text: barrister

text: Mancunian

text: St. George's School, Ascot

text: Winchester College

text: matriculating

text: New College, Oxford

text: Inner Temple

text: called to the Bar

text: Her Majesty's Civil Service

text: Lord Chief Justice

text: Lord Hewart

text: House of Lords

text: peerage

text: Allied Commission for Austria

text: lieutenant colonel

text: Indian Army

text: Unitarian

text: Sir Arthur Schuster

text: Sir Felix Schuster

text: Sir George Schuster

text: St. George's School, Ascot

text: Alpine Club

text: Winchester College

text: public schools

text: Winchester College football

text: matriculated

text: New College, Oxford

text: Romanes Lecture

text: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Inner Temple

text: Civil Service

text: Permanent Secretary

text: London County Council

text: Great Northern Railway

text: Robert Morant

text: Board of Education

text: National Insurance Act 1911

text: Friendly Societies

text: Arthur Thring

text: John Anderson

text: Warren Fisher

text: John Bradbury

text: Sir Kenneth Muir Mackenzie

text: Lord Chancellor's Office

text: Lord Haldane

text: Lord Buckmaster

text: plebeian

text: justice of the peace

text: World War I

text: Western Front

text: Cabinet

text: H. H. Asquith

text: Lord Finlay

text: Lord Campbell

text: War Cabinet

text: Lord Haldane

text: Sir Alan Sykes

text: Jimmy Thomas

text: Law Society

text: Bar Council

text: Commander of the Royal Victorian Order

text: King's Counsel

text: 1918 general election

text: Lord Birkenhead

text: George V

text: law of real property

text: feudalism

text: Settled Land Act 1882

text: Sir Leslie Scott

text: First World War

text: devilled

text: real

text: personal property

text: copyhold

text: gavelkind

text: Charles Brickdale

text: HM Land Registry

text: House of Commons

text: Lord Cave

text: Supreme Court of Judicature

text: County Court

text: Probate Services

text: patronage

text: nepotism

text: masters

text: clerks

text: Rigby Swift

text: Treasury

text: Lord Chancellor's Office

text: coalition government

text: Lord Cave

text: Conservative

text: Stanley Baldwin

text: protectionist tariffs

text: December 1923

text: vote of no confidence

text: Labour Party

text: Ramsay MacDonald

text: Privy Councillor

text: Lord Haldane

text: Zinoviev Letter

text: Lord Cave

text: Law of Property Act 1925

text: Whitehall

text: Mandarin

text: 1927 New Year Honours

text: Lord Cave

text: Lord Hailsham

text: Stanley Baldwin

text: Aix-en-Provence

text: 10 Downing Street

text: Lord Hailsham

text: Conservative

text: Lord Sankey

text: Statute of Westminster

text: County Court

text: First World War

text: High Court

text: Warren Fisher

text: Mr Justice McCardie

text: Mr Justice Clauson

text: Mr Justice Luxmoore

text: Treasury

text: Lord Hanworth

text: Lord Birkenhead

text: Court of Appeal

text: Divisional Court

text: King's Bench Division

text: Home Office

text: Law Commission

text: Lord Hewart

text: Lord Chief Justice

text: bill

text: Lord Justice of Appeal

text: Court of Appeal

text: second reading

text: Lord Reading

text: Lord Hailsham

text: Leader of the House of Lords

text: Lord Hailsham

text: Second Italo-Abyssinian War

text: Committee of Imperial Defence

text: First World War

text: Warren Fisher

text: Norman Brook

text: Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939

text: Lord Hailsham

text: Lord Maugham

text: Second World War

text: Lord Maugham

text: Lord Caldecote

text: Second World War

text: Lord Caldecote

text: Neville Chamberlain

text: Lord Simon

text: Tom Denning

text: High Court

text: Sir Walter Monckton

text: Dorset

text: High Sheriff of Dorset

text: Inner Temple

text: Criminal Justice Act 1948

text: Criminal Justice Act 1949

text: Romanes Lecture

text: Second World War

text: old Wykehamist

text: Charing Cross Hospital

text: William Walter Merry

text: Lincoln College, Oxford

text: Western Front

text: King's Counsel

categories: Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order,Private secretaries in the British Civil Service,1956 deaths,Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK),Knights Bachelor,Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath,Permanent Secretaries to the Lord Chancellor's Office,British Queen's Counsel,1869 births,British barristers,Members of the Inner Temple,Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom,Queen's Counsel 1901–2000,High Sheriffs of Dorset,Alumni of New College, Oxford,People educated at Winchester College

paragraph: Claud Schuster, 1st Baron Schuster

paragraph: Claud Schuster, 1st Baron Schuster, (22 August 1869 – 28 June 1956) was a British barrister and civil servant noted for his long tenure as Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office. Born to a Mancunian business family, Schuster was educated at St. George's School, Ascot and Winchester College before matriculating at New College, Oxford in 1888 to read history. After graduation, he joined the Inner Temple with the aim of becoming a barrister, and was called to the Bar in 1895. Practising in Liverpool, Schuster was not noted as a particularly successful barrister, and he joined Her Majesty's Civil Service in 1899 as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission.

paragraph: After serving as secretary to several more commissions, he was made Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office in 1915. Schuster served in this position for 29 years under ten different Lord Chancellors, and with the contacts obtained thanks to his long tenure and his work outside the Office he became "one of the most influential Permanent Secretaries of the 20th century". His influence over decisions within the Lord Chancellor's Office and greater Civil Service led to criticism and suspicions that he was a "power behind the throne", which culminated in a verbal attack by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Hewart in 1934 during a session of the House of Lords. Schuster retired in 1944 and was elevated to the peerage. Despite being officially retired he continued to work in government circles, such as with the Allied Commission for Austria and by using his seat in the House of Lords as a way to directly criticise legislation.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Schuster was born on 22 August 1869 to Frederick Schuster, a manager of the Manchester firm of merchants Schuster, Fulder and Company, and his wife Sophia Wood, the daughter of a lieutenant colonel in the Indian Army. The family described themselves as "Unitarian" but were descended from Jews who had converted to Christianity in the mid-1850s and included other notable people such as Sir Arthur Schuster, Sir Felix Schuster, and later Sir George Schuster. From the age of seven he was educated at St. George's School, Ascot, one of the most expensive preparatory schools in the country but one known for harsh treatment; it was standard for the headmaster to flog pupils until they bled and force other students and staff to listen to their screams. During the school holidays he accompanied his father to Switzerland, where he developed a lifelong love of mountaineering and skiing. He was president of the Alpine Club from 1938 to 1940.

paragraph: When he was fourteen he was sent to Winchester College, which was known as both the most academic of the main public schools and also for its discomfort. Schuster's time at St George's had prepared him for discomfort, however, and he was noted as being very proud of attending the school. While at Winchester Schuster played Winchester College football and was occasionally involved in debates; he was not, however, noted as a particularly exceptional pupil. He matriculated at New College, Oxford in 1888 and graduated with second-class honours in history in 1892; again he was not noted as a particularly outstanding student, which was attributed to the time he spent enjoying himself rather than studying. Despite his lack of academic brilliance he was invited to deliver the Romanes Lecture in 1949, an honour normally only given to the most eminent alumni of Oxford. After graduation, he unsuccessfully tried to become an examination fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.

paragraph: Section::::Bar work and career change.

paragraph: After his failure to become a fellow of All Souls, Schuster joined the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1895. He practised in Liverpool and, though he was not noted as a particularly successful barrister, he became Circuit Junior of the Northern Circuit Bar in late 1895, an important position. By this point Schuster was married and required a steady income to support his family, something which the bar was not providing. With his love of the English language and the knowledge that he was "good with paper" Schuster decided to join Civil Service, with the intention of becoming a Permanent Secretary.

paragraph: Schuster entered the Civil Service in 1899 and as a qualified lawyer was exempt from the required examinations, something that marked him as "different" from other civil service employees with whom he worked. His first post was as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission, which produced a report leading to the creation of the London County Council. After this he worked as a secretary to the Great Northern Railway and then for the workers' union at London & Smith's Bank Ltd. After his job at the union he was noticed by Robert Morant who employed him as a temporary legal assistant to the Board of Education on the understanding that the job would become permanent, which it did in 1907. In 1911 he was promoted to Principal Assistant Secretary, and after Morant was appointed to the English Commission under the National Insurance Act 1911 Schuster followed him by being appointed Chief Registrar of the Friendly Societies, which granted him a place on the Societies' committee.

paragraph: In February 1912 he gave up his position as Chief Registrar to become Secretary (and then legal adviser) to the English Insurance Commission, with the newspapers of the time reporting that he had had "three promotions in two months", a consequence of his high standing with Morant. During this period he was also involved in drafting education bills with Arthur Thring. The commission was "a galaxy of future Whitehall stars", and contained many individuals who would later become noted civil servants in their own right, including Morant, Schuster, John Anderson, Warren Fisher and John Bradbury. The contacts Schuster made during his time on the committee were instrumental in advancing his career; as a lawyer rather than a dedicated civil servant he was considered an outsider, and the links he made – particularly the friendships he struck up with Fisher and Anderson – helped allay this to some extent.

paragraph: He was knighted in 1913 for his services on various committees.

paragraph: In 1915 Sir Kenneth Muir Mackenzie, the Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office, was close to retirement. The Lord Chancellor, Lord Haldane, believed that the duties of the lord chancellorship were too much for one man, and should be divided between a lord chancellor and a minister of justice. As such, he looked for a Permanent Secretary who was a qualified lawyer and who could help him set up a Ministry of Justice after the war, appointing Schuster in early 1915. The two did not work together, however, until Haldane became Lord Chancellor for a second time in 1924; he was forced to resign several months before Schuster started work on 2 July 1915 after being accused of pro-German sympathies.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lords Buckmaster and Findlay (1915–1916, 1916–1919).

paragraph: The first Lord Chancellor under whom Schuster served was Lord Buckmaster, who was appointed on 27 May 1915. Although most senior government offices at this time were held by wealthy aristocrats, the office of Lord Chancellor stood out as most of the appointees were lawyers from the middle class. Buckmaster was considered "the most plebeian of Lord Chancellors", as he was the son of a farmer and schoolteacher who later became a justice of the peace. Schuster became Permanent Secretary in July, a month after Buckmaster took his post, and immediately tried to make an impression on the workings of the office by modernising it; under the previous Permanent Secretary – who abhorred time-saving mechanisms – shorthand had been forbidden, and the office had owned only one typewriter. Buckmaster and Schuster had similar outlooks on World War I, with both their sons serving on the Western Front; Schuster almost certainly helped write the 1915 memorandum Buckmaster circulated to Cabinet arguing that forces should be concentrated on the Western Front rather than spread out in an attempt to assault other areas.

paragraph: H. H. Asquith resigned as Prime Minister in December 1916, and as a member of Asquith's cabinet Buckmaster followed him. He was replaced by Lord Finlay who was appointed on 12 December. Aged 74 when he was appointed, Finlay was the oldest person to be made Lord Chancellor since Lord Campbell, who was 80 when he was appointed in 1859, and his age showed, with his decisions being slow and cautious. Luckily the job of the Lord Chancellor during the last two years of World War I was limited to maintaining the system rather than instituting any changes, and his tenure was uneventful. During this period Schuster was very influential in judicial appointments, phrasing his reports in such a way that Finlay could only logically accept one candidate. Although Finlay was not a member of the War Cabinet, which limited his political influence to some extent, he was close friends with Lord Haldane and through Haldane Schuster made contacts with up and coming politicians such as Sir Alan Sykes and Jimmy Thomas; the group was described as "the future Labour Cabinet". During Findlay's tenure as Lord Chancellor the question of a Ministry of Justice again came up; while the Law Society was in favour of such a department the Bar Council along with Schuster was opposed to any changes in the status quo, and as the person who prepared a report on the matter for the Lord Chancellor Schuster did his best to express his disapproval of any changes. For his continued work in the Civil Service Schuster was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1918. A year later he was made a King's Counsel: an odd honour for a man who no longer practiced as a barrister.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lord Birkenhead (1919–1922).

paragraph: Finlay had been appointed on the conditions that he would not claim a pension (it was war-time, and there were already four retired Lord Chancellors claiming £5,000 per year pensions) and that he would resign when required. Despite this he was surprised when he was dismissed after the 1918 general election, first hearing about it when it was mentioned in the newspapers. His replacement Lord Birkenhead was appointed on 14 January 1919, and was a controversial choice; he was only 46 when appointed and was unpopular with large sections of the Bar as a result; George V himself wrote to the Prime Minister before Birkenhead was appointed and said that "His Majesty does not feel sure that [Birkenhead] has established such a reputation in men's minds as to ensure that the country will welcome him to the second highest position which can be occupied by a subject of the Crown". Birkenhead and Schuster established a strong partnership, and Schuster played a part in instituting Birkenhead's legal reforms, particularly those relating to the law of real property.

paragraph: Real property law in the English and Welsh legal system had evolved from feudalism, and was an immensely complex system understood by only a small number of lawyers. In particular peculiarities meant that land owned by beneficiaries could be sold without the agreement of all the beneficiaries involved, something partially rectified by the Settled Land Act 1882 and the Land Transfer Act 1897. Despite these statutes reform in this area was still needed, and Lord Haldane presented reform bills to parliament in 1913, 1914 and 1915 with no real progress thanks to the opposition of the Law Society. In March 1917 a Reconstruction Subcommittee under Sir Leslie Scott was created to consider land policy after the First World War, and Schuster (who had devilled for Scott when working as a barrister in Liverpool) was appointed as a member. The subcommittee decided that the law should be changed to merge real and personal property law, and that outdated aspects of land law such as copyholds and gavelkind should be eliminated. When Birkenhead became Lord Chancellor in 1919 he inherited the problem of English property law, and immediately instructed Schuster to prepare the department for forcing a bill through Parliament on the matter.

paragraph: Although there was general agreement that property law should be reformed the process was made more difficult by the various vested interests involved; the Law Society, for example, was opposed to the changes because it would reduce the fees dedicated property solicitors could earn by making it possible for more solicitors to understand that area of law and become involved. After intense negotiation Schuster and the Law Society representative agreed that a "period of probation" lasting three years would be included in the bill, which Charles Brickdale the Chief Registrar of HM Land Registry considered "a very good bargain". When the bill finally got to the House of Commons it met additional opposition from Members of Parliament who were also members of the Law Society and Bar Council, as well as Lord Cave who later became Lord Chancellor. After further negotiations the bill was passed on 8 June 1922, with Birkenhead taking the credit, and it became the Law of Property Act 1922.

paragraph: Schuster also assisted Birkenhead in his attempts to reform the administration of the court system, particularly in his preparation of the Supreme Court (Consolidation) Act 1925. A committee was also set up to look into the reform of the Supreme Court of Judicature, the County Courts and the Probate Services, divided into a subcommittee for each institution. Schuster served as a member of the committee, with his primary goal being to end the patronage and nepotism that filled the judicial system. Although the Supreme Court was resistant the committee did succeed in making some changes, such as introducing mandatory retirement ages for masters and clerks; they were unable, however, to end the patronage. Schuster also attempted to reform the County Courts by increasing their jurisdiction, and a Committee on County Court Procedure (known as the Swift Committee after its chairman Rigby Swift) was set up in 1920, with Schuster serving as a member. The commission concluded that the Treasury had mismanaged the County Courts, and on 1 August 1922 the Lord Chancellor's Office instead became responsible for the courts, with Schuster becoming Accounting Officer. The committee's final report was used as the basis for the County Courts Act 1924, which did much to correct the problems with the County Courts. Schuster was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 1920 New Year War Honours.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lords Cave and Haldane (1922–1924, 1924).

paragraph: By the summer of 1922 the coalition government Birkenhead was a member of began to splinter, and when it finally collapsed Birkenhead was forced to resign on 25 October 1922. His replacement was Lord Cave, a member of the new Conservative government who was appointed on 27 October 1922. The Conservative government under Stanley Baldwin soon ran into trouble due to his desire to introduce protectionist tariffs to protect British jobs. Baldwin called an early general election in December 1923 to serve as a referendum on the subject, and although the Conservatives remained the largest party they did not have enough Members of Parliament to claim a parliamentary majority. At the opening of the new Parliament in January 1924 the party was defeated in a vote of no confidence, and the King instead invited the Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald to form a government. This caused various constitutional problems; traditionally every member of a cabinet, including the Prime Minister, must be a Privy Councillor. MacDonald was not a Privy Councillor, and therefore could not be made Prime Minister. The king asked Lord Cave for a way around this problem, and as an expert on constitutional issues Schuster helped draft the response. In the end it was determined that MacDonald would be sworn in as a Privy Councillor and then invited to form a government.

paragraph: As a member of the old Conservative government Cave left office on 23 January 1924. He was replaced by Lord Haldane, who was serving for a second time and was sworn in on 25 January. Haldane was in favour of the creation of a Ministry of Justice, and although Schuster was privately against it he suggested that he would have accepted the responsibilities of such a Ministry on the condition that it remained under his control as the Lord Chancellor's Office was. Haldane was ill, however, and the Labour government lasted only ten months thanks to the publishing of the Zinoviev Letter, and no large-scale reforms such as the creation of a Ministry of Justice were ever pushed through.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lords Cave and Hailsham (1924–1928, 1928–1929).

paragraph: After the collapse of the Labour government in October 1924 the Conservative Party returned to power, and Lord Cave became Lord Chancellor for a second time on 7 November. Spending four and a half years in office Cave had time to push through some significant reforms, including the Law of Property Act 1925 based on the 1922 act Schuster had been involved in. By 1925 Schuster had spent a decade as Permanent Secretary and was described as a "Whitehall Mandarin", his contacts and long service allowing him greater influence over policy decisions than a Permanent Secretary normally had. The expansion of the Lord Chancellor's Office he had overseen also gave him greater opportunities to delegate to his subordinates, allowing him more time to spend on committees and inquiries directly influencing the way the government worked. As a result of his power and influence he grew to dislike being opposed in any way, and this led to conflict between him and other heads of department. As a reward for his continued service with the Lord Chancellor's Office he was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1927 New Year Honours.

paragraph: Lord Cave resigned on 28 March 1928 due to ill health, and died the day after. His replacement was Lord Hailsham, who was appointed by Stanley Baldwin on 29 March 1928. Hailsham's first tenure as Lord Chancellor lasted barely a year and highlighted the fact that despite his abilities (many thought that if he had not accepted the offer to become Lord Chancellor he would likely have become Prime Minister) he was not a particularly innovative Lord Chancellor. For a short period in August 1928 he acted as Prime Minister (Baldwin was on holiday in Aix-en-Provence) with Schuster as his chief adviser, but he rarely went to 10 Downing Street and nothing eventful happened during his time in charge.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lord Sankey (1929–1935).

paragraph: Lord Hailsham left office in mid-1929 with the fall of the Conservative government in 1929. His replacement was a member of the newly elected Labour Government, Lord Sankey, who was appointed on 8 June 1929. Sankey was appointed on Schuster's advice, and served longer with him than any other Lord Chancellor. Sankey was a "reforming" Lord Chancellor, and as part of one of his first reforms Schuster helped him draft and pass the Statute of Westminster in 1931.

paragraph: During this period the question of Judge's salaries also arose, and almost caused a constitutional crisis. As Permanent Secretary Schuster was tasked with ensuring that the courts ran correctly, and although the Judges were independent they were paid by the Lord Chancellor's Office. Although a Select Committee in 1878 had recommended that County Court Judges be paid £2,000 a year this increase had still failed to appear due to the economic hardships caused by the First World War. The increase was eventually implemented in 1937, but in the meantime High Court Judges had also been lobbying for an increase, as their pay had stayed at the same level since 1832. Schuster and Warren Fisher had produced a report recommending a pay increase in 1920, but again the economic hardship prevented their plan from being implemented. The 1931 led to the government passing the National Recovery Act 1931, which reduced the salaries of High Court judges by 20%. The judges, who had been expecting a pay raise instead, were shocked, and six High Court judges threatened to resign, with Mr Justice McCardie accusing Schuster of having his salary almost doubled in the last twelve years. The Prime Minister and Sankey met to write a letter to the judges demanding that they give in; as soon as Schuster heard about this he rushed to Whitehall to "stop the madness". The protests from the judges increased through 1931 and 1932, with several judges including Mr Justice Clauson and Mr Justice Luxmoore threatening to sue the government. After negotiations between Schuster and the judges failed to bring an end to the crisis the section of the act cutting judges' pay was quietly dropped.

paragraph: Soon after becoming Permanent Secretary Schuster had decided that his aim should be to make sure that the entire court system was under the control of his office, rather than partially under his control and partially under the control of the Treasury as it had been when he started. The 1931 Royal Commission on the Civil Service recommended that all Civil Service departments take a more business-like approach to their work, and spurred Schuster into making a further attempt to reorganise and reform the Lord Chancellor's Office. As such he persuaded Sankey to set up a Departmental Committee on the Business of the Courts, with Lord Hanworth (one of Schuster's friends) chairing the committee and Schuster himself sitting as a member. As he had under Lord Birkenhead Schuster attempted to reform the County Courts. He partially succeeded in doing when his recommendations were included in the Administration of Justice [Appeals] Act 1934 which sent appeals from the county courts straight to the Court of Appeal rather than the Divisional Courts. He also attempted to have the number of jury trials in civil cases reduced, something which Hanworth supported but which was blocked by the King's Bench Division.

paragraph: Schuster also took part in law reform after Lord Sankey decided to set up a Law Revision Committee in January 1934 which consisted of Sankey, Schuster, four judges, five barristers, one solicitor and two academic lawyers. The committee produced 86 reports from 1934 to 1939 on a variety of subjects, and many of their recommendations were made into legislation after negotiations with the Home Office. Although the Law Revision Committee fell into disuse after this it was re-formed as a permanent Law Commission in 1965.

paragraph: In 1934 Schuster was subject to a public attack by Lord Hewart, the Lord Chief Justice. On 7 December 1934 his clerk found a bill amongst Hewart's parliamentary papers with a clause that allowed the Lord Chancellor to appoint any Lord Justice of Appeal as vice-president of the Court of Appeal, a right traditionally held by the Lord Chief Justice. Hewart immediately made plans to attend the House of Lords, where Lord Sankey was expected to move the second reading of the bill in question. Immediately after second reading Hewart rose and began a speech that was "as violent an attack as has ever been made in the Lords". In it he criticised the officials of the Lord Chancellor's Department (which to listeners clearly meant Schuster specifically) and insinuated that the bill was part of a conspiracy to move power from the judiciary to the politicians (and thus the civil service) and create a Ministry of Justice. The speech provoked uproar in the house; a public quarrel between senior judges and civil servants had not happened in centuries, especially in such a traditionally calm and collected place. Lord Reading, himself a former Lord Chief Justice, adjourned the debate, and the following Friday Lord Hailsham, at the time the Leader of the House of Lords, made a defence of Schuster, saying that "I can show that this is an absolute delusion [and] that there was no such scheme ever hatched". He showed that the proposal of a Ministry of Justice had originated in 1836, long before Schuster became Permanent Secretary, and in addition that the report Schuster had helped prepare for Sankey was clearly biased against the creation of such a Ministry as he himself was opposed to it. He went on to praise Schuster as "the author and instigator of many great reforms", and along with a similar speech by Lord Sankey and an amendment to the offending bill this helped appease Hewart.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lords Hailsham and Maugham (1935–1938, 1938–1939).

paragraph: Lord Hailsham returned to power on 7 June 1935 after the election of a new government, and by this point his health was beginning to decline, limiting his effectiveness. The Second Italo-Abyssinian War alerted the Civil Service and MI5 to the ambitions of Italy and Germany, and the Committee of Imperial Defence was asked to review the defence legislation that had been used in the First World War and present it to Warren Fisher. Fisher was horrified at how outdated the laws were, and with the permission of the Cabinet organised a War Legislation Committee under Schuster to draft a new code of defence regulations. Norman Brook, later head of the Civil Service, served as secretary, and the Committee was described as "a model piece of organisation" thanks to the work of Schuster as chairman. The regulations drafted by the Committee were eventually made into law after the passing of the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939.

paragraph: Lord Hailsham left his position in 1938 due to his failing health, and was replaced by Lord Maugham, who was appointed on 15 March. His appointment was done on Schuster's advice and was considered quite a surprise as he had no real political experience; even Maugham himself admitted he had not expected to be offered the job. Schuster and Maugham had a difficult relationship, especially after the start of the Second World War in 1939, due to their differing political opinions. Schuster did not play an active part in policy decisions in this period, partially because of his disagreements with Maugham and partially because Maugham preferred to work on legislation and policy changes himself. Schuster later said that he got on with all of his Lord Chancellors except one—Maugham.

paragraph: Section::::Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor's Office.:Lords Caldecote and Simon (1939–1940, 1940–1945).

paragraph: Lord Maugham resigned on 3 September 1939, giving his failing health as a reason (he was 73 when he left the post), and he was replaced by Lord Caldecote a day later. Caldecote only held the office for eight months, but during this period spent a large amount of time preparing legislation for the Second World War. Putting the country on a war footing would impact on the ability of people to fulfil their civil obligations if, for example, they were conscripted, and Schuster was made chairman of a Cabinet subcommittee "to consider the problems arising from the inability of persons, owing to war conditions, to fulfil their contractual and other obligations, and in particular to consider the complaints already made to MPs and government departments". The subcommittee made six reports and their recommendations were eventually made into the Liabilities (Wartime Adjustment) Acts of 1941 and 1944. Schuster also led the committee that drafted the USA (Visiting Forces) Bill that provided that any criminal proceedings in relation to the behaviour of US soldiers stationed in Britain would be led by the US military authorities rather than the British government.

paragraph: Lord Caldecote was forced to leave his position after only 8 months due to the fall of Neville Chamberlain's government, of which he was a part. He was replaced by Lord Simon, who took up his position on 12 May 1940. Simon frequently delegated to Schuster and accepted his advice on judicial appointments, such as that of Tom Denning to the High Court in 1944. Schuster also had influence in committee appointments; when Simon was asked to select a chairman for the Committee on Reconstruction Priorities he delegated to Schuster, who chose Sir Walter Monckton.

paragraph: Section::::Retirement.

paragraph: Schuster retired in 1944, and on 22 June of that year he was raised to the peerage as Baron Schuster, of Cerne in the County of Dorset. By the time he retired Schuster had served as Permanent Secretary for 29 years under 10 Lord Chancellors, records that have not yet been broken. He also served as High Sheriff of Dorset in 1941. In retirement he undertook work for the Allied Commission for Austria and "tackled the unexpected with the zest of a young man" despite being 75. He returned to Britain in 1946. He served as Treasurer of the Inner Temple in 1947, and in 1948 and 1949 took his seat in the House of Lords to voice his opinions on legislation, something he had previously been unable to do publicly due to Civil Service neutrality. He participated in debates over the Criminal Justice Act 1948 and Criminal Justice Act 1949, and was noted for being polite to the point of obsequiousness. He gave the Romanes Lecture in 1949 on the subject of "Mountaineering" and continued to play an active part in public life, helping reconstruct the Inner Temple after it was bombed in the Second World War. On 27 June 1956 he fell ill at an old Wykehamist dinner and was taken to Charing Cross Hospital, where he died the next morning.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Schuster met William Walter Merry when he was Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford and the two became friends due to their shared love of mountaineering. Through him he met Merry's daughter, Elizabeth, whom he married in 1896. They had two children: a son, Christopher John Claud Schuster, in 1899 and a daughter, Elizabeth Alice Schuster, in 1902, before Elizabeth Merry's death in 1936. Christopher also attended Winchester College and was killed in 1918 on the Western Front, and Elizabeth later married Theodore Turner, a King's Counsel, before dying in 1983.

description: British Baron

wikidata_label: Claud Schuster, 1st Baron Schuster

wikipedia_title: Claud Schuster, 1st Baron Schuster


text: murder

text: poet

text: Francheville, Rhône

text: Lyon

text: Morea

text: poem

text: magazine

text: henchmen

text: Memoirs, Revelations and Poems

text: salon

text: Balzac

text: Dostoevsky

text: guillotine

text: Théophile Gautier

text: Dostoyevsky

text: Raskolnikov

text: Crime and Punishment

text: The Idiot

text: Children of Paradise

text: Marcel Carné

text: Jacques Prévert

text: Marcel Herrand

text: Michel Foucault

text: outlaw

text: true crime

text: Daniel Auteuil

text: French Wikipedia entry for Lacenaire

text: Poems by Lacenaire (English translation)

categories: People executed by the July Monarchy,People executed by guillotine,People from Lyon,French people convicted of murder,People convicted of murder by France,1836 deaths,19th-century French criminals,1803 births,Male serial killers,French serial killers

paragraph: Pierre François Lacenaire

paragraph: Pierre François Lacenaire (20 December 1803 – 9 January 1836) was a French murderer and would-be poet.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Lacenaire was born in Francheville, Rhône, near the city of Lyon in eastern France. His parents were Jean-Baptiste Lacenaire, a bourgeois merchant, and Marguerite Gaillard.

paragraph: Upon finishing his education with excellent results, he joined the French army, eventually deserting in 1829 at the time of the expedition to Morea. He then became a criminal and was in and out of prison, which was, as he called it, his "criminal university."

paragraph: While in prison, Lacenaire wrote a satirical poem, "Petition of a Thief to a King, his Neighbor." He also wrote an article titled "The Prisons and the Penal Regime" for a magazine.

paragraph: To aid him in committing his crimes, Lacenaire recruited two henchmen, Pierre Victor Avril (whom he had met while in prison) and Hippolyte François.

paragraph: In the months between the beginning of his trial for a double murder and his execution, he wrote "Memoirs, Revelations and Poems". During his trial, he fiercely defended his crimes as a valid protest against social injustice. He turned the judicial proceedings into a theatrical event and his prison cell into a salon. He made a lasting impression upon French society and upon several writers, such as Balzac and Dostoevsky.

paragraph: He was executed on the guillotine at the age of 32.

paragraph: Section::::In literature and film.

paragraph: BULLET::::- His hand, severed after death, was the subject of a poem by Théophile Gautier.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dostoyevsky read about Lacenaire's case and there are some similarities between his crime and Raskolnikov's crime in "Crime and Punishment". In another of his novels, "The Idiot", the character Yevgeny Pavlovitch mentions Lacenaire when discussing Hippolite's suicide attempt with the prince.

paragraph: BULLET::::- He is depicted in the French film "Children of Paradise" ("Les Enfants du Paradis", 1945), directed by Marcel Carné from a script by Jacques Prévert, where his stance as a loner and a rebel is stressed. In the film, Lacenaire (Marcel Herrand) refers to himself as a bold criminal and a social rebel, but his actual criminal activities mostly stay outside the film's narrative.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philosopher Michel Foucault believed Lacenaire's notoriety among Parisians marked the birth of a new kind of lionized outlaw (as opposed to the older folk hero), the bourgeois romantic criminal, and eventually to the detective and true crime genres of literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- There is a French film called "Lacenaire" (1990) starring Daniel Auteuil.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The work Enamels and Cameos is referenced in "The picture of Dorian Gray" by Oscar Wilde. Wilde makes mention of two poems: "Lacenaire" and "On the Laggons". Chapter 14, Barnes and Nobles edition 2003.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: For more information, see the French Wikipedia entry for Lacenaire.

paragraph: Section::::References.

description: 1800–1836 French poet and murderer

wikidata_label: Pierre François Lacenaire

wikipedia_title: Pierre François Lacenaire


text:
Amsterdam
The Hague
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Mart Stam
Gerrit Rietveld
Stedelijk Museum
Amsterdamse School
Art Nouveau
functionalism
Bauhaus
J.J.P. Oud
H. Muthesius
Deutsche Werkbund
De Stijl
Le Corbusier
Constructivism
Deutsche Werkbund
Oud
Weissenhofsiedlung
Mart Stam
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
H.H. Kamerlingh Onnes
Oud
Giso 404
Paul Schuitema
Wall Street Krach
functionalism
Thonet
Mart Stam
cantilever chair
Mies van der Rohe
Kulturkammer

categories: Dutch architects,Dutch industrial designers,1981 deaths,Dutch furniture designers,Architects from Amsterdam,Artists from Rotterdam,1890 births

paragraph: W. H. Gispen

paragraph: Willem Hendrik Gispen (7 December 1890, in Amsterdam – 10 May 1981, in The Hague) was a Dutch industrial designer, best known for his Giso lamps and serially produced functionalist steel-tube furniture.

paragraph: He studied design at the Academy for Visual Arts and Technical Science in Rotterdam (Academie van Beeldende Kunsten en Technische Wetenschappen) at the architecture department. He started in 1913, but left the Academy in 1915 partly due to the outbreak of the First World War. In April 1918 he married Anna C.J. Gisolf in Rotterdam. In 1916 he purchased a small smithy, which he would develop and extend to the well-known Gispen’s Factory for Metalwork ("Gispen’s fabriek voor metaalbewerking n.v."). The success of the company was to a great extent based upon the qualities of Willem Hendrik Gispen as an industrial designer, designing many artistically en technically qualitative lamps and furniture. Many of these serial produced designs, like armchair no. 412, still belong to the highlights of Dutch design. With his Giso lamp-designs from the 1920s and 1930s he was a part of the international avant-garde interested in light innovations. The same can be said of his steel-tube chairs and furniture, with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Mart Stam and Gerrit Rietveld among his inspirations.

paragraph: In 1949 W.H. Gispen left the firm, after which he worked for other furniture manufactories like "Kembo". In 1981 the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam organized the first exposition about W.H. Gispen, dedicated to his lamp-designs from the years 1916-1949. It was the same year W.H. Gispen died on the 10th of May.

paragraph: Section::::W.H. Gispen and the firm.

paragraph: Willem Hendrik Gispen grew up in Amsterdam and Utrecht. He was educated to be a primary school teacher and also acquired a teaching certificate in French. He decided in 1913 to study design at the Academy for Visual Arts and Technical Science in Rotterdam. At the academy he became acquainted with a number of people who would cooperate with him at a later date, like architect L.C. van der Vlugt and designer Ch. Hoffmann. After dropping the course in 1915, he worked voluntarily for one of his previous teachers. In 1916 he purchased a small smithy at the Coolschestraat in Rotterdam, where he started his own workshop in September 1916.

paragraph: In the early years, Gispen’s designs were much in line with the expressionism of the Amsterdamse School and the Art Nouveau. Besides ornamental wrought-iron work, Gispen produced things like firesides, lamps, wooden furniture and clocks. Gispen also designed his own advertisements.

paragraph: In 1919 the workshop moved to the Voorhaven in Rotterdam Delfshaven. In the same year the new company name was introduced: "Gispen’s fabriek voor metaalbewerking". In 1920 he co-founded architects’ circle "Opbouw", whose discussions founded the base of Dutch functionalism. In the following years Gispen successfully experimented with quantity production of small cast brass lamps and bronze window and door profiles.

paragraph: From 1923 onwards Gispen comes into (in)direct contact with multiple inspirational sources: the ideas of the Bauhaus through architect J.J.P. Oud, the style of H. Muthesius of the Deutsche Werkbund and the principles of the artists of De Stijl. These inspirations became reality in several large commissions. In 1925, at the international exhibition of Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris, not only did Gispen receive a medal for his ornamental iron-work, he also became acquainted with Le Corbusier, Constructivism and other French modernists.

paragraph: In 1926 Gispen put his Giso lamps on the market, which were designed on the basis of the demands of Scientific Lighting, aesthetics and economics. He placed himself in the designers’ vanguard by participating in the exhibition "die Wohnung" in Stuttgart, organized by the Deutsche Werkbund in 1927. Both in Oud’s dwelling-row in the Weissenhofsiedlung and in the exhibition-hall in Stuttgart there hung Giso lamps. Gispen became inspired by objects such as the cantilever chairs of Mart Stam and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. In November 1927, Gispen presented his first tubular steel chair at "De Rotterdamsche Kring". In 1928 the factory took the piano lamp designed for H.H. Kamerlingh Onnes by Gispen and Oud in serial production as the Giso 404, and achieved widespread recognition with it.

paragraph: Gispen opened showrooms in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Brussels and later in London, Paris and other cities abroad. Gispen’s wide reputation was also a result of active marketing. Leading representatives of the “New” Photography and Typography of the 1920s, such as Jan Kamman and Paul Schuitema, designed the product catalogs and other advertising material. Despite their success, the firm was threatened with bankruptcy as a consequence of the Wall Street Krach. The naval architect W. van Osselen was appointed as co-director during a reorganisation. Van Osselen steered the firm in producing steel office furniture (starting with the Stalachrome-series), while W.H. Gispen himself remained focused on the home, balancing between functionalism and a ‘weakened’, ‘cosy’ version of it.

paragraph: In the ‘30s, Thonet-Nederland summoned Gispen to court on account of breach of authorship of Mart Stam on the cantilever chair. According to the judge, because no patent was applied for, the ‘Stam’-chair enjoyed no legal protection. Gispen now tried to fight the patent granted to Mies van der Rohe on his well-known cantilever chair. The trial dragged itself on, which only stopped when Mies’s patent ran out.

paragraph: During the Second World War metalwork was prohibited outside the war industry, so the factory began producing parts for the aircraft-industry. Gispen himself was put in prison in Scheveningen because he had co-signed a letter of protest against the Kulturkammer. After the war, Gispen found himself on more artistic grounds with painting and tensions between him and co-director Van Osselen grew.

paragraph: In 1949 W.H. Gispen resigned. He remained active in the design related field, with several publications in the magazine "Goed Wonen", lecturing at the Royal Academy in The Hague, co-founding the "Kembo"-factory in 1953 and so on. He also became more interested in designing architecture and at the age of seventy-nine he took up etching-lessons at the Royal Academy. He died on May 10, 1981.

paragraph: "Gispen’s fabriek voor metaalbewerking" still exists as "Gispen International BV", producing mostly office furniture and high-end design furniture for the home, including some of the classics of W.H. Gispen himself. They also have a foundation, called "Stichting Gispen Collectie", which takes care of the Gispen collections, preserving it, expanding it and informing the Dutch people about this piece of Dutch history.

alias:
W. H. Gispen
W.H. Gispen
Willem Frederik Gispen

description: Dutch industrial designer

wikidata_label: Willem Hendrik Gispen

wikipedia_title: W. H. Gispen


text: Canadian

text: prelate

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Diocese of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière

text: Archdiocese of Quebec

text: Diocese of Hauterive

text: Diocese of Trois-Rivières

text: List of oldest Catholic bishops

text: Archdiocese of Quebec

text: Diocese of Trois-Rivières

text: Catholic-Hierarchy

categories: Canadian Roman Catholic bishops,1920 births,20th-century Roman Catholic bishops,Participants in the Second Vatican Council,Living people

paragraph: Laurent Noël

paragraph: Laurent Noël, (born March 19, 1920) is a Canadian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church.

paragraph: Noël was born in Saint-Just-de-Bretenières, Quebec and was ordained a priest on June 16, 1944 for the Diocese of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière. He was appointed Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Quebec on June 25, 1963 as well as titular bishop of Agathopolis, and was consecrated on August 29, 1963. He was the Apostolic Administrator Diocese of Hauterive from 1974 to 1975. Noël was appointed to the Diocese of Trois-Rivières on November 8, 1975, where he served until his retirement on November 21, 1996.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of oldest Catholic bishops

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roman Catholic Diocese of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière

paragraph: BULLET::::- Archdiocese of Quebec

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diocese of Trois-Rivières

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic-Hierarchy

description: Catholic bishop

wikidata_label: Laurent Noël

wikipedia_title: Laurent Noël


text:
Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg
Elector of Saxony
House of Ascania
Sigismund
electoral
Frederick IV of Meissen
House of Wettin
Wittenberg
Wenceslaus I, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg
Francesco I da Carrara
Padua
Rudolf III
War of the Lüneburg Succession
Archbishops of Magdeburg
Hohenzollern
Frederick of Brandenburg
market rights
Annaburg
Oels
Piast
Konrad III the Old
Liebenwerda
wittum
George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau
genealogie-mittelalter.de

categories: 14th-century births,House of Ascania,Dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg,Electors of Saxony

paragraph: Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg

paragraph: Albert III (; – before 12 November 1422) was the last Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg and Elector of Saxony from the House of Ascania. After his death, King Sigismund ceded his duchy and the Saxon electoral dignity to Margrave Frederick IV of Meissen from the House of Wettin.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Albert was probably born in the Saxon Wittenberg residence, the younger son of Duke Wenceslaus I, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg and his wife Cecilia, daughter of Francesco I da Carrara, Lord of Padua.

paragraph: He first appeared in written documents in 1407. When his elder brother, Elector Rudolf III was poisoned in 1419, Albert took over the rule of Saxe-Wittenberg. Also known as "Albert the Poor", he inherited a land exhausted by the War of the Lüneburg Succession and Rudolf's long-time feud with the Archbishops of Magdeburg. With an empty state purse, he could scarcely afford any servants and led a very lonely life.

paragraph: In order to generate some income, he controversially imposed the right to charge stall taxes on markets in the town of Wittenberg in 1421. He got into such conflict with the citizens that it almost led to an armed clash, as this right had belonged to the town for generations. Finally the Hohenzollern elector Frederick of Brandenburg was called in to referee the dispute. He decided that the behaviour of the townsfolk to their lord was inappropriate, but supported their market rights on condition that an apology was tendered to Albert.

paragraph: In the third year of his reign the prince-elector died as a result of an accidental fire in a farmhouse on the Lochau Heath near Annaburg, where he was overnighting with his wife during a hunt. The fire came so close to them that he and his wife, dressed only in nightshirts had to be rescued through a window. Several of his servants died in the flames.

paragraph: The prince-elector was so shocked by this incident that he died a few days later in Wittenberg. He was buried in the Franciscan chapel there. With his death, the Ascanian rule in Saxe-Wittenberg came to an end.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage.

paragraph: Albert married Euphemia of Oels, a daughter of the Piast duke Konrad III the Old on 14 January 1420. This marriage remained childless.

paragraph: In 1422 his widow was given Liebenwerda Castle as her wittum ("Leibgedinge"). In 1432, she secondly married Prince George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau. She died in 1444.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- genealogie-mittelalter.de

description: Elector of Saxony

wikidata_label: Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg

wikipedia_title: Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg


text: Montreal

text: Quebec

text: Canadian

text: b-boy

text: Arthrogryposis

text: Concordia University

text: Montreal

text: Official website

categories: America's Got Talent contestants,1984 births,People with arthrogryposis,Canadian breakdancers,People from Montreal,21st-century Canadian dancers,Living people

paragraph: Luca Patuelli

paragraph: Luca Patuelli (born July 28, 1984 in Montreal, Quebec), nicknamed Lazylegz, is a Canadian b-boy.

paragraph: He was born with Arthrogryposis (multiplex congenital), a muscle disorder which affects his legs.

paragraph: Patuelli performed at the 2010 Winter Paralympics opening ceremony in Vancouver.

paragraph: He graduated from Concordia University in Montreal with a BComm in 2009.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official website

description: Canadian dancer

wikidata_label: Luca Patuelli

wikipedia_title: Luca Patuelli


text:
Siege of Hamburg
72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower
Blois
École Polytechnique
Maastricht
Hamburg
under siege by the Russian Army
Marshal Davout
River Elbe
Harburg
Napoleon
Orléans
prisoner of war
Siberia
Hundred Days
Canal Latéral à la Loire
Vienne-en-Val
seventy two people
Gustav Eiffel
Eiffel tower
Grenelle
Alexandre Louis Jousselin
Seine-et-Marne
River Seine

categories: French engineers,1776 births,1858 deaths,École Polytechnique alumni,Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur

paragraph: Louis Didier Jousselin

paragraph: Louis Didier Jousselin (1 April 1776 – 3 December 1858) was a French engineer. He built a three-kilometre-long bridge in less than three months during the Siege of Hamburg in 1813. His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Louis Didier Jousselin was born at Blois on 1 April 1776. His father was a lawyer who was also interested in politics. Jousselin was successfully admitted as one of the first students at the École Polytechnique, where he graduated two years later. After becoming a qualified engineer he was sent to assist with the Northern Canal near Maastricht in May 1808.

paragraph: Section::::Siege of Hamburg.

paragraph: By 1811 the canal had been completed and Jousselin was appointed Chief Engineer for Hamburg; a city that was then under French control. He fortified the town and was recognised for the role he played in securing the city whilst it was under siege by the Russian Army and in containing a population who were not supportive of the French invaders.

paragraph: Jousselin built a bridge which was useful to those defending the siege. Marshal Davout needed to get supplies across the River Elbe. His advisors advised that boats were the only solution. Jousselin was summoned and he said he could build a bridge in three months if he was given every material he would ask for. The Marshal agreed to the commitment. The bridge was not only built, but built well within the time that Jousselin had estimated. The bridge was three kilometres long and linked Hamburg over low ground with Harburg. Marshal Devout wrote to his wife in October 1813 assuring her that Hamburg was now impregnable. The bridge was described as beautiful and prodigious. Jousselin was praised as the Marshal could not believe the amount of work that had been achieved.

paragraph: The bridge was constructed in 1813. Hamburg was particularly important as it was on the supply lines of Napoleon's army. Hamburg was only surrendered when orders came from the French King following the fall of Napoleon.

paragraph: Section::::France.

paragraph: On 24 April 1814, he was sent as Chief engineer to Orléans. He was there on 20 March 1815 when he heard of Napoleon's return from Elba. Jousselin returned to Paris and contacted Marshal Davout. Davout obviously remembered the skillful engineer from their work at Hamburg and recommended him further. Davout wrote to the Emperor, telling him of his Jousselin's exploits. He told Napoleon that he would be a prisoner of war in Siberia with his 40,000 soldiers if it had not been for this engineer.

paragraph: Jousselin's contribution was recognized and he was made Inspector General of Bridges. However at the end of Napoleon's "Hundred Days", all decrees are recanted and Jousselin returned to Orléans.

paragraph: The bridge he had built at Hamburg was decommissioned in 1817 as it was not maintained by the Germans. However, in Orléans, Chief Engineer Jousselin built quays around the mouth of the Loire. He is credited with saving the inhabitants of Orléans from the floods of 1846, 1856 and 1867; a street was named in his honour.

paragraph: He was a deputy at Blois from 1831 to 1834. He continued to work as an engineer and did early work on the Canal Latéral à la Loire. Jousselin died at Vienne-en-Val on 3 December 1858.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Jousselin was one of the seventy two people whom Gustav Eiffel chose as having made his achievement of building the Eiffel tower possible. He is number 28 in this list. His name is on the side opposite the Grenelle. A primary school in Vienne-en-Val is named in his honour.

paragraph: Jousselin's elder brother Alexandre Louis Jousselin, who was also a qualified bridge engineer, outlived him. He was the chief engineer for the Seine-et-Marne region and he built a bridge over the River Seine at Paris. Some called Alexandre "Jousselin Scared", as he was sickly and timid, to differentiate him from Louis Didier who they nicknamed, "Jousselin Scary". Effectively Jousselin was tall and had an imposing physical stature.

description: French engineer

wikidata_label: Louis Didier Jousselin

wikipedia_title: Louis Didier Jousselin


text: political philosopher

text: essay

text: pamphlet writer

text: Unitarian

text: abolitionist

text: individualist anarchist

text: legal theorist

text: socialist

text: First International

text: entrepreneur

text: labor movement

text: anti-authoritarian

text: individualist anarchist

text: The Unconstitutionality of Slavery

text: Post Office

text: American Letter Mail Company

text: Athol, Massachusetts

text: Boston

text: Plymouth

text: deist

text: Leander

text: Lysander

text: Sparta

text: John Davis

text: Governor of Massachusetts

text: Charles Allen

text: Free Soil Party

text: Worcester, Massachusetts

text: right to contract

text: natural law

text: coercion

text: tax

text: Ohio

text: self-employment

text: American Letter Mail Company

text: Post Office

text: Baltimore

text: Philadelphia

text: New York City

text: monopoly

text: Massachusetts Bar Association

text: pamphlet

text: abolitionist movement

text: The Unconstitutionality of Slavery

text: Constitution

text: slavery

text: William Lloyd Garrison

text: Wendell Phillips

text: Founding Fathers

text: Gerrit Smith

text: Liberty Party

text: Frederick Douglass

text: jury nullification

text: Albert G. Brown

text: Mississippi

text: guerrilla warfare

text: John Brown

text: Harper's Ferry

text: Virginia

text: West Virginia

text: Republicans

text: American Civil War

text: Union

text: Secretary of State

text: William H. Seward

text: Charles Sumner

text: Confederate States of America

text: Northern states

text: Southerners

text: Reconstruction

text: jury nullification

text: Benjamin Tucker

text: American individualist anarchist

text: Liberty

text: Millerites

text: vagrancy

text: Boston Athenæum

text: obituary

text: Nestor

text: Anarchist

text: George Woodcock

text: American anarchist

text: Josiah Warren

text: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon

text: American individualist anarchist

text: Stephen Pearl Andrews

text: William Batchelder Greene

text: socialist

text: First International

text: individualist anarchist

text: life, liberty, happiness and property

text: self-employed

text: interest rate

text: usury

text: capital

text: wage labor

text: wage slaves

text: libertarian socialist

text: Post Office

text: left-libertarian

text: right-libertarian

text: Austrian School

text: Murray Rothbard

text: Randy Barnett

text: An Anarchist FAQ

text: anarcho-capitalism

text: Laissez Faire Books

text: Supreme Court

text: District of Columbia v. Heller

text: handgun

text: Antonin Scalia

text: right to bear arms

text: Clarence Thomas

text: McDonald v. Chicago

text: alternate history

text: The Probability Broach

text: North American Confederacy

text: L. Neil Smith

text: United States

text: Whiskey Rebellion

text: George Washington

text: "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery

text: "Poverty: Its Illegal Causes, and Legal Cure"

text: "Illegality of the Trial of John W. Webster"

text: "An Essay on Trial by Jury"

text: "The Law of Intellectual Property"

text: "A New System of Paper Currency"

text: "A Letter to Charles Sumner"

text: No Treason No. I

text: No Treason No. II: The Constitution

text: "No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority

text: "Forced Consent"

text: "Natural Law, or the Science of Justice"

text: "A Letter to Thomas F. Bayard"

text: Boston Public Library

text: New York Historical Society

text: Abolitionism in the United States

text: American philosophy

text: Individualist anarchism

text: Free-market anarchism

text: Left-libertarianism

text: Libertarian socialism

text: List of American philosophers

text: Market socialism

text: Mutualism (economic theory)

text: Mutualism (movement)

text: Natural and legal rights

text: Natural law

text: LysanderSpooner.org

categories: Libertarian socialists,American male non-fiction writers,19th-century American non-fiction writers,19th-century American essayists,People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War,American male journalists,American gun rights advocates,Opinion journalists,19th-century American journalists,Philosophy writers,American businesspeople,American socialists,American political journalists,Burials at Forest Hills Cemetery (Boston),Anarchist theorists,American political writers,Deist philosophers,Philosophers from Massachusetts,American pamphlet writers,19th-century American businesspeople,19th-century American male writers,American political philosophers,Abolitionists from Boston,American deists,Massachusetts lawyers,Jury nullification,American libertarians,John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry,Libertarian theorists,American legal writers,American anti-war activists,American anarchists,American male essayists,American abolitionists,Left-libertarians,1808 births,American political theorists,Individualist anarchists,People from Athol, Massachusetts,Non-interventionism,1887 deaths

paragraph: Lysander Spooner

paragraph: Lysander Spooner (January 19, 1808 – May 14, 1887) was an American political philosopher, essayist, pamphlet writer, Unitarian, abolitionist, individualist anarchist, legal theorist, a member of the socialist First International and entrepreneur of the 19th century. He was a strong advocate of the labor movement and severely anti-authoritarian and individualist anarchist in his political views.

paragraph: Spooner's most famous writing includes the seminal abolitionist book "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery" and "" which opposed treason charges against secessionists. He is also known for competing with the Post Office with his American Letter Mail Company. However, it was closed after legal problems with the federal government.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Spooner was born on a farm in Athol, Massachusetts on January 19, 1808 and died on May 14, 1887 in Boston. Spooner's parents were Asa and Dolly Spooner. One of his ancestors, William Spooner, arrived in Plymouth in 1637. He was the second of nine children. His father was a deist and it has been speculated that he purposely named his two older sons Leander and Lysander after pagan and Spartan heroes, respectively.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Legal career.

paragraph: Spooner's activism began with his career as a lawyer which itself violated Massachusetts law. Spooner had studied law under the prominent lawyers, politicians and abolitionists John Davis, later Governor of Massachusetts and Senator; and Charles Allen, state senator and Representative from the Free Soil Party. However, he never attended college. According to the laws of the state, college graduates were required to study with an attorney for three years while non-graduates were required to do so for five years.

paragraph: With the encouragement of his legal mentors, Spooner set up his practice in Worcester, Massachusetts after only three years, defying the courts. He regarded the three-year privilege for college graduates as a state-sponsored discrimination against the poor and also providing a monopoly income to those who met the requirements. He argued that "no one has yet ever dared advocate, in direct terms, so monstrous a principle as that the rich ought to be protected by law from the competition of the poor". In 1836, the legislature abolished the restriction. He opposed all licensing requirements for lawyers, doctors or anyone else that was prevented from being employed by such requirements. For Spooner, to prevent a person from doing business with a person without a professional license was a violation of the natural right to contract. Spooner advocated natural law, or what he called the science of justice, wherein acts of initiatory coercion against individuals and their property, including taxation, were considered criminal because they were immoral while the so-called criminal acts that violated only man-made arbitrary legislation were not necessarily criminal. After a disappointing legal career and a failed career in real estate speculation in Ohio, Spooner returned to his father's farm in 1840.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:American Letter Mail Company.

paragraph: Being an advocate of self-employment and opponent of government regulation of business, Spooner started his own business called American Letter Mail Company which competed with the Post Office, whose rates were notoriously high in the 1840s. In 1844, Spooner founded the American Letter Mail Company which had offices in various cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York City. Stamps could be purchased and then attached to letters which could be sent to any of its offices. From here, agents were dispatched who traveled on railroads and steamboats and carried the letters in hand bags. Letters were transferred to messengers in the cities along the routes who then delivered the letters to the addressees. This was a challenge to the Post Office's monopoly.

paragraph: As he had done when challenging the rules of the Massachusetts Bar Association, Spooner published a pamphlet titled "The Unconstitutionality of the Laws of Congress Prohibiting Private Mails". Although Spooner had finally found commercial success with his mail company, legal challenges by the government eventually exhausted his financial resources. A law enacted in 1851 that strengthened the federal government's monopoly finally put him out of business. The lasting legacy of Spooner's challenge to the postal service was the three-cent stamp, adopted in response to the competition his company provided.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Abolitionism.

paragraph: Spooner attained his greatest fame as a figure in the abolitionist movement. His most famous work, a book titled "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery", was published in 1845. Spooner's book contributed to a controversy among abolitionists over whether the Constitution supported the institution of slavery. The disunionist faction led by William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips argued that the Constitution legally recognized and enforced the oppression of slaves as in the provisions for the capture of fugitive slaves in . More generally, Phillips disputed Spooner's notion that any unjust law should be held legally void by judges.

paragraph: Spooner challenged the claim that the text of the Constitution permitted slavery. Although he recognized that the Founding Fathers had probably not intended to outlaw slavery when writing the Constitution, Spooner argued that only the meaning of the text, not the private intentions of its writers, was enforceable. He used a complex system of legal and natural law arguments in order to show that the clauses usually interpreted as supporting slavery did not in fact support it and that several clauses of the Constitution prohibited the states from establishing slavery. Spooner's arguments were cited by other pro-Constitution abolitionists such as Gerrit Smith and the Liberty Party, whose twenty-second plank of the 1849 platform praised Spooner's book "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery". Frederick Douglass, originally a Garrisonian disunionist, later came to accept the pro-Constitution position and cited Spooner's arguments to explain his change of mind.

paragraph: From the publication of this book until 1861, Spooner actively campaigned against slavery. He published subsequent pamphlets on jury nullification and other legal defenses for escaped slaves and offered his legal services to fugitives, often free of charge. In the late 1850s, copies of his book were distributed to members of Congress sparking some debate over their contents. Even Senator Albert G. Brown of Mississippi, a slavery proponent, praised the argument's intellectual rigor and conceded it was the most formidable legal challenge he had seen from the abolitionists to date. In 1858, Spooner circulated a "Plan for the Abolition of Slavery", calling for the use of guerrilla warfare against slaveholders by black slaves and non-slaveholding free Southerners, with aid from Northern abolitionists. Spooner also "conspir[ed] with John Brown to promote a servile insurrection in the South" and participated in an aborted plot to free Brown after his capture following the failed raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now part of the state of West Virginia).

paragraph: Although Spooner had advocated the use of violence to abolish slavery, he denounced the Republicans' use of violence to prevent the Southern states from seceding during the American Civil War. He published several letters and pamphlets about the war, arguing that the Republican objective was not to eradicate slavery, but rather to preserve the Union by force. He blamed the bloodshed on Republican political leaders such as Secretary of State William H. Seward and Senator Charles Sumner, who often criticized slavery yet would not attack it on a constitutional basis and who pursued military policies seen as vengeful and abusive.

paragraph: Although he denounced the institution of slavery, Spooner recognized the right of the Confederate States of America to secede as the manifestation of government by consent, a constitutional and legal principle fundamental to Spooner's philosophy. In contrast, the Northern states were trying to deny the Southerners that right through military force. He vociferously opposed the Civil War, arguing that it violated the right of the Southern states to secede from a Union that no longer represented them. He believed they were attempting to restore the Southern states to the Union against the wishes of Southerners. He argued that the right of the states to secede derives from the natural right of slaves to be free. This argument was unpopular in the North and in the South after the Civil War began as it conflicted with the official position of both governments.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Later life and death.

paragraph: Spooner continued to write and publish extensively during the decades following Reconstruction, producing works such as "Natural Law or the Science of Justice" and "Trial by Jury". In "Trial by Jury", he defended the doctrine of jury nullification which holds that in a free society a trial jury not only has the authority to rule on the facts of the case, but also on the legitimacy of the law under which the case is tried. This doctrine would further allow juries to refuse to convict if they regard the law by which they are asked to convict as illegitimate. He became associated with Benjamin Tucker's American individualist anarchist journal "Liberty" which published all of his later works in serial format and for which he wrote several editorial columns on current events. He argued that "almost all fortunes are made out of the capital and labour of other men than those who realize them. Indeed, except by his sponging capital and labour from others".

paragraph: Spooner defended the Millerites, who stopped working because they believed the world would soon end and were arrested for vagrancy.

paragraph: Spooner was relatively well known and spent much time in the Boston Athenæum. He died on May 14, 1887 at the age of 79 in his nearby residence at 109 Myrtle Street, Boston. He never married and had no children. Tucker arranged his funeral service and wrote a "loving obituary" entitled "Our Nestor Taken From Us" which appeared in "Liberty" on May 28 and predicted "that the name Lysander Spooner would be 'henceforth memorable among men'".

paragraph: Section::::Political views.

paragraph: Anarchist George Woodcock describes Spooner's essays as an "eloquent elaboration" of American anarchist Josiah Warren and the early American development of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's ideas and associates his works with that of American individualist anarchist Stephen Pearl Andrews. Woodcock also reports that both Spooner and William Batchelder Greene had been members of the socialist First International.

paragraph: As an individualist anarchist, Spooner advocated for pre-industrial living in communities of small property holders, such that they could pursue life, liberty, happiness and property in mutual honesty without ceding responsibility to a central government. He felt that an expansive government created virtual slaves and its demands of obedience expropriated the role of the individual. By letting the government make and enforce laws, he contends that Americans "have surrendered their liberties unreservedly into the hands of the government". In addition to his extra-governmental post service and views on abolitionism, Spooner wrote "No Treason" in which he contends that the Constitution is neither a contract nor a text to which citizens are bound. He argued that the national Congress should dissolve and let citizens rule themselves as he held that individuals should make their own fates.

paragraph: Spooner believed that it was beneficial for people to be self-employed so that they could enjoy the full benefits of their labor rather than having to share them with an employer. He argued that various forms of government intervention in the free market made it difficult for people to start their own businesses. For one, he believed that laws against high interest rates, or usury, prevented those with capital from extending credit because they could not be compensated for high risks of not being repaid, saying the following: If a man have not capital of his own, upon which to bestow his labor, it is necessary that he be allowed to obtain it on credit. And in order that he may be able to obtain it on credit, it is necessary that he be allowed to contract for such a rate of interest as will induce a man, having surplus capital, to loan it to him; for the capitalist cannot, consistently with natural law, be compelled to loan his capital against his will. All legislative restraints upon the rate of interest, are, therefore, nothing less than arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man's natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital, upon which to bestow his labor. [...] The effect of usury laws, then, is to give a monopoly of the right of borrowing money, to those few, who can offer the most approved security.

paragraph: Spooner also believed that government restrictions on issuance of private money made it inordinately difficult for individuals to obtain the capital on credit to start their own businesses, thereby putting them in a situation where "a very large portion of them, to save themselves from starvation, have no alternative but to sell their labor to others" and those who do employ others are only able to afford to pay "far below what the laborers could produce, [than] if they themselves had the necessary capital to work with". Spooner said that there was "a prohibitory tax – a tax of ten per cent. – on all notes issued for circulation as money, other than the notes of the United States and the national banks" which he argued caused an artificial shortage of credit and that eliminating this tax would result in making plenty of money available for lending.

paragraph: Furthermore, Spooner was opposed to wage labor, wanting that social relationship destroyed by turning capital over to those who work in it as associated producers and not as wage slaves, saying: All the great establishments, of every kind, now in the hands of a few proprietors, but employing a great number of wage labourers, would be broken up; for few or no persons, who could hire capital and do business for themselves would consent to labour for wages for another.

paragraph: Spooner's opposition to wage labor is why he is considered a libertarian socialist and also why he was a member of the First International.

paragraph: Section::::Influence.

paragraph: Spooner's influence extends to the wide range of topics he addressed during his lifetime. He is remembered primarily for his abolitionist activities and for his challenge to the Post Office monopoly which had a lasting influence of significantly reducing postal rates. Spooner's writings contributed to the development of both left-libertarian and right-libertarian political theory in the United States and were often reprinted in early libertarian journals such as the "Rampart Journal" and "". His writings were also a major influence on Austrian School economist Murray Rothbard and right-libertarian law professor and legal theorist Randy Barnett. While recognizing such influences, "An Anarchist FAQ" argues against the idea of Spooner as one precursor to anarcho-capitalism, stating that he was a "left-libertarian who was firmly opposed to capitalism", whose "vision of a free society was fundamentally anti-capitalist". Iain MacSaorsa argues that Spooner was an "anti-capitalist, prefering to see a society of self-employed farmers, artisans and cooperating workers, not a society of wage slaves and capitalists" as he "was opposed to wage labour, wanting that social relationship destroyed by turning capital over to those who work in it, as associated producers and not as wage slaves".

paragraph: In January 2004, Laissez Faire Books established the Lysander Spooner Award for advancing the literature of liberty. The honor is awarded monthly to the most important contributions to right-libertarian literature, followed by an annual award to the winner. In 2010, the Libertarian, Agorist, Voluntaryist and Anarch Association of Authors and Publishers (LAVA) created the Lysander Spooner Award for Book of the Year which has been awarded annually since 2011. The LAVA Awards are held annually to honor excellence in books relating to the principles of liberty, with the Lysander Spooner Award being the grand prize award.

paragraph: Spooner's "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery" was cited in the 2008 Supreme Court case "District of Columbia v. Heller" which struck down the federal district's ban on handguns. Justice Antonin Scalia, writing for the court, quotes Spooner as saying the right to bear arms was necessary for those who wanted to take a stand against slavery. It was also cited by Justice Clarence Thomas in his concurring opinion in "McDonald v. Chicago", another firearms case, the following year.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: In the alternate history novel "The Probability Broach" (part of the "North American Confederacy" series) by L. Neil Smith in which the United States becomes a libertarian state after a successful Whiskey Rebellion and the overthrowing and execution of George Washington by firing squad for treason in 1794, Spooner served as the 14th President of the North American Confederacy from 1860 to 1880.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: Virtually everything written by Spooner is contained in the six-volume compilation "The Collected Works of Lysander Spooner" (1971). The most notable exception is "Vices Are Not Crimes", not widely known until its republication in 1977.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Deist's Immortality, and An Essay on Man's Accountability for His Belief" (1834)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Deist's Reply to the Alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity" (1836)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Constitutional Law, Relative to Credit, Currency, and Banking" (1843)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Unconstitutionality of the Laws of Congress, Prohibiting Private Mails" (1844)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Unconstitutionality of Slavery"/a (1845)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Poverty: Its Illegal Causes, and Legal Cure" (1846)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Illegality of the Trial of John W. Webster" (1850)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An Essay on Trial by Jury" (1852)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Law of Intellectual Property" (1855)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery, and To the Non-Slaveholders of the South" (1858)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Address of the Free Constitutionalists to the People of the United States" (1860)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A New System of Paper Currency" (1861)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Letter to Charles Sumner" (1864)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Considerations for Bankers, and Holders of United States Bonds" (1864)

paragraph: BULLET::::- No Treason No. I (1870)

paragraph: BULLET::::- No Treason No. II: The Constitution (1870)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority" (1870)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Forced Consent" (1873)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vices Are Not Crimes: A Vindication of Moral Liberty" (1875)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our Financiers: Their Ignorance, Usurpations and Frauds" (1877)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gold and Silver as Standards of Value: The Flagrant Cheat in Regard to Them" (1878)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Natural Law, or the Science of Justice" (1882)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Letter to Thomas F. Bayard" (1882)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Letter to Scientists and Inventors, on the Science of Justice" (1884)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Letter to Grover Cleveland, on His False Inaugural Address, the Usurpations and Crimes of Lawmakers and Judges, and the Consequent Poverty, Ignorance, and Servitude of the People" (1886)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Two Treatises on Competitive Currency and Banking" (2018)

paragraph: Section::::Archival material.

paragraph: There are collections of letters written by Spooner in the Boston Public Library and the New York Historical Society.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abolitionism in the United States

paragraph: BULLET::::- American philosophy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Individualist anarchism

paragraph: BULLET::::- Free-market anarchism

paragraph: BULLET::::- Left-libertarianism

paragraph: BULLET::::- Libertarian socialism

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of American philosophers

paragraph: BULLET::::- Market socialism

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mutualism (economic theory)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mutualism (movement)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natural and legal rights

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natural law

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- LysanderSpooner.org, dedicated website

enwikiquote_title: Lysander Spooner

wikidata_label: Lysander Spooner

wikipedia_title: Lysander Spooner


text: Chrysanthemum Throne

text: imina

text: Emperor Bidatsu

text: Empress Suiko

text: Prince Shōtoku

text: Prince Yamashiro-no-Ōe

text: Soga no Emishi

text: Soga clan

text: Emperor Bidatsu

text: Emperor Kinmei

text: Emperor Tenmu

text: Empress Jitō

text: Princess Takara

text: Emperor Kōtoku

text: Emperor Tenji

text: grave

text: memorial

text: Shinto

text: shrine

text: Imperial Household Agency

text: mausoleum

text: Man'yōshū

text: Emperor Bidatsu

text: Empress Kōgyoku

text: Emperor Bidatsu

text: Emperor Tenji

text: Emperor Tenmu

text: Emperor Kōtoku

text: Soga no Umako

text: Soga no Emishi

text: Emperor of Japan

text: List of Emperors of Japan

text: Imperial cult

text: Aston, William George.

text: OCLC 448337491

text: "Gukanshō: The Future and the Past".

text: OCLC 251325323

text: Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon

text: "The Imperial House of Japan".

text: OCLC 194887

text: Titsingh, Isaac.

text: Nihon Ōdai Ichiran

text: "Annales des empereurs du Japon".

text: OCLC 5850691

text: Varley, H. Paul.

text: OCLC 59145842

text: "Nihon Shoki".

text: OCLC 166448992

categories: 6th-century Japanese people,People of Asuka-period Japan,7th-century monarchs in Asia,7th-century Japanese monarchs,593 births,Japanese emperors,641 deaths

paragraph: Emperor Jomei

paragraph: Jomei's reign spanned the years from 629 through 641.

paragraph: Section::::Traditional narrative.

paragraph: Before Jomei's ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name ("imina") was or . As emperor, his name would have been "Okinagatarashihi Hironuka Sumeramikoto" (息長足日広額天皇).

paragraph: He was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu, both paternally and maternally. His father was Prince Oshisakanohikohito-no-Ōe, his mother was Princess Nukate-hime, who was a younger sister of his father.

paragraph: Section::::Events in Jomei's reign.

paragraph: He succeeded his great aunt, Empress Suiko. Suiko did not make it clear who was to succeed her after her death. Before her death, she called Tamura and Prince Shōtoku's son, Prince Yamashiro-no-Ōe, and gave some brief advice to each of them. After her death the court was divided into two factions, each supporting one of the princes for the throne. Soga no Emishi, the head of Soga clan, supported Tamura. He claimed that Empress Suiko's last words suggested her desire that Tamura succeed her to the throne. Prince Yamashiro-no-Ōe was later attacked by the Soga clan and committed suicide along with his entire family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 629: In the 36th year of Empress Suiko's reign (推古天皇三十六年), the empress died, and despite a dispute over who should follow her as sovereign, contemporary scholars then construed that the succession ("senso") was received by a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and a great-grandson of Emperor Kinmei. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Jomei is said to have acceded to the throne ("sokui").

paragraph: Jomei's contemporary title would not have been "tennō", as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably "Sumeramikoto" (written the same way as "tennō": 天皇) or "Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi" (治天下大王), meaning "the great king who rules all under heaven". Alternatively, Jomei might have been referred to as (ヤマト大王/大君) or the "Great King of Yamato".

paragraph: During Emperor Jomei's reign, Soga no Emishi seized several political initiatives. After Jomei's death, the throne was passed to his wife and niece, Princess Takara and then to her younger brother, Emperor Kōtoku, before eventually being inherited by two of his sons, Emperor Tenji and Emperor Tenmu.

paragraph: Emperor Jomei's reign lasted 13 years. In the 13th year of his reign (舒明天皇十三年), he died at the age of 49.

paragraph: The actual site of Jomei's grave is known. The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine ("misasagi") located in Nara Prefecture. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Jomei's mausoleum. It is formally named "Osaka no uchi no misasagi".

paragraph: Section::::Events in Jomei's reign.:Poetry.

paragraph: The "Man'yōshū" includes poems attributed to emperors and empresses, including "Climbing Kagu-yama and looking upon the land", which is said to have been composed by Emperor Jomei:

paragraph: Section::::Consorts and children.

paragraph: "Hi": Princess Tame (田眼皇女), Emperor Bidatsu’s daughter

paragraph: Empress: Princess Takara (宝皇女) later Empress Kōgyoku, Prince Chinu‘s daughter (also Prince Oshisaka-no-Hikohito-no-Ōe‘s grand daughter and Emperor Bidatsu’s great grand daughter)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second Son: Prince Kazuraki/Naka-no-Ōe (葛城/中大兄皇子) later Emperor Tenji

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prince Ōama (大海人皇子) later Emperor Tenmu

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Hashihito (間人皇女, d. 665), Empress Consort of Emperor Kōtoku

paragraph: "Bunin": Soga no Hote-no-iratsume (蘇我法提郎女), Soga no Umako‘s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Son: Prince Furuhito-no-Ōe (古人大兄皇子) (ca. 612–645)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Nunoshiki (布敷皇女)

paragraph: Court lady ("Uneme"): Kaya no Uneme (蚊屋采女), lower court lady from Kaya (蚊屋采女姉子)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prince Kaya (蚊屋皇子)

paragraph: "Bunin": Awata no Kagushi-hime (粟田香櫛媛)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Oshisaka-no-watamuki (押坂錦向皇女)

paragraph: "Bunin": Soga no Tetsuki-no-iratsume (蘇我手杯娘), Soga no Emishi‘s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Yata (箭田皇女)

paragraph: Unknown:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prince Isobe (磯部皇子), founder of Kuge clan

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emperor of Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Emperors of Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Imperial cult

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aston, William George. (1896). "Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697". London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. OCLC 448337491

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). "Gukanshō: The Future and the Past". Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). "The Imperial House of Japan". Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887

paragraph: BULLET::::- Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). "Nihon Ōdai Ichiran"; ou, "Annales des empereurs du Japon". Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691

paragraph: BULLET::::- Varley, H. Paul. (1980). "Jinnō Shōtōki: A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns". New York: Columbia University Press. ; OCLC 59145842

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yamada, Munemutsu. (1992). "Nihon Shoki". Tokyo: Newton Press ("Nyūton-puresu"). ; OCLC 166448992

description: Japanese emperor

wikidata_label: Jomei

wikipedia_title: Emperor Jomei


text:
anomoean
Arians
Dacora
Cappadocia
theology
Alexandria
Aetius
Eudoxius of Antioch
Cyzicus
Andronicianus
Constantius II
Julian
Jovian
Chalcedon
Mauretania
Procopius
Halmyris
Caesarea
Basil
Epistle to the Romans
Socrates Scholasticus
Philostorgius
Basil of Caesarea
Gregory of Nyssa
Valesius
Socrates of Constantinople
PG
Trinity
Council of Constantinople
sect
Eutropius
Tyana

categories: 4th-century Christian theologians,People declared heretics by the first seven ecumenical councils,393 deaths,Arian bishops,Year of birth unknown,4th-century bishops,Bishops of Cyzicus

paragraph: Eunomius of Cyzicus

paragraph: Eunomius () (died c.393), one of the leaders of the extreme or "anomoean" Arians, who are sometimes accordingly called Eunomians, was born at Dacora in Cappadocia early in the 4th century.

paragraph: He studied theology at Alexandria under Aetius, and afterwards came under the influence of Eudoxius of Antioch, who ordained him deacon. On the recommendation of Eudoxius, Eunomius was appointed bishop of Cyzicus in 360. Here his free utterance of extreme Arian views led to popular complaints, including those from a number of contemporary writers such as Andronicianus. Eudoxius was compelled, by command of the emperor, Constantius II, to depose Eunomius from the bishopric within a year of his elevation to it.

paragraph: During the reigns of Julian and Jovian, Eunomius resided in Constantinople in close intercourse with Aetius, consolidating a dissenting party and consecrating bishops. He then went to live at Chalcedon, whence in 367 he was banished to Mauretania for harbouring the rebel Procopius. He was recalled, however, before he reached his destination.

paragraph: In 383, the emperor Theodosius, who had demanded a declaration of faith from all party leaders, punished Eunomius for continuing to teach his distinctive doctrines, by banishing him to Halmyris in Scythia Minor. He afterwards resided at Chalcedon and at Caesarea in Cappadocia, from which he was expelled by the inhabitants for writing against their bishop Basil. His last days were spent at his birthplace Dacora, where he died about 393.

paragraph: His writings were held in high reputation by his party and their influence was so much dreaded by the orthodox, that several imperial edicts were issued for their destruction. Consequently, his commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, mentioned by the historian, Socrates Scholasticus and his epistles, mentioned by Philostorgius and Photius, are no longer extant.

paragraph: His first apologetical work, written probably about 360 or 365, has been entirely recovered from the famous refutation of it by Basil of Caesarea. A second apology, written before 379 exists only in the quotations given from it in a refutation by Gregory of Nyssa. The exposition of faith, called forth by the demand of Theodosius for the "council of heresies" in 383, is still extant, and has been edited by Valesius in his notes to Socrates of Constantinople, and by Ch. H. G. Rettberg in his "Marcelliana".

paragraph: The teaching of the Anomoean school, led by Aetius and Eunomius, starting from the conception of God as Creator, argued that between the Creator and created there could be no essential, but at best only a moral, resemblance. "As the Unbegotten, God is an absolutely simple being; an act of generation would involve a contradiction of His essence by introducing duality into the Godhead." According to Socrates of Constantinople (24) and Theodoretos Kyrou (PG 83 420), Eunomius carried his views to a practical issue by altering the baptismal formula. Instead of baptizing in the name of the Trinity by immersing the person in water thrice, he baptized in the death of Christ with only one immersion. This alteration was regarded by the orthodox as so serious that Eunomians on returning to the church were rebaptized, though the Arians were not. The Eunomian heresy was formally condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 381. The sect maintained a separate existence for some time, but gradually fell away owing to internal divisions.

paragraph: After Eunomius died, Eutropius ordered that Eunomius' body be moved to Tyana and his books be burned.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard Paul Vaggione (ed.), "Eunomius, The Extant Works", New York, Oxford University Press 1987.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard Paul Vaggione, "Eunomius of Cyzicus and the Nicene Revolution", New York, Oxford University Press 2000.

description: Arian bishop

wikidata_label: Eunomius of Cyzicus

wikipedia_title: Eunomius of Cyzicus


text:
Ostrogoth
Italy
Eutharic
Amalasuntha
Theoderic the Great
Amalasuntha
Letters of Cassiodorus, Book VIII
Project Gutenberg
Procopius 'Wars' Book V

categories: 6th-century monarchs in Europe,6th-century Ostrogothic people,516 births,6th-century kings of Italy,Ancient child rulers,Ostrogothic kings,Amali dynasty,534 deaths

paragraph: Athalaric

paragraph: Athalaric (; 5162 October 534) was the King of the Ostrogoths in Italy between 526 and 534. He was a son of Eutharic and Amalasuntha, the youngest daughter of Theoderic the Great, whom Athalaric succeeded as king in 526.

paragraph: As Athalaric was only ten years old, the regency was assumed by his mother, Amalasuntha. His mother attempted to provide for him an education in the Roman tradition, but the Gothic nobles pressured her to allow them to raise him as they saw fit. As a result, Athalaric drank heavily and indulged in vicious excesses, which ruined his constitution.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Attribution:

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Letters of Cassiodorus, Book VIII from Project Gutenberg

paragraph: BULLET::::- Procopius 'Wars' Book V, trans. H. P. Dewing

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter Heather, "The Goths" (Oxford, Blackwell, 1996).

description: Ostrogothic king

wikidata_label: Athalaric

wikipedia_title: Athalaric


text: French

text: road bicycle racer

text: 1939 Tour de France

text: Paris

categories: French Tour de France stage winners,French male cyclists,1911 births,Tour de France cyclists,Sportspeople from Paris,Year of death missing

paragraph: Pierre Gallien

paragraph: Pierre Gallien (19 November 1911 – 28 May 2009) was a French professional road bicycle racer, who won one stage in the 1939 Tour de France. He was born in Paris.

paragraph: Section::::Major results.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1936

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1937

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1939

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official Tour de France results for Pierre Gallien

description: Road bicycle racer

wikidata_label: Pierre Gallien

wikipedia_title: Pierre Gallien