text: Vasubandhu

text: Tanluan

text: Fujiwara clan

text: Maruyama Park

text: Kyoto

text: Mt. Hiei

text: Hongan-ji

text: Rokkaku-dō

text: Avalokitesvara

text: Prince Shōtoku

text: Hōnen

text: Amida's Vow

text: Senchakushū

text: nembutsu

text: nembutsu

text: Echigo

text: Niigata Prefecture

text: Amida

text: Jōdo-shū

text: Eshinni

text: Echigo

text: Kantō

text: Kyogyoshinsho

text: sutra

text: Kakushinni

text: Hitachi

text: Shimotsuke

text: Monshu

text: Jōdo-shū

text: Kōsai

text: Dharma Decline

text: Amitabha

text: Primal Vow

text: Pure Land

text: nembutsu

text: bodhisattva

text: Nirvana

text: final age

text: Tao-cho

text: kami

text: divination

text: astrology

text: heresiology

text: Tachikawa-ryu

text: omamori

text: ofuda

text: Jodo Shinshu

text: Upper West Side

text: Manhattan

text: New York City

text: Shimogyō-ku

text: Kyōto

text: Faith in Buddhism

text: Jōdo Shinshū

text: Bloom, Alfred

text: World Wisdom

text: Dobbins, James C.

text: OCLC 470742039

text: Shigaraki, Takamaro

text: Hirota, Dennis

text: " Buddhist Psalms of Shinran Shonin"

text: e-book

text: original

text: The Collected Works of Shinran

categories: Jōdo Shinshū,Recipients of Japanese royal pardons,1173 births,Pure Land Buddhism,Shinran,Japanese Buddhist monks,1263 deaths,People related to Jōdo Shinshū

paragraph: Shinran

paragraph: Section::::Names.

paragraph: Shinran's birthname was Matsuwakamaro. In accordance with Japanese customs, he has also gone by other names, including Hanen, Shakku and Zenshin, and then finally to Shinran, which was derived by combining the names of Seshin (Vasubandhu in Japanese) and Donran (Tanluan’s name in Japanese). His posthumous title was Kenshin Daishi. For a while, Shinran also went by the name Fujii Yoshizane. After he was disrobed, he called himself Gutoku Shinran, in a self-deprecating manner which means "stubble-haired foolish one," to denote his status as "neither a monk, nor a layperson".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Shinran was born on May 21, 1173, to Lord and Lady Arinori, a branch of the Fujiwara clan, and was given the name Matsuwakamaro. Early in Shinran's life his parents both died. In 1181, desperate to know what happens after dying, he entered the Shoren-in temple near present-day Maruyama Park in Kyoto at age 9. He wrote this poem on entering: "Like the cherry blossom, the heart planning on tomorrow is ephemeral indeed—what sudden storm may not arise in the middle of the night". Acutely aware of his own impermanence, he was desperate to find a solution. He then practiced at Mt. Hiei for the next 20 years of his life. Letters between his wife and daughter indicate that he was a Tendai .

paragraph: According to his own account to his wife Eshinni (whose letters are preserved at the Hongan-ji), in frustration at his own failures as a monk and at obtaining enlightenment, he took a retreat at the temple of Rokkaku-dō. There, while engaged in intense practice, he experienced a vision in which Avalokitesvara appeared to him as Prince Shōtoku, directing Shinran to another disillusioned Tendai monk named Hōnen. In 1201, Shinran met Hōnen and became his disciple. During his first year under Hōnen's guidance, at the age of 29, Shinran attained enlightenment, or salvation through Amida's Vow. Though the two only knew each other for a few years, Hōnen entrusted Shinran with a copy of his secret work, the Senchakushū. However his precise status amongst Hōnen's followers is unclear as in the Seven Article Pledge, signed by Hōnen's followers in 1204, Shinran's signature appears near the middle among less-intimate disciples.

paragraph: During his time as a disciple of Hōnen's, Shinran caused a great stir among society by publicly getting married and eating meat. Both practices were strictly forbidden for monks, but Shinran took these drastic steps to show that Amida's salvation is for all people and not just for monks and priests.

paragraph: In 1207, The Buddhist establishment in Kyoto persuaded the military to impose a "nembutsu" ban, after an incident where two of Hōnen's most prominent followers were accused of using nembutsu practice as a coverup for sexual liaisons. These two monks were subsequently executed. Hōnen and Shinran were exiled, with Shinran being defrocked and sent to Echigo Province (contemporary Niigata Prefecture). They never met each other again. Hōnen would die later in Kyoto in 1212.

paragraph: Although Shinran was critical of the motivations that ultimately led to the exile, and the disruption of Hōnen's practice community, the exile itself proved to be a critical turning point in Shinran's religious life. Having been stripped of his monastic name, he renamed himself , coming to understand himself as neither monk nor layman. While in exile, Shinran sought to continue the work of Hōnen and spread the doctrine of salvation through Amida Buddha's compassion, as expressed through the "nembutsu" practice, however in time his teachings diverged from Hōnen enough that later followers would use the term Jōdo Shinshū or "True [Essence of the] Pure Land Sect", as opposed to Jōdo-shū or "Pure Land Sect".

paragraph: Shinran married his wife, Eshinni, and had seven children with her.

paragraph: Five years after being exiled in Echigo, in 1211, the "nembutsu" ban was lifted and Shinran was pardoned though he chose not to return to Kyoto at that time. Instead, Shinran left for an area known as Inada, a small area in Kantō just north of Tokyo. In 1224 Shinran authored his most significant text, Kyogyoshinsho, which is a series of selections and commentaries on Buddhist sutras supporting the new Pure Land Buddhist movement, and establishing a doctrinal lineage with Buddhist thinkers in India and China. In 1234 Shinran left the Kantō area and returned to Kyoto, with his daughter Kakushinni. On returning to Kyoto, Shinran discovered that his eldest son, Zenran (善鸞 1217?–1286?), who remained in Hitachi and Shimotsuke provinces was telling people he received special teachings from Shinran and was otherwise leading people astray. Shinran wrote stern letters to Zenran (frequently addressed by his Buddhist name ) instructing him to cease his activities, but when Zenran refused, Shinran disowned him:

paragraph: Shinran died in Kyoto the year 1263 at the age of 90. Kakushinni was instrumental in maintaining the mausoleum, and passing on his teachings, with her descendants ultimately becoming the Monshu, or head of the Honganji Temples built around the Mausoleum.

paragraph: Section::::Timeline.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1173: Shinran is born

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1175: Hōnen founds the Jōdo-shū sect

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1181: Shinran becomes a monk

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1201: Shinran becomes a disciple of Hōnen and leaves Mt. Hiei

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1207: The nembutsu ban and Shinran's exile

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1211: Shinran is pardoned

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1212: Hōnen passes away in Kyoto & Shinran goes to Kantō

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1224(?): Shinran authors Kyogyoshinsho

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1234(?): Shinran goes back to Kyoto

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1256: Shinran disowns his son Zenran

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1263: Shinran dies in Kyoto

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.

paragraph: Shinran considered himself a lifelong disciple of Hōnen, in spite of their separation. According to a letter composed by his wife, Eshinni:

paragraph: Hōnen's disciples were said to have been largely divided by questions arising from the need for a single invocation (nenbutsu) of Amitabha's name versus many-callings, and thereby emphasis on faith versus practice. Shinran, like Hōnen's disciple Kōsai, leaned more toward faith over practice, however he did not advocate the single-recitation teaching.

paragraph: While Shinran's teachings and beliefs were generally consistent with the Pure Land Buddhist movement at the time, he also had idiosyncrasies as well:

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Primacy of faith.

paragraph: In any case Shinran, like others in Hōnen's community, felt that in the age of Dharma Decline, it was no longer possible to achieve enlightenment through traditional monastic practices, and thus one could only rely on the vows of Amitabha Buddha, particular the 18th or "Primal Vow" and seek rebirth in the Pure Land. In a passage from his magnum opus, the Kyōgyōshinshō, he writes of himself:

paragraph: In this passage, Shinran explains that he not only gave up traditional monastic practices to focus on rebirth in the Pure Land, but that in time he eventually gave up on practices related to rebirth in the Pure Land, instead relying solely on faith in the vow of Amitabha Buddha.

paragraph: In the "Kyōgyōshinshō", third fascicle, Shinran explores the nature of , by describing it as something bestowed by Amitabha Buddha, not arising from the believer. Through this endowment, faith is awakened in a person, and the recitation of the Buddha's name or nembutsu because an expression of praise or gratitude. However, this cannot occur until the believer fully entrusts themselves to Amitabha Buddha, even for a moment. Once this state of faith is bestowed, one is assured of rebirth in the Pure Land, and ultimately enlightenment. Shinran cautions though:

paragraph: Further, once a follower has awakened to this deep faith, one should live life as an expression of gratitude, follow basic moral conduct and to fulfill one's social obligations.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land.

paragraph: The last three fascicles of the "Kyōgyōshinshō" delve into the nature of Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land. The Pure Land is treated as a temporary refuge whereby one can attain enlightenment, and then return to this world to lead and teach others as a bodhisattva. Elsewhere, Shinran is quoted in the as saying:

paragraph: On the nature of Amitabha Buddha, Shinran stated that in their true form, both the Buddha and the Pure Land are beyond comprehension, but due to people's ignorance and attachments they can only perceive Amitabha in terms of his physical form described in the sutras, as well as the layout of the Pure Land. If one attains true faith, then upon rebirth in the Pure Land, one can perceive their true form. However, if one's faith is incomplete, or they continue to rely on their own efforts, then they will be reborn in the outer regions of the Pure Land, and will still perceive Amitabha Buddha through physical forms until eventually attaining true faith and proceeding further.

paragraph: Shinran's definition of Amitabha Buddha as the absolute, equating the Pure Land with Nirvana itself, therefore differed somewhat from traditional interpretations of the Pure Land in Buddhist scripture.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Age of Dharma decline.

paragraph: Shinran's interpretation of the final age of the Dharma, was consistent with other Buddhist thinkers of the time. In particular, he drew inspiration from a Chinese Buddhist master named Tao-cho who centuries earlier taught that in the latter age of the Dharma the Pure Land teachings were the most suitable for the capacities of the people of the time.

paragraph: Shinran felt this decline was inevitable that Japan was already 600 years into age of Dharma Decline, and that people were no longer capable of maintaining Buddhist practice, let alone enlightenment. Thus, only the vow of Amitabha Buddha to save all beings could be relied upon.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Other religious practices.

paragraph: Shinran acknowledged the religious practices of Japan outside the Buddhist tradition, including Shinto kami, spirits, divination, astrology, etc., he believed that they were irrelevant in comparison to the power of Amitabha Buddha. He developed a Japanese Buddhist heresiology that constructed other forms of religious practice as equivalent to demon-worship; his followers would later use this equivocation both to enforce proper interpretations of Shinran's thought and to criticize "heretical" sects of Buddhism such as the Tachikawa-ryu. To this day, omamori, ofuda and other charms are not found in Jodo Shinshu temples.

paragraph: Section::::Statue.

paragraph: A statue of Shinran Shonin stands in Upper West Side Manhattan, in New York City on Riverside Drive between 105th and 106th Streets, in front of the New York Buddhist Church. The statue depicts Shinran in a peasant hat and sandals, holding a wooden staff, as he peers down at the sidewalk.

paragraph: Although this kind of statue is often found at Jōdo Shinshū temples, the statue is notable because it survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, standing a little more than a mile from ground zero. It was brought to New York in 1955. The plaque calls the statue "a testimonial to the atomic bomb devastation and a symbol of lasting hope for world peace."

paragraph: Section::::Ashes.

paragraph: On March 14, 2008, what are assumed to be some of the ash remains of Shinran were found in a small wooden statue at the Jōrakuji temple in Shimogyō-ku, Kyōto. The temple was created by Zonkaku (1290–1373), the son of Kakunyo (1270–1351), one of Shinran's great grandchildren. Records indicate that Zonkaku inherited the remains of Shinran from Kakunyo. The 24.2 cm wooden statue is identified as being from the middle of the Edo period. The remains were wrapped in paper.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Faith in Buddhism

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jōdo Shinshū

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bloom, Alfred: "", (World Wisdom) 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ducor, Jerome : "Shinran, Un réformateur bouddhiste dans le Japon médiéval" (col. Le Maître et le disciple); Gollion, Infolio éditions, 2008 ()

paragraph: BULLET::::- Albert Shansky: "Shinran and Eshinni: A Tale of Love in Buddhist Medieval Japan", (10), (13)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dobbins, James C. (1989). "Jodo Shinshu: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan". Bloomington, Illinois: Indiana University Press. ; OCLC 470742039

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dobbins, James C. (1990). "The Biography of Shinran: Apotheosis of a Japanese Buddhist Visionary", "History of Religions" 30 (2), 179–196

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kenneth Doo Young Lee: "The Prince and the Monk: Shotoku Worship in Shinran's Buddhism",

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kokubu, Keiji. "Pauro to Shinran "(Paul and Shinran). Kyoto: Hozokan, 1984. (This comparative study written in Japanese.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shigaraki, Takamaro: "A Life of Awakening: The Heart of the Shin Buddhist Path. " Translation by David Matsumoto. Hozokan Publishing, Kyoto, 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shinran Shonin, Hisao Inagaki (trans): "Kyōgyōshinshō: On Teaching, Practice, Faith, and Enlightenment", Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Takamori, Kentetsu; Akehashi, Daiji; Ito, Kentaro: "You Were Born for a Reason: The Real Purpose Of Life" (Ichimannendo Publishing, Inc. 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Takamori, Kentetsu: "Unlocking Tannisho: Shinran's Words on the Pure Land Path" (Ichimannendo Publishing, Inc 2011)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ueda, Yoshifumi, and Hirota, Dennis: "Shinran: An Introduction to His Thought. With Selections from the Shin Buddhism Translation Series". (Kyoto: Hongwanji International Center, 1989.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- S. Yamabe and L. Adams Beck (trans). " Buddhist Psalms of Shinran Shonin", London: John Murray 1921 (e-book)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sokusui Murakami (2001). "Joy of Shinran: Rethinking the Traditional Shinshu Views on the Concept of the Stage of Truly Settled", "Pacific World Journal", Third Series, Number 3, 5-25. Archived from the original

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Collected Works of Shinran

paragraph: BULLET::::- Commentary on Shinran's Wasan (Hymns) in Three Volumes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Homepage for Jodo Shinshu Hongwanji-ha Hongwanji International Center

description: Japanese Buddhist monk

wikidata_label: Shinran

wikipedia_title: Shinran


text: Buddhist monks

text: Chinese history

text: Eight Patriarchs of the Doctrine

text: Shingon Buddhism

text: Samarkand

text: Indian

text: brahmin

text: Sogdia

text: sangha

text: Vajrabodhi

text: Sri Lanka

text: Indochina

text: India

text: Nagabodhi

text: Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra

text: Geshu Han

text: Tang dynasty

text: initiation

text: Taishō Tripiṭaka

text: Outer Tantras

text: An Lushan Rebellion

text: Emperor Suzong of Tang

text: chakravartin

text: Humane King Sutra

text: Tibetan

text: Uyghurs

text: Chang'an

text: Pugu Huai'en

text: Jinge Temple

text: Mount Wutai

text: bodhisattva

text: Mañjuśrī

text: Emperor Daizong of Tang

text: Huilang

text: Huiguo

text: Huilin

text: Digital Dictionary of Buddhism

categories: Vajrayana Buddhists,Chinese Buddhists,8th-century Buddhists,Indian emigrants to China,Shingon Buddhism,705 births,774 deaths,Tang dynasty translators,Buddhist translators,Tang dynasty Buddhist monks,Tang dynasty Buddhists,History of Buddhism,Buddhist sangha

paragraph: Amoghavajra

paragraph: Amoghavajra ( ; , 705–774) was a prolific translator who became one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks in Chinese history and is acknowledged as one of the Eight Patriarchs of the Doctrine in Shingon Buddhism.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Born in Samarkand of an Indian brahmin father and a mother of Sogdian origin, he went to China at age 10 after his father's death. In 719, he was ordained into the sangha by Vajrabodhi and became his disciple. After all foreign monks were expelled from China in 741, he and some associates went on a pilgrimage to gather texts, visiting Sri Lanka, Indochina and India. During this voyage, he apparently met Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi's master, and studied the Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra at length. He returned to China in 746 with some five hundred volumes.

paragraph: In 750, he left the court to join the military governorship of General Geshu Han of the Tang dynasty, for whom he conducted large-scale tantric initiations at his field headquarters. In 754, he translated the first portion of the Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra texts (Taishō Tripiṭaka. 865), central to the Outer Tantras of Vajrayana Buddhism, which became one of his most significant accomplishments. He regarded its teachings as the most effective method for attaining enlightenment yet devised, and incorporated its basic schema in a number of writings.

paragraph: Amoghavajra was captured during the An Lushan Rebellion but in 757 was freed by loyalist forces, whereupon he performed rites to purify the capital and consolidate the security of the Tang state. Two years later, he initiated the emperor Emperor Suzong of Tang as a chakravartin. In 765, Amoghavajra used his new rendition of the Humane King Sutra in an elaborate ritual to counter the advance of a 200,000-strong army of Tibetan and Uyghurs which was poised to invade Chang'an. Its leader, Pugu Huai'en, dropped dead in camp and his forces dispersed.

paragraph: The opulent Jinge Temple on Mount Wutai was completed in 767, a pet project of Amoghavajra, one of his many efforts to promote the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī as the protector of China. Amoghavajra continued to perform rites to avert disaster at the request of Emperor Daizong of Tang.

paragraph: On his death in 774, three days of mourning were officially declared, and he posthumously received various exalted titles. The Chinese monks Huilang, Huiguo and Huilin were among his most prominent successors. Seventy-seven texts were translated by Amoghavajra according to his own account, though many more, including original compositions, are ascribed to him in the Chinese canons.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Astley, Ian (1987). The Rishukyo, a translation and commentary in the light of modern Japanese scholarship, PhD thesis, The University of Leeds

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")

paragraph: BULLET::::- A review of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism: Amoghavajra and the Ruling Elite, by Geoffrey C. Goble

alias:
Bukong
Amuqubazheluo
Daguangzhi sanzang
Shi Bukong
Dabianzhengguangzhisanzang

description: Indian Translator

wikidata_label: Amoghavajra

wikipedia_title: Amoghavajra


text: Frank Zappa

text: Stevie Wonder

text: James Taylor

text: Duran Duran

text: Don Ellis

text: Tony Scott

text: Brotherhood of Breath

text: Henri Texier

text: Conservatoire de Paris

text: Don Ellis

text: Autumn

text: Columbia

text: Don Ellis at Fillmore

text: Vinny Golia

text: Steve Lacy

text: Itinerary

text: Clangs

text: Jack Walrath

text: In Europe

categories: Living people,American expatriates in France,1950 births,American jazz trombonists,21st-century trombonists,Musicians from Los Angeles,Orchestre National de Jazz members,Male trombonists,Jazz musicians from California,Male jazz musicians,21st-century male musicians

paragraph: Glenn Ferris

paragraph: Glenn Arthur Ferris (born June 27, 1950) is a jazz trombonist who has also worked in other fields. Outside of jazz he has played for Frank Zappa, Stevie Wonder, James Taylor, and Duran Duran.

paragraph: He studied classical music from 1958 to 1967, but from 1964 onward he also studied jazz with Don Ellis. He went on to perform with a variety of American musicians in several genres before moving to France in 1980. In France he worked with Tony Scott, Brotherhood of Breath, and Henri Texier. He has led a trio and a quintet and has taught at the Conservatoire de Paris.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: With Don Ellis

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Autumn" (Columbia, 1968)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Don Ellis at Fillmore" (Columbia, 1970)

paragraph: With Vinny Golia

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Live at the Century City Playhouse – Los Angeles, 1979" (Dark Tree, 2017)

paragraph: With Steve Lacy

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Itinerary" (hat ART, 1991)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Clangs" (hat ART, 1993)

paragraph: With Billy Cobham "Total Eclipse" (Billy Cobham album)

paragraph: With Jack Walrath

paragraph: BULLET::::- "In Europe" (SteepleChase, 1982)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jack Walrath Quintet at Umbria Jazz Festival, Vol. 1" (Red, 1983 [1985])

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jack Walrath Quintet at Umbria Jazz Festival, Vol. 2" (Red, 1983 [1985])

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- [ All Music]

description: American musician

wikidata_label: Glenn Ferris

wikipedia_title: Glenn Ferris


text:
American
high jump
1920 Summer Olympics
Hotchkiss School
Yale University
Alice Lord
Official Website of the Olympics
profile

categories: Medalists at the 1920 Summer Olympics,1898 births,People from Salisbury, Connecticut,Athletes (track and field) at the 1920 Summer Olympics,American male high jumpers,Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field,People from Lynbrook, New York,Hotchkiss School alumni,Olympic track and field athletes of the United States,1971 deaths

paragraph: Richmond Landon

paragraph: Richmond Wilcox "Dick" Landon (November 20, 1898 – June 13, 1971) was an American high jumper who won a gold medal at the 1920 Summer Olympics.

paragraph: Landon attended the Hotchkiss School in Connecticut and Yale University. In 1922 he married Alice Lord, an Olympic diver he met on the boat to the 1920 Olympics.

paragraph: Richmond Landon was a guest on the television show "I've Got A Secret" as one of five former Olympic champions which aired October 13, 1954.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official Website of the Olympics

paragraph: BULLET::::- profile

description: athletics competitor

wikidata_label: Richmond Landon

wikipedia_title: Richmond Landon


text:
hegumenos
Arkadi Monastery
Cretan Revolution of 1866
Ottoman
Margarites, Rethymno
hegumenos
Arkadi Monastery
Fres
Chania
Rethymno
Great Powers
Crete
colonel
Panos Koronaios

categories: People from Rethymno (regional unit),Eastern Orthodox monks,1866 deaths,19th-century Eastern Orthodox clergy,19th-century Christian monks,Year of birth uncertain,Greek Christian monks,Greek revolutionaries

paragraph: Gavriil Marinakis

paragraph: Gavriil Marinakis (, c. 1826 - 1866) was the hegumenos of Arkadi Monastery and a fighter of the Cretan Revolution of 1866. He was killed in November 1866 during the siege of the monastery by the Ottoman forces.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Gavriil Marinakis was born in Margarites, Rethymno round 1826. In 1856 he was elected hegumenos of Arkadi Monastery. From that position, he took important initiatives for the reconstruction of the monastery. He was quite active at the management of monastic property making sure the monastery land was properly registered. He also donated numerous olive trees to the monastery land.

paragraph: When the Cretan Revolution of 1866 broke out, Gabriel decided to participate. On 1 October 1866 he participated in the General Assembly of the revolutionaries in Fres, a village near Chania, as chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of Rethymno. Through the General Assembly they tried to appeal to the consuls of the Great Powers in Crete, in order to ensure that a general massacre of women and children by the Ottoman troops would be avoided. At the end of the same month, he participated in a war council held at Arkadi Monastery. There, together with other monks and the chieftain Georgios Daskalakis he disagreed with the proposal of colonel Panos Koronaios to abandon Arkadi, because it was not strong enough for effective defense in a possible Turkish attack. At the same time, he rejected another proposal of Koronaios to destroy the stables and the mill that could provide a bridgehead for enemy forces. However, that was a significant mistake, as Koronaios’ fears proved to be well founded.

paragraph: On 6 November 1866, a powerful force of Ottoman troops encircled the monastery. In the monastery there were about 950 people, of which only 300 were armed. Two days later the hostilities began. The hostilities led to the fall of the monastery on 9 November. Gabriel took part in the battle not only by carrying munitions, but also by encouraging the fighters and fighting along their side. Most historians speculate that Gabriel was killed on the last day of the siege. It seems that he either committed suicide to avoid being captured or that he was shot in the stomach. Ottoman soldiers cut off his head, after stripping his dead body of his clothes. Afterwards, they carried his severed head as a trophy and displayed it in different regions of Crete. The day after the monastery's capture, Gabriel’s decapitated body was buried in the courtyard of the monastery.

description: Greek hegumen (1826-1866)

wikidata_label: Gavriil Marinakis

wikipedia_title: Gavriil Marinakis


text: swimmer

text: 2015 European Games

text: 2018 Commonwealth Games

text: 2018 European Aquatics Championships

text: 2015 European Games

text: 2015 World Aquatics Championships

text: 2017 World Championships

text: 2019 World Championships

text: Alloa

text: Strathallan School

text: University of Dundee

text: 2014 European Junior Championships

text: 2014 Commonwealth Games

text: 2014 Youth Olympics

text: Nanjing

text: Luke Greenbank

text: 2015 European Games

text: Baku

text: 2016 Rio Olympics

text: 4 × 200 m freestyle relay

text: Stephen Milne

text: James Guy

text: Dan Wallace

text: 4 × 100 m medley relay

text: Chris Walker-Hebborn

text: Adam Peaty

text: 2017 World Aquatics Championships

text: 4 × 200 m freestyle

text: Stephen Milne

text: Nick Grainger

text: 4 × 100 m medley relay

text: 2018 Commonwealth Games

text: 2018 European Championships

text: 100 metre freestyle

text: 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay

text: Calum Jarvis

text: 200 metre freestyle

text: men's 4 × 100 metre medley relay

text: Adam Peaty

text: James Guy

text: Nicholas Pyle

text: 2019 World Aquatics Championships

text: Gwangju

text: 200 m freestyle

text: Danas Rapšys

text: Martin Malyutin

text: Sun Yang

text: Mack Horton

text: FINA

text: social media

text: 4 × 200 m freestyle relay final

text: men's 4 × 100 metre medley relay

text: Adam Peaty

text: James Guy

text: Luke Greenbank

text: Duncan Scott Baku2015

text: Duncan Scott Sports bio

categories: World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming,Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics,People educated at Strathallan School,Swimmers at the 2018 Commonwealth Games,Swimmers at the 2014 Commonwealth Games,Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Scotland,1997 births,Swimmers at the 2015 European Games,European Games medalists in swimming,Scottish Olympic medallists,Male freestyle swimmers,Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Scotland,European Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming,Olympic silver medalists in swimming,British male swimmers,Sportspeople from Glasgow,Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Scotland,People from Alloa,Male medley swimmers,Swimmers at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics,Living people,Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain,Scottish male swimmers,Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming,European Games gold medalists for Great Britain,Swimmers at the 2016 Summer Olympics,Olympic swimmers of Great Britain,European Games competitors for Great Britain

paragraph: Duncan Scott (swimmer)

paragraph: Duncan William MacNaughton Scott (born 6 May 1997) is a British swimmer representing Great Britain at the FINA World Aquatics Championships and the Olympic Games, and Scotland at the Commonwealth Games. An all-rounder in the pool, Scott has swum internationally in 100 and 200 metres freestyle and butterly, and 200 metres individual medley. He has won two golds at the World Championships in 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay, a gold in the 4 x 100 metre medley relay, as well as silvers at the World Championships and Olympics in freestyle and medley relay. Individually, Scott was the 100 metre freestyle champion at the 2015 European Games and 2018 Commonwealth Games, and the 200 metre freestyle champion at the same European Games and the 2018 European Aquatics Championships.

paragraph: Winning three gold medals in the (100 m and 200 m freestyle, and 4 × 100 m freestyle relay) at the 2015 European Games, he was the most successful British athlete at the Games. A month later, he formed part of the Great Britain squad that won the gold medal at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships in the men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay as the 4th leg swimmer in the heat. In 2016, he was a member of the Great Britain team that won silver in the final of the same event at the Olympic Games as well as the men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay. The same team also won the 4 x 100 metre medley relay silver in the 2017 World Championships. He anchored the team that won gold in 4 x 100 metre medley relay at the 2019 World Championships.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Duncan grew up in Alloa, moving to Strathallan School on a sport scholarship at the beginning of secondary. He trained daily throughout his high school years. Swimming runs in the family as his older sister Alex was the Woman's swimming captain at the University of Dundee and the president of its Sports Union (2017-2018).

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Scott came to public attention when he won eight gold medals at the 2013 Scottish Age Group Championships in Edinburgh. Later that year he competed at the 2013 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival taking gold in the 200 m medley, silvers in the (400 m medley, 4 × 100 m mixed freestyle) and bronze in the 4 × 100 m freestyle.

paragraph: In July 2014, at the 2014 European Junior Championships, Scott won a gold medal in the (200 m individual medley, 4 × 100 m freestyle) and bronze in the 4 × 200 m freestyle. A few weeks later he won a silver medal in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay with Scotland at the 2014 Commonwealth Games. He then competed at the 2014 Youth Olympics in Nanjing taking gold in the 4 × 100 m freestyle (with Luke Greenbank, Miles Munro, and Martyn Walton).

paragraph: At the inaugural 2015 European Games in Baku (a junior event for swimmers), he won three gold medals in the (100 m freestyle, 200 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m freestyle relay) and three silver medals in the 4 × 200 m freestyle, 4 × 100 m mixed freestyle, and 4 × 100 m medley (with Greenbank, Charlie Attwood, and Walton).

paragraph: In the 2016 Rio Olympics, he won a silver in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay with Stephen Milne, James Guy, and Dan Wallace. He also won another silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay with Chris Walker-Hebborn, James Guy and Adam Peaty. He was placed 5th in the final of the individual men's 100 metres freestyle.

paragraph: In the 2017 World Aquatics Championships. He won gold in the 4 × 200 m freestyle with James Guy, Stephen Milne and Nick Grainger in a time of seven minutes 1.70 seconds. He won a further silver in the 4 × 100 m medley relay at the World Championship with same Olympic line-up of Walker-Hebborn, Guy and Peaty.

paragraph: At the 2018 Commonwealth Games, Scott won gold in the 100 metre freestyle in a time of 48.02 seconds. He also won four bronze medals at the Games: in the 200m butterfly, 200m freestyle, 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, and 4 × 200 m freestyle relay, and became the first Scottish athlete to win five medals at the same Commonwealth Games. He added a sixth medal when he won silver in the 200m individual medley.

paragraph: At the 2018 European Championships, Scott won a silver in the 100 metre freestyle. Later the same day he won gold as part of the relay team in the 4 × 200 metre freestyle relay with Calum Jarvis, Thomas Dean and James Guy. He also won gold in the 200 metre freestyle, despite only having just made the final in 8th place. He added a third gold in the final day of the championships, winning the men's 4 × 100 metre medley relay as part of the British team with Adam Peaty, James Guy and Nicholas Pyle.

paragraph: On 13 September he was named Scottish Sportsperson of the Year at the Team Scotland Scottish Sports Awards.

paragraph: At the 2019 World Aquatics Championships held in Gwangju, South Korea, Scott came joint fourth in the 200 m freestyle, but the first-placed finisher Danas Rapšys was disqualified for a false start, and Scott was awarded a bronze medal together with Martin Malyutin. At the medal ceremony, Scott refused to shake hands or share the podium with the gold medallist Sun Yang, who had previously been banned for a drug offence in 2014 for three months and was involved in an ongoing doping case controversy, which resulted in angry scenes at the ceremony. This followed a similar act a few days previously by Australian Mack Horton, who labelled Sun a "drug cheat". Both Yang and Scott were given official warnings from FINA; Scott was subjected to death threats from Sun's fans on social media.

paragraph: In the lead-off leg in the men's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay final, Scott broke the British national record with a time of 1:44:91; the team finished fifth in the race. In the men's 4 × 100 metre medley relay together with Adam Peaty, James Guy and Luke Greenbank, he swam the anchor leg in 46.14 seconds, the second fastest freestyle relay split of all time. He managed to overcome a 1.11 second deficit to finish in front of the United States team, thereby winning Britain's first gold medal in the event in the World Championships in a European record time of three minutes, 28.10 seconds.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of 2015 European Games medal winners

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming (men)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Duncan Scott Baku2015

paragraph: BULLET::::- Duncan Scott Sports bio

description: Scottish swimmer

wikidata_label: Duncan Scott

wikipedia_title: Duncan Scott (swimmer)


text:
patron saint
Saluzzo
Italy
Theban Legion
Agaunum
Switzerland
Piedmont
Crissolo
relics
Avignon Pope Clement VII
indulgences
Germanic
sepulcher
pagan
Saint Constantius
Crissolo
Saint Bessus
Val Soana
Saint Tegulus
Ivrea
Saint Magnus
Castelmagno
Saint Dalmatius
Borgo San Dalmazzo
St. Theofredus
Puy-en-Velay
Muslim
bishop of Saluzzo
Saint Constantius
translated
Revello
Monte Viso
Eridanus
Theban
Coptic Church
San Chiaffredo di Saluzzo

categories: 3rd-century Christian martyrs,286 deaths,Christian folklore,Saints from Roman Egypt

paragraph: Chiaffredo

paragraph: Saint Chiaffredo ("Chiaffredus, Theofredus, Ciafrè, Chaffre, Teofredo, Jafredo, Jafredus, Eufredus, Jofredus, Sinfredus, Zaffredus") is venerated as the patron saint of Saluzzo, Italy. Tradition considers him a member of the Theban Legion, but instead of being martyred with this legion at Agaunum (in present-day Switzerland), he escaped to Piedmont and was martyred there.

paragraph: A 14th-century account relates that, around 522, a man fell from a precipice near Crissolo but remained unharmed. The local population attributed his being unharmed to relics discovered by a peasant plowing in the vicinity - a discovery attributed to divine intervention. The mysterious skeleton was given the name of “San Ciafrè” and the tomb became the focus of a celebrated sanctuary at Crissolo.

paragraph: The first documentary evidence pointing to a cult devoted to Chiaffredo dates from 1387, when Avignon Pope Clement VII granted indulgences to those who visited the church at Crissolo and helped in its repair. A late 16th century legend written down by Guglielmo Baldesano states that Chiaffredo or Teofredo, soldier of the Theban Legion, escaped to Piedmont to avoid sacrificing to pagan idols and was martyred at Crissolo around 270. Fabio Arduino believes this story to have no historical foundation, as it would have been unlikely for a Roman legionary of the 3rd century to bear such a clearly Germanic name. The name is a variant of Theudofridus, derived from the Germanic "theuda-" "people," and "frithu-" "peace."

paragraph: The sepulcher identified as the saint’s burial place may have been a tomb of pagan origins. Similar to the cults of Saint Constantius at Crissolo, Saint Bessus at Val Soana, Saint Tegulus at Ivrea, Saint Magnus at Castelmagno, and Saint Dalmatius at Borgo San Dalmazzo, the cult of Saint Chiaffredo was linked with that of the Theban Legion to lend antiquity to a local saint about whom nothing was really known.

paragraph: In 1902, a scholar identified Chiaffredo as the 8th century figure St. Theofredus (Chaffre, Theofrid, Teofredo), abbot of Le Monastier near Puy-en-Velay, who was killed by Muslim raiders and was also venerated in Piedmont.

paragraph: Monsignor Tornabuoni, bishop of Saluzzo, declared Chiaffredo patron of his diocese during a synod of 1516, with Saint Constantius (San Costanzo) as co-patron. Chiaffredo’s relics were translated to Revello in 1593, and thence to the cathedral of Saluzzo in 1642. Constantius and Chiaffredo are depicted together in the altar of Saluzzo Cathedral.

paragraph: Chiaffredo enjoyed veneration in Piedmont; one English scholar has written that “beneath the shadow of Monte Viso, San Chiaffredo, a runaway apostle of the Theban legion, has usurped the worship paid in old time to the river-god Eridanus..."

paragraph: Due to his alleged Theban origins, he is venerated by the Coptic Church. He is however, not mentioned explicitly in the "Roman Martyrology", although this martyrology includes Saint Maurice and the Theban Legion as a whole, without naming Chiaffredo specifically.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- San Chiaffredo di Saluzzo

description: Patron saint of Saluzzo, Italy

wikidata_label: Chiaffredo

wikipedia_title: Chiaffredo


text:
Whiteley Woods
Baslow
Samuel Watson
Chatsworth House
Bakewell
Ashford-in-the-Water
Blue John
Ashford Black Marble
John Whitehurst
stratigraphic section
Matlock
limestone
bitumen
William Martin
Carboniferous Limestone
fossil
Sheffield Central Library
Linnean Society
Derby Philosophical Society
Georgiana, the Duchess of Devonshire
Lady Henrietta of Bessborough
Lord Denman
Sir Joseph Banks
William Buckland
Erasmus Darwin
James Sowerby
Alexandre Brongniart
Buckminster
Sir Isaac Newton
Buxton
Bolsover
Abraham Werner
Mam Tor
John Farey
Duke of Rutland
Foljambe
St George's Chapel
Derby Museum
British Museum
Oxford University Museum
Manchester Museum
Leicester Museum

categories: Fellows of the Linnean Society of London,1835 deaths,Collections of Derby Museum and Art Gallery,1760 births,English male sculptors,English sculptors,English geologists

paragraph: White Watson

paragraph: White Watson (10 April 1760 – 8 August 1835) was an early English geologist, sculptor, stonemason and carver, marble-worker and mineral dealer. In common with many learned people of his time, he was skilled in a number of artistic and scientific areas, becoming a writer, poet, journalist, teacher, botanist and gardener as well as a geologist and mineralogist. He kept extensive diaries and sketchbooks of his observations on geology, fossils and minerals, flora and fauna, and published a small but significant and influential number of geological papers and catalogues. As an artist he was well known locally for his silhouettes, both on paper and as marble inlays.

paragraph: Section::::Life 1760–1800.

paragraph: Watson was born at Whitely Wood Hall, Whiteley Woods, near Sheffield, on 10 April 1760. His father was Samuel Watson, a millstone manufacturer of Baslow, Derbyshire, his mother Martha White (which is from where his unusual first name derives). Watson's great-grandfather, Samuel Watson, and his grandfather, also Samuel Watson, had been sculptors and stonemasons engaged on the re-building of Chatsworth House between 1687 and 1706. Continuing the family tradition, in later years White Watson would also work for the Chatsworth Estate.

paragraph: Whilst still a child, Watson became interested in minerals and fossils, and began his own collection as well as providing specimens for sale in his uncle's shop. His uncle, Henry Watson, had been a marble sculptor in Bakewell and Ashford-in-the-Water since the early 1750s, and he built and owned the water-powered marble mill in Ashford-in-the-Water. Henry Watson was largely responsible for founding the trade in the local Blue John fluorite and Ashford Black Marble, and provided the magnificent black and white marble flooring for the Great Hall at Chatsworth House in 1779. On leaving Sheffield School at the age of 14, White Watson went to live with his uncle, and was apprenticed to him on 31 May 1774. According to his own catalogue, now preserved in Sheffield Library, he formally began his collection of fossils and marbles the same year. By 1782 he was advertising his trade as a sculptor and engraver, and helping his uncle to run the business.

paragraph: Possibly inspired by geologist John Whitehurst's 1782 diagrams of stratigraphic sections in the Matlock area of Derbyshire, in 1785 Watson presented Whitehurst with a diagrammatic 'Tablet', 'A Section of a Mountain in Derbyshire', made from samples of the rocks themselves. This innovative method of display not only showed an early understanding of the new science of geological strata but also formed the first attempt at documenting the stratigraphical structure of Derbyshire as a whole as opposed to the structure of specific localities as Whitehurst had. Over the course of his life, Watson would produce about 100 such tablets, accompanied with explanatory leaflets, and his papers contain sketches for considerably more. Unfortunately most of these tablets are now untraceable, although around fifteen are known to still survive.

paragraph: Henry Watson died in 1786, and the Ashford-in-the-Water business was then sold. From here on, White Watson became a finisher of marble—for many years a considerable part of his business continued to be gravestones and monumental church marbles—and a fossil and mineral specimen dealer from his own premises in Bakewell which he maintained as a shop and museum for his collection until his death. It was White Watson who was chiefly responsible for the popular commercialisation of works produced in Ashford Black Marble, a limestone impregnated with bitumen to give it its sleek blackness.

paragraph: In the early 1790s Watson collaborated with William Martin (1767–1810) on an illustrated catalogue of Derbyshire's Carboniferous Limestone fossils. Watson had been unsuccessfully attempting to raise funding for such a publication since 1790, and produced a one-page ' "Prospectus of a Catalogue and Description of Derbyshire Fossils" ' outlining the proposal (now in Sheffield Central Library) that year (a second prospectus on the theme, in conjunction with Martin, dates from 1792). However, after they began working together on the project and managed to raise the necessary funds to publish, Martin began to produce installments on his own from 1793, using Watson's text contributions and his accompanying plates with virtually no credit given. As a result, the pair eventually fell out, and Martin re-published the series under his own name as Volume I of "Petrificata Derbiensia" in 1809 without giving any credit to Watson at all.

paragraph: Watson was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society in 1795, and remained a member until his death. He was also a member of the Derby Philosophical Society from 1800, nominated by Georgiana, the Duchess of Devonshire, and a member of the British Mineralogical Society.

paragraph: In 1798 he remodelled a grotto in the Chatsworth House grounds into a crystal cave studded with fossils, at a cost of £110 19s. "(the current grotto is a later construction from the 1830s and not Watson's work). Following this, he continued to work for the Chatsworth Estate. Originally contracted for five weeks between April and June 1799 to catalogue and arrange the important mineral collection begun by Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, then partly housed in Chiswick, he also arranged the mineral collection of Lady Henrietta of Bessborough (Georgiana's sister) in Cavendish Square at the same time.

paragraph: Section::::Life 1800–1835.

paragraph: Watson was then commissioned in 1804 to work on the rest of Georgiana's collection, the Chatsworth Mineral Collection, adding a considerable number of items during this time and further refining his understanding of the different types of rock and minerals and their relationships. By this time, Watson was something of a celebrity in natural history circles, and often received visitors to his collection at The Bath House in Bakewell, where he also lived and acted as superintendent for the Baths. One of these visitors, J. Hunter wrote of Watson in his "Collectiana Hunteriana" (1804): "Mr Watson was rather below the middle stature with a pug face, is a bachelor and takes his glass of spirits and water at the Inn in Bakewell every evening." Other notable visitors, correspondents and purchasers of specimens or collections over the years included Lord Denman, Sir Joseph Banks, William Buckland, Erasmus Darwin and James Sowerby, as well as the notable French mineralogist Alexandre Brongniart.

paragraph: In 1808 Watson married Ann Thorpe, aged 29, from Buckminster, Leicestershire, who was a relative of Sir Isaac Newton. Earlier the same year he produced a tablet showing a detailed cross-section of the stratigraphy of Derbyshire on a line from Buxton to Bolsover, which he presented to the Duke of Devonshire on 20 February 1808. From 1810 Watson made a number of tablets of this section, largely on a scale of 1/2 inch to a mile or one inch to a mile, and based on these published an important early work on the geology of Derbyshire, "The Delineation of the Strata of Derbyshire", in 1811. Despite being designed during an early and somewhat primitive stage of the science of geology, it is remarkable how accurate these sections were, describing a sequence of 36 stratigraphical levels in Derbyshire rocks with a lengthy fold-out cross-section of almost the entire width of Derbyshire. By then, Watson's tablets, sketches and notes clearly show that Watson was aware of and in agreement with Abraham Werner's theories of geology and classification of rocks, and "The Delineation" includes some discussion on Werner's theories. Watson's personal papers from 1800 included "A catalogue of a systematic collection of fossils arranged according to Mr Werner's system".

paragraph: A number of other sections along different lines across Derbyshire were published between 1813 and 1831, together with numerous localised geological sections of peaks and cliffs such as Mam Tor. An 1813 pamphlet 'Section of Strata in the Vicinity of Matlock Bath', argued against John Farey (1766–1826), a contemporary surveyor and geologist who had produced a geological map, "A General View of the Agriculture and Minerals of Derbyshire", early in 1811 (prior to Watson's "Delineation'). Working independently and with little other information other than what they themselves had observed, Watson and Farey disagreed considerably over the details of the geological structure of Derbyshire, and Watson correctly realised that the Derbyshire mountain landscapes were caused by underground volcanic action as opposed to Farey's assertion that they were formed by "satellite attraction from above". However, any friction over personal theories or accusations by Farey of appropriation of ideas did not preclude their discussing their findings during a number of meetings in Bakewell around 1811.

paragraph: In 1825, the year of Ann's death, Watson's business card stated he "executes monuments, tombs etc., gives lessons in geology and mineralogy and furnishes collections, affords information to antiquaries and amusement to Botanists". Probably in the same year, Watson produced an unusual circular stratigraphical diagram "A DELINEATION of the ten deepest STRATA as yet discovered in the MINERAL DISTRICTS of DERBYSHIRE". In this the geological strata are arranged in near-concentric circles outwards from the oldest rocks towards the centre to youngest rocks at points around the edge marked with the different place names in Derbyshire where the strata had been noted. These points lay at different distances from the centre according to the complexity of the stratification at that point.

paragraph: Later in his life, Watson designed improvements for Bakewell Baths, his residence, for the Duke of Rutland, who wanted to establish Bakewell as a fashionable spa town. Although this project ultimately failed, Watson was responsible for the Bath Gardens which were laid out in the town as part of the scheme, and these layouts largely survive today.

paragraph: Despite all his works, Watson was always in debt, and he died still struggling to pay his bills by selling much of his fossil collection. As Ford notes of his still-surviving cash ledger from 1796–1833, "if the entries really are a complete record of his income and expenditure he was often close to bankruptcy!"

paragraph: White Watson died in Bakewell on 8 August 1835, and is buried in Bakewell churchyard. He had no children.

paragraph: Section::::Surviving works.

paragraph: His collections were broken up and sold on his death. However, examples of his marble and limestone work survive in the tomb of the Foljambe family at Bakewell Church, a plaque at St George's Chapel, Windsor for George III from 1789 and the known remaining geological tablets. His tablets of 'A Section of a Mountain in Derbyshire' and 'A Section of the curious curvilinear Strata at Ecton Hill' are now in Derby Museum, as are a number of others.

paragraph: Other surviving tablets, including contemporaneous copies of the ones in Derby Museum, are in the British Museum (Natural History), London, Oxford University Museum, Chatsworth House, Manchester Museum and Leicester Museum. Watson's manuscript catalogue of the Chatsworth Mineral Collection is still kept at Chatsworth House, together with many of the specimens he provided for the collection. Despite years of neglect, the collection itself, including many of Watson's own specimens, has been largely restored at Chatsworth House after over 10 years of painstaking restoration by the Russell Society. "A Catalogue of the External Characters of Fossils, by White Watson F.L.S. Bakewell, Derbyshire. 1798", found during this restoration work, is also held by Chatsworth House. His diaries from 1780–1831 are in the Bagshawe Collection in Sheffield City Library, together with his fossil catalogues. Other private papers, notes and sketches, together with much material for but extra to published volumes, are held in Sheffield Library and Derby Library, and an album of preparatory silhouettes from 1806 is also in Derby Library.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: An incomplete list of published work other than the accompanying explanations for sections and maps:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Observations on Bakewell", post-1798

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Catalogue of a Collection of Limestones", 1803

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Catalogue of a Collection of Limestones", 1805

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Catalogue of a Collection of Fossils", 1805

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Delineation of the Strata of Derbyshire", 1811. Republished, 1973.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A Collection of Poems, 1812 (intended to accompany the 'Delineation' above)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Section of the Strata forming the Surface in the Vicinity of Matlock Bath in Derbyshire", 1813

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On Entrochal Marble", one-page pamphlet, 1826

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Theory on the Formation of Mineral Veins", one-page pamphlet, 1827

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Description of Slickensides", one-page pamphlet, 1829

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Observations on Prismatic Gritstone", one-page pamphlet, 1833

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: "all other references from:

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Derbyshire Archaeological Journal, 1889

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ford, Trevor D. 'White Watson and his Geological Sections', Proceedings of the Geologist's Association, vol 71 part 4, 1960. Paper received by the Association 9 May 1958

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ford, Trevor D. 'White Watson: Pioneer Derbyshire Geologist', Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Society, Vol.1 No.7 (October 1962), pp. 27–37.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of and Russell Society work on the Chatsworth Collection, including details of the Watson catalogue and his work for Chatsworth http://www.blnz.com/news/2008/04/23/DEVONSHIRE_MINERAL_COLLECTION_Chatsworth_House_8972.html

description: Derbyshire geologist

wikidata_label: White Watson

wikipedia_title: White Watson


text: California

text: Ventura County

text: United States Senate

text: Republican

text: Port Hueneme

text: only deep water port

text: UNOCAL

text: Chambersburg

text: Franklin County

text: Pennsylvania

text: Pennsylvania Railroad Company

text: Cumberland Valley Railroad

text: Hagerstown

text: Maryland

text: Civil War

text: Ventura County

text: California

text: Santa Barbara County

text: Port Hueneme

text: California

text: Berylwood

text: 1884 Republican National Convention

text: California

text: Occidental College

text: Republican

text: United States Senate

text: George S. Patton

text: West Point

text: Elizabeth Bard Memorial Hospital

text: Ventura

text: physiologist

text: Johns Hopkins Medical School

text: Port Hueneme, California

text: Ventura, California

text: Bardsdale, California

text: Bard, California

text: R. G. Surdam

text: The Political Graveyard

categories: American businesspeople in the oil industry,Businesspeople from California,People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War,Republican Party United States Senators,Burials at Ivy Lawn Cemetery,United States Senators from California,Union Army soldiers,19th-century American politicians,People from Chambersburg, Pennsylvania,Founders of the petroleum industry,California Republicans,1915 deaths,Burials in Ventura County, California,1841 births,Union Oil Company of California,County supervisors in California

paragraph: Thomas R. Bard

paragraph: Thomas Robert Bard (December 8, 1841March 5, 1915) was a political leader in California who assisted in the organization of Ventura County and represented the state in the United States Senate from 1900 to 1905 as a Republican. He is known as the "Father of Port Hueneme" for his efforts in building and expanding the city, as well as the first and only deep water port in the area. He is one of the founders of the UNOCAL company.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Born in Chambersburg, Franklin County, Pennsylvania on December 8, 1841, Bard attended the common schools, and graduated from the Chambersburg Academy in 1858. He studied law in school, and before his graduation, he secured a job with the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Later, he became an assistant to the superintendent of the Cumberland Valley Railroad. Other business ventures included the grain business in Hagerstown, Maryland. During the early part of the Civil War, Bard served as a volunteer Union scout during the invasions of Maryland and Pennsylvania by the Confederates.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: Thomas R. Bard moved to Ventura County, California in 1864 and served as a member of the board of supervisors of Santa Barbara County from 1868 to 1873. In 1871, he was appointed as a commissioner to organize Ventura County. During this time, he purchased and subdivided Rancho El Rio de Santa Clara o la Colonia and laid out the plans for Port Hueneme, California, the future site of his Berylwood estate.

paragraph: Bard was the California delegate to the 1884 Republican National Convention, and later served as the director of the California state board of agriculture from 1886 to 1887. In 1887, Bard became a founding board member of Occidental College. He was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate to fill a vacancy in the term that began on March 4, 1899. He served from February 7, 1900 to March 3, 1905. Bard was unsuccessful in his 1904 reelection bid. During his term Bard served as the chairman of the Committee of Fisheries (for the Fifty-seventh Congress) and served on the Committee on irrigation (for the Fifty-eighth Congress). One of Thomas R. Bard's notable achievements during his time in office was to appoint George S. Patton, later General Patton, to West Point.

paragraph: Section::::Family and later life.

paragraph: Thomas R. Bard became a successful business man, and held profitable interests in several oil companies. Thomas R. Bard and his brother, Dr. Cephas Little Bard, established the Elizabeth Bard Memorial Hospital in Ventura as a memorial to their mother. His son, Archibald Philip Bard, became a noted physiologist and the dean of Johns Hopkins Medical School.

paragraph: He died at his Berylwood home in Port Hueneme, California on March 5, 1915 and was interred in the family cemetery on his estate. His remains were moved to Ivy Lawn Cemetery in Ventura, California by the military.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bardsdale, California

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bard, California

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. G. Surdam

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hutchinson, William Henry. "Oil, Land, and Politics": The California Career of Thomas R. Bard. 2 vols. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lawrence Kestenbaum. The Political Graveyard

description: American politician

wikidata_label: Thomas R. Bard

wikipedia_title: Thomas R. Bard


text: Portuguese

text: diplomat

text: explorer

text: Covilhã

text: Beira

text: Castile

text: war broke out

text: Afonso V of Portugal

text: John II of Portugal

text: Afonso de Paiva

text: cinnamon

text: Prester John

text: Bartolomeu Dias

text: Santarém

text: Christopher Columbus

text: Santarém

text: Barcelona

text: Naples

text: Cosimo de' Medici

text: Rhodes

text: Alexandria

text: Cairo

text: Fez

text: Tlemcen

text: El-Tor

text: Suakin

text: Aden

text: monsoon

text: Ethiopia

text: Cannanore

text: Calicut

text: Goa

text: Hormuz

text: Red Sea

text: Sofala

text: José Sapateiro

text: Lamego

text: cinnamon

text: black pepper

text: clove

text: Abraham of Beja

text: Aden

text: Jeddah

text: Francisco Álvares

text: Mecca

text: Medina

text: Mount Sinai

text: El-Tor

text: Red Sea

text: Zeila

text: Ethiopia

text: Emperor

text: Eskender

text: James Bruce

text: Tristão da Cunha

text: Socotra

text: Rodrigo de Lima

text: Ethiopian ambassador Mateus

text: Francisco Álvares

text: Hakluyt Society

categories: Ambassadors of Portugal to Ethiopia,Interpreters,Explorers of Asia,16th-century deaths,Portuguese people imprisoned abroad,16th-century explorers,Explorers of Africa,History of Kerala,1460s births,Portuguese expatriates in Ethiopia,15th-century explorers,Maritime history of Portugal,Portuguese explorers

paragraph: Pêro da Covilhã

paragraph: Pedro, or Pêro da Covilhã or (; c. 1460 – after 1526), sometimes written: Pero de Covilhăo, was a Portuguese diplomat and explorer.

paragraph: He was a native of Covilhã in Beira. In his early life he had gone to Castile and entered the service of Don Juan de Guzmán, brother of Enrique de Guzmán, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia. Later, when war broke out between Castile and Portugal, he returned to his own country, and attached himself, first as a groom, then as a squire, to Afonso V of Portugal and his successor John II of Portugal. In 1487, his overland expedition made its way to India, exploring trade opportunities with the Indians and Arabs, and winding up finally in Ethiopia. His detailed report was eagerly read in Lisbon, as Portugal became the world's best informed center for global geography and trade routes.

paragraph: Section::::Mission to the East.

paragraph: King John II put him in charge of diverse private missions, and finally, to use his knowledge of different languages, ordered him and Afonso de Paiva to undertake a mission of exploration in the Near East and the adjoining regions of Asia and Africa, with the special assignment to learn where cinnamon and other spices could be found, as well as of discovering the land of legendary Prester John, by overland routes. Bartolomeu Dias, at the same time, went out to by sea find the Prester's country, as well as the termination of the African continent and the ocean route to India.

paragraph: The expedition started at Santarém, on 7 May 1487. Covilhã and Paiva were provided with a letter of credence for all the countries of the world and with a map for navigating, taken from the map of the world and compiled by Bishop Diogo, and doctors Rodrigo and Moisés. The first two of these were prominent members of the commission which advised the Portuguese government to reject the proposals of Christopher Columbus. The explorers started from Santarém and travelled by Barcelona to Naples, where their bills of exchange were paid by the sons of Cosimo de' Medici; from there they went to Rhodes, where they stayed with two other Portuguese, and so to Alexandria and Cairo, where they posed as merchants.

paragraph: In company with Arabs from Fez and Tlemcen, they now went by way of El-Tor to Suakin and Aden, where, as it was now the monsoon, they parted. Covilhã proceeded to India and Paiva to Ethiopia. They agreed to meet again in Cairo. Covilhã thus arrived at Cannanore and Calicut, from where he retraced his steps to Goa and Hormuz, the Red Sea and Cairo, making an excursion on his way down the East African coast to Sofala.

paragraph: At Cairo he heard of Paiva's death, and met with two Portuguese Jews: Rabbi Abraham of Beja and José Sapateiro, a shoe-maker of Lamego who had been sent by King John with letters for Covilhã and Paiva. By Joseph of Lamego, Covilhã replied with an account of his Indian and African journeys, and of his observations on the cinnamon, black pepper and clove trade at Calicut, together with advice as to the ocean way to India. He recommended that the Portuguese should sail south along the coast of Africa and the seas of Guinea. The first objective in the eastern ocean, he added, was Madagascar; from this island one could reach Calicut.

paragraph: Section::::Ethiopia.

paragraph: With this information Joseph returned to Portugal, while Covilhã, with Abraham of Beja, again visited Aden and Hormuz. At the latter he left the rabbi; and himself came back to Jeddah, the port of the Arabian holy land, and penetrated (as he told Francisco Álvares many years later) even to Mecca and Medina. Finally, by Mount Sinai, El-Tor and the Red Sea, he reached Zeila, whence he struck inland to the court of Prester John (Ethiopia).

paragraph: Here he was honorably received by the Emperor Eskender; lands and lordships were bestowed upon him, but Eskander refused to grant him permission to leave, and his successors evaded granting Covilhã permission. According to James Bruce, Covilhã maintained a correspondence with the king in Portugal, describing Ethiopia as "very populous, full of cities both powerful and rich".

paragraph: In 1507, he was joined by João Gomes, a priest sent by Tristão da Cunha, who had reached Ethiopia by way of Socotra. When the Portuguese embassy under Rodrigo de Lima, which included Ethiopian ambassador Mateus and missionary Francisco Álvares, entered Ethiopia in 1520, Covilhã wept with joy at the sight of his fellow-countrymen. It was then forty years since he had left Portugal, and over thirty since he had been a prisoner of state in Ethiopia. Álvares, who professed to know him well, and to have heard the story of his life, both in confession and out of it, praises his power of vivid description as if things were present before him, and his extraordinary knowledge of all the spoken languages of Christians, Muslims and Gentiles. His services as an interpreter were valuable to Rodrigo de Lima's embassy.

paragraph: Covilhã was well treated, but was not allowed to leave the country until his death.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A biography in the "Vidas Lusofonas" series, in English

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Francisco Alvarez, "Chapter CIV: How Pero de Covilham, a Portuguese, is in the country of the Prester, and how came here, and why he was sent", "The Prester John of the Indies" (Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1961), pp. 369–376.

description: Portuguese explorer and diplomat

wikidata_label: Pêro da Covilhã

wikipedia_title: Pêro da Covilhã


text: Gotham City

text: Batman

text: Kerry Conran

text: Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow

text: Washington University

text: St. Louis, Missouri

text: New York City

text: Cass Gilbert

text: Woolworth Building

text: Vanity Fair

text: soft focus

text: Century Magazine

text: Christian Science Monitor

text: Harper's Magazine

text: Vanity Fair

text: zoning laws

text: Harvey Wiley Corbett

text: The Metropolis of Tomorrow

text: National Academy of Design

text: Columbia University

text: Hugh Ferriss Memorial Prize

text: Liberty Memorial

text: Harold Van Buren Magonigle

text: Tribune Tower

text: Smith Hinchman & Grylls

text: Raymond Hood

text: Smith Hinchman & Grylls

text: Holabird & Root

text: Smith Hinchman & Grylls

text: Smith Hinchman & Grylls

text: Mauran, Russell & Crowell and Timlin

text: Architectural League of New York

categories: 1889 births,Washington University in St. Louis alumni,20th-century American architects,1962 deaths

paragraph: Hugh Ferriss

paragraph: Hugh Macomber Ferriss (July 12, 1889 – January 28, 1962) was an American architect, illustrator, and poet. He was associated with exploring the psychological condition of modern urban life, a common cultural enquiry of the first decades of the twentieth century. After his death a colleague said he 'influenced my generation of architects' more than any other man. Ferriss also influenced popular culture, for example Gotham City (the setting for Batman) and Kerry Conran's "Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Hugh Ferriss was born in 1889 and trained as an architect at Washington University in his native St. Louis, Missouri.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Early in his career, Ferriss began to specialize in creating architectural renderings for other architects' work rather than designing buildings himself. As a delineator, his task was to create a perspective drawing of a building or project. This was done either as part of the sales process for a project, or, more commonly, to advertise or promote the project to a wider audience. Thus, his drawings were frequently destined for annual shows or advertisements. As a result of this, his works were often published (rather than just given to the architect’s client), and Ferriss acquired a reputation. After he had set up as a free-lance artist, he found himself much sought after.

paragraph: In 1912, Ferriss arrived in New York City and was soon employed as a delineator for Cass Gilbert. Some of his earliest drawings are of Gilbert’s Woolworth Building; they reveal that Ferriss’s illustrations had not yet developed his signature dark, moody appearance. In 1915, with Gilbert’s blessing, he left the firm and set up shop as an independent architectural delineator. In 1914, Ferriss married Dorothy Lapham, an editor and artist for "Vanity Fair".

paragraph: By 1920, Ferriss had begun to develop his own style, frequently presenting the building at night, lit up by spotlights, or in a fog, as if photographed with a soft focus. The shadows cast by and on the building became almost as important as the revealed surfaces. His style elicited emotional responses from the viewer. His drawings were being regularly featured by such diverse publications as the "Century Magazine", the "Christian Science Monitor", "Harper's Magazine", and "Vanity Fair". His writings also began to appear in various publications.

paragraph: In 1916, New York City had passed landmark zoning laws that regulated and limited the massing of buildings according to a formula. The reason was to counteract the tendency for buildings to occupy the whole of their lot and go straight up as far as was possible. Since many architects were not sure exactly what these laws meant for their designs, in 1922 the skyscraper architect Harvey Wiley Corbett commissioned Ferriss to draw a series of four step-by-step perspectives demonstrating the architectural consequences of the zoning law. These four drawings would later be used in his 1929 book "The Metropolis of Tomorrow".

paragraph: This book illustrated many conte crayon sketches of tall buildings. Some of the sketches were theoretical studies of possible setback variations within the 1916 zoning laws. Some were renderings for other architect's skyscrapers. And at the end of the book was a sequence of views in Manhattan emerged in an almost Babylonian guise. His writing in the book betrayed an ambivalence to the rapid urbanization of America:

paragraph: In 1955, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1960.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Ferriss died in 1962. His archive, including drawings and papers, is held by the Drawings & Archives Department of the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia University. Every year, the American Society of Architectural Illustrators gives out the Hugh Ferriss Memorial Prize for architectural rendering excellence. The medal features Ferriss’s original "Fourth Stage" drawing, executed in bronze.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Liberty Memorial, Kansas City, Missouri. Harold Van Buren Magonigle, architect.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Four Stages

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chicago Tribune Tower. Howells & Hood, architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Players Club, Detroit, Michigan. Smith Hinchman & Grylls [SH&G], architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Radiator Building, New York, New York. Raymond Hood, architect.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Buhl Building, Detroit, Michigan. Smith Hinchman & Grylls [SH&G], architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chicago Board of Trade Building. Holabird & Root, architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Penobscot Building, Detroit, Michigan. Smith Hinchman & Grylls [SH&G], architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guardian [Union Trust] Building, Detroit, Michigan. Smith Hinchman & Grylls [SH&G], architects.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Telephone Building, St. Louis, Missouri. Mauran, Russell & Crowell and Timlin, architects.

paragraph: Section::::Selected publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ferriss, Hugh. "The Metropolis of Tomorrow", with essay by Carol Willis. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1986. Reprint of 1929 edition. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ferriss, Hugh. "Power in Buildings, An Artist’s View of Contemporary Buildings". New York: Columbia University Press, 1953.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ferriss, Hugh. "American Capitals of Industry: A Series of Drawings by Hugh Ferriss". Harpers Magazine, July 1919.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William J. Curtis. "Modern Architecture Since 1900" (Third edition)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Balfour, Alan. "Rockefeller Center: Architecture as Theatre". New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1978. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hoak & Church. "Masterpieces of American Architecture". Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 2002. Reprint of 1930 edition by Charles Scribner. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holleman & Gallagher. "Smith Hinchman & Grylls, 125 Years of Architecture and Engineering, 1853–1978". Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1978. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kvaran. "Architectural Sculpture of America", unpublished manuscript

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stern, Gilmartin & Mellins. "New York 1930: Architecture and Urbanism Between the Two World Wars". New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1987. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Willis, Carol. "Hugh Ferriss: Metropolis". Exhibition organized by the Architectural League of New York, 1986.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hugh Ferriss architectural drawings and papers, circa 1906-1980.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University. Includes digital images of more than 350 original drawings held by Columbia University.

description: American architect

wikidata_label: Hugh Ferriss

wikipedia_title: Hugh Ferriss


text:
Orange, California
water polo
United States
US Women's Water Polo Team
silver medal
2005 World Aquatics Championships
Montréal, Canada
Foothill High School
Santa Ana, California
UCLA
NCAA National Water Polo Championships
Adam Krikorian
FINA World League
World Championships
2006 FINA World Cup
2010 FINA World Cup

categories: 1985 births,Sportspeople from Orange, California,UCLA Bruins women's water polo players,American female water polo players,Living people

paragraph: Emily Feher

paragraph: Emily Jane Feher (born March 29, 1985 in Orange, California) is a water polo goalkeeper from the United States. She was a member of the US Women's Water Polo Team that won the silver medal at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Montréal, Canada.

paragraph: Feher went to Foothill High School in Santa Ana, California and UCLA. At UCLA, she helped the Bruins win three NCAA National Water Polo Championships.

paragraph: Playing for head coach Adam Krikorian, she became the only goalkeeper who had won three national titles.

paragraph: Following her athletic career, Emily soon after pursued her philanthropic interests by joining the Peace Corps in Cameroon. She is currently serving as a Public Health Coordinator in Northern Cameroon.

paragraph: Section::::International Competitions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2001 – FINA Junior World Championships, Perth, Australia (1st place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2002 – Junior Pan American Games, Boca Raton, USA (1st place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2003 – FINA Junior World Championships, Calgary, Canada (2nd place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004 – Junior Pan American Championships, San Salvador, El Salvador (1st place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – FINA Junior World Championships, Perth, Australia (1st place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – FINA World League, Kirishi, Russia (5th place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005 – World Championships, Montréal, Canada (2nd place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006 – 2006 FINA World Cup, Tianjin, China (4th place)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2010 – 2010 FINA World Cup, Christchurch, New Zealand (1st place)

description: American water polo player

wikidata_label: Emily Feher

wikipedia_title: Emily Feher


text:
Austria
alpine skier
1968 Winter Olympics
Grenoble
Jackson Hole
Rossland
Heavenly Valley
Karl Schranz

categories: Olympic medalists in alpine skiing,Austrian male alpine skiers,Medalists at the 1968 Winter Olympics,Olympic alpine skiers of Austria,1970 deaths,1944 births,Alpine skiers at the 1968 Winter Olympics,Sportspeople from Tyrol (state),Olympic silver medalists for Austria

paragraph: Herbert Huber

paragraph: Herbert Huber (4 December 1944 – 15 July 1970) was an Austrian alpine skier and Olympic medalist. He received a silver medal in the slalom at the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble.

paragraph: Huber did win three World Cup races: the slalom race on March, 26th, 1967, at Jackson Hole, the giant slalom race on March 31, 1968, at Rossland, and the giant slalom race on April 6, 1968, at Heavenly Valley. Winning the silver medal in the 1968 Winter Olympics was overshadowed by the bickering in the matter of the disqualification of his teammate Karl Schranz.

paragraph: He became twice Austrian Champion in the Slalom in 1966 and 1968.

paragraph: Huber's sensitivity was responsible for his suicide in his home village Kitzbühel in the summer of the same year. He was a baths attendant there when an English holiday maker was drowning. Though Huber was out of service he was taken that accident to heart.

description: alpine skier

wikidata_label: Herbert Huber

wikipedia_title: Herbert Huber


text:
Vietnam
Nguyễn Lord
Tây Sơn

wikipedia_title:
Vietnam
Nguyễn lords
Tây Sơn dynasty

categories: 1745 births,1801 deaths,Mandarins of the Nguyễn lords,Generals of the Nguyễn lords

paragraph: Võ Di Nguy

paragraph: Võ Duy Nguy (武彝巍, Ất Sửu 1745 - Tân Dậu 1801) was a Vietnamese admiral, one of three admirals leading the Nguyễn Lord's fleet against the Tây Sơn army in 1793.

description: Vietnamese admiral

wikidata_label: Võ Di Nguy

wikipedia_title: Võ Di Nguy


text:
Gallo-Roman
historian
Bishop of Tours
prelate
Gaul
Merovingian
Franks
miracle
Martin of Tours
Clermont
Auvergne
Senator
Bishop Nicetius of Lyons
Burgundy
St. Gallus, Bishop of Clermont)
tonsure
St. Euphronius
King Sigebert of Austrasia
medieval
Loire
Sigebert I
Chilperic I
Guntram
Childebert II
Late Latin
classical
Christianization of Gaul
Saint Martin of Tours
Clovis
Sigebert I
Chilperic I
Fredegund
Herod
Nero
epilogue
Catholic
Arianism
Visigoths
pagans
Jews
Christian faith
Latin
Late Antiquity
Virgil
Aeneid
Martianus Capella
Orosius
Sallust
Vulgate Bible
St. Illidius
St. Brachio
St Patroclus
St. Nicetius
bishop of Lyon
St. Nicetius of Trier
God
Franks
Herodotus
Trollope
Venantius Fortunatus
early Middle Ages
Lewis Thorpe
Bruno Krusch
Wilhelm Levison
"Histoire des Franks"
Brown, Peter
Goffart, Walter
Staatsbibliothek Bamberg Msc.Patr.61

categories: 6th-century Frankish writers,Frankish bishops,Bishops of Tours,Hagiographers,Sources on Germanic paganism,6th-century Latin writers,6th-century bishops,Bishops in Gaul,Christian anti-Gnosticism,Frankish historians,6th-century historians,6th-century apocalypticists,594 deaths,538 births,People from Clermont-Ferrand,6th-century Frankish saints

paragraph: Gregory of Tours

paragraph: Gregory of Tours (30 November c. 538 – 17 November 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of the area that had been previously referred to as Gaul by the Romans. He was born Georgius Florentius and later added the name Gregorius in honour of his maternal great-grandfather. He is the primary contemporary source for Merovingian history. His most notable work was his "Decem Libri Historiarum" ("Ten Books of Histories"), better known as the "Historia Francorum" ("History of the Franks"), a title that later chroniclers gave to it, but he is also known for his accounts of the miracles of saints, especially four books of the miracles of Martin of Tours. St. Martin's tomb was a major pilgrimage destination in the 6th century, and St. Gregory's writings had the practical effect of promoting this highly organized devotion.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Gregory was born in Clermont, in the Auvergne region of central Gaul. He was born into the upper stratum of Gallo-Roman society as the son of Florentius, Senator of Clermont, by his wife Armentaria II, niece of Bishop Nicetius of Lyons and granddaughter of both Florentinus, Senator of Geneva, and Saint Gregory of Langres. Gregory had several noted bishops and saints as close relatives (his family effectively monopolised the Bishoprics of Tours, Lyons, and Langres at the time of his birth), and, according to Gregory, he was connected to thirteen of the eighteen bishops of Tours preceding him by ties of kinship. Gregory's paternal grandmother, Leocadia, descended from Vettius Epagatus, the illustrious martyr of Lyons.

paragraph: His father evidently died while Gregory was young and his widowed mother moved to Burgundy where she had property. Gregory went to live with his paternal uncle St. Gallus, Bishop of Clermont), under whom, and his successor St. Avitus, Gregory had his education. Gregory also received the clerical tonsure from Gallus. Having contracted a serious illness, he made a visit of devotion to the tomb of St. Martin at Tours. Upon his recovery, he began to pursue a clerical career and was ordained deacon by Avitus. Upon the death of St. Euphronius, he was chosen as bishop by the clergy and people, who had been charmed with his piety, learning, and humility. Their deputies overtook him at the court of King Sigebert of Austrasia, and being compelled to acquiesce, though much against his will, Gregory was consecrated by Giles, Bishop of Rheims, on 22 August 573, at the age of thirty-four.

paragraph: He spent most of his career at Tours, although he assisted at the council of Paris in 577. The rough world he lived in was on the cusp of the dying world of Antiquity and the new culture of early medieval Europe. Gregory lived also on the border between the Frankish culture of the Merovingians to the north and the Gallo-Roman culture of the south of Gaul.

paragraph: At Tours, Gregory could not have been better placed to hear everything and meet everyone of influence in Merovingian culture. Tours lay on the watery highway of the navigable Loire. Five Roman roads radiated from Tours, which lay on the main thoroughfare between the Frankish north and Aquitania, with Spain beyond. At Tours the Frankish influences of the north and the Gallo-Roman influences of the south had their chief contact (see map). As the center for the popular cult of St Martin, Tours was a pilgrimage site, hospital, and a political sanctuary to which important leaders fled during periods of violence and turmoil in Merovingian politics.

paragraph: Gregory struggled through personal relations with four Frankish kings, Sigebert I, Chilperic I, Guntram, and Childebert II and he personally knew most of the leading Franks.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: Gregory wrote in Late Latin which departed from classical usage frequently in syntax and spelling with relatively few changes in inflection.

paragraph: The "Historia Francorum" is in ten books. Books I to IV initially recount the world's history from the Creation (as was traditional); but move quickly on to the Christianization of Gaul, the life and times of Saint Martin of Tours, the conversion of the Franks and the conquest of Gaul under Clovis, and the more detailed history of the Frankish kings down to the death of Sigebert I in 575. At this date Gregory had been bishop of Tours for two years.

paragraph: With his fifth book, Gregory embarks (with some relief) on contemporary history, opening “Here, I am glad to say, begins Book V”. This, the second part of his history, books V and VI, closes with Chilperic I's death in 584. During the years that Chilperic held Tours, relations between him and Gregory were tense. After hearing rumours that the Bishop of Tours had slandered his wife, Fredegund, Chilperic had Gregory arrested and tried for treason—a charge which threatened both Gregory's bishopric and his life. The most eloquent passage in the "Historia" is the closing chapter of book VI, in which Chilperic's character is summed up unsympathetically through the use of an invective: Herod and Nero are among the comparisons employed.

paragraph: The third part, comprising books VII to X, takes his increasingly personal account to the year 591, and concludes with a plea for further chroniclers to preserve his work in entirety (as indeed would be done). An epilogue was written in 594, the year of Gregory's death.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:"History of the Franks".:Problems of interpretation.

paragraph: Readers of the "Historia Francorum" must decide whether this is a royal history and whether Gregory was writing to please his patrons. It is likely that one royal Frankish house is more generously treated than others. Gregory was also a Catholic bishop, and his writing reveals views typical of someone in his position. His views on perceived dangers of Arianism, still strong among the Visigoths, led him to preface the "Historia" with a detailed expression of his orthodoxy on the nature of Christ. In addition, his ridiculing of pagans and Jews reflected how his works were used to spread the Christian faith. For example, in book 2, chapters 28-31, he describes the pagans as incestuous and weak and then describes the process by which newly converted King Clovis leads a much better life than that of a pagan and is healed of all the conundrums he experienced as a pagan.

paragraph: Gregory's education was the standard Latin one of Late Antiquity, focusing on Virgil's "Aeneid" and Martianus Capella's "Liber de Nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae", but also other key texts such as Orosius' "Chronicles", which his "Historia" continues, and Sallust; he refers to all these works in his own. His education, as was typical for the time, did not extend to a broad acquaintance with the pagan classics, but rather progressed to mastery of the Vulgate Bible. It is said that he constantly complained about his use of grammar. He did not understand how to correctly write masculine and feminine phrases, reflecting either a lack of ability or changes in the Latin language. Though he had read Virgil, considered the greatest Latin stylist, he cautions that "We ought not to relate their lying fables, lest we fall under sentence of eternal death." By contrast, he seems to have thoroughly studied the lengthy and complex Vulgate Bible, as well as numerous religious works and historical treatises, which he frequently quotes, particularly in the earlier books of the "Historia".

paragraph: The main impression that historians once retained from the "Historia" focused on Gregory's anecdotes about violence; until recently, historians tended to conclude that Merovingian Gaul was a chaotic, brutal mess. Recent scholarship has refuted that view. Through more careful readings, scholars have concluded that Gregory's underlying purpose was to highlight the vanity of secular life and contrast it with the miracles of the Saints. Though Gregory conveys political and other messages through the "Historia", and these are studied very closely, historians now generally agree that this contrast is the central and ever-present narrative device.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Hagiography.

paragraph: His "Life of the Fathers" comprises twenty hagiographies of the most prominent men of the preceding generation, taking in a wide range the spiritual community of early medieval Gaul, including lives of bishops, clerics, monks, abbots, holy men and hermits. St. Illidius is praised for his purity of heart, St. Brachio the abbot for his discipline and determination in study of the scriptures, St Patroclus for his unwavering faith in the face of weakness, and St. Nicetius, bishop of Lyon, for his justice. It is the life of St. Nicetius of Trier, though, which dominates this book; his great authority and sense of episcopal responsibility which is the focus of Gregory's account as his figure, predestined to be great, bestrides the lives of the others. It is told that he felt a weight on his head, but he was unable to see what it was when turning around, though upon smelling its sweet scent he realised that it was the weight of episcopal responsibility. ("Life of the Fathers", XVII, 1) He surmounts the others in the glory of his miracles, and was chosen by God to have the entire succession of past and future Frankish kings revealed to him.

paragraph: A further aspect of this work to note is the appearance of Gregory himself in certain sections, notably in the life of St. Leobardus. This is for two reasons: Firstly, it creates a distinct link between the temporal and the spiritual worlds, firmly placing the accounts of the lives in a world which is understandable and recognisable, or, seen from the other angle, confirming the presence of miracles in the temporal world. Secondly, the intercession of Gregory serves to set Leobardus straight, after he had been tempted by the devil ("Life of the Fathers", XX, 3), and so this act further enhances the authority of bishops as a whole.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Fighting heresy.

paragraph: Gregory's avowed aim in writing this book was to "fire others with that enthusiasm by which the saints deservedly climbed to heaven", though this was not his sole purpose, and he most surely did not expect his entire audience to show promise of such piety as to witness the power of God flowing through them in the way that it did for the fathers. More immediate concerns were at the forefront of his mind as he sought to create a further layer of religious commitment, not only to the Church at Rome, but to local churches and cathedrals throughout Gaul. Along with his other books, notably the "Glory of the Confessors", the "Glory of the Martyrs" and the "Life of St. Martin", meticulous attention is paid to the local as opposed to the universal Christian experience. Within these grandiloquent lives are tales and anecdotes which tie miracles, saints and their relics to a great diversity of local areas, furnishing his audience with greater knowledge of their local shrine, and providing them with evidence of the work of God in their immediate vicinity, thus greatly expanding their connection with and understanding of their faith. Attacks on heresy also appear throughout his hagiographies, and Arianism is taken to be the common face of heresy across Europe, exposed to great ridicule. Often, the scenes which expose the weaknesses of heresy ("Glory of the Martyrs", 79, 80) focus on images of fire and burning, whilst the Catholics are proved right by the protection lavished on them by God.

paragraph: This was of great relevance to Gregory himself as he presided over the important see of Tours, where extensive use was made of the cult of St. Martin in establishing the authority of the bishopric with the congregation and in the context of the Frankish church. Gregory's hagiography was an essential component of this. However, this should not be seen as a selfish grab for power on behalf of the bishops who emerge so triumphantly from the "Life of the Fathers", but rather as a bid for hegemony of doctrine and control over the practice of worship, which they believed to be in the best interests of their congregation and the wider church.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Gregory's Creed.

paragraph: As an example of Gregory's zeal in his fight against heresy, the "Historia Francorum" includes a declaration of faith with which Gregory aimed to prove his orthodoxy with respect to the heresies of his time ("so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic for they are."). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes a specific Christian heresy. Thus Gregory's creed presents, in the negative, a virtual litany of heresies:

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The "Historia Francorum" is of salient historical interest, representing as it does the central narrative with respect to the Franks for the period of transition from Roman to Medieval, and the establishment of the large and important Frankish state. With his lively style, story-telling ability, and skill in conveying human interest, Gregory has been compared to Herodotus; with his detailed interest in, and accounts of, ecclesiastical history and manoeuvrings, to a bloodier Trollope.

paragraph: Gregory's hagiographies are also an invaluable source of anecdotes and stories which enrich our understanding of life and belief in Merovingian Gaul. The motivation behind his works was to show readers the importance and strength of Christianity. Alongside Venantius Fortunatus, he is the outstanding literary figure from the 6thC Merovingian world; and his extensive literary output is itself a testimony to the preservation of learning and to the lingering continuity of Gallo-Roman civic culture through the early Middle Ages.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: The following represent key modern texts on Gregory of Tours, including the most recent translations of his work.

paragraph: While Lewis Thorpe's translation of "The History of the Franks" is more accessible than Brehaut's, his introduction and commentary are not well regarded by contemporary historians (see Secondary Sources, below).

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.:Editions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gregorii episcopi Turonensis. Libri Historiarum X" (ed. Bruno Krusch and Wilhelm Levison), MGH SRM I 1, Hannover 1951

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Miracula et opera minora" (ed. Bruno Krusch), MGH SRM I 2, Hannover 1969, 211-294 (repr. from 1885)

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.:Translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fränkische Geschichte". 3 vols. (transl. by Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, rev. by Manfred Gebauer), Essen 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "From Roman to Merovingian Gaul. A Reader" (ed. and transl. Alexander Callander Murray; Readings in medieval Civilisations and Cultures 5), Toronto 2000, 287-446

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Glory of the confessors" (ed. and transl. Raymond Van Dam; Translated Texts for Historians 4), Liverpool 2004 (2nd edition), .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Glory of the Martyrs" (ed. and transl. Raymond Van Dam; Translated Texts for Historians 3), Liverpool 2004 (2nd edition), .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Liber de passione et virtutibus sancti Iuliani martyris" und" Libri de virtutibus sancti Martini episcopi", in: Raymond Van Dam (ed.), Saints and their Miracles in Late Antique Gaul, Princeton 1993, 153-317.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Life of the Fathers" (ed. and transl. James Edward; Translated Texts for Historians 1), Liverpool 1991 (2nd edition), .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The History of the Franks" (transl. M. Dalton), Oxford 1927.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The History of the Franks" (transl. L. Thorpe), Penguin 1974.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Historias" (transl. P. Herrera), Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Extremadura, 2013,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Histoire des Franks", in French

paragraph: Section::::References.:Primary sources.:Bilingual editions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Les livres des miracles et autres opuscules de Georges Florent Grégoire évêque de Tours" (ed. and transl. Léonard Bordier), vol. 1, Paris 1857.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Zehn Bücher Geschichten. Band I-II."(ed. and transl. Wilhelm Giesebrecht and Rudolf Buchner), Darmstadt 1955-1956.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brown, Peter, "The Cult of the Saints" (London, 1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Goffart, Walter, "The Narrators of Barbarian History (A.D. 550–800)" (Princeton, 1988)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diem, Albrecht, ‘Gregory’s Chess Board: Monastic Conflict and Competition in Early Medieval Gaul’, in: Philippe Depreux, François Bougard, and Régine Le Jan (eds.), "Compétition et sacré au haut Moyen Âge : entre médiation et exclusion", Turnhout: Brepols 2015, pp. 165–191.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heinzelmann, Martin, "Gregory of Tours: History and Society in the Sixth Century", trans. Christopher Carroll (Cambridge, 2001)

paragraph: BULLET::::- James, E.,"The Franks" (Oxford, 1988)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kaiser, Reinhold. "Das römische Erbe und das Merowingerreich", (Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte 26) (München, 2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loseby, S.T., "Marseille and the Pirenne thesis, I: Gregory of Tours, the Merovingian kings and 'un grand port'" from Hodges, R. and Bowden, W., The sixth century: production, distribution and demand pp. 203–229, (Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Loseby, S.T., "Gregory's cities: urban functions in sixth-century Gaul" from Wood, Ian, Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian period: an ethnographic perspective pp. 239–270, (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1998)

paragraph: BULLET::::- McSheffrey, Shannon, "The History of the Franks" (Harmondsworth, 1974)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitchell, Kathleen and Ian Wood (eds.), "The World of Gregory of Tours" (Leiden, 2002)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Murray, A.C. (ed.), "A Companion to Gregory of Tours" (Leiden, 2016)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Van Dam, R., "Saints and their miracles in late antique Gaul" (Princeton, 1993)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wood, Ian N., "The Merovingian kingdoms 450-751" (London, 1994)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wood, Ian N., "Gregory of Tours" (Oxford, 1994)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Staatsbibliothek Bamberg Msc.Patr.61, the primary witness of "De cursu stellarum"

paragraph: BULLET::::- History lecture by Paul Freedman on Procopius and Gregor of Tours in Yale University (fall 2011): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbN8OTHecuI

wikidata_label: Gregory of Tours

wikipedia_title: Gregory of Tours