text: Norwegian

text: historian

text: Labour Party

text: Liberal Party

text: switched

text: Bærum

text: Parliament

text: Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs

text: government-in-exile

text: Germany's invasion of Norway

text: Royal Frederick University

text: research fellow

text: docent

text: honorary degree

text: University of Oxford

text: Johan Sverdrup

text: Henrik Ibsen

text: nation

text: United States

text: Norwegian language

text: Samnorsk

text: Norwegian Peace Association

text: Norwegian Nobel Committee

text: Tromsø

text: Paul Steenstrup Koht

text: Jens Holmboe

text: Ola Krogseng Giæver

text: Kjeld Stub

text: Liberal Party

text: examen artium

text: Norwegian

text: Greek

text: Bekkelaget

text: Aker

text: Royal Frederick University

text: Kristiania

text: Karen Elisabeth Grude

text: Åse Gruda Skard

text: Paul Koht

text: Sigmund Skard

text: Torild Skard

text: Målfrid Grude Flekkøy

text: Halvdan Skard

text: pen friend

text: cand.philol.

text: Royal Frederick University

text: Gustav Storm

text: Ancient Greek

text: Classical Latin

text: Venice

text: Constantinople

text: Sophus Bugge

text: Varden

text: Päivälehti

text: Erik Vullum

text: Verdens Gang

text: Den 17de Mai

text: Nationalbladet

text: Syn og Segn

text: Samtiden

text: Unglyden

text: Dagbladet

text: Tidens Tegn

text: University Library of Oslo

text: University of Copenhagen

text: University of Leipzig

text: École des hautes études

text: École des Chartes

text: Karl Lamprecht

text: source text

text: Regesta Norvegica

text: biographical dictionary

text: Jens Braage Halvorsen

text: research fellow

text: dr.philos.

text: Ebbe Hertzberg

text: Yngvar Nielsen

text: docent

text: cabinet

text: Waldemar Christofer Brøgger

text: Chicago

text: dean

text: social history

text: Ludvig Ludvigsen Daae

text: John G. Neergaard

text: Nordmøre

text: Cathrinus Bang

text: Historisk Tidsskrift

text: class conflict

text: class interest

text: historical materialism

text: American history

text: Harvard University

text: Åsmund Svendsen

text: Henrik Wergeland

text: Otto von Bismarck

text: Ivar Aasen

text: Johan Sverdrup

text: Marcus Thrane

text: Henrik Ibsen

text: Haakon VII of Norway

text: Norsk biografisk leksikon

text: biographical dictionary

text: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson

text: Aasmund Olavsson Vinje

text: Norwegian Historical Association

text: Norwegian Genealogical Society

text: honorary degree

text: University of Oxford

text: University of Chicago

text: University of Warsaw

text: Legion of Honour

text: Gunnerus Medal

text: Norwegian Students' Society

text: flag of Norway

text: union badge

text: union

text: union was dissolved altogether

text: a plebiscite

text: radicalisation

text: Norwegian Labour Party

text: socialist

text: working class

text: Carl Jeppesen

text: Bærum

text: Stabekk

text: Lysaker

text: Arnstein Arneberg

text: municipal council

text: public international law

text: Denmark

text: Greenland

text: C. J. Hambro

text: Agrarian

text: government

text: Erik the Red's Land

text: Minister of Foreign Affairs

text: Edvard Bull, Sr.

text: 1933 Norwegian parliamentary election

text: Johan Nygaardsvold

text: Cabinet

text: League of Nations

text: neutrality

text: had been

text: Trygve Bratteli

text: Haakon Lie

text: Finn Moe

text: Trygve Lie

text: Oscar Torp

text: Martin Tranmæl

text: Fredrik Monsen

text: Spanish Civil War

text: non-intervention

text: the Spanish government

text: General Franco

text: Martin Tranmæl

text: Arbeiderbladet

text: International Brigades

text: "Olav Tryggvason"

text: Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions

text: fall of Madrid

text: Altmark Incident

text: Jøssingfjorden

text: a mining operation

text: Vidkun Quisling

text: Operation Weserübung

text: Curt Bräuer

text: in Midtskogen

text: King Haakon VII

text: Molde

text: Tromsø

text: Ljungberg

text: HMS "Glasgow"

text: Lord Halifax

text: Chamberlain

text: Admiral Philips

text: Reynaud

text: Gamelin

text: Daladier

text: Sir Cecil Dormer

text: Luleå

text: Johan Ludwig Mowinckel

text: Christian Günther

text: Bracknell

text: Washington, DC

text: first Secretary-General

text: United Nations

text: occupation

text: Undersøkelseskommisjonen av 1945

text: Impeachment

text: Northern Norwegian

text: Telemark

text: language form

text: Landsmål

text: Bø

text: Knudsen

text: Riksmål

text: Aasen

text: Norwegian language controversy

text: Det Norske Samlaget

text: Rasmus Flo

text: Noregs Mållag

text: Nynorsk

text: class struggle

text: Bokmål

text: Samnorsk

text: Kåre Lunden

text: definite article

text: Hans Jacob Horst

text: John Theodor Lund

text: Norwegian Peace Association

text: bourgeois

text: Nils Ivar Agøy

text: Adam Egede-Nissen

text: Carl Bonnevie

text: arbitration

text: compulsory military service

text: peacefully dissolved in 1905

text: Institut International de la Paix

text: Norwegian Nobel Institute

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: Norwegian Nobel Committee

text: Jane Addams

text: Nicholas Murray Butler

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: Carl von Ossietzky

text: Swedish

text: Vincens Lunge

text: Henrik Krummedige

text: Olav Engelbriktsson

text: Sverre I

text: Harald I

text: Queen Margaret

text: Kalmar Union

text: absolute monarchy

text: Nordre gravlund

categories: Norwegian expatriates in France,Norwegian expatriates in Denmark,Norwegian biographers,People from Skien,Norwegian expatriates in the United Kingdom,University of Oslo faculty,Norwegian male writers,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,Norwegian people of World War II,1873 births,Noregs Mållag,University of Oslo alumni,Norwegian expatriates in Germany,Labour Party (Norway) politicians,Bærum politicians,1965 deaths,Henrik Ibsen researchers,Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur,Male biographers,People from Tromsø,Norwegian people of German descent,Government ministers of Norway,Norwegian historians,Norwegian expatriates in the United States

paragraph: Halvdan Koht

paragraph: Halvdan Koht (7 July 1873 – 12 December 1965) was a Norwegian historian and politician representing the Labour Party.

paragraph: Born in the north of Norway to a fairly distinguished family, he soon became interested in politics and history. Starting his political career in the Liberal Party, he switched to the Labour Party around the turn of the 20th century. He represented that party in the Bærum municipal council for parts of the interwar period. He was never elected a member of Parliament, but served nonetheless as Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1935 to 1941, as part of the government-in-exile following Germany's invasion of Norway. In the latter capacity he sought to preserve Norway's neutrality in the Second World War, an action that garnered him political infamy. Growing discontentment with Koht's political decisions ultimately led to his exit from the cabinet. After the war, however, he returned to an academic career track and wrote major works in the 1950s and 1960s.

paragraph: As an academic he was a professor of history at the Royal Frederick University (now the University of Oslo) from 1910 to 1935, having become a research fellow in 1900 and docent in 1908. Among many honors, he held an honorary degree at the University of Oxford. He was a prolific writer, and touched on numerous subjects during his long academic career. He wrote several biographies; his works on Johan Sverdrup and Henrik Ibsen spanned several volumes each. He became known for syntheses on Norwegian history, and emphasised the roles of peasants and wage labourers as historical agents who found their place in an expanding notion of the Norwegian nation. He was also interested in the United States and its history, and was a pioneer in Norway in this respect.

paragraph: Koht's views on the Norwegian language also garnered him nationwide academic recognition. He championed the Samnorsk language reform, the declared aim of which was to consolidate the two standards of written Norwegian. A reform pushing the formal written language in this direction was indeed implemented in 1938, but historical events led to the failure of this policy. A pertinacious and unyielding advocate of international peace, Koht was a founding member of the Norwegian Peace Association and an ordinary member of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. As an activist and politician he was described as a strong-willed and individualistic, and nurturing a strong belief in taking an academic and legal perspective on political problems.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Halvdan Koht was born on 7 August 1873 in Tromsø, one of the larger cities in Northern Norway. He was the second of four children born to Paul Steenstrup Koht (1844–1892), an educator and politician, and Betty Giæver (1845–1936), a part-time teacher with a penchant for singing, languages and drawing. Betty's antecedents were mixed: she was maternally descended from Northern Germany, yet on her father's side she was of Norwegian origin—a distinguished forebear on that side was her great-grandfather, the civil servant Jens Holmboe from Tromsø. Through the offspring of his maternal grand-uncle, Halvdan Koht was a third cousin of the parliamentarian Ola Krogseng Giæver. In Paul Koht's lineage, Kjeld Stub was a distant ancestor. The name Koht stems from German immigrants to Norway in the 17th century.

paragraph: He was intended to have the name Joachim, but this was stopped on request from Joachim G. Giæver who voiced his dislike for the name. He was then christened Halfdan, changed to Halvdan some years later. The family lived in Tromsø, where Paul Steenstrup Koht was a headmaster and mayor. The family moved to Skien when Halvdan was twelve years old, where his father again immersed himself in politics: he served as mayor as well as parliamentarian for the Liberal Party. Koht finished school here, taking his examen artium in 1890. His father was among his teachers for a while in Norwegian and Greek. In 1893, one year after the death of Koht's father, the family moved to Bekkelaget, a borough in Aker. Koht studied at the Royal Frederick University (now the University of Oslo).

paragraph: In September 1898 in Kristiania, Koht married Karen Elisabeth Grude (1871–1960), an essay writer and women's rights activist one and a half years his senior; she bore him three children. One child died in infancy, but the remaining two had distinguished careers: Åse Gruda Skard (née Koht) became a child psychologist and Paul Koht an ambassador. Through Åsa, Halvdan Koht was a father-in-law of literary scholar Sigmund Skard and a grandfather of politician and academic Torild Skard, psychologist and ombud Målfrid Grude Flekkøy and politician and organisational leader Halvdan Skard. In the late 1920s, Karen's declining health and Halvdan's preoccupation with his work placed a strain on their relationship. Disenchanted with the loveless union, Koht entered several extramarital friendships in the following decade, often pen friends. During the Second World War, there were rumors about a romantic relationship with his secretary Unni Diesen. After 1945 the relationship to Karen regrew in strength.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: Koht graduated with a cand.philol. degree from the Royal Frederick University in 1896. He studied history with geography as a minor subject until 1895; his main history teacher was Gustav Storm. The next examination was in different languages, both classical and modern. Koht had the choice between Ancient Greek and Classical Latin or Norwegian and German (including Norse); he chose the Norwegian and German. In 1895, after finishing his history studies, he spent three months in the Mediterranean, travelling with three ships, the first from Norway to Venice, the second from Venice to Constantinople, the third back to Norway. He studied German literature during this travels. In December 1896 Koht was finally examined by Sophus Bugge and earned his degree. He was one of just three students to be examined in Norwegian and German in late 1896, and had been the only candidate in history the previous year.

paragraph: A break from the studies came in the second half of 1892. After his father's death, he could not afford to attend university that semester. He worked briefly as a private tutor in the Skien district, and was paid to write in the newspaper "Varden". On returning to his studies he worked as a Kristiania correspondent for the newspaper; eventually he also worked for "Päivälehti". In 1901 he took over from Erik Vullum as obituarist and anniversary writer in "Verdens Gang". In the next years he would contribute extensively to publications such as "Den 17de Mai", "Nationalbladet", "Nordmanns-Forbundets tidsskrift", "Syn og Segn", "Samtiden", "Unglyden", "Dagbladet", "Verdens Gang" and "Tidens Tegn"; these were mostly Liberal or Norwegian nationalist publications.

paragraph: For some months after graduating Koht worked as an unpaid volunteer at the University Library of Oslo, while also continuing to attend university lectures. He was then given a scholarship, the "Gustav Bruun Endowment" of . The University doublled Koht's award to NOK 3600. From 1897 to 1899 he studied abroad with this fellowship. He studied at the University of Copenhagen, the University of Leipzig and in Paris (École des hautes études, École des Chartes). He was especially influenced by Karl Lamprecht in Leipzig.

paragraph: From 1899 to 1901 Koht worked as a substitute at the University Library of Oslo, and part-time as a school teacher. He was also engaged by Gustav Storm to help him with publishing the source text "Regesta Norvegica". In 1908, after eight years of work, Koht completed the two last volumes of "Norsk Forfatter-lexikon", a biographical dictionary of Norwegian writers. However, it was a posthumous work, the principal author—Jens Braage Halvorsen—having died in 1900.

paragraph: Section::::Academic career.

paragraph: Section::::Academic career.:Appointments and doctorate.

paragraph: In 1901 he was appointed as a research fellow at the Royal Frederick University. He rarely had responsibility for any teaching of the students, and since he was often busy with "Norsk Forfatter-lexikon" he remained a research fellow until 1907. In 1908 he took his dr.philos. degree on the thesis "Die Stellung Norwegens und Schwedens im Deutsch-Dänischen Konflikt 1863–1864". Opponents at the dissertation were Ebbe Hertzberg and Yngvar Nielsen.

paragraph: Koht was then hired as a docent at the University in 1908. Because Koht had internal opponents at the university, the docenture was designated to cover "cultural history" instead of "history". A while later the university changed it to "history". The cabinet changed it back to "cultural history", before the Parliament finally decided on "history". Koht was going to start his tenure as a docent, but argued with Waldemar Christofer Brøgger that he deserved to travel abroad first. From 1908 to 1909 Koht travelled around in the United States, England and Sweden, visiting the peace conferences in London (1908), Chicago (1909) and Stockholm (1910). During these years, his wife, daughter and her nanny lived in Eidsvoll. Koht then returned to Norway and the university, and remained docent until being promoted to professor in 1910. He remained professor until 1935, and also served as the dean of his Faculty from 1912 to 1917.

paragraph: Section::::Academic career.:Fields of research.

paragraph: Koht faced considerable skepticism among academics when announcing his intentions to study social history from the farmers' perspective. Gustav Storm claimed that farmers in Norway had "done no effort of their own". Ludvig Ludvigsen Daae exclaimed that a person whom Koht wanted to study, the farmer-politician John G. Neergaard, was a "crook ... oh well, trahit sua quemque voluptas". Koht was given to do research in Nordmøre on Neergaard. In 1896 professor Cathrinus Bang replied to Koht's wish to study social history: "Yes, do not go out and become a socialist!"

paragraph: In 1910, Koht completed the dissertation "Bonde mot borgar i nynorsk historie", in which he further developed his theories on the role of the farmers in history. Published in the journal "Historisk Tidsskrift" in 1912, it featured an elaboration on Koht's theory about class and the nation. According to Koht, the community of the nation was expanded in a democratic way when the agrarian movement, then the labour movement, both rose from political passivity to demand a place in the political and national sphere. He wrote about this in the 1910 article "Norsk folkesamling" as well. The book "Norsk bondereisning", published in 1926 as a compilation of Koht's presented material in his university lectures, represented the culmination of Koht's work on the topic of class conflict between the agrarian and the urban population. Koht argued that the peasant movement had abandoned the cause of class interest in favour of universal rights and social reforms. The same perspective had to be applied to the struggle of the labour movement, Koht maintained. An economic background for the farmers' rising was presented in 1912, in "Priser og politikk i norsk historie", originally a lecture for the second Norwegian conference of historians. This lecture was also where his historical materialism came to fruition. In 1951 he stated that he "has never thought that the theories could be foundational for a political or social uprising".

paragraph: Koht's stay in the United States affected his historical views and adaptation of historical materialism, and he also tried to encourage the study of American history in Norway. American culture did not have a particularly high standing in Norway at the time. In school, Koht did not learn proper English. Before he embarked to the US, some historian colleagues insinuated that the country "barely had any history" and was not worth visiting. Koht's first writing on the subject came in 1910 with the lecture "Genesis of American Independence". He followed with "Pengemakt og arbeid i Amerika" ("Monetary Power and Labor in America", 1910), which was based on "People's Academy" lectures, then "Amerikansk kultur" ("American Culture", 1912) and "Den amerikanske nasjonen" ("The American Nation", 1920). He would return briefly to American academia during his career, for instance in the autumn of 1930 to hold a course at Harvard University.

paragraph: Wishing to unite materialism and idealism, Koht became interested in psychology and the role of individuals in history. The latter focus led to his becoming, in the words of his biographer Åsmund Svendsen, "one of the greatest biographers of the 20th century". Inspired by the work with "Norsk Forfatter-lexikon", he wrote a life of the author Henrik Wergeland in 1908. Later he published biographies both of Norwegians and foreigners: Otto von Bismarck (1911), Ivar Aasen (1913), Johan Sverdrup in three volumes between 1916 and 1925, Marcus Thrane in 1917, Henrik Ibsen in two volumes in 1928 and 1929, and Haakon VII of Norway in 1943. He also wrote about 400 pieces in the first edition of "Norsk biografisk leksikon", a biographical dictionary which would become a preeminent source on important figures in Norwegian history. Between 1909 and 1932 he published letters and original writings of Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Aasmund Olavsson Vinje and Henrik Wergeland. He chaired "Kjeldeskriftfondet" from 1918 to 1927 and "Norsk historisk kjeldeskriftråd" from 1923 to 1928, two institutions that dealt with publishing of source texts. He also chaired the Norwegian Historical Association from 1912 to 1927 and 1932 to 1936, the Norwegian Genealogical Society from 1928 to 1940 and the Comité International des Sciences Historiques from 1926 to 1933.

paragraph: Section::::Academic career.:Honorary positions.

paragraph: Koht became a fellow of the learned society Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in 1908. Between 1923 and 1939 he was both praeses and vice praeses. He held honorary degrees from the University of Oxford, the University of Chicago and the University of Warsaw. He was decorated by France as a Knight of the Legion of Honour, and in 1952 he received the Gunnerus Medal from the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters. He was also a member of the International Society for the History of Medicine.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Early involvement and local politics.

paragraph: Koht's father introduced his son to politics, taking him to the Liberal Party national convention in 1891, where he was allowed to enter since he studied at the university. Koht's first political arena was the Norwegian Students' Society, where he vehemently argued that the flag of Norway should not contain the union badge (the "flag case"). In 1893 he left this forum, co-founded a new students' association called "Den Frisinnede Studenterforening", and, as the students' association collectively entered the Liberal Party, became a board member of the local party branch in Kristiania. He continued his fight against the union badge, and the union as a whole. In 1905, when the union was dissolved altogether, he agitated for the establishment of a republic, but a plebiscite decided to keep the monarchy.

paragraph: Though he never adhered to Christianity in his adolescent or adult life, Koht valued the faith in the perfectability of human beings, as prompted "the greatest religions", and he started to feel solidarity with the labour movement and the working classes, leading to the radicalisation of his views: from 1900 he voted for the Norwegian Labour Party, and had four years prior to that began to consider himself a socialist. While living in the United States, he developed a form of historical materialism, which led to a fusion of history scholarship and political views. He viewed the Liberal Party as an important agent in Norwegian history, since it pronounced the rights of the farmers, but he now viewed the working class as the next class to be included in the political life, and specifically through the Labor Party. In Koht's Liberal Party period, he cooperated with some of their more radical members, among them Carl Jeppesen, who later would join the Labour Party. He joined the Labour Party when he returned from the United States and moved to Bærum in 1909. He lived with his family in Stabekk, but commissioned a house in Lysaker in 1910. The house, designed by architect Arnstein Arneberg, was dubbed "Karistua". The university offered him no office, so he had to conduct his research at home.

paragraph: Koht served as a member of Bærum municipal council in the terms 1916–1919, 1928–1931 and 1931–1934. In 1952 he wrote the 50-year history of Bærum Labour Party.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Foreign affairs politician.

paragraph: Internationally, Koht tried to prop up the institutions that maintained public international law. In 1923 he participated in the arbitrations between Denmark and Norway about the disposition of Eastern Greenland. Sovereignty was claimed by Denmark. Koht teamed up with the conservative politician C. J. Hambro, who had edited "Nordmanns-Forbundets tidsskrift" to which Koht had contributed. The negotiations led to an agreement on Norwegian trade rights in the area, but a question of sovereignty over Eastern Greenland remained unsolved. In 1931, forces in and outside of the then-Agrarian government annexed "Erik the Red's Land".

paragraph: In the 1930s Koht became the foremost international politician of the Labour Party. He positioned himself in the Labour Party as the prospective Minister of Foreign Affairs should the party form a government. He did so because fellow historian and Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1928, Edvard Bull, Sr., had died, making Koht the "Foreign Minister-designate". The Labour Party also polled well in the 1933 Norwegian parliamentary election, leading them to prepare for office. The Labour government was formed on 20 March 1935. Koht became Minister of Foreign Affairs in Johan Nygaardsvold's Cabinet. Among Koht's first actions as minister was to persuade the Labour Party not to pull Norway out of the League of Nations, something the party had declared that it would do as recently as 1934. In foreign policy matters Koht and Nygaardsvold usually made decisions without consulting the other ministers, merely informing the rest of the cabinet of the decisions that had been made.

paragraph: After the League of Nations failed as an effective international body, Koht again favoured the strict neutrality policy to which Norway had adhered before the League of Nations membership. For many years, he was reluctant to an expansion of a Norwegian military defense capacity. He did not vehemently and principally oppose such an expansion, and had been quite friendly to the principle of a national defense in the past. His neutrality policy nonetheless put him on the "defense-skeptical" side together with Johan Nygaardsvold and most of his cabinet. Among the more "defense-friendly" in and around the cabinet, not the least from 1936, were Trygve Bratteli, Haakon Lie, Finn Moe, Trygve Lie, Oscar Torp, Martin Tranmæl and Minister of Defense Fredrik Monsen. In 1936 Koht expressed great concern for the consequences of the arms race taking place in Europe, which he felt could easily lead to war.

paragraph: Following the 1936 outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Nygaardsvold Cabinet followed a policy of non-intervention in the conflict between the Spanish government and rebels led by General Franco. Koht's view of the matter was that Norway should not be involved in the conflict in any way; this became the policy of the government for the duration of the civil war. The government soon banned the sale or transfer of Norwegian arms, aircraft and ships to Spain. Koht himself promoted a ban on the use of Norwegian ships to transport arms, ammunition and aircraft to foreign countries in general, to ensure that there could be no Norwegian connection to any such items that were delivered to Spain. The strict non-intervention policy promoted by Koht and Prime Minister Nygaardsvold was heavily criticised by forces within the Labour Party. Martin Tranmæl, a central figure in the apparatus of the Labour Party and the editor of the party newspaper "Arbeiderbladet", led the critics of the policy towards the conflict in Spain. Tranmæl and other critics saw the non-intervention policy of the government as giving equal standing to both the elected government of Spain and the rebels. Koht went to great lengths to avoid any direct Norwegian involvement in the conflict, especially trying to block Norwegians from travelling to Spain to join the International Brigades. On 19 September 1936, Koht attempted to have the League of Nations impose a ceasefire in Spain, to be followed by a popular referendum on the country's constitution. Koht's proposal received little support and failed.

paragraph: For Koht personally the civil war in Spain came close to ending his cabinet career on several occasions. On 9 April 1937, following a series of incidents where Francoist warships intercepted Norwegian vessels sailing on Spanish ports and confiscated both cargoes and ships, and Norwegian protests failing to gain results, Koht made a formal proposal to dispatch the Norwegian minelayer "Olav Tryggvason" to Spain to protect Norwegian shipping. After the proposal met opposition in parliament and was set to fail, Koht offered to resign. Prime Minister Nygaardsvold refused to accept Koht's resignation, stating that he "would rather be shot than lose Koht". The case came close to causing the whole cabinet's fall in parliament, before it was agreed that it would be dropped. When Koht in 1938 attempted to establish a trade agreement with Franco, he was blocked by his own party and the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions. Again requesting to be allowed to resign, Koht stayed after months of debating ended with the party giving the cabinet free rein to do what it saw as best with regards to trade with Franco. By October 1938 Koht had negotiated a trade agreement with Franco. The formal Norwegian recognition of the Franco government as the representative of Spain followed on 31 March 1939, three days after the fall of Madrid to the nationalist forces.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Second World War.:Pre-war phase.

paragraph: With the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the Norwegian government declared the country neutral in the conflict. Both warring sides subsequently stated that they would respect Norway's neutrality, provided that she protect her neutrality against trespasses by the other side. Koht was clear from early on that Norway should remain neutral, but also that in the event of her being forced to enter the war it was critical that it was on the side of the British.

paragraph: Over the first months of the Second World War Norwegian neutrality was violated repeatedly in the air and at sea by both warring parties, most dramatically with the 16 February Altmark Incident in Jøssingfjorden. This, along with other incidents, and the lack of a firm Norwegian response, led the warring parties to the impression that Norway could or would not effectively protect her neutrality. Initially the German view of Norwegian neutrality had been one of it being positive for the German war effort, allowing German merchant ships to transport cargo via Norwegian territorial waters without interference from the British.

paragraph: On 5 April the Allies sent notes to both Norway and Sweden warning that they would take any action necessary if the Germans were allowed to use the neutral countries' territory to their advantage. Koht responded with a speech in which he said that the Allies had nothing to gain by interfering with Norwegian shipping lanes—the British had a more significant trade with Norway than the Germans. The next day the Allies decided to launch a mining operation on the Norwegian coast, and to land troops at Narvik in case the Germans responded to the mining by landing in Norway. Shortly before the mining was carried out, Koht warned the British that no further neutrality violations would be tolerated, and that in the future the Norwegians would respond with force. The Germans too repeatedly violated Norwegian neutrality, and, following a visit from the Norwegian fascist leader Vidkun Quisling to Hitler in December 1939, began serious planning for a possible occupation of Norway. Following the Altmark Incident, Hitler ordered the invasion of Norway. In response to the British mining operation on 8 April 1940, the Norwegian government lodged formal protests with the British and French governments, while secretly remaining set on avoiding war with the Allies at all cost. Koht told the Norwegian parliament that he believed that the Allies were trying to bring Norway into the war. The Allied mining of the Norwegian coast coincidentally distracted the Norwegian government from realising that large German forces had been on their way to invade Norway for several days prior.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Second World War.:German invasion and war.

paragraph: At the advent of the Nazi German Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway of 9 April 1940, Germany sent the envoy Curt Bräuer to present demands of capitulation. Koht personally met with Bräuer, and rejected his demands and threats of war, stating that "war had already started". Koht and the cabinet fled Norway's capital in the morning of 9 April. Even though Koht rejected Bräuer's initial contact, he did convince the cabinet to listen to further German proposals for negotiations later the same day. All Norwegian negotiations with the Germans ended after a failed attempt to capture the Norwegian king and government in Midtskogen early on 10 April. Koht was willing to take up the fight against the invaders. He wrote several key speeches, some of which were delivered by King Haakon VII, to convey staunch resistance to the German demands.

paragraph: Vital to the Norwegian effort to try to halt the German advance was assistance from the Allies, which Koht requested in the early hours of 9 April, although skeptical of the potential of Allied aid. When the rest of the government fled from Molde to Tromsø, landing on 1 May, Koht and Ljungberg (Minister of Defense) continued from there with the cruiser HMS "Glasgow" to London. Here, from 5 May they negotiated with British government representatives (Lord Halifax, Chamberlain and Admiral Philips) on British aid to Norway. Koht also made a radio speech from London on the BBC, broadcasting to Norway, and a speech on American radio. On 8 and 9 May he met Reynaud, Gamelin and Daladier in Paris. The Norwegian Ministers departed from London on 11 May, arriving back in Norway on 17 May. The talks with the Allies resulted in concrete promises and plans for large French reinforcements for the Norwegian front. These plans were however abandoned by the Allies on 24 May 1940, following the worsening situation for the Allies in France, and an evacuation decided. Koht was informed by British Minister to Norway Sir Cecil Dormer on 1 June that the Allied Forces had decided to retreat from Norway, owing to the difficult situation at the Western Front.

paragraph: In response to the Allied decision to evacuate, the cabinet sent Koht to Luleå in Sweden to try to reinvigorate a previously rejected plan to create a demarcation line between the Germans and Norwegian in Northern Norway. Swedish troops were planned to occupy Narvik. The plan was named the Mowinckel plan, after its initiator, the former prime minister Johan Ludwig Mowinckel. During a meeting with the Swedish minister of foreign affairs, Christian Günther, who was to act as a middle man with Germans in relation to the plan, Koht revealed that the Allies were about to evacuate Norway. Although Günther never revealed the evacuation plans to the Germans, Koht was heavily criticised for doing so by his colleagues upon his return to Norway.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Second World War.:In exile.

paragraph: The cabinet eventually fled the country on 7 June. Koht landed in London on 19 June 1940, now heading the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in exile. Norway was now a close ally of the United Kingdom, but Koht was seen as clinging somewhat to his neutrality policy, and not embracing the alliance with the United Kingdom enough. From the autumn of 1940, Trygve Lie championed a change in policy which meant seeking lasting allies in the western world. Koht viewed this as "distrust". A schism between him and the rest of the cabinet grew as it also became known that Koht's Ministry of Foreign Affairs had received reports of a possible forthcoming assault on Norway, without Koht having informed the cabinet thoroughly. Furthermore, there was discontent over Koht's decision to establish the headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in exile in Bracknell, several miles west of the cabinet headquarters.

paragraph: Koht was granted leave of absence on 19 November 1940, and ultimately left the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs on 20 February 1941, being succeeded by Trygve Lie. Koht decided to travel to Canada and then the United States. He lived with his daughter Åsa and her family in Washington, DC, returning to Norway after the end of the Second World War.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.:Political legacy.

paragraph: Trygve Lie, who after the war had become the first Secretary-General of the United Nations, characterised Koht in his memoirs as an expert on foreign affairs, but introverted. He had relatively little contact with other politicians, kept to himself to study in peace, and spent much time on his extensive writing. Koht reportedly preferred to solve a problem by himself instead of involving co-workers and employees, even the experts in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. His way of thinking was logical and rational, but he allegedly nurtured an "exaggerated belief in paragraphs" and a "dogmatic belief in international law", and wrongly thought that other countries would obey formal regulations at most times. Koht had few or no alternatives to his neutrality policy, and in many ways he based his entire career in foreign affairs on that policy. Trygve Lie claimed that before the Second World War, the neutrality policy had "become a religion" for Koht.

paragraph: Koht's role in the weak and unorganised defense against Operation Weserübung was debated during and after the occupation. After the World War, a commission named "Undersøkelseskommisjonen av 1945" ("Scrutiny Commission of 1945") was set to scrutinise the actions of the Norwegian government in 1940. It concluded with a partial criticism of Koht's dispositions. After receiving "Undersøkelseskommisjonen" analysis, Koht volunteered to undergo an Impeachment trial. The Parliament of Norway did not find it necessary, and no such trial took place.

paragraph: Since Koht lived in Lysaker, Bærum Municipality wanted to honor him by naming a street after him. When the street was named in 1967, Koht was still controversial. The street was therefore named "Professor Kohts vei" ("Professor Koht's Road") to emphasise his academic, rather than his political career.

paragraph: Section::::Language views.

paragraph: Hailing from Tromsø, Koht spoke a Northern Norwegian dialect in his early life. In Skien his dialect provoked negative reactions from his peers. He was inspired by the dialects of Skien's surroundings (Telemark); from 1891 he wrote the "rural" language form Landsmål with strong tinges of Bø dialect. Before this he had attempted to write both "Knudsen Riksmål" and "Aasen Landsmål", but neither stuck. Early publications on the Norwegian language controversy were "Det norske målstrævs historie" (1898) and "Det vitskapelege grunnlage for målstræve" (1900). He became a board member of the Landsmål-based publishing house Det Norske Samlaget, and edited the Landsmål periodical "Syn og Segn" from 1901 to 1908, until 1905 together with Rasmus Flo. He chaired Noregs Mållag, an association the propagation of Landsmål, from 1921 to 1925. In 1929, Landsmål was renamed Nynorsk.

paragraph: Koht spoke of language in a social context in general and of the class struggle in particular. He eventually used the Labour Party as a vehicle for his language activism, especially after being asked by the party to write "Arbeidarreising og målspørsmål" in 1921. In it, he synthesised the class struggle and language struggle in Norway, and because he was an integrationist he wanted a popular gathering around one written language. Koht became a member of "Rettskrivingsnemnda" in 1934, and in 1936 the Labour Party agreed that a language reform should be carried out, moving the two language forms Bokmål and Nynorsk closer to one another. The language reforms took place in 1938 and promoted the Samnorsk ideal. The reforms were reversed in 1941 under Nazi rule; the original changes were reinstated after the end of the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany. According to historian Kåre Lunden, Koht was much hated by many because of his language reforms, which were routinely perceived as attacks and degradations on their preferred language. His ideals were dubbed "det kohtske knot", i.e. "the Kohtian mishmash". For his own part, Koht often used spellings that contrasted with both Nynorsk and Bokmål. The definite article, which is formally the suffix "-et", was substituted with the suffix "-e", such as in the titles of his publications "Det vitskapelege grunnlage for målstræve" and "Sosialdemokratie".

paragraph: Section::::Peace activism.

paragraph: Koht's first travel abroad was in 1890, when he accompanied his father as well as Hans Jacob Horst and John Theodor Lund to an interparliamentary peace conference in London. In 1895 he was a founding member and board member of the Norwegian Peace Association, serving as chairman from 1900 to 1902. From 1901 to 1902 he edited his own monthly periodical named "Fredstidende" ("Peace Times").

paragraph: The Peace Association was dominated by Liberal Party politicians—from a Marxist perspective, "bourgeois" people. Historian Nils Ivar Agøy had noted that the socialists who were active in the bourgeois peace movement—the most prominent being Koht, Adam Egede-Nissen and Carl Bonnevie—were "radicalised sons of the bourgeoisie". This meant that they were "capable of asserting themselves among the ship-owners and county governors in the board" of the Norwegian Peace Association. Koht also followed his own goals during his first period as chairman. He wanted to tie the "apolitical" peace movement closer to the labour movement, to create "economic justice" and to employ the use of arbitration in labour conflicts. These goals were not embraced by all of the members, particularly not those who wanted to keep the Peace Association politically neutral. A larger problem, however, was that Koht rated Norwegian nationalism higher than pacifism. He had thus carried out his compulsory military service "with fervor", notes Agøy. Koht demanded that the Peace Association did not resist to an armed defense of the "fatherland". The national convention in 1902 refused to acknowledge this principle, and Koht therefore resigned his membership. He was followed by others, as a result of a schism in the Peace Association between the pacifists and the more pragmatic peace activists. Koht has also been assessed as an ineffective organisational leader. The defense question more or less solved itself when the Swedish-Norwegian union was peacefully dissolved in 1905. Koht later returned to the Peace Association to serve as a board member from 1910 to 1912.

paragraph: He became a member of Institut International de la Paix in 1913. He was a consultant for the Norwegian Nobel Institute from 1904 to 1913, with the task of examining proposed candidates for the Nobel Peace Prize. From 1918 to 1942 he served on the Norwegian Nobel Committee. In 1931, he gave the Award Ceremony Speech for the Nobelists Jane Addams and Nicholas Murray Butler, but was absent in the decisive meeting in 1936 that awarded the Nobel Peace Prize to Carl von Ossietzky. He was also absent while serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs, not wishing to combine the two roles. He returned briefly afterwards, before leaving again in 1942. Another reason for his inactivity was that he had not lived in Norway since 1940, but either way the Prize was not awarded in any of the years from 1939 to 1943.

paragraph: Koht's academic writing also encompassed the peace issue. His books on the subject include "Histoire du mouvement de la paix en Norvège" ("History of the Peace Movement in Norway", 1900) and "Fredstanken i Noregs-sogo" ("The Notion of Peace in the History of Norway", 1906).

paragraph: Section::::Post-political life.

paragraph: Having stepped down from the exiled cabinet in 1941, Koht lived in the United States for the remainder of the war. There he continued his literary production; however, the books "Norway Neutral and Invaded" (1941) and "The Voice of Norway" (1944) were both released in London. The first book dealt directly with the advent of war in Norway, and was released in Swedish in the same year. The second book, written together with his son-in-law Sigmund Skard, dealt more with older history and the literature of Norway. It was released in Swedish in 1944 and Norwegian in 1948. Koht returned to Norway at the end of war.

paragraph: Upon returning to Norway, Koht published three books on the war-time events in Norway: "For fred og fridom i krigstid 1939–1940", "Frå skanse til skanse. Minne frå krigsmånadene i Noreg 1940" and "Norsk utanrikspolitikk fram til 9. april 1940. Synspunkt frå hendingstida", all of which were released in 1947. These memoir-like books have been analysed as putting a self-apologetic message forth. His political career was effectively ended, but some of his ideas had prevailed. For instance, his analysis of the class situation in Norway became a part of the general social-democratic ideology of the post-war years.

paragraph: Despite not holding the professor chair any longer, Koht continued his academic writing; his principal work from the post-war epoch was the six-volume "Kriseår i norsk historie". The six volumes each describe a decisive moment in Norwegian history. The first volume, released in 1950, centers on "Vincens Lunge contra Henrik Krummedige". The second volume (1951) describes Olav Engelbriktsson and Norway's descent into dependency to Denmark in 1537. The third and fourth volumes, released in 1952 and 1955, are about medieval kings: Sverre I and Harald I. The fifth volume (1956) focuses on "Queen Margaret and the Kalmar Union". The sixth and final volume (1960) chronicles the years from 1657 to 1661, when Denmark (and thus Norway) transitioned into an absolute monarchy.

paragraph: Koht died on 12 December 1965 in Bærum. He was buried at Nordre gravlund in Oslo. Two works by Koht have been released posthumously: the memoirs "Minne frå unge år" in 1968 and the diary "Rikspolitisk dagbok 1933–1940" in 1985. His son-in-law Sigmund Skard wrote a biography of him, "Mennesket Halvdan Koht" ("Halvdan Koht the Man") in 1982.

paragraph: Section::::References and notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Notes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bibliography

paragraph: BULLET::::- Further reading

description: Norwegian historian and politician

wikidata_label: Halvdan Koht

wikipedia_title: Halvdan Koht


text: Bosnian Serb

text: Yugoslav Partisan

text: Banja Luka

text: Bosnia

text: Austro-Hungarian Empire

text: University of Zagreb

text: Frankfurt

text: Paris

text: Mlada Bosna

text: Svetozar Marković

text: communist

text: World War II

text: Yugoslavia

text: Montenegro

text: Axis

text: Case Black

text: People's Hero of Yugoslavia

text: Sarajevo

categories: Yugoslav Partisans members,Bosnia and Herzegovina writers,1943 deaths,People from Banja Luka,Yugoslav military personnel killed in World War II,Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina,Recipients of the Order of the People's Hero,1906 births,Serbian writers,Serbian people of World War II

paragraph: Veselin Masleša

paragraph: Veselin Masleša (; 20 April 1906 – 14 June 1943) was a Bosnian Serb writer, activist and Yugoslav Partisan.

paragraph: Veselin Masleša was born in Banja Luka, Bosnia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where he finished grade school and gymnasium. He then studied law at the University of Zagreb, economics in Frankfurt and then political economy and sociology in Paris.

paragraph: His first published work was in the magazine "Nova literatura" in 1928, and he also published in the magazines "Književnik", "Stožer", "Danas" and "Naša stvarnost". He wrote two large studies called "Mlada Bosna" and "Svetozar Marković" which were published later in 1945.

paragraph: In 1927 he was arrested for the first time due to his communist ideas. Between 1928 and 1939 he was arrested and released on several occasions, eventually causing him to go underground. When World War II started in Yugoslavia in 1941, he was in Montenegro where he joined the Partisans. Masleša died during the attempted breakout through enemy lines during the Axis Case Black offensive in the summer of 1943.

paragraph: On December 20, 1951 he was posthumously awarded the title of People's Hero of Yugoslavia. There was a Sarajevo-based publishing house named after him but the name was later changed to Sarajevo Publishing, and the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina's scientific achievement award was also named after him.

description: Bosnian Serb writer

wikidata_label: Veselin Masleša

wikipedia_title: Veselin Masleša


text:
Australia
Parramatta
Coventry
"Duff"
London Missionary Society
New South Wales
Sydney
Parramatta
Reverend Samuel Marsden
Robert Campbell
Parramatta
Parramatta
St John’s church Parramatta
Diocesan College, Lampeter, Wales
Parramatta
Port Macquarie
Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane
Bathurst
Cobbitty
St Paul’s Cobbitty
Cobbitty
Berrima
Goulburn
Goulburn
Mulgoa
Eliza Marsden Hassall
London Missionary Society
Samuel Marsden

categories: English emigrants to colonial Australia,19th-century English Anglican priests,Australian Anglican priests

paragraph: Thomas Hassall (priest)

paragraph: Thomas Hassall (29 May 1794 – 29 March 1868) was an Anglican clergyman and the first Australian candidate for ordination. Hassall opened the first Sunday School in Australia in 1813 in his father’s house at Parramatta.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Thomas Hassall was born in Coventry, England, the eldest son of missionaries Rowland and Elizabeth Hassall. He sailed with them as a three-year old to Tahiti aboard the ship "Duff" in 1796 with missionaries approved by the directors of the recently formed London Missionary Society. Fifteen months later the Hassall family with Thomas and younger brother Samuel, sailed to the newly founded settlement of New South Wales, arriving in Sydney on 14 May 1798 aboard "Nautilus". The Hassall family settled in Parramatta during which time the missionary’s eldest son, Thomas, came to the attention of the Reverend Samuel Marsden. Initially Thomas was employed as a clerk in the offices of Sydney merchant Robert Campbell and afterwards Captain James Birnie. However Thomas Hassall gained success in establishing the first Sunday school in Australia for children in his father’s house at Parramatta and Marsden recommended the young man enter the ministry.

paragraph: Section::::Sunday School Movement.

paragraph: Thomas Hassall opened up the family home on the corner of George and Charles Street Parramatta to Sunday school classes in May 1813 initially to a small group, including convict children. Thomas requested permission from Marsden to accommodate the school at St John’s church Parramatta as numbers continued to grow. There were more than 200 children including Aboriginal children. Teachers included Thomas’ father, Rowland Hassall, and Rev. Marsden’s children Ann, Elizabeth and Charles Simeon Marsden. Thomas Hassall then formalised the Sunday school movement with “requirements and rules” established and printed for the guidance of teachers.

paragraph: Section::::Training for the Ministry in Wales.

paragraph: Having resolved to enter the Ministry, Hassall sailed for England in the "Kangaroo" in 1817, to undergo his training, the first Australian candidate for ordination. Hassall studied at the Diocesan College, Lampeter, Wales under the direction of Principal Rev Dr. Williams. Hassall was ordained deacon by Dr Howley the Bishop of London on 15 April 1821, and ordained priest three months later by the Bishop of Ely in June 1821. Receiving his appointment as Colonial Chaplain, Hassall returned to NSW arriving in Sydney aboard the convict ship Mary in January 1822.

paragraph: Section::::Life and Ministry in New South Wales.:Parramatta.

paragraph: Thomas Hassall took up his position as Rev Marden’s curate at St John’s Parramatta, preaching his first Australian sermon there on 3 February 1822. He married Marden’s eldest daughter Anne Marsden on 12 August 1822 and continued as his curate until 1824.

paragraph: Section::::Life and Ministry in New South Wales.:Port Macquarie.

paragraph: In June 1824 Hassall was appointed chaplain to the penal settlement of Port Macquarie. Rev Marsden corresponded with Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane encouraging the appointment

paragraph: Section::::Life and Ministry in New South Wales.:Bathurst.

paragraph: In 1826 Hassall was appointed to the Bathurst district. Living on his property Lampeter farm at O’Connell Plains he rode every Sunday to the town of Bathurst to hold Church services, returning in the evening to preach at ‘Salem Chapel’ which he built in close proximity to his residence.

paragraph: Section::::Life and Ministry in New South Wales.:Cowpastures.

paragraph: In 1827 Hassall was appointed to the new parish of Cowpastures which he described as “Australia beyond Liverpool”. This was to be his centre of operations for the remainder of his life. At this time Hassall purchased Denbigh estate at Cobbitty which became his headquarters. Here be built Heber Chapel in 1828 which served for many years until St Paul’s Cobbitty was established in 1842.

paragraph: Hassall’s extensive parish extended as far as Goulburn and Illawarra involving an exhaustive preaching ministry including Cobbitty, Berrima, Bong Bong and Goulburn. He was often referred to as the "galloping parson” and has been described as the first of Australia’s ‘bush parsons’.

paragraph: Gradually from 1838 onwards the large parish was reduced to a more manageable circuit, with Hassall being relieved of Goulburn and Mulgoa. Subdivided into dioceses and parishes, clergy were appointed and churches built.

paragraph: Thomas Hassall died at Denbigh estate on 29 March 1868. He was survived by his wife, Anne Hassall, née Marsden (1794 – 18 June 1885)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eliza Marsden Hassall

paragraph: BULLET::::- London Missionary Society

paragraph: BULLET::::- Samuel Marsden

description: (1794-1868) Anglican clergyman

wikidata_label: Thomas Hassall

wikipedia_title: Thomas Hassall (priest)


text:
Baroda State
Maharaja
Members of Gaekwad family

categories: Maharajas of Vadodara,Year of birth missing,1819 deaths

paragraph: Anand Rao Gaekwad

paragraph: Anand Rao Gaekwad was the seventh Maharaja of Baroda State reigning from 1800 to 1819 with the regents of Fateh Singh II and Sayaji Rao Gaekwad. He became Maharaja of Baroda after the death of Govind Rao Gaekwad II.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: He died in 1819 and succeeded by Sayaji Rao II Gaekwad as the new ruler of Baroda.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Members of Gaekwad family

wikidata_label: Anand Rao Gaekwad

wikipedia_title: Anand Rao Gaekwad


text:
Baroda State
Maharaja
Gaekwad dynasty
BARODA

categories: 1847 deaths,Maharajas of Vadodara,1800 births

paragraph: Sayaji Rao Gaekwad II

paragraph: Sayaji Rao Gaekwad II was the eight Maharaja of Baroda State reigning from 1819 to 1847. He became Maharaja of Baroda after the death of Anand Rao Gaekwad. He was the third son of Govind Rao Gaekwad.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: In died in 1747 and succeeded by Ganpat Rao Gaekwad as the new Maharaja of Baroda state.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gaekwad dynasty

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- BARODA

wikidata_label: Sayaji Rao Gaekwad II

wikipedia_title: Sayaji Rao Gaekwad II


text:
Radnorshire
Breconshire
Rhayader
Cistercian Monasteries
Strata Florida Abbey
Ceredigion
Abbey Cwm Hir
Strata Marcella
Welshpool
High Sheriff
Benjamin Piercy
Vale of Clwyd Railway
Oswestry and Newtown Railway
Welshpool
Rhayader
Radnorshire
FRIBA
Society of Antiquaries of London
1st Herefordshire Rifle Volunteers
High Sheriff of Radnorshire
Enclosure Awards
Gogerddan
Llysdinam
Francis Kilvert
Birmingham City Council
Elan Valley
James Mansergh
James Mansergh
enclosed
Thomas Nicholson
Cistercian
Cambrian Archaeological Association
Welshpool
Numismatics
Kenchester
Treasure Trove
Iron Age
Nantmel
Rhayader
British Museum
National Museum for Wales
Cistercian Abbeys
Worthington George Smith
Palaeolithic
Cistercian
Cambrian Archaeological Association
Strata Florida Abbey
Cistercian
capitals
nave
Society of Cymmrodorion
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
Cistercian
Powysland Club
Cistercian
Talley Abbey
Premonstratensian
Rhys ap Gruffydd
Aberedw
Llandegley
Llandewi Ystradenni
Llanfihangel Rhydithon
Llanfigan
Llanafan Fawr
Llanhamlach
Llanbadarn Fawr
Llanbadarn Fynydd
Llansantffraed
Llanyre
Rhayader
Nantgwyllt
Elan valley
Newbridge-on-Wye
New Radnor
Presteigne
Presteigne
Rhayader
Rhayader
Rhayader
Christ College, Brecon
Builth
Llanwrtyd Wells
Gothic
Trefeglwys
Abbey Cwmhir
Rhayader
Rhayader
Rhayader
Rhayader
Llanfihangel Bryn Paban
Neo-Elizabethan
Bwlch
ashlar
Llanwrthwl
Nantmel
Erwood
Newbridge-on-Wye
Llanidloes

categories: 1837 births,Welsh architecture,Civil engineers,Welsh archaeologists,19th-century Welsh architects,Member of the Cambrian Archaeological Association,High Sheriffs of Radnorshire

paragraph: Stephen W. Williams

paragraph: Stephen W Williams or Stephen Williams (1837–1899) was a civil engineer and architect who worked mainly in Radnorshire and Breconshire, Wales. He was County Surveyor of Radnorshire from 1864–1899. He had offices at Rhayader and lived at Penralley House, Rhayader, He became a noted authority on the archaeology of the Cistercian Monasteries in Wales and undertook excavations at Strata Florida Abbey in Ceredigion, Abbey Cwm Hir in Radnorshire and Strata Marcella near Welshpool in Montgomeryshire. He was appointed High Sheriff of Radnorshire in 1899.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He was originally articled in 1852 to Samuel Bate of Trent Vale from November 1852 for five years. He was then employed as an engineer by a Mr Atkinson who was a sub-contractor to Benjamin Piercy and between 1858–1861 he was an engineer on the Vale of Clwyd Railway. He also worked as an assistant engineer on the Oswestry and Newtown Railway. It is suggested by Scourfield that Williams may have been responsible for the design of Welshpool railway station, which was completed in 1862.

paragraph: In March 1861 he set up his own architectural practice in Rhayader. At this period he continued to undertake railway survey work in Wales and in parts of England In 1864 he was appointed county surveyor for Radnorshire. He was elected a FRIBA in 1886 and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London (FSA) in 1890. He became company secretary and Surveyor for the Llandrindod Estate and Building Company. He was a man of wide interests and joined the 1st Herefordshire Rifle Volunteers in 1878. He set up the Rhayader Company of the Volunteers, with the rank of Captain and eventually he became Lieutenant Colonel in command of the entire battalion. In 1899 (the year of his death) he was the High Sheriff of Radnorshire.

paragraph: Section::::Land surveying and civil engineering.

paragraph: Williams supplemented his salary of £100 p.a.as Radnorshire County Surveyor by undertaking work as a land surveyor and estate agent. This included work on Enclosure Awards. One of the largest awards was the '’Swydd Neithon'’, which enclosed the Llandrindod and Cefnllys commons and made available the land on which the new town of Llandrindod Wells was to be built. The contacts he made led to further work as a surveyor and agent with local estates. He surveyed the Gogerddan and Rhydoldog estates and was the agent for the Llysdinam estate where Francis Kilvert was a regular guest.

paragraph: Section::::The Elan Valley Reservoirs.

paragraph: In 1892 the Birmingham Corporation Water Act was passed which gave the Birmingham City Council powers to compulsorily purchase land in the Elan Valley close to Rhayader, for the construction of dams for a water supply for the city. Birmingham Corporation had appointed the engineer, James Mansergh, to oversee the project but he needed someone to plan and build the workers' village. In October 1892 Williams was requested to value various estates by the Birmingham Town Clerk and in May 1893 he was appointed Elan Valley Estate Agent by the City Council. This involved the management of 45,000 acres of land and he was also involved in the delicate negotiations over land leases, dealing fairly and discreetly with local tenants, many of whom lost their lands as a result of building the reservoirs. In these matters he was to work closely with James Mansergh, who referred to him as 'our ubiquitous friend'

paragraph: Section::::The Development of Llandrindod Wells.

paragraph: A major scheme in which Williams was involved was the planning and laying out of Llandrindod after the '’Swydd Neithon'’ was enclosed in 1862. The development and layout of the town then proceeded in two parts. Lands owned by Richard Green Price was surveyed and laid out by Williams around Rock park, while the Pump House Estate to the east was laid out by Thomas Nicholson. Apart from William's designs for shops and houses, his work also included;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Town Hall, Temple Street

paragraph: BULLET::::- Station Crescent Terrace

paragraph: BULLET::::- Market Hall (later destroyed by fire)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hotel Commodore. Originally built as the Rectory for Archdeacon de Winton in 1882-4. Muti-gabled and tile hung. Converted to a hotel in 1896

paragraph: Section::::Interest in archaeology and the Cistercian Order.

paragraph: William's attended his first meeting of the Cambrian Archaeological Association at Welshpool in 1857 at the age of 20. He had fairly diverse interests which included Numismatics, arms and armour, the study of monumental effigies in churches and he contributed an article about Roman finds at Kenchester in Herefordshire. Shortly before his death in 1899, Williams, as High Sheriff of Radnorshire, was instrumental in holding a groundbreaking Treasure Trove proceedings on the hoard of late Iron Age or Roman gold bracelets and a ring that were found at Carreg Gwynion, Nantmel near Rhayader. The hoard was declared Treasure Trove and is now in the collections of the British Museum, but Williams at the time made a plea for the foundation of a National Museum for Wales., which could house such discoveries in future. It was the Cistercian Abbeys of Wales that were to become his main interest and he has been described as the 'father of Cistercian archaeology in Wales'

paragraph: To assist him with his Excavations he employed his archictural assistant, Telfer Smith as clerk of Works and Worthington George Smith to act as an architectural draughtsman. Worthington Smith was both a distinguished botanical illustrator and a leading Palaeolithic archaeologist.

paragraph: Section::::Interest in archaeology and the Cistercian Order.:Strata Florida.

paragraph: Encouraged by the Cambrian Archaeological Association, Williams conducted two seasons of clearance and digging in 1887 and 1888, with a short season of excavation in 1890. The Cambrian Archaeological Society had taken Strata Florida Abbey into guardianship and wished to display it for the public. William's plans were the first accurate survey of the Abbey and in 1889 he published "The Cistercian Abbey of Strata Florida: Its History, and an Account of the Recent Excavations Made on Its Site.". This was a history of the Abbey and description of the excavation, which set new standards for a publication about the Cistercians.

paragraph: Section::::Interest in archaeology and the Cistercian Order.:Abbey Cwmhir, Radnorshire.

paragraph: Williams published a history of this Cistercian Abbey in 1890 following the discovery of carved capitals while gardening by Mrs Philips, the owner of the Abbey. This led to a more detailed excavation of the nave the Abbey church, sponsored by the Society of Cymmrodorion in 1890, who were hoping the burial place of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales 1258–82.

paragraph: Section::::Interest in archaeology and the Cistercian Order.:Strata Marcella.

paragraph: Excavations carried out for the Powysland Club in 1890 and managed to recover much of the plan of the church of the Cistercian Abbey. The finds from the excavations are now in the Powysland Museum in Welshpool

paragraph: Section::::Interest in archaeology and the Cistercian Order.:Talley Abbey.

paragraph: Talley Abbey in Carmarthenshire was a Premonstratensian Abbey founded around 1185 by Rhys ap Gruffydd. Williams was invited by Sir James William Drummond to arrange an exploratory excavation in 1892. This led to a local committee being formed and excavations continued until 1894 on the site.

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.:Churches.

paragraph: All in Breconshire and Radnorshire

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aberedw Medieval church repaired by Williams in 1888, who added the S doorway and belfry lights.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llandegley, Radnorshire. Williams added a chancel in 1874-6.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llandewi Ystradenni, Radnorshire. Restored 1889–90.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanfihangel Rhydithon, Repairs by Williams1891.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanfigan, Breconshire. Church restored 1888–92.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanafan Fawr, Breconsire. Church re-built 1887-8

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanhamlach, Breconshire. 1886-8. Williams added a new porch and re-ordered the interior.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanbadarn Fawr, Radnorshire. Re-built 1878-9.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanbadarn Fynydd, Radnorshire. Restored 1894-5

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llansantffraed, Breconshire. 1884-5.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanyre. Radnorshire. St Llyr. Rebuilt 1885-7.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rhayader St Clement. Re-built by Williams in 1887 with rock dressed masonry.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nantgwyllt, Radnorshire. Church built in 1898– 1900, to replace the church flooded by the Caban Coch reservoir in the Elan valley

paragraph: BULLET::::- Newbridge-on-Wye1883, Radnorshire. Built in 1883 and largely sponsored by the Venables family of Llysdinam.

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.:Public Buildings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- New Radnor Town Hall. Yellow brick. Enlarged1887.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Militia Stores, Presteigne

paragraph: BULLET::::- Presteigne Gaol- Re-modeling

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rhayader Workhouse. Now Brynarvon County Hotel, Radnorshire. 1877. Three storied range with eight bays; rock faced with the windows trimmed in yellow brick.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rhayader Royal Lion Hotel. Alterations by Williams in 1894-6.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rhayader Police Station. 1865. Attributed to both Stephen Williams and to T Nicholson

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.:Schools.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christ College, Brecon. A Boarding House of 1889.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Builth Intermediate School (now High School), North Street, Breconshire. Tudor style of 1899.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llanwrtyd Wells, former school, Breconshire.1867/79. Long stone faced gabled range with Gothic windows and polychrome brick surrounds.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Trefeglwys School, Montgomeryshire

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.:Houses.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brynmoel. Abbey Cwmhir, Radnorshire. Former vicarage by Williams 1892. Red brick, four bays with hipped roof and tall chimney stacks.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bryniago House, South Street, Rhayader. 1893. Built by Williams as his offices for the Elan Valley Reservoir scheme. Ground floor of rock faced rubble, with tile hanging above and a big timbered dormer.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Penralley House, South Street, Rhayader. William's own house. An 18th century house which he extended in 1876.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cefnfaes Hall, Rhayader. Re-modeled by Williams c. 1875.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rhydoldog, Rhayader. Re-modeled by Williams in 1884.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brynwern Hall, Llanfihangel Bryn Paban, Breconshire. 1886. Built for Clifton Mogg. Neo-Elizabethan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Buckland Hall, Bwlch, Breconshire. 1896-8. Re-built 1896 after a fire. Sandstone with orange ashlar dressings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Doldowlod, Llanwrthwl, Radnorshire. Williams provided plans in 1881 for a new carriageway and conservatory.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llysdinam Hall. Breconshire. For the Venables Family. Originally built in 1829, but extended by WIlliams in 1871.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Glanbrydan Park. Carmarthenshire. Re-modeled and enlarged for the Richardson family 1885–86. Williams also built the coach house and stables.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Llwynbarried Hall, Nantmel, Radnorshire. Remodelled and much enlarged in 1886–89. Originally a 16th-century house. Bargeboarded gables and some tile hanging. Neo-Jacobean staircase.

paragraph: Section::::Architectural works by Stephen Williams include.:Bridges.

paragraph: As County Surveyor Williams was responsible for at least six bridges. These include

paragraph: BULLET::::- Erwood

paragraph: BULLET::::- Newbridge-on-Wye1885, Radnorshire. The older cast iron toll bridge with lattice girders. Made at 'W Thomas Railway Works' in Llanidloes. Credits on cast plaque to W Clifton-Mogg and S. W. Williams, engineer

paragraph: Section::::Publications by S W Williams.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Cistercian Abbey of Strata Florida: Its History, and an Account of the Recent Excavations Made on Its Site." Whiting & Co., 1889, London

paragraph: BULLET::::- (with Jones M C), “Excavations on the ste of Strata Marcella Abbey”,’‘Montgomeryshire Collections’‘, Vol 25,1891.

paragraph: BULLET::::- “The Cistererian Abbey of Cwmhir, Radnorshire”, Montgomeryshire Collections, Vol 24, 1890, 395–416.

paragraph: BULLET::::- “The Cistererian Abbey of Cwmhir, Radnorshire”, Transactions of the Hon. Society of Cymmrodorion, 1894-5.

paragraph: BULLET::::- “The Abbey of Cwmhir, Radnorshire”, ‘‘Archaeologia Cambrensis’’ , 1897, 150–2

paragraph: BULLET::::- “Excavations at Talley Abbey”, ‘‘Archaeologia Cambrensis’’ , 1897, 229–247.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Antonia Brodie (ed) ‘’Directory of British Architects, 1834–1914’’: 2 Vols, British Architectural Library, Royal Institute of British Architects, 2001

paragraph: BULLET::::- R W D Fenn and J B Sinclair ‘‘Our Ubiquitous Friend” (The work of Stephen Williams),”Transactions of the Radnorshire Society” Vol 59,1989.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R Scourfield and R Haslam "The Buildings of Wales: Powys; Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire and Breconshire" Yale University Press 2013.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, David Henry (1992). “ An Appreciation of Stephen William Williams, Montgomeryshire Collections, Vol 80, 55–94

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, David Henry (1995).”The Exploration and Excavation of Cistercian Sites in Wales”, Archaeologia Cambrensis, Vol 144, 1–25

paragraph: BULLET::::- Williams, David Henry (2001). The Welsh Cistercians: written to commemorate the centenary of the death of Stephen William Williams (1837–1899) (The father of Cistercian archaeology in Wales). Gracewing Publishing. p. 145. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-  An eminent Rhayader Victorian Stephen William Williams (1837–1899)

description: Architect and civil engineer

wikidata_label: Stephen W. Williams

wikipedia_title: Stephen W. Williams


text:
Plánice
Vienna
Franz von Thun
Academy of Fine Arts
Christian Ruben
Defenestration of Prague
Ljudevit Gaj
Zagreb
Illyria
Neubau
Rukopis Královédvorský
Václav Hanka
Czernowitz
Iphigenia
Vienna State Opera
copperplate
List of works
National Library of the Czech Republic

categories: 1824 births,1870 deaths,19th-century Czech painters,Czech male painters

paragraph: Karel Svoboda (artist)

paragraph: Karel Svoboda (14 June 1824, Plánice - 13 September 1870, Vienna) was a Czech/Austrian painter, primarily of historical scenes, which are notable for their accurate detail. He worked in Prague and Vienna.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was orphaned at an early age and went to live with his uncle Václav, who was a professor at the Gymnasium in Prague. Karel learned both philosophy and drawing under his tutelage. His talent attracted the attention of Count Franz von Thun, who helped him to enter the Academy of Fine Arts, where he studied under Christian Ruben.

paragraph: His painting of the second Defenestration of Prague was widely admired and prompted Ljudevit Gaj to invite him to Zagreb, where he lived for several months, painting local characters and scenes from Illyrian history. Later that year, he married the daughter of composer and, in 1851, moved to Vienna. Despite relocating, he took an assignment to create historical murals at Queen Anne's Summer Palace (Le Belvédère) back in Prague.

paragraph: Over the next few years, he executed several major commissions, including posters for the Five-hundredth Anniversary of Vienna in 1865. He also served as a drawing instructor at the Gymnasium in Schottenfeld (Neubau) and provided illustrations for several books of poetry, including the "Rukopis Královédvorský" (Königinhofer Handschrift), a Medieval song collection which became the source of much controversy, as it was believed to be a forgery by the Czech philologist Václav Hanka (an assertion which later proved to be true, although the arguments continue even now).

paragraph: He exhibited widely and painted eleven frescoes at the Bishop's Palace in Czernowitz as well as ten panels on the story of "Iphigenia" for the Vienna State Opera. Many of works were reproduced as woodcuts or on copperplate. His wife died in 1869 and he died a year later, of a heart attack, at the "Florence Spa".

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- František Xaver Harlas, et al., "Otto's Encyclopaedia", Jan Otto, Prague (1906)

paragraph: BULLET::::- : Karel Svoboda – životopisná vzpomínka ze sborníku Vzpomínky na paměť třicetileté činnosti Umělecké besedy 1863—1893 (memoirs of meetings with artists)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of works at the National Library of the Czech Republic

description: Czech painter

wikidata_label: Karel Svoboda

wikipedia_title: Karel Svoboda (artist)


text:
French
graphic artist
painter
Jean-Michel Moreau
Paris
Pierre-Antoine Demachy
Gouache
Académie de Saint-Luc
Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture
Claude-Louis Châtelet
Queen's
Louvre
Paris
Magnin Museum
Dijon
Fine Arts Museum, Rouen

categories: French engravers,French draughtsmen,19th-century French painters,1740 births,French male painters,18th-century French painters

paragraph: Louis-Gabriel Moreau

paragraph: Louis-Gabriel Moreau (1740 - 12 October 1806) was a French graphic artist and landscape painter.

paragraph: He is frequently identified as "Moreau the elder" (""Moreau l’Aîné"") in order to avoid confusion with his precocious younger brother, the artist Jean-Michel Moreau (1741-1814) who is sometimes identified as "Moreau the younger" (""Moreau le Jeune"").

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Louis-Gabriel Moreau was born in Paris. He was a pupil of Pierre-Antoine Demachy. Like Demachy, Moreau would focus on paintings of buildings and the countryside in and around Paris. He painted generally in Gouache. Moreau's work was first exhibited in 1760 at the "". He was accepted into the Académie de Saint-Luc, but failed to gain admission to the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture in 1787 and again in 1788, possibly because the academy did not share Moreau's preference for landscapes.

paragraph: There are those who have identified similarities between the work of Louis-Gabriel Moreau and of Claude-Louis Châtelet, one of the Queen's favourite artists.

paragraph: Section::::Works exhibited in public galleries (not a complete list).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Louvre, Paris

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paintings

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Paysage. Cabane dans un bois"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vue des coteaux de Bellevue prise du parc de Saint Cloud"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vue du château de Vincennes prise des hauteurs de Montreuil"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Drawings

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Intérieur d'un parc sauvage"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Promenade"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vue du château de Valençay, et au premier plan des promeneurs"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vue du château de Valençay, prise des terrasses, et couple de promeneurs"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Miniatures

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Parc de Saint-Cloud", Paris, musée du Louvre, département des Arts graphiques

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Portique : plusieurs personnages pénétrant sous un portique", Paris, musée du Louvre, département des Arts graphiques

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnin Museum, Dijon

paragraph: BULLET::::- "L’Allée"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Paysage, effet de soir tombant"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fine Arts Museum, Rouen

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Paysage au grand fleuve"

alias:
Louis Gabriel Moreau I
Louis Gabriel Moreau
Louis Gabriel I Moreau
Louis, der ältere Moreau
Moreau d.Ä.
Louis Gabriel, ich Moreau
Louis, the elder Moreau
Moreau the Elder
Louis Gabriel, I Moreau
Moreau
L. C. l'aîné Moreau
L. Moreau
l. g. moreau
L. Moreau l'aîné
l'aîné M. L. Moreau
M. Moreau l'aîné
Moreau. l'aîné
Louis Moreau
Louis Gabriel Moreau L'Aîné
Louis Gabriel Moreau gen. Moreau L'aine
M. Moreau
Mareau
Moreau l'aîné
L. M. Moreau

description: French draughtsperson, etcher and painter

wikidata_label: Louis-Gabriel Moreau

wikipedia_title: Louis-Gabriel Moreau


text:
Avesnes
Leuze
James of Avesnes
Ferdinand, Count of Flanders
Battle of Bouvines
Pilgrim Castle
bezants
Englancourt
count of Hainaut
Margaret, Countess of Blois
Alix of France
Mary, Countess of Blois
Hugh I, Count of Blois

paragraph: Walter II of Avesnes

paragraph: Walter II of Avesnes (b. 1170 – d.1244) was lord of Avesnes, Leuze, of Condé and Guise, and through his marriage to Margaret of Blois, he became Count of Blois and of Chartres. He was the son of James of Avesnes, and Adèle, lady of Guise.

paragraph: Walter fought alongside Ferdinand, Count of Flanders at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, then left to fight in the Holy Land. Taken prisoner, he was ransomed by the Knights Templar and helped construct the Pilgrim Castle, in 1218, donating 1,000 "saracen bezants" towards its construction.

paragraph: With the income from Guise lands, he began work on modernizing his castles. He also built a castle Englancourt to control the road through the count of Hainaut.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Walter married Margaret, Countess of Blois and Chartres, daughter of Theobald V, Count of Blois, count of Blois and Chartres, and Alix of France. Their children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theobald, died young

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mary, Countess of Blois († 1241), married Hugh I, Count of Blois, (1196 † 1248).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isabelle,married John, lord of Oisy and Montreuil

description: French noble

wikidata_label: Walter II of Avenses

wikipedia_title: Walter II of Avesnes


text: Vietnamese

text: cardinal

text: priesthood

text: pastor

text: Hanoi

text: Vietnam

text: Superior of St. John Minor Seminary

text: bishop

text: Bac Ninh

text: Hanoi

text: Cardinal

text: Joseph Ngô Quang Kiêt

text: house arrest

text: parish

text: lục bát

text: Jesus

text: Gospels

text: Christian doctrine

text: Santa Maria Regina Pacis in Ostia Mare

text: John Paul II

text: Consistory

text: Joseph Ngô Quang Kiệt

categories: Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II,Vietnamese cardinals,People from Hoa Binh Province,2009 deaths,1919 births

paragraph: Paul Joseph Phạm Đình Tụng

paragraph: Paul Joseph Phạm Đình Tụng (15 June 1919 – 22 February 2009) () was a Vietnamese cardinal.

paragraph: Section::::Ecclesiastical career.

paragraph: He was ordained to the priesthood on 6 June 1949. He was pastor of Hàm Long Parish, in Hanoi, Vietnam, from 1950 to 1955. Afterwards he served as Superior of St. John Minor Seminary, in Hanoi, from 1955 to 1963. The Seminary was closed by the State authority in 1960 and never opened again. He was created bishop of Bac Ninh in 1963. He was appointed archbishop of Hanoi in 13 April 1994 and elevated to Cardinal in November 1994. He retired as archbishop of Hanoi in 2005 and was succeeded by Archbishop Joseph Ngô Quang Kiêt.

paragraph: Since nearly the very beginning of his religious life, he was under house arrest, unable to carry out his duties to the nearly 100 parishes under his jurisdiction.

paragraph: He began to compile in lục bát the entire life of Jesus, the Gospels, Christian doctrine, and the commandments of God and the Church. He was created a Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Regina Pacis in Ostia Mare by John Paul II during the Consistory of 26 November 1994. He resigned the pastoral government of the archdiocese on 19 February 2005. He died on 22 February 2009 at the age of 89. He was succeeded by Joseph Ngô Quang Kiệt.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- catholic-hierarchy page of Paul Joseph Pham Dinh Tung

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cardinal Paul Joseph Pham Đình Tung, Archbishop emeritus of Hà Nội (Viêt Nam) passed away

description: Vietnamese Catholic cardinal

wikidata_label: Pham Dinh Tung

wikipedia_title: Paul Joseph Phạm Đình Tụng


text:
Vietnam
cardinal
Catholic Church
Archbishop of Hanoi
apostolic vicar
cardinalate
Trang Duệ
Bình Lục
Hà Nam
ordained
priesthood
Apostolic Vicar
Hanoi
Titular Bishop of Synaus
Pope Pius XII
episcopal consecration
Thaddée Le Huu Tu
OCist
Francisco Gomez de Santiago
OP
Pierre Pham-Ngoc-Chi
co-consecrators
Cathedral
Metropolitan Archbishop
vicariate
metropolitan see
cardinal
in pectore
Pope Paul VI
consistory
Cardinal Priest
S. Francesco di Paola ai Monti
Vietnam
cardinal electors
conclaves
August
October 1978
Popes John Paul I
John Paul II
Hanoi
Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church
Catholic-Hierarchy

categories: 1898 births,Vietnamese cardinals,People from Hanoi,20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops,Participants in the Second Vatican Council,1978 deaths

paragraph: Joseph-Marie Trịnh Như Khuê

paragraph: Joseph-Marie Trịnh Như Khuê (December 11, 1898–November 27, 1978) was the first Vietnamese cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Hanoi from 1960 until his death, having previously served as its apostolic vicar, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1976.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Khuê was born in Trang Duệ village, Bình Lục, Hà Nam and ordained to the priesthood on April 1, 1932. On April 18, 1950, he was appointed Apostolic Vicar of Hanoi and Titular Bishop of Synaus by Pope Pius XII. Khuê received his episcopal consecration on the following August 15 from Bishop Thaddée Le Huu Tu, OCist, with Bishops Francisco Gomez de Santiago, OP, and Pierre Pham-Ngoc-Chi serving as co-consecrators, in the Cathedral of Hanoi. He was later raised to the rank of a Metropolitan Archbishop upon his vicariate's elevation to a metropolitan see on November 24, 1960.

paragraph: The archbishop was reserved as a cardinal "in pectore" by Pope Paul VI when the consistory was announced on April 28, 1976, and was published and created Cardinal Priest of "S. Francesco di Paola ai Monti" at the consistory on May 24 of that same year. Khue attended the consistory in the purple robes of a bishop, because he did not have time to get red ones. He was the first cardinal to hail from Vietnam, and was also one of the cardinal electors who participated in the conclaves of August and October 1978, which selected Popes John Paul I and John Paul II respectively.

paragraph: Cardinal Khuê died in Hanoi, at the age of 79; he had been the ecclesiastical leader of Hanoi for twenty-eight years. He is buried in St. Joseph's metropolitan cathedral, Hanoi.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic-Hierarchy

description: Vietnamese cardinal

wikidata_label: Trinh Nhu Khue

wikipedia_title: Joseph-Marie Trịnh Như Khuê


text: University of Oslo

text: Trondhjem

text: Christian Frederik Michelet

text: Carl Johan Michelet

text: Christian Fredrik Michelet

text: Christian Fredrik Michelet

text: Søren Bloch Laache

text: Hitra

text: finished

text: Johan C. H. Storjohann

text: Marie Elisabeth Storjohann

text: Elling Holst

text: cand.theol.

text: Trondhjem Cathedral School

text: Leipzig

text: history of religion

text: Indian languages

text: New Testament

text: D.Theol.

text: Book of Amos

text: dean

text: Old Testament

text: Student Christian Movement in Norway

text: Order of St. Olav

text: Bærum

categories: People from Trondheim,University of Oslo alumni,Norwegian people of French descent,Norwegian theologians,1942 deaths,Norwegian expatriates in Germany,Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters,Norwegian Lutheran priests,Norwegian magazine editors,Bible translators,University of Oslo faculty,1863 births,20th-century Protestant theologians

paragraph: Simon Michelet

paragraph: Simon Themstrup Michelet (8 February 1863 – 15 October 1942) was a Norwegian theologian. He was Professor of Theology at the University of Oslo.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: He was born in Trondhjem (now Trondheim), Norway. He was a son of customs officer Joseph Frantz Oscar Michelet (1832–1913) and Caroline Julie Laache (1833–1915). His grandfather was a brother of Christian Frederik Michelet and father of Carl Johan Michelet. On the paternal side he was a second cousin of major Christian Fredrik Michelet and politician Christian Fredrik Michelet. On the maternal side he was a first cousin of doctor and professor of medicine, Søren Bloch Laache (1854-1941).

paragraph: He grew up in Hitra and Trondhjem. He finished his secondary education in 1881, and decided to study theology. He was taken into the home of priest Johan C. H. Storjohann, where he met his future wife Marie Elisabeth Storjohann (1866–1951). They married in September 1888. Simon's sister was named Marie as well, and she married Elling Holst.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He graduated with the cand.theol. degree in 1887 at the University of Kristiania and took the practical priest education in 1888. He also taught at Aars og Voss skole and Trondhjem Cathedral School from 1887 to 1888. In 1890 he continued his studies at German universities. He studied in Leipzig; first history of religion and Indian languages, then the theology of the New Testament. In 1894 he took the D.Theol. degree with the thesis "Amos, oversat og fortolket" on the "Book of Amos".

paragraph: He worked as a teacher and priest until being appointed as a professor of theology at the University of Kristiania in 1896. He was also a dean of the Faculty of Theology, and finally retired in 1933. He was also an editorial board member of "Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift" from 1900 to 1926. He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Publications include "Fra Moses til profetene" (1915), "Fra profetene til Jesus Kristus" (1919) and "Kristendom og rationalisme" (1927). He also participated in a translation of the Old Testament.

paragraph: He also chaired the Student Christian Movement in Norway from 1899 to 1903 and 1914 to 1924. He edited their magazine "Excelsior" from 1904 to 1917. He was also involved in social work. He was decorated as a Knight, First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1911, and died in October 1942 in Bærum.

description: Norwegian theologian

wikidata_label: Simon Michelet

wikipedia_title: Simon Michelet


text: sculptor

text: Bari, Italy

text: Beaux-Arts Institute of Design

text: National Academy of Design

text: Cooper Union

text: Académie de la Grande Chaumière

text: Antoine Bourdelle

text: Hermon McNeil

text: Sterling Calder

text: Solon Borglum

text: Federal Art Project

text: Newcomerstown, Ohio

text: Wyomissing, Pennsylvania

text: Bowery Bay

text: Whitney Museum of American Art

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: National Portrait Gallery

text: National Sculpture Society

text: Archives of American Art

text: Cesare Stea at Ask Art

categories: Federal Art Project artists,20th-century American sculptors,National Sculpture Society members,Sculptors Guild members,American male sculptors,1960 deaths,1893 births

paragraph: Cesare Stea

paragraph: Cesare Stea (August 17, 1893 – 1960) was an American sculptor and painter.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Stea was born in Bari, Italy. He studied at the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design, National Academy of Design, Cooper Union and the Académie de la Grande Chaumière, where he studied with Antoine Bourdelle. He variously studied with Hermon McNeil, Sterling Calder and Solon Borglum.

paragraph: He was a member of the Federal Art Project. He created relief sculptures, "Men and Machines" (1939) in Newcomerstown, Ohio, "Industry" (1941) in Wyomissing, Pennsylvania, and "Sculptural Relief" (1936) at Bowery Bay Sewage Disposal Plant. His work can also be found in Whitney Museum of American Art in New York and the Smithsonian Institution's National Portrait Gallery in Washington D.C.

paragraph: Stea was a member of the National Sculpture Society.

paragraph: His papers are held at the Archives of American Art.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "New York Sculpture during the Federal Project", Eleanor Carr, "Art Journal", Vol. 31, No. 4 (Summer, 1972), pp. 397–403

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cesare Stea at Ask Art

description: American sculptor

wikidata_label: Cesare Stea

wikipedia_title: Cesare Stea


text:
Mogador
Morocco
White Sulphur Springs
Virginia
Sephardic Jewish
London
Danish Virgin Islands
Charlotte Amalie
David Levy Yulee
Judah P. Benjamin
Apsley Pellatt
M'Neile
Freemasons' Hall
Bishopsgate
St. Augustine, Florida
Second Seminole War
White Sulphur Springs

categories: 1782 births,1854 deaths,American people of Moroccan-Jewish descent,Moroccan Jews,American Sephardic Jews,American people of Moroccan descent,Moroccan emigrants to the United States

paragraph: Moses Elias Levy

paragraph: Moses Elias Levy (1782 in Mogador, Morocco – September 7, 1854 in White Sulphur Springs, Virginia) (In Arabic :موسى إلياس ليفي) was a Jewish-Moroccan-American businessman and ardent social and religious reformer. Born into an elite Sephardic Jewish family in Morocco, Levy migrated to Gibraltar as a child and later established himself as a merchant/shipper in the Caribbean with extensive business dealings in England, Europe, and the Americas. After amassing a fortune, Levy ended his business career in favor of a life centered on philanthropic causes. In 1821 he immigrated to the Florida Territory in the United States where he established a large agrarian refuge for Jews who were suffering under repression in Europe. Although the number of Jews fell far short of expectations, at least five Jewish families made their way to Levy's Pilgrimage Plantation--located in north central Florida--making this the first agrarian Jewish settlement in the United States (1822-1835). The plantation was destroyed by fire during the onset of the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). Levy, a slaveholder, was also unusual in his advocacy of the gradual emancipation of slaves. He wrote "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery" while in London in 1828, achieving celebrity during the height of the antislavery campaign. Even more importantly, Levy was instrumental in leading an unprecedented series of inter-religious debates in elite venues where he challenged Christians to end antisemitism. Since Jews had never before entered the public sphere in England, and certainly never openly questioned the status quo, these public meetings created a furor in London. Widespread international press coverage referred to these protests as the ""Extraordinary Movement of the Jews"." Levy can now be seen as a Jewish social activist without parallel in early nineteenth-century Britain and America.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Moses Levy was the son of Eliahu Ha-Levi ibn Yuli (death circa 1800), a courtier and royal merchant, and his wife, Rachel, one of three wives in a plural marriage. The Ibn Yuli family were élite Sephardi Jews who served as court officials and advisers to the sultans of Morocco.

paragraph: In 1790 widespread atrocities directed against the Jewish community forced the family to flee to Gibraltar, where Moses Levy grew to young adulthood. At eighteen Levy—having dropped the Yuli surname—left the region for the Danish Virgin Islands, where he established himself as a leading merchant and shipper in Charlotte Amalie, St Thomas. In 1803 he married Hannah Abendanone (1786–1872), the daughter of a local merchant, David Abendanone, and his wife, Rachel. They had four children. The youngest, David Levy Yulee (1810–1886), became the first Jew elected to the United States Senate, representing Florida. Moses Levy's firm of Levy & Benjamin pursued an extensive trade throughout the Caribbean. Philip Benjamin, one of his partners, was the father of Judah P. Benjamin, future Confederate Secretary of State. Levy eventually left this firm and ran his own business centered in San Juan, Puerto Rico and then Havana, Cuba. His friendship with Alejandro Ramirez, the superintendent of Cuba and the Floridas, was influential in expanding Levy's business horizons. At one time Levy supplied General Pablo Morillo's massive expeditionary forces in Venezuela with food, munitions, and other supplies.

paragraph: Influenced by evangelical culture, in 1816 Levy underwent a spiritual epiphany, an event that was at least partially attributable to a rancorous and long-failing marriage. After a rare, formal divorce granted by the Danish king (1818) Levy abandoned a flourishing business in favor of a life devoted to what he called the "sacred cause" of reform. His plans included an "asylum" for Jews who were then suffering extensive abuse in post-Napoleonic Europe.

paragraph: His colonization attempts in frontier East Florida, entirely self-funded, were beset by difficulties and in 1825 he departed for England, where he hoped to elicit support. ("To be expanded, please be patient".)

paragraph: In London, Levy took on an activist role during 1827–28 and his writing and oratory became well known in the metropolis. His initial celebrity can be largely attributed to the enthusiastic backing of influential Christians—particularly the editors of the evangelical newspaper "The World" as well as the leadership of the Philo-Judaean Society. Philo-Judaeans were ostensibly devoted to the material and educational welfare of London's impoverished Jews but nevertheless harbored conversionist goals. In contrast Levy sought tangible relief for his fellow Jews, most of whom dwelt in the East End slums, but steadfastly rejected the tactics of conversion. Striking an unprecedented diplomatic balance, Levy was able to rise within the reform ranks and still retain a staunchly Jewish persona. His prominent Philo-Judaean supporters included the radical evangelical and former Tory MP Henry Drummond; the decorative glass manufacturer Apsley Pellatt; and the Anglican clergyman Hugh McNeile (also M'Neile). Levy's first major address before the organization, held at Freemasons' Hall in May 1827, stressed the commonality of the Judaeo-Christian tradition, condemned antisemitism, and challenged Christians to end "the persecution of contempt." ("The World" (London), 20 June 1827) Positive press coverage presented Levy as an admired orator, philanthropist, and promoter of inter-faith relations. Millennialist zeal contributed to Levy's notoriety and some viewed his actions as "extraordinary signs of the times" and proof that "something most singular is approaching" (ibid., 9 January 1828). Previously any public notice among Anglo-Jewry was purposely avoided and debates with gentiles were considered anathema—a passive strategy that emerged after centuries of Old World oppression.

paragraph: Levy's agenda for reform also included the gradual abolition of slavery and he frequently expounded the subject in England. His pamphlet "A Plan for the Abolition of Slavery, Consistently with the Interests of All Parties Concerned" (1828) was praised for addressing pragmatic issues that other abolitionists avoided. Despite the publication's anonymity Levy's authorship was well known in reform circles. His anti-slavery philosophy evolved from his background as a sugar planter in the New World—practical experience that few abolitionists could equal. From his perspective immediate emancipation would be calamitous since blacks were not only psychologically injured by slavery but were also hampered by illiteracy. Consequently Levy—an actual slave-owner in Florida—advocated universal education for slave children, a system that would stress reading, writing, and science fundamentals as well as farming skills. Freedom would be awarded at the age of twenty-one and each family would be given land for cultivation. Levy envisaged a "united association" of philanthropic businesses that would put his tenets into practice.

paragraph: Despite Levy's rather utopian outlook his ideas received wide recognition. The London "Literary Chronicle" recommended his anti-slavery pamphlet "to the serious attention of the legislature and the public" (cited in "The World", 20 August 1828); "The World" devoted a lengthy column to the treatise, in which the author's 'great benevolence of soul, and deep and enlightened piety' (ibid., 9 July 1828) were particularly stressed; and a new anti-slavery society, organized at Salvador House, Bishopsgate, London, took up Levy's far-ranging abolitionist creed.

paragraph: Levy chaired a series of impassioned and much publicized "public meetings of the Jews" held at the City of London Tavern. These meetings condemned Jewish persecution in Russia—then one of Britain's prime military allies. He was a prolific writer, contributing articles and letters to the newspapers almost daily. His "Letters Concerning the Present Condition of the Jews, being a Correspondence between Mr. Forster and Mr. Levy"(1829) was published in London with an evangelical co-author, John Forster of Southend. Levy can be seen as a Jewish social activist without parallel in early nineteenth-century Britain. His outsider status allowed for a certain freedom of action, but his transnational standing also marginalized his contributions after he returned to the United States in the summer of 1828. Full recognition has only been recently accorded to him by historians.

paragraph: Upon his return to the slave-holding south, Levy curtailed his abolitionism. But other elements of his reform agenda could be safely broached, and from his residence in St. Augustine, Florida, he led the first campaign for free education in public schools in the territory. His appointment as education commissioner by the governor (1831) reflected a growing acceptance of Levy's call to action. However, the onset of the Second Seminole War (1835) and the resultant devastation put an end to his reform career—as well as his communal farming settlement, Pilgrimage—and, in combination with legal challenges to his extensive land holdings, caused great economic hardship. By 1849 Levy had regained much of his former wealth after his claim to nearly 100,000 acres was validated by state and federal courts. Levy died while on a summer excursion to the White Sulphur Springs resort in Virginia on 7 September 1854.

description: Jewish-American businessman and reformer

wikidata_label: Moses Elias Levy

wikipedia_title: Moses Elias Levy