shah. Another son of Yazdegerd, Bahram V hurried to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon with an Lakhmid army, and won the favour of the nobles and priests, according to a long-existing popular legend, after withstanding a trial against two lions.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: The name of Yazdegerd is a combination of the Old Iranian "yazad yazata"- "divine being" and -karta "made", and thus stands for "God-made", comparable to Iranian "Bagkart" and Greek "Theoktistos". The name of Yazdegerd is known in other languages as; Pahlavi "Yazdekert"; Syriac "Yazdegerd", "Izdegerd", and "Yazdeger"; Talmudic "Izdeger" and "Azger"; Arabic "Yazdeijerd"; Greek "Isdigerdes".

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Yazdegerd was the son of Shapur III (383–388). Yazdegerd had three sons whom were named: Shapur IV, Narseh, and Bahram V. When Yazdegerd's brother Bahram IV was assassinated in 399, he succeeded him. The Persian soldiers who had murdered Bahram IV did not hurt him on account of his excellent character and fine disposition. The general tenor of his rule was quite peaceful.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Relations with Rome.

paragraph: The Ostrogoth invasion of 386, the revolt of Maximus in 387, the Antioch revolt of 387, the invasion of Gaul in 388, the massacres at Thessalonika and the rebellion of Arbogastes and Eugenius in 393 had severely weakened the Roman Empire. Between 386 and 398, Gildo the Moor ruled an independent kingdom in Africa, and in 395 the Goths took to arms under their leader Alaric. But Yazdegerd on his accession to the throne desisted from assuming any aggressive posture towards the Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius or the Western Roman Emperor Honorius. Yazdegerd's extreme tranquility and his reluctance to invade the Roman Empire earned him the epithet "Ramashtras," "the most quiet," or "the most firm," he justified his assumption of it by a complete abstinence from all military expeditions.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Adoption of Theodosius.

paragraph: On the ninth year of his reign, it is believed, Yazdegerd was entrusted the care of Prince Theodosius by his father Arcadius, the Eastern Roman Emperor. It was strange that Arcadius chose neither his younger-brother Honorius nor any of his distinguished subjects for the purpose and instead entrusted his son to the charge of the Persian monarch. He accompanied the appointment by a solemn appeal to the magnanimity of Isdigerd, whom he exhorted at some length to defend with all his force, and guide with his best wisdom, the young king and his kingdom. One writer even goes to the extent of claiming that Arcadius gifted Yazdegerd a thousand pounds of pure gold in return for his favour. When Arcadius died, and the testament was opened, information of its contents was sent to Isdigerd, who at once accepted the charge assigned to him, and addressed a letter to the Senate of Constantinople, in which he declared his determination to punish any attempt against his ward with the extremest severity. Flattered, he performed his newfound role with utmost sincerity providing him the best possible education and assistance.

paragraph: A eunuch named Antiochus was selected and sent to Constantinople to look after the young Emperor. He was, for many years, the prince's intimate companion. He was supposed to have been killed or expelled from the kingdom by Pulcheria, elder sister of Theodosius. However, even after Antiochus' end, Yazdegerd continued his aid to the young monarch.

paragraph: Procopius has praised the "display of virtue" by Yazdegerd in his treatment of Theodosius.

paragraph: However, these narratives were written a century and a half after the death of Arcadius, and have been rejected by modern scholars due to the silence of contemporary writers as outweighing the positive statements of the later ones.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious policy.

paragraph: According to Wein, Yazdegerd I was a wise, benevolent, and astute ruler. He was also known for his religious tolerance, towards both Christians and Jews. For example, the Talmud (Ksubos, 61a) relates that Ameimar, Rav Ashi, and Mar Zutra would sit in his court. However, excessive zeal of the Christian bishop of Ctesiphon, Abdaas, provoked a reaction, and when he tried to burn the Great Fire temple of Ctesiphon, Yazdegerd I turned against the Christians (see following).

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious policy.:Inclination towards Christianity.

paragraph: During the early part of his reign, Yazdegerd inclined towards Christianity. George Rawlinson feels that Yazdegerd may even himself wanted to convert to Christianity. Antiochus openly wrote in favor of Christians, and this rapidly increased conversions to Christianity. Yazdegerd also persecuted the "Magi", the Zoroastrian high-priests, who opposed him and his ideas.

paragraph: Yazdegerd is believed to have been an ardent follower of at least two prominent Christian bishops: Marutha, bishop of Mesopotamia, and Abdaas, the bishop of Ctesiphon. Marutha in particular exerted a great amount of influence over the shah, and it was at his insistence that Yazdegerd issued a declaration in 410 giving Christians the freedom of worship. This proclamation is sometimes regarded as "the Edict of Milan for the Assyrian Church". Furthermore, in order to create a religious buffer between the Church of Rome and the Persian Church, Yazdegerd actively promoted Christianity.

paragraph: According to the Byzantine historian Procopius, "From the start, Yazdegerd was a sovereign whose nobility of character had won for him the greatest renown. He gave his Christian subjects such freedom, even support that they prayed daily for the safety of 'the victorious and glorious king' ". A contemporary Christian account says that "the good and clement King Yazdegerd did well to the poor and wretched".

paragraph: Yazdegerd sent the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon to mediate between the shah and his brother who governed Pars. Another Catholicos was Yazdegerd's envoy to Theodosius.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Religious policy.:Dispute with Abdas.

paragraph: Engaged in a dispute with the local magi in AD 420, Abdas was accused of burning down one of their temples, a pyramid of Ahura Mazda. Yazdegerd ordered the bishop to restore and repair the building at his own expense, upon Abdas' refusal the shah ordered the destruction of the churches. During the same period, Mihr Narseh was appointed as Yazdegerd's "wuzurg framadār" (vizier or prime minister), who managed to change the peaceful policy of Yazdegerd, and which resulted in persecutions of Christians.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Relations with Armenia.

paragraph: When indulging in the persecution of Christians in Persia, Mihr Narseh also attempted to spread Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Under these circumstances, Isaac, the Metropolitan of Armenia, proceeded to the court of Ctesiphon, and petitioned Yazdegerd to replace Artaxias IV with Khosrov IV who had been deposed twenty-one years earlier, and whom Bahram IV had imprisoned in the "Castle of Oblivion". Yazdegerd I released Khosrov IV and reinstated him upon the throne of Armenia in order to stabilize the condition. However, Khosrov IV survived for only a year, and on his death, the throne became empty once again, leaving Armenia to chaos. So Yazdegerd responded by placing his own son Shapur IV on the throne of Armenia, forcing him upon the reluctant nobles of Armenia. Shapur IV concentrated on reconciliation and established friendly relations with the nobles. He ruled Armenia for four years and returned to Ctesiphon in 419 to capture the throne from the shah Yazdegerd I, who was in his death-bed.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Yazdegerd I died in 420. However, the circumstances surrounding Yazdegerd's death are not clear. According to a long-existing popular legend, he was killed during his stay in Gurgan by a fabulous horse which emerged magically from a stream. This happened near Tus according to Ferdowsi. The legend may be some sort of an allusion to his death at the hands of his nobles.

paragraph: Section::::War of succession.

paragraph: When Yazdegerd I was overcome by mortal illness in the year 419, Shapur IV immediately rushed to Ctesiphon to claim the Sassanian throne leaving behind a viceroy to govern Armenia. But the viceroy-designate was killed soon after Shapur left Armenia. A battle of succession followed and lasted for three years after Yazdegerd's death. Shapur was treacherously killed by the courtiers in the initial stages of the battle. Bahram V arrived from Al-Hira and captured the throne after defeating the Persian nobles with an Arab army in a three-year-long battle. Narseh, another son of Yazdegerd I was appointed governor of Khorasan.

paragraph: Section::::Coins of Yazdegerd I.

paragraph: The coins of Yazdegerd are not of much artistic value. They all bear the head of a middle-aged man, with a short beard and hair gathered behind the head in a cluster of curls. The distinguishing mark is the inflated ball above the headdress which is adorned with a crescent in the front. On the reverse side of the coin is a fire-altar. The coins bear the legend: "Mazdisn bag ramashtras Izdikerti, malkan malka Airan," or "the Ormazd-worshipping divine most peaceful Yazdegerd, king of the kings of Iran;" and on the reverse, Ramashtras Izdikerti, "the most peaceful Isdigerd". In some cases, Yazdegerd's coins also bear the names of "Ardashatri" (Ardashir) or, "Varahran", probably a reference to Ardeshir, the founder of the Sasanian Empire and Yazdegerd I's son Bahram V or Bahramgur. Perhaps a more reasonable account of the matter would be that Yazdegerd had originally a son Ardeshir, whom he intended to make his successor, but that this son died or offended him, and that then he gave his place to Bahram Gur.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rawlinson, George. (1882). "The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy". Dodd, Mead and Company

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rawlinson, George. (1885). "The Seven Great Monarchies of the Eastern World, Vol 7 ". J. B. Alden

paragraph: BULLET::::- Herman, Geoffrey. The last years of Yazdgird I and the Christians. "Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians: Religious Dynamics in a Sasanian Context". (Judaism in Context 17) Gorgias Press: Piscataway, 2014, pp. 67-90.

description: Sasanian king of Persia

wikidata_label: Yazdegerd I

wikipedia_title: Yazdegerd I


text: Sasanian

text: shah

text: Iran

text: Bahram V

text: Eastern Roman Empire

text: Hephthalites

text: Zoroastrianism

text: Christians

text: Kayanian dynasty

text: Avesta

text: Old Iranian

text: Greek

text: Pahlavi

text: Syriac

text: Talmudic

text: Arabic

text: Bahram V

text: Roman Empire

text: Vandals

text: Theodosius II

text: Anatolius

text: Mesopotamia

text: Caucasus

text: Armenia

text: Hephthalite

text: Nishapur

text: Khorasan

text: wuzurg framadar

text: Mihr Narseh

text: Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr

text: Damghan

text: Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd

text: Iran

text: Gurgan

text: Caucasian Albania

text: Caucasus

text: Hun

text: Arabic

text: Persian

text: piety

text: Armenian

text: Syriac

text: Iberians

text: Armenians

text: Karkh

text: Iberia

text: marzban

text: Mihr Narseh

text: Zurvanite

text: Vardan Mamikonian

text: sparapet

text: Vasak Siwni

text: clashed at Avarayr

text: Vahan Mamikonian

text: Kavad I

text: Jews

text: Sabbath

text: Spahan

text: Ibn al-Balkhi

text: Hamza al-Isfahani

text: Yazdegerd I

text: Mazda

text: Avesta

text: Kayanians

text: fire altar

text: Asoristan

text: Khuzestan

text: Gurgan

text: Marw

text: Hormizd III

text: Ray

text: Peroz I

text: Mihranid

text: Raham Mihran

text: Denag

text: Ctesiphon

text: Denag

text: Hormizd III

text: Peroz I

text: Zarir

text: Balash

categories: 5th-century Sasanian monarchs,Shahnameh characters,457 deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Yazdegerd II

paragraph: Yazdegerd II (  "Yazdekert", meaning "made by God"; New Persian: "Yazdegerd"), was the sixteenth Sasanian king (shah) of Iran. He was the successor and son of Bahram V (420–438) and reigned from 438 to 457. His reign was marked by wars against the Eastern Roman Empire in the west and the Hephthalites in the east, as well as by his efforts and attempts to strengthen royal centralisation in the bureaucracy by imposing Zoroastrianism on the non-Zoroastrians within the country, namely the Christians.

paragraph: Yazdegerd II was the first Sasanian ruler to assume the title of "kay", which evidently associates him and the dynasty to the mythical Kayanian dynasty commemorated in the Avesta.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: The name of Yazdegerd is a combination of the Old Iranian "yazad yazata"- "divine being" and "-karta" "made", and thus stands for "God-made", comparable to Iranian "Bagkart" and Greek "Theoktistos". The name of Yazdegerd is known in other languages as; Pahlavi "Yazdekert"; Syriac "Yazdegerd", "Izdegerd", and "Yazdeger"; Talmudic "Izdeger" and "Azger"; Arabic "Yazdeijerd"; Greek "Isdigerdes".

paragraph: Section::::Wars.

paragraph: In 438, shah Bahram V () died, and was succeeded by Yazdegerd II, who two years later made war against the Roman Empire, with little success for either side. The Romans were invaded in their southern provinces by the Vandals, causing the Roman Emperor, Theodosius II (408–450), to ask for peace and send his commander, Anatolius, personally to Yazdegerd II's camp. In the ensuing negotiations in 440, both empires promised not to build any new fortifications in Mesopotamia and that the Sasanian Empire would get some payment in order to protect the Caucasus from incursions. Shortly after his peace treaty with the Romans, Yazdegerd II moved towards the important Sasanian province of Armenia and defeated the Armenians, capturing nobles, priests, and troops; and sending them to the eastern Sasanian provinces to protect the borders from Hephthalite attacks.

paragraph: In 453, Yazdegerd II moved his court to Nishapur in Khorasan to face the threat from the Hephthalites and left his minister ("wuzurg framadar") Mihr Narseh in charge of the Sasanian Empire. He spent many years at war against the Hephthalites. According to the "Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr" ("The Provincial Capitals of Iran"), Yazdegerd II fortified the city of Damghan and turned it into a strong border post against the Hephthalites. It was sometime during this period that Yazdegerd II created the province of "Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd" ("Iran, glory of Yazdegerd"), which was in the northern part of the Gurgan province. After he managed to secure the eastern portion of his empire against the Hephthalite incursions, Yazdegerd II shifted his focus on Armenia and Caucasian Albania to defend the Caucasus with the Romans against the increasing Hun threat.

paragraph: Section::::Religious policy.

paragraph: The policies of Yazdegerd II have been the matter of discussion; Arabic and Persian sources emphasize his personal piety and hostility towards the aristocracy, whilst Armenian and Syriac sources describe him as a religious fanatic. The latter aspect is often stressed in modern historiography. The unsteadiness of the empire was ever increasing under Yazdegerd II, who had an uneasy relationship with the aristocracy and was facing a great challenge by the Hephthalites in the east. At the beginning of Yazdegerd II's reign, he suffered several defeats at the hands of the Hephthalites, for which he put the blame on the Christians, due to much of his cavalry consisting of Iberians and Armenians. Persecutions of Christians first started in 446 with the Christian nobles of Karkh. He later shifted his focus towards the Christian aristocracy of Iberia and Armenia. Yazdegerd II's persecutions of non-Zoroastrians generally seem to have been limited, with the aristocracy being the primary target.

paragraph: Yazdegerd II had originally continued his father's policies of appeasing the magnates. However, after some time, he turned away from them and started a policy of his own. When the magnates told him that his new policies had offended the people, he disagreed, saying that: "it is not correct for you to presume that the ways in which my father behaved towards you, maintaining you close to him, and bestowing upon you all that bounty, are incumbent upon all the kings that come after him ... each age has its own customs." Yazdegerd II, however, was still fully aware of the longstanding conflict between the crown and the nobility and priesthood, which had culminated in the murder of several Sasanian monarchs.

paragraph: Yazdegerd II's primary goal throughout his reign was thus to combat the internal and external issues posing a danger to country by strengthening the royal centralisation of the bureaucracy, which demanded the cooperation of the aristocracy. The justification behind this is later apparent when Yazdegerd II appointed Adhur-Hormizd as the new governor ("marzban") of Armenia in 451, putting an end to the persecution of non-Zoroastrians in Armenia and allowing religious freedom in the country. This would have been an unlikely decision to have been made by a religious fanatic. Indeed, according to the modern historian Scott McDonough, the Zoroastrian faith was perhaps a "test of personal loyalty" for Yazdegerd II. However, Yazdegerd II's policy of integrating the Christian nobility into the bureaucracy still had problematic consequences; before the appointment of Adhur-Hormizd, Armenia had been plunged into a major rebellion. The cause of the rebellion was the attempt of Mihr Narseh to impose the Zurvanite variant of Zoroastrianism in Armenia. His intentions differed from those of Yazdegerd II. As a result, many of the Armenian nobles (but not all) rallied under Vardan Mamikonian, the supreme commander ("sparapet") of Armenia. The Armenian rebels tried to appeal to the Romans for help, but to no avail. Meanwhile, another faction of Armenians, led by the "marzban" Vasak Siwni allied themselves with the Sasanians.

paragraph: On 2 June 451, the Sasanian and rebel forces clashed at Avarayr, with the Sasanians emerging victorious. Nine generals, including Vardan Mamikonian, were killed, with a large number of the Armenian nobles and soldiers meeting the same fate. The Sasanians, however, had also suffered heavy losses due to the resolute struggle by the Armenian rebels. Although Yazdegerd II put an end to the persecutions in the country afterwards, tensions continued until 510 when a kinsman of Vardan Mamikonian, Vahan Mamikonian, was appointed "marzban" by Yazdegerd II's grandson, Kavad I ().

paragraph: Jews were also the subject of persecution under Yazdegerd II; he is said to have issued decrees prohibiting them from observing the Sabbath openly, and ordered executions of several Jewish leaders. This resulted in the Jewish community of Spahan publicly retaliating by flaying two Zoroastrian priests alive, leading in turn to more persecutions against the Jews.

paragraph: Section::::Personality.

paragraph: Yazdegerd II was an astute and well-read ruler whose motto was "Question, examine, see. Let us choose and hold that which is best." He is generally praised in Persian sources, and is described as a compassionate and benevolent ruler. He is commended for abandoning his father's overindulgence in hunting, feasting, and having long audience sessions. According to the medieval historians Ibn al-Balkhi and Hamza al-Isfahani, he was known as "Yazdegerd the Gentle" ("Yazdegerd-e Narm"). However, the favorable account of Yazdegerd II is due to his policy of persecuting non-Zoroastrians within the empire, which appeased the Iranian aristocracy and especially the Zoroastrian priesthood, which sought to use the Sasanian Empire to impose their authority over the religious and cultural life of its people. This is the opposite of the policy of his grandfather and namesake, Yazdegerd I (known as the "sinner"), who is the subject of hostility in Persian sources due to his tolerant policy towards his non-Zoroastrian subjects, and his refusal to comply with the demands of the aristocracy and priesthood.

paragraph: Section::::Coin mints and imperial ideology.

paragraph: The reign of Yazdegerd II marks the start of a new inscription on the Sasanian coins; "mzdysn bgy kdy" ("The Mazda-worshipping majesty, the Kayanid"), which displays his fondness of the legendary Avestan dynasty, the Kayanians. A new design also appeared on the reverse of the Sasanian coins, where the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants, now imitates them in a more venerated manner. This presumably further demonstrates Yazdegerd II's fealty to Zoroastrianism. The provinces of Asoristan and Khuzestan provided the most mints for Yazdegerd II in the west, whilst the provinces of Gurgan and Marw provided the most in the east, undoubtly to support the Sasanians in their wars on the two fronts.

paragraph: Section::::Death and succession.

paragraph: Yazdegerd II died in 457; his eldest son Hormizd III ascended the throne at Ray. His younger son Peroz I, with the support of the powerful Mihranid magnate Raham Mihran, fled to the northeastern part of the empire and began raising an army in order to claim the throne for himself. The empire thus fell into a dynastic struggle and became divided. The mother of the two brothers, Denag, temporarily ruled as regent of the empire from its capital, Ctesiphon.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Section::::Family.:Marriages.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Denag, an Iranian princess from the royal Sasanian family.

paragraph: Section::::Family.:Issue.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hormizd III, seventeenth shah of the Sasanian Empire ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peroz I, eighteenth shah of the Sasanian Empire ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zarir, Sasanian prince, who tried to claim the throne by rebelling in 485.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Balash, nineteenth shah of the Sasanian Empire ().

description: Persian king

wikidata_label: Yazdegerd II

wikipedia_title: Yazdegerd II


text:
New Persian
shah
Sasanian Empire
Bahram I
Hormizd of Sakastan
Hormizd I Kushanshah
Carus
Ctesiphon
Khuzestan
Zoroastrian
Diocletian
Bahram III
Narseh
Shapur I
theophoric name
New Persian
Middle Persian
Old Iranian
Avestan
Vərəθraγna
Parthian
Greek
Shapur I
concubine
Hormizd I
Zoroastrian
Kartir
Narseh
Armenia
Roman
Sakastan
Sindh
Turgistan
Ctesiphon
sakanshah
Hormizd I Kushanshah
Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
Kushan Empire
Sakastanis
Gilaks
Hormizd of Sakastan
Rezakhani
mowbed
Khuzestan
Roman
Carus
Mesopotamia
Ctesiphon
Diocletian
Western Armenia
Arsacid
Tiridates III
Roman-Iranian treaty of 299
Iberian
Mirian III
House of Mihran
Seven Great Houses of Iran
Caucasus
Mtskheta
Caucasus Mountains
Bahram III
sakanshah
Pars
Wahnam
Meshan
Kartir
wuzurgan
Anahid fire-temple
Istakhr
Christians
Jews
Mandeans
Manichaeans
Buddhists
Vərəθraγna
Daryaee
Persian
Shapurdukhtak
Bahram III
fire altar

categories: People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars,Shahnameh characters,293 deaths,3rd-century births,3rd-century Sasanian monarchs

paragraph: Bahram II

paragraph: Bahram II (, "Wahrām"; New Persian: , "Bahrām") was the fifth king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire from 274 to 293. He was the son of Bahram I (). He was the first Sasanian ruler to have coins minted of his family. He also ordered the carving of several rock reliefs that unambiguously emphasizes distinguished representations of his family and members of the high nobility. In the east, Bahram II had to deal with revolts by his cousin Hormizd of Sakastan and brother Hormizd I Kushanshah. At the same time his empire was invaded in the west by the Roman emperor Carus, who may have briefly occupied the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. In Khuzestan, a Zoroastrian factional revolt had occurred. After making peace with the newly ascended Roman emperor Diocletian, Bahram II was capable of bringing peace to his domains.

paragraph: Bahram II died in 293, and was succeeded by his son Bahram III, who after only four months of reigning, was overthrown by Narseh, a son of the second Sasanian shah Shapur I ().

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: His theophoric name "Bahram" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian "Warahrān" (also spelled "Wahrām"), which is derived from the Old Iranian "Vṛθragna". The Avestan equivalent was Vərəθraγna, the name of the god of victory, whilst the Parthian version was "*Warθagn". The name is transliterated in Greek as "Baranes".

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Bahram II was the son of Bahram I, and the grandson of the prominent Sasanian shah Shapur I (). Bahram I, although being the eldest son of Shapur I, was not considered a candidate for succession, probably due to his mother's lowly origin, who was either a minor queen or perhaps even a concubine. Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by his son Hormizd I, whose only reigned for a year before he died. Bahram I, with the aid of the powerful Zoroastrian priest Kartir, ascended the throne. He then made a settlement with his brother Narseh to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province of Armenia, which was constantly the source of war between the Roman and Sasanian Empires. Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper.

paragraph: Section::::Governorship and accession.

paragraph: Bahram was shortly given the governorship of Sakastan, Sindh and Turgistan, which Narseh had previously governed. The provinces were far away from the imperial court in Ctesiphon, and had since its conquest by the Sasanians served as a difficult area for them to maintain control over. As a result, the province had since its early days functioned as a form of vassal kingdom, ruled by princes from the Sasanian family, who held the title of "sakanshah" ("King of the Saka"). Bahram I's reign, however, lasted shortly, ending on September 274 with his death. Bahram II, still in his teens, succeeded him as shah; he may have been aided by Kartir to ascended the throne instead of Narseh. This most likely frustrated Narseh, who held the title of "Vazurg Šāh Arminān" ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Wars.

paragraph: Bahram II was met with considerable challenges during his reign. His brother Hormizd I Kushanshah, who governed the eastern portion of the empire (i.e., the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom), rebelled against him. Hormizd I Kushanshah was the first Kushano-Sasanian ruler to mint coins with the inscription of "Hormizd, the Great Kushan King of Kings" instead of the traditional "Great Kushan King" title. The Kushano-Sasanian king, now laying claims to the title of King of Kings, which had originally also been used by the Kushan Empire, displays a noteworthy transition in Kushano-Sasanian ideology and self-perception and possibly a direct dispute with the ruling branch of the Sasanian family. Hormizd I Kushanshah was supported in his efforts by the Sakastanis, Gilaks, and Kushans. Another revolt also occurred in Sakastan, led by Bahram II's cousin Hormizd of Sakastan, who has been suggested to be the same person as Hormizd I Kushanshah. However, according to Rezakhani, this proposal must now be disregarded. At the same time, a revolt led by a high-priest ("mowbed") occurred in the province of Khuzestan, which was seized by the latter for a period.

paragraph: Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Carus, hearing of the civil war occurring in the Sasanian Empire, chose to take advantage of the situation by making a campaign into the empire in 283. He invaded Mesopotamia while Bahram II was in the east, and even besieged the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon without facing much fighting. The Sasanians, due to facing severe internal problems, were unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time; Carus and his army may have captured Ctesiphon. However, Carus shortly died afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning. The Roman army as a result withdrew, and Mesopotamia was re-conquered by the Sasanians.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Consolidation of the empire.

paragraph: The following year, Bahram II made peace with the Romans, now ruled by Diocletian, who was faced with internal issues of his own. The terms of the peace was reportedly that Armenia was to be divided between the two empires, with Western Armenia being ruled by the pro-Roman Arsacid prince Tiridates III, and the remaining greater portion being kept by Narseh. However, this division is dismissed by Weber, who argues that it conflicts with other sources, and that the Sasanians most likely kept control over Armenia until the later Roman-Iranian treaty of 299. In the same year, Bahram II secured the Iberian throne for Mirian III, an Iranian nobleman from the House of Mihran, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran. The motive behind was to strengthen Sasanian authority in the Caucasus and utilize the position of the Iberian capital Mtskheta as an entrance to the important passes through the Caucasus Mountains. This was of so high importance to Bahram II, that he allegedly himself went to Mtskheta in order to secure Mirian's position.

paragraph: By the time of Bahram II's death in 293, the revolts in the east had been suppressed, with his son and heir Bahram III being appointed the governor of Sakastan, receiving the title of "sakanshah" ("King of the Saka"). Following Bahram II's death, Bahram III was unwillingly proclaimed shah in Pars by a group of nobles led by Wahnam and supported by Adurfarrobay, governor of Meshan. After four months of reigning, however, he was overthrown by Narseh, who had Wahnam executed. The line was thus shifted to Narseh, whose descendants continued to rule the empire until its fall in 651.

paragraph: Section::::Relations with Kartir and religious policy.

paragraph: Bahram II, like his father, received the influential Zoroastrian priest Kartir well. He saw him as his mentor, and handed out several honors to him, giving him the rank of grandee ("wuzurgan"), and appointing him as the supreme judge ("dadwar") of the whole empire, which indicates that thenceforth priests were given the office of judge. Kartir was also appointed the steward of the Anahid fire-temple at Istakhr, which had originally been under the care of the Sasanian family. The Sasanian kings thus lost much of their religious authority in the empire. The clergy from now on served as judges all over the country, with court cases most likely being based on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, with the expection of when representatives of other religions had conflicts with each other.

paragraph: It is thus under Bahram II that Kartir unquestionably becomes a powerful figure in the empire; he started persecuting the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the Christians, Jews, Mandeans, Manichaeans, and Buddhists. Before Bahram II, all the previous Sasanian shahs had been "lukewarm Zoroastrians." He displayed a particular fondness to his name-deity by giving his son the name of Bahram, and selecting the wings of the god's bird, Vərəθraγna, as the central component of his crown.

paragraph: Section::::Coins.

paragraph: Bahram II was the first Sasanian monarch to have coins minted of his family. According to Daryaee, "this is an interesting feature of Wahram II in that he was very much concerned to leave a portrait of his family which incidentally gives us information about the court and the Persian concept of the royal banquet ("bazm")." Several coin types were minted during Bahram II's reign; one type imitates him alone; another with him and his wife Shapurdukhtak; a third one with Bahram II and the crown prince Bahram III; and a fourth one shows Bahram II with his queen and crown prince all together. The reverse shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants.

description: fifth Sasanian King of Iran

wikidata_label: Bahram II

wikipedia_title: Bahram II


text:
Middle Persian
New Persian
shah
Sasanian Empire
Shapur II
Nodardashiragan
Romans
Armenia
New Persian
Middle Persian
Old Iranian
Greek
Armenian
Hormizd II
Adur Narseh
Hormizd
Roman Empire
Shapur II
Nodardashiragan
invaded
Julian
Shapur III
Armenia
Arshak II
Pap
Varazdat
Arsacid
Mushegh I Mamikonian
Manuel
Zarmandukht
Arshak III
sparapet
commander-in-chief
commandant
Theodosius I
ratified
Shapur III
Zruanduxt
Khosrov IV of Armenia
Ardashir I
fire altar
xwarra
Iranians
non-Iranians
Pars
Fars Province
Taq-e Bostan
Media
Kermanshah
regalia
diadem
Zoroastrian
Ahura Mazda
Julian
killed
Ctesiphon
Zoroaster
divinity
Mithra
barsom
Faustus of Byzantium

categories: People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars,383 deaths,Shahnameh characters,Governors of the Sasanian Empire,4th-century births,4th-century Sasanian monarchs,Julian's Persian War

paragraph: Ardashir II

paragraph: Ardashir II (Middle Persian 𐭠𐭥𐭲𐭧𐭱𐭲𐭥, New Persian: اردشیر نیکوکار, "Ardashir"), was the eleventh king (shah) of the Sasanian Empire, ruling from 379 to 383. He was the brother of his predecessor, Shapur II (), under whom he had served as governor-king of Nodardashiragan, where he fought alongside his brother against the Romans. Ardashir II was appointed as his brother's successor to rule interimly till the latter's son Shapur III reached adulthood. Ardashir II's short reign was largely uneventful, with the Sasanians successful managing to spread out instability in Armenia.

paragraph: Ardashir II was seemingly a strong-willed character, and is known in some sources by the epithet of "nihoukar" ("the beneficent").

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: "Ardashir" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian name "Ardašīr/Ardašēr" (), which is ultimately from Old Iranian "*Artaxšaθra-" (), equivalent to Greek "Artaxérxēs" (), and Armenian "Artašēs" (). The name means "whose rule is through truth".

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Ardashir was the son of shah Hormizd II (), who was killed by the Iranian nobility whilst hunting. He was succeeded by Adur Narseh, who, after a brief reign which only lasted a few months, was too killed by the nobles, who then proceeded to blind the second, and imprison the third (Hormizd, who later managed to escape to the Roman Empire). Ardashir's infant half-brother Shapur II, who was only slightly older than him, was crowned as king by the nobles so that they could gain greater control of the empire, which they were able to do until Shapur II reached his majority at the age of 16.

paragraph: Ardashir, before becoming king of the Sasanian Empire, was governor-king of Nodardashiragan from 344 to 376. It is believed that during his tenure he took part in the defense of the Sasanian Empire with Shapur when it was invaded by the Roman Emperor Julian (). In 379, Shapur II designated Ardashir as his successor, and made him vow to abdicate when Shapur's son, Shapur III reached adulthood. This led to some Armenian writers to wrongly state that Ardashir was Shapur's son.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: During his reign as shah of the Sasanian Empire, events in Armenia seemed to occupy Ardashir's attention. The son of Arshak II, Pap, had been murdered during Shapur's reign and the Romans had replaced him with a certain Varazdat who was a member of the Arsacid family. However, real power was in the hands of Mushegh I Mamikonian, a noble in the Armenian court. Mushegh was suspected of having conspired with the Emperor of Rome and was murdered by Varasdates. This act roused the indignation of Mushegh's brother Manuel who rebelled against Varasdates and with the support of Iran deposed him and placed upon the Armenian throne Zarmandukht, the widow of Papas who was the mother of Arshak III and Papas' son, who made Manuel the "sparapet" (commander-in-chief). In return for their services, Manuel allowed the Iranians to maintain a garrison in Armenia.

paragraph: But this arrangement did not work for long. A nobleman named Merujan wrongly informed Manuel that the commandant of the Iranian garrison desired to capture him. Enraged, Manuel fell upon the ten thousand Iranian soldiers stationed in Armenia and murdered them. But Manuel died soon afterwards and confusion followed. Desirous of maintaining peace in the borderlands, the Roman Emperor Theodosius I and Ardashir decided upon a treaty. But Ardashir was killed in 383 by the Iranian nobility before the treaty could be signed. The reason behind his murder was due to his continuation of Shapur's policy of restricting the authority of power-hungry nobles. Nevertheless, the treaty was the eventually signed and ratified by his nephew and successor Shapur III in 384. Ardashir was survived by his daughter Zruanduxt, who married the King Khosrov IV of Armenia.

paragraph: Section::::Coins.

paragraph: The coins minted under Ardashir imitates him wearing the same dome-shaped crown worn by the first Sasanian shah, Ardashir I (). The reverse shows the traditional fire altar flanked by two attendants, but in some cases also shows the shah's head appearing from the fire, which may symbolize the royal xwarra ("glory"). The inscription of his coins are usually "Ardashir, king of kings of the Iranians" whilst rare instances of "and of non-Iranians" also being part of the inscription.

paragraph: Section::::Rock relief.

paragraph: Ardashir, like his forefathers, also had himself memorialized on reliefs. However, instead of using the sites of Pars (present-day Fars Province) as a place for his relief, he instead had a relief carved in Taq-e Bostan in the province of Media (near present-day Kermanshah). The relief shows three standing figures wearing regalia; Ardashir being in the middle, flanked by two male figures. The figure to the right, who is giving the diadem to Ardashir originally used to recognized as the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda, but is now agreed to be Shapur II due to the style of his crown, and which also fits well due to Shapur being the one designating Ardashir as shah to begin with.

paragraph: The two shahs are standing on the body of a fallen enemy, unmistakably a Roman, whose crown indicates that he is an emperor. The fallen figure is most likely supposed to represent the Roman emperor Julian, who invaded Iran in 363 and was killed west of the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The figure standing to the far left, perceived by some to be the Zoroastrian prophet Zoroaster, is most likely the angelic divinity Mithra. He is wearing a crown embellished with twelve rays of the sun, whilst holding a raised barsom, thus sanctifying the investiture.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Ancient works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Faustus of Byzantium, "History of the Armenians".

description: Sassanid king

wikidata_label: Ardashir II

wikipedia_title: Ardashir II