text: Pre-Socratic

text: Greek philosopher

text: Clazomenae

text: Asia Minor

text: Persian Empire

text: Athens

text: Diogenes Laërtius

text: Plutarch

text: impiety

text: Lampsacus

text: Pericles

text: Parmenides

text: Nous

text: Cosmic

text: homogeneous

text: eclipse

text: Peloponnese

text: rainbows

text: meteors

text: Clazomenae

text: Valerius Maximus

text: Persian Empire

text: Greco-Persian Wars

text: Athens

text: Salamis

text: Pericles

text: Euripides

text: Ionia

text: meteorite

text: meteorite in 467

text: eclipse

text: meteor

text: rainbow

text: sun

text: Peloponnese

text: Diogenes Laërtius

text: Cleon

text: Peloponnesian war

text: Lampsacus

text: Troad

text: Simplicius of Cilicia

text: Mind or Reason

text: Socrates

text: Plato

text: Apology

text: Phaedo

text: Nathanael West

text: The Dream Life of Balso Snell

text: Marcel Proust

text: Faust, Part II

text: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

text: Gary Corby

text: Creation

text: Gore Vidal

text: William H. Gass

text: Dante Alighieri

text: Divine Comedy

text: Inferno

text: Anaxagoras (crater)

text: Squaring the circle

text: Kirk G. S.

text: Raven, J. E.

text: Burnet J.

text: Greenberg, Daniel A.

text: Guthrie, W. K. C.

text: Anaxagoras

text: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

text: Translation and Commentary

text: John Burnet

text: Anaxagoras: Fragments

categories: History of ideas,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Natural philosophers,Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire,Metic philosophers in Classical Athens,Metaphysicians,Epistemologists,Ontologists,Ancient Greek physicists,Ancient Greek philosophers,500s BC births,Pluralist philosophers,Deaths by starvation,5th-century BC Greek people,420s BC deaths,Ancient Greeks from the Achaemenid Empire,Philosophers of science,Philosophers of ancient Ionia,People from Clazomenae,5th-century BC philosophers

paragraph: Anaxagoras

paragraph: Anaxagoras (; , "Anaxagoras", "lord of the assembly";  BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae at a time when Asia Minor was under the control of the Persian Empire, Anaxagoras came to Athens. According to Diogenes Laërtius and Plutarch, in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus; the charges may have been political, owing to his association with Pericles, if they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers.

paragraph: Responding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras described the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was never caused by an absolute presence of a particular ingredient, but rather by its relative preponderance over the other ingredients; in his words, "each one is... most manifestly those things of which there are the most in it". He introduced the concept of "Nous" (Cosmic Mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated out the original mixture, which was homogeneous, or nearly so.

paragraph: He also gave a number of novel scientific accounts of natural phenomena. He produced a correct explanation for eclipses and described the sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, as well as attempting to explain rainbows and meteors.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Anaxagoras is believed to have enjoyed some wealth and political influence in his native town of Clazomenae. However, he supposedly surrendered this out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. The Roman author Valerius Maximus preserves a different tradition: Anaxagoras, coming home from a long voyage, found his property in ruin, and said: "If this had not perished, I would have"—a sentence described by Valerius as being "possessed of sought-after wisdom!"

paragraph: Anaxagoras was a Greek citizen of the Persian Empire and had served in the Persian army; he may have been a member of the Persian regiments that entered mainland Greece during the Greco-Persian Wars. Though this remains uncertain, "it would certainly explain why he came to Athens in the year of Salamis, 480/79 B.C." Anaxagoras is said to have remained in Athens for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and admire him, and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity.

paragraph: Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial bodies and the fall of meteorites led him to form new theories of the universal order, and to a putative prediction of the impact of a meteorite in 467. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnese. He was the first to explain that the moon shines due to reflected light from the sun. He also said that the moon had mountains and believed that it was inhabited. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. He was the first to give a correct explanation of eclipses, and was both famous and notorious for his scientific theories, including the claims that the sun is a mass of red-hot metal, that the moon is earthy, and that the stars are fiery stones. He thought the earth was flat and floated supported by 'strong' air under it and disturbances in this air sometimes caused earthquakes. These speculations made him vulnerable in Athens to a charge of impiety. Diogenes Laërtius reports the story that he was prosecuted by Cleon for impiety, but Plutarch says that Pericles sent his former tutor, Anaxagoras, to Lampsacus for his own safety after the Athenians began to blame him for the Peloponnesian war.

paragraph: According to Laërtius, Pericles spoke in defense of Anaxagoras at his trial, . Even so, Anaxagoras was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Troad (433). He died there in around the year 428. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years.

paragraph: Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived, through preservation in work of Simplicius of Cilicia in the 6th century AD.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.

paragraph: According to Anaxagoras all things have existed in some way from the beginning, but originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There was an infinite number of homogeneous parts () as well as heterogeneous ones.

paragraph: The work of arrangement, the segregation of like from unlike and the summation of the whole into totals of the same name, was the work of Mind or Reason (). Mind is no less unlimited than the chaotic mass, but it stood pure and independent, a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxagoras describes, is Motion. It gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts.

paragraph: Decease and growth represent a new aggregation () and disruption (). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome. Each thing contains in itself parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is, only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character. Out of this process arise the things we see in this world.

paragraph: Section::::Literary references.

paragraph: Anaxagoras is mentioned by Socrates during his trial in Plato's "Apology". In the Phaedo, Plato portrays Socrates saying of Anaxagoras that as a young man: 'I eagerly acquired his books and read them as quickly as I could' .

paragraph: In a quote chosen to begin Nathanael West's first book "The Dream Life of Balso Snell", Marcel Proust's character Bergotte says, "After all, my dear fellow, life, Anaxagoras has said, is a journey."

paragraph: Anaxagoras appears as a character in "Faust, Part II" by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

paragraph: Anaxagoras appears as a character in "The Ionia Sanction", by Gary Corby.

paragraph: Anaxagoras is referred to and admired by Cyrus Spitama, the hero and narrator of "Creation", by Gore Vidal. The book contains this passage, explaining how Anaxagoras became influential:

paragraph: William H. Gass begins his novel, "The Tunnel" (1995), with a quote from Anaxagoras: "The descent to hell is the same from every place."

paragraph: He is also mentioned in Seneca's Natural Questions (Book 4B, originally Book 3: On Clouds, Hail, Snow) It reads: "Why should I too allow myself the same liberty as Anaxagoras allowed himself?"

paragraph: Dante Alighieri places Anaxagoras in the First Circle of Hell (Limbo) in his "Divine Comedy" ("Inferno", Canto IV, line 118).

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anaxagoras (crater) on the Moon

paragraph: BULLET::::- Squaring the circle

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Editions of the Fragments.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Curd, Patricia (ed.), "Anaxagoras of Clazomenae. Fragments and Testimonia: A Text and Translation with Notes and Essays", Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sider, David (ed.), "The Fragments of Anaxagoras", with introduction, text, and commentary, Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 2005.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kirk G. S.; Raven, J. E. and Schofield, M. (1983) "The Presocratic Philosophers: a critical history with a selection of texts" (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ; originally authored by Kirk and Raven and published in 1957

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Studies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bakalis Nikolaos (2005). "Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments", Trafford Publishing, Victoria, BC.,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barnes J. (1979). "The Presocratic Philosophers", Routledge, London, , and editions of 1982, 1996 and 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- Burnet J. (1892). "Early Greek Philosophy" A. & C. Black, London, , and subsequent editions, 2003 edition published by Kessinger, Whitefish, Montana,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cleve, Felix M. (1949). "The Philosophy of Anaxagoras: An attempt at reconstruction" King's Crown Press, New York ; republished in 1973 by Nijhoff, The Hague, as "The Philosophy of Anaxagoras: As reconstructed"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Filonik, Jakub. (2013). "Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal". "Dike: rivista di storia del diritto greco ed ellenistico" 16.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gershenson, Daniel E. and Greenberg, Daniel A. (1964) "Anaxagoras and the birth of physics", Blaisdell Publishing Co., New York,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Graham, Daniel W. (1999). "Empedocles and Anaxagoras: Responses to Parmenides" Chapter 8 of Long, A. A. (1999) "The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 159–180,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guthrie, W. K. C. (1965). "The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus" volume 2 of "A History of Greek Philosophy" Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ; 1978 edition

paragraph: BULLET::::- Taylor, C. C. W. (ed.) (1997). "Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato", Vol. I, pp. 192–225,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Teodorsson, Sven-Tage (1982). "Anaxagoras' Theory of Matter". Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg, Sweden,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Torrijos-Castrillejo, David (2014) "Anaxágoras y su recepción en Aristóteles". Romae: EDUSC,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zeller, A. (1881). "A History of Greek Philosophy: From the Earliest Period to the Time of Socrates", Vol. II, translated by S. F. Alleyne, pp. 321–394

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anaxagoras entry by Michael Patzia in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Translation and Commentary from John Burnet's "Early Greek Philosophy".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anaxagoras: Fragments from "Early Greek Philosophy" by John Burnet, 3rd edition (1920).

description: ancient Greek philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Anaxagoras

wikidata_label: Anaxagoras

wikipedia_title: Anaxagoras


text:
legendary
king of Rome
Numa Marcius
Numa Pompilius
Festus
Tullus Hostilius
Roman Senate
interrex
assembly of the people
Marcii
Livy
Pontifex Maximus
war
Latins
Aventine Hill
Livy
Numa Pompilius
fetial
Politorium
Lanuvium
Aventine Hill
Sabines
Albans
Medullia
Palatine Hill
Murcia
Janiculum
Tiber
Pons Sublicius
Fossa Quiritium
Mamertine prison
Ostia
Tiber
Veientes
Jupiter Feretrius
Fasti Triumphales
Sabines
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
Gens Marcia

categories: 617 BC deaths,7th-century BC Romans,Year of birth unknown,7th-century BC kings of Rome,Kings of Rome,670s BC births

paragraph: Ancus Marcius

paragraph: Ancus Marcius (–617 BC ; reigned 642–617 BC) was the legendary fourth king of Rome. He was the son of Marcius (whose father, also named Marcius, had been a close friend of Numa Pompilius, who may be identified with Numa Marcius), and Pompilia (daughter of Numa Pompilius). According to Festus, Marcius had the surname of "Ancus" from his crooked arm ('ancus' signifying 'crooked' in Latin). Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king.

paragraph: Ancus Marcius was believed by the Romans to have been the namesake of the Marcii, a Plebeian family.

paragraph: Section::::First acts as King.

paragraph: According to Livy, his first act as king was to order the Pontifex Maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of Numa Pompilius to be displayed to the public, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed.

paragraph: Section::::War.

paragraph: He waged war successfully against the Latins, and a number of them were settled on the Aventine Hill. According to Livy the war was commenced by the Latins who anticipated Ancus would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins initially made an incursion on Roman lands. When a Roman embassy sought restitution for the damage, the Latins gave a contemptuous reply. Ancus accordingly declared war on the Latins. The declaration is notable since, according to Livy, it was the first time that the Romans had declared war by means of the rites of the fetials.

paragraph: Ancus Marcius marched from Rome with a newly levied army and took the Latin town of Politorium (situated near the town of Lanuvium) by storm. Its residents were removed to settle on the Aventine Hill in Rome as new citizens, following the Roman traditions from wars with the Sabines and Albans. When the other Latins subsequently occupied the empty town of Politorium, Ancus took the town again and demolished it. The Latin villages of Tellenae and Ficana were also sacked and demolished.

paragraph: The war then focused on the Latin town of Medullia. The town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. Several engagements took place outside the town and the Romans were eventually victorious. Ancus returned to Rome with a large amount of loot. More Latins were brought to Rome as citizens and were settled at the foot of the Aventine near the Palatine Hill, by the temple of Murcia.

paragraph: Ancus Marcius incorporated the Janiculum into the city, fortifying it with a wall and connecting it with the city by a wooden bridge across the Tiber, the Pons Sublicius.

paragraph: On the land side of the city he constructed the Fossa Quiritium, a ditch fortification. He also built Rome's first prison, the Mamertine prison.

paragraph: He extended Roman territory to the sea, founding the port of Ostia, establishing salt-works around the port, and taking the Silva Maesia, an area of coastal forest north of the Tiber, from the Veientes.

paragraph: He expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes.

paragraph: According to a reconstruction of the Fasti Triumphales, Ancus Marcius celebrated at least one triumph, over the Sabines and Veientes.

paragraph: Section::::Death and successor.

paragraph: Ancus Marcius is reported to have died of natural causes in the 24th year of his reign, at the age of 60.

paragraph: Ancus Marcius was succeeded by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was ultimately assassinated by the sons of Ancus Marcius. Later, during the Republic and the Empire, the prominent Gens Marcia claimed descent from Ancus Marcius.

description: King of Rome

wikidata_label: Ancus Marcius

wikipedia_title: Ancus Marcius


text:
Aberdeen
Paris
Scottish
mathematician
Aberdeen
continent
geometric
algebra
James Gregory
François Viète
new algebra
Marin Getaldić
Denis Henrion
Frans van Schooten

categories: 17th-century mathematicians,17th-century Scottish scientists,Algebraists,Geometers,17th-century Scottish people,1620 deaths,People from Aberdeen,University of Paris faculty,Scottish scholars and academics,Scottish mathematicians,1580s births

paragraph: Alexander Anderson (mathematician)

paragraph: Alexander Anderson ( in Aberdeen – in Paris) was a Scottish mathematician.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the "belles lettres") in his home city of Aberdeen.

paragraph: He then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century. There he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometric and algebraic tracts. He described himself as having "more wisdom than riches" in the dedication of "Vindiciae Archimedis" (1616).

paragraph: He was first cousin of David Anderson of Finshaugh, a celebrated mathematician, and David Anderson's daughter was the mother of mathematician James Gregory.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: He was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended known geometry to the new algebra, which used general symbols to represent quantities.

paragraph: Section::::Work.:Publications.

paragraph: The known works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. He wrote other works that have since been lost. From his last work it appears he wrote another piece, "A Treatise on the Mensuration of Solids," and copies of two other works, "Ex. Math." and "Stereometria Triangulorum Sphæricorum", were in the possession of Sir Alexander Hume until the after the middle of the seventeenth century.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1612: "Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1615: "Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1615: "Pro Zetetico Apolloniani"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1615: "Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1616: "Vindiciae Archimedis"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1619: "Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima"

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marin Getaldić

paragraph: BULLET::::- Denis Henrion

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frans van Schooten

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Attribution:

description: Scottish mathematician

wikidata_label: Alexander Anderson

wikipedia_title: Alexander Anderson (mathematician)


text:
Latinized
Byzantine Emperor
Andronikos
First Palaiologan Civil War
Nicaea
Michael VIII Palaiologos
Theodora Palaiologina
John III Doukas Vatatzes
Constantinople
Latin Empire
Papacy
hyperpyron
Venice
Genoa
1296–1302
1306–10
Byzantine Empire
Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat
Kingdom of Thessalonica
Michael IX Palaiologos
Catherine I of Courtenay
Serbia
Macedonia
Simonis
Stefan Milutin
Europe
Asia Minor
Alexios Philanthropenos
John Tarchaneiotes
Alexios Philanthropenos
John Tarchaneiotes
Michael VIII
Battle of Bapheus
Catalan Company
Almogavars
Catalonia
Roger de Flor
Thrace
Thessaly
Duchy of Athens
Thebes
Prusa
Ottoman Turks
Orhan
Karasids
Mysia
Paleokastron
Simav
Magnesia
Aydinids
Smyrna
Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria
Andronikos III Palaiologos
civil war
Michael Asen III of Bulgaria
Anna of Hungary
Stephen V of Hungary
Elizabeth the Cuman
Michael IX Palaiologos
Constantine Palaiologos
despotes
Andronikos III Palaiologos
Yolanda (renamed Irene)
William VII of Montferrat
John Palaiologos
Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat
Simonis Palaiologina
Stefan Milutin
Demetrios Palaiologos
John II Doukas
Thessaly
Toqta
Golden Horde
Öljaitü
Ilkhanate
Ardenica Monastery
Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery
Zograf monastery
List of Byzantine emperors
Rabban Bar Sauma

categories: 1332 deaths,14th-century Byzantine emperors,Eastern Orthodox monks,Founders of Christian monasteries,Monarchs who abdicated,Palaiologos dynasty,1259 births,Michael VIII Palaiologos,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,13th-century Byzantine emperors,Burials at Lips Monastery

paragraph: Andronikos II Palaiologos

paragraph: Andronikos II Palaiologos (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), usually Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine Emperor from 1282 to 1328. Andronikos' reign was marked by the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. During his reign, the Turks conquered most of the Western Anatolian territories of the Empire and, during the last years of his reign, he also had to fight his grandson Andronikos in the First Palaiologan Civil War. The civil war ended in Andronikos II's forced abdication in 1328 after which he retired to a monastery.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Andronikos II was born Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos () at Nicaea. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Palaiologina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes.

paragraph: Andronikos was acclaimed co-emperor in 1261, after his father Michael VIII recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire, but he was not crowned until 1272. Sole emperor from 1282, Andronikos II immediately repudiated his father's unpopular Church union with the Papacy, which he had been forced to support while his father was still alive, but he was unable to resolve the related schism within the Orthodox clergy until 1310.

paragraph: Andronikos II was also plagued by economic difficulties. During his reign the value of the Byzantine "hyperpyron" depreciated precipitously, while the state treasury accumulated less than one seventh the revenue (in nominal coins) that it had previously. Seeking to increase revenue and reduce expenses, Andronikos II raised taxes, reduced tax exemptions, and dismantled the Byzantine fleet (80 ships) in 1285, thereby making the Empire increasingly dependent on the rival republics of Venice and Genoa. In 1291, he hired 50–60 Genoese ships, but the Byzantine weakness resulting from the lack of a navy became painfully apparent in the two wars with Venice in 1296–1302 and 1306–10. Later, in 1320, he tried to resurrect the navy by constructing 20 galleys, but failed.

paragraph: Andronikos II Palaiologos sought to resolve some of the problems facing the Byzantine Empire through diplomacy. After the death of his first wife Anne of Hungary, he married Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat, putting an end to the Montferrat claim to the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Andronikos II also attempted to marry off his son and co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos to the Latin Empress Catherine I of Courtenay, thus seeking to eliminate Western agitation for a restoration of the Latin Empire. Another marriage alliance attempted to resolve the potential conflict with Serbia in Macedonia, as Andronikos II married off his five-year-old daughter Simonis to King Stefan Milutin in 1298.

paragraph: In spite of the resolution of problems in Europe, Andronikos II was faced with the collapse of the Byzantine frontier in Asia Minor, despite the successful, but short, governorships of Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes. The successful military victories in Asia Minor by Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes against the Turks were largely dependent on a considerable military contingent of Cretan escapees, or exiles from Venetian-occupied Crete, headed by Hortatzis, whom Michael VIII had repatriated to Byzantium through a treaty agreement with the Venetians ratified in 1277. Andronikos II had resettled those Cretans in the region of Meander river, the southeastern Asia Minor frontier of Byzantium with the Turks.

paragraph: After the failure of the co-emperor Michael IX to stem the Turkish advance in Asia Minor in 1302 and the disastrous Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantine government hired the Catalan Company of Almogavars (adventurers from Catalonia) led by Roger de Flor to clear Byzantine Asia Minor of the enemy. In spite of some successes, the Catalans were unable to secure lasting gains. Being more ruthless and savage than the enemy they intended to subdue they quarreled with Michael IX, and eventually openly turned on their Byzantine employers after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305; together with a party of willing Turks they devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly on their road to Latin occupied southern Greece. There they conquered the Duchy of Athens and Thebes. The Turks continued to penetrate the Byzantine possessions, and Prusa fell in 1326. By the end of Andronikos II's reign, much of Bithynia was in the hands of the Ottoman Turks of Osman I and his son and heir Orhan. Also, Karasids conquered Mysia-region with Paleokastron after 1296, Germiyan conquered Simav in 1328, Saruhan captured Magnesia in 1313, and Aydinids captured Smyrna in 1310.

paragraph: The Empire's problems were exploited by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria, who defeated Michael IX and conquered much of northeastern Thrace in . The conflict ended with yet another dynastic marriage, between Michael IX's daughter Theodora and the Bulgarian emperor. The dissolute behavior of Michael IX's son Andronikos III Palaiologos led to a rift in the family, and after Michael IX's death in 1320, Andronikos II disowned his grandson, prompting a civil war that raged, with interruptions, until 1328. The conflict precipitated Bulgarian involvement, and Michael Asen III of Bulgaria attempted to capture Andronikos II under the guise of sending him military support. In 1328 Andronikos III entered Constantinople in triumph and Andronikos II was forced to abdicate.

paragraph: Andronikos II died as a monk at Constantinople in 1332.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: On 8 November 1273 Andronikos II married as his first wife Anna of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, with whom he had two sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael IX Palaiologos (17 April 127712 October 1320).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantine Palaiologos, "despotes" (1335). Constantine was forced to become a monk by his nephew Andronikos III Palaiologos.

paragraph: Anna died in 1281, and in 1284 Andronikos married Yolanda (renamed Irene), a daughter of William VII of Montferrat, with whom he had:

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Palaiologos (–1308), "despotes".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bartholomaios Palaiologos (born 1289), died young.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat (1291–1338).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Simonis Palaiologina (1294–after 1336), who married King Stefan Milutin of Serbia.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodora Palaiologina (born 1295), died young.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Demetrios Palaiologos (1297–1343), "despotēs".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isaakios Palaiologos (born 1299), died young.

paragraph: Andronikos II also had at least three illegitimate daughters:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Irene, who married John II Doukas, ruler of Thessaly.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria, who married Toqta, Khan of the Golden Horde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A daughter known as Despina Khatun, who married Öljaitü, Khan of the Ilkhanate.

paragraph: Section::::Foundations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ardenica Monastery

paragraph: BULLET::::- Panagia Olympiotissa Monastery

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zograf monastery

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rabban Bar Sauma

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Andronikos II Palaiologos

wikipedia_title: Andronikos II Palaiologos


text: Latinized

text: Byzantine Emperor

text: Isaac Komnenos

text: Alexios I

text: licentious

text: Seljuq Turks

text: ransomed

text: Constantinople

text: first cousin

text: Manuel I Komnenos

text: Cilicia

text: Failing

text: Mopsuestia

text: Vlach

text: Kiev

text: Yaroslav Osmomysl

text: Galicia

text: Hungary

text: Semlin

text: Béla III of Hungary

text: Cilicia

text: Raymond

text: Prince of Antioch

text: Philippa

text: Maria

text: Amalric I of Jerusalem

text: Lordship of Beirut

text: Theodora Komnene

text: Baldwin III

text: Nur ad-Din

text: Sultan of Damascus

text: Caucasus

text: Anatolia

text: George III of Georgia

text: Kakhetia

text: Shirvan

text: Caspian

text: Shabaran

text: Darband

text: Shirvanshah

text: Akhsitan I

text: Oinaion

text: Black Sea

text: Trebizond

text: Sinope

text: Alexios II

text: megas doux

text: Andronikos Kontostephanos

text: Maria the Porphyrogenita

text: Renier of Montferrat

text: eunuch

text: hetaireiarches

text: Church of Christ of the Chalkè

text: Stephen Hagiochristophorites

text: Agnes of France

text: Louis VII of France

text: Adèle of Champagne

text: feudalism

text: William

text: Epirus

text: Thessalonica

text: took and pillaged

text: Sea of Marmara

text: Isaac Angelos

text: Isaac Angelos

text: Hagia Sophia

text: Cyprus

text: Hippodrome of Constantinople

text: Thrace

text: Komnenoi

text: Alexios

text: David

text: Empire of Trebizond

text: Manuel Komnenos

text: AIMA prophecy

text: sebastokrator

text: Georgian

text: Rusudan

text: Alexios I

text: David Komnenos

text: Empire of Trebizond

text: John Komnenos

text: Dyrrhachium

text: Theodora Komnene

text: Alexios Komnenos

text: Andronikashvili

text: Alastaneli

text: Alexios Komnenos

text: Anna of France

text: Louis L'Amour

text: The Walking Drum

text: Greek

text: Kostas Kyriazis

text: Baudolino

text: Umberto Eco

text: Andrey Bogolyubsky

text: List of Byzantine emperors

text: Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium

text: Iași

text: Canberra

categories: Christians of the Crusades,People executed by dismemberment,Executed monarchs,Executed Byzantine people,12th-century Byzantine emperors,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Seljuq Wars,1118 births,1185 deaths,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,Lynching deaths,Komnenos dynasty

paragraph: Andronikos I Komnenos

paragraph: Andronikos I Komnenos (, ;  – 12 September 1185), usually Latinized as Andronicus I Comnenus, was Byzantine Emperor from 1183 to 1185. He was the son of Isaac Komnenos and the grandson of the emperor Alexios I.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early years.

paragraph: Andronikos Komnenos was born around 1118. He was handsome and eloquent, active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician, but also licentious. His early years were spent alternately in pleasure and in military service.

paragraph: In 1141 he was taken captive by the Seljuq Turks and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed, he went to Constantinople, where he was held at the court of his first cousin, the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, to whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, Eudoxia, attracted him and she became his mistress. In 1152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in Cilicia. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in Constantinople and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Exile.

paragraph: About 1153, a conspiracy against the Emperor in which Andronikos participated was discovered, and he was thrown in prison. After repeated unsuccessful attempts, he escaped in 1165. After passing through many dangers, including captivity in Vlach territory, he reached Kiev, where his cousin Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia held court. While under the protection of Yaroslav, Andronikos formed an alliance with the Emperor Manuel I, and with a Galician army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary, assisting at the siege of Semlin. The campaign was successful, and Andronikos returned to Constantinople with Manuel I in 1168; a year later, however, Andronikos refused to take the oath of allegiance to the future king Béla III of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. Andronikos was removed from court but received the province of Cilicia.

paragraph: Still under the displeasure of the Emperor, Andronikos fled to the court of Raymond, Prince of Antioch. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the Prince, Philippa, sister of the Empress Maria. The Emperor was again angered by this dishonour, and Andronikos was compelled to flee. He took refuge with King Amalric I of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the Lordship of Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw Theodora Komnene, the beautiful widow of King Baldwin III and niece of the Emperor Manuel. Although Andronikos was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronikos to the court of Nur ad-Din, the Sultan of Damascus. Feeling unsafe there, they continued their perilous journey through the Caucasus and Anatolia. They were well received by King George III of Georgia, whose anonymous sister had probably been the first wife of Andronikos.

paragraph: Andronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia, in the east of Georgia. In 1173 or 1174, he accompanied the Georgian army on an expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where George recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from the invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I. Finally, Andronikos and Theodora settled in the ancestral lands of the Komnenoi at Oinaion, on the shores of the Black Sea, between Trebizond and Sinope. While Andronikos was on one of his incursions into Trebizond, his castle was surprised by the governor of that province, and Theodora and her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronikos in early 1180 made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, besought pardon. This he obtained, and he was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Emperor.

paragraph: In 1180 the Emperor Manuel died and was succeeded by his ten-year-old son Alexios II, who was under the guardianship of his mother, Empress Maria. Her Latin origins and culture led to creeping resentment from her Greek subjects. They had felt insulted by the Western tastes of Manuel, and being ruled by his Western wife built tensions to an explosion of rioting that almost became a full civil war. This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that (according to non-Byzantine sources) included Muslim contingents. The defection of the commander of the Byzantine navy, "megas doux" Andronikos Kontostephanos, and the general Andronikos Angelos, played a key role in allowing the rebellious forces to enter Constantinople.

paragraph: The arrival of Andronikos Komnenos was soon followed by a massacre of the city's Latin inhabitants, who virtually controlled its economy, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Westerners. He was believed to have arranged the poisoning of Alexios II's elder sister Maria the Porphyrogenita and her husband Renier of Montferrat, although Maria herself had encouraged him to intervene; the poisoner was said to be the eunuch Pterygeonites. Soon afterwards Andronikos had the Empress Maria imprisoned and then killed — forcing a signature from the child Emperor Alexios to put his mother to death — by Pterygeonites and the "hetaireiarches" Constantine Tripsychos. Alexios II was compelled to acknowledge Andronikos as colleague in the empire in front of the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè and was then quickly put to death in turn; the killing was carried out by Tripsychos, Theodore Dadibrenos, and Stephen Hagiochristophorites.

paragraph: In 1183, sixty-five year old Andronikos married twelve-year-old Agnes of France, daughter of King Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne — Agnes had been betrothed to Alexios II. By November 1183, Andronikos had associated his younger legitimate son John Komnenos on the throne. In 1184, a Venetian embassy visited Constantinople, and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 gold pieces would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171.

paragraph: The reign of Andronikos was characterized by his harsh measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses but above all things to check feudalism and limit the power of the nobles, who were rivals for his throne. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors, who had grown corrupt under the safety and opulence of Manuel I's rule. Andronikos became increasingly paranoid and violent, however, and the Empire descended into a terror state.. In September 1185, he ordered the execution of all prisoners, exiles, and their families for collusion with the invaders. The aristocrats in turn were infuriated against him, and there were several revolts.

paragraph: The stories of chaos led to an invasion by King William of the Norman Sicilians. William landed in Epirus with a strong force of 200 ships and 80,000 men, including 5,000 knights, and marched as far as Thessalonica, which he took and pillaged ruthlessly (7,000 Greeks died). Andronikos hastily assembled five different armies to stop the Sicilian army from reaching Constantinople, but his forces failed to stand and retreated to the outlying hills. Andronikos also assembled a fleet of 100 ships to stop the Norman fleet from entering the Sea of Marmara. The invaders were finally driven out in 1186 by his successor, Isaac Angelos.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: Andronikos seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly successful. But on September 11, 1185, during his absence from the capital Stephen Hagiochristophorites, his lieutenant, moved to arrest Isaac Angelos, whose loyalty was suspect. Angelos killed Hagiochristophorites and took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose that spread rapidly over the whole city.

paragraph: When Andronikos arrived he found that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. The deposed emperor attempted to escape in a boat with his wife Agnes and his mistress, but they were captured (though some claim that Andronikos survived and managed to escape to the self-proclaimed kingdom of Cyprus). Angelos handed him over to the city mob and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment, remaining for that period tied to a post and beaten. His right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and, among many other sufferings, boiling water was thrown in his face, punishment probably associated with his handsomeness and life of licentiousness. At last he was led to the Hippodrome of Constantinople and hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed as to whose sword would penetrate his body more deeply, and he was, according to the representation of his death, torn apart. He died on September 12, 1185. At the news of the Emperor's death, his son and co-emperor, John, was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.

paragraph: Andronikos I was the last of the Komnenoi to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond in 1204. Their branch of the dynasty was known as the "Great Komnenoi" ("Megalokomnenoi").

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Andronikos I Komnenos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. By his first wife, whose name is not known, he had three children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Manuel Komnenos (1145 – after 1185), served as an ambassador under Manuel I, and opposed his father's policies when he seized power. Due to this opposition, as well as adherence to the AIMA prophecy, he was not named successor, but awarded the rank of "sebastokrator" instead. Nevertheless, he was blinded by the new regime following the downfall of his father, and disappears from the sources thereafter. From his marriage to the Georgian princess Rusudan, he was the father of Alexios I and David Komnenos, the founders of the Empire of Trebizond and of the dynasty of the Grand Komnenoi, the only male-line descendants of the Komnenian house.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Komnenos (1159–1185), as a child he accompanied his father during his exile, and after his rise to the throne was crowned co-emperor in November 1183. After the overthrow of Andronikos, he was executed in September 1185.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria Komnene (born ), married Theodore Synadenos in 1182, but he died shortly after; her second husband was a certain Romanos, whose rapacity and terrorization of the populace during the defence of Dyrrhachium against the Normans in 1185 contributed to the fall of the city. The fate of Maria and her husband after Andronikos' downfall is unknown.

paragraph: By his niece and mistress Theodora Komnene, Andronikos I had the following children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexios Komnenos (1170 – ), his early life is obscure, he fled to Georgia after 1185, where he married into the local nobility. The noble family of Andronikashvili claim descent from him, and he may have been the forefather of the provincial rulers of Alastaneli.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Irene Komnene (born 1171), she was married to the "sebastokrator" Alexios Komnenos, an illegitimate son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, in October 1183. Her husband became involved in a conspiracy against Andronikos and was blinded and imprisoned, while Irene entered a monastery.

paragraph: His second marriage to Anna of France, and his liaisons with his other mistresses, remained childless.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Andronikos is the main protagonist in Michael Arnold's "Against the Fall of Night" (Garden City, New York: Doubleday 1975), as well as Ange Vlachos' "Their Most Serene Majesties" (Vanguard Press, 1964).

paragraph: He is mentioned in the Louis L'Amour medieval historical novel, "The Walking Drum", with his gruesome death foreseen by the protagonist in a vision.

paragraph: He is among the main characters of the historical novel "Agnes of France" (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis (b. 1920). The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. The novel ends with the death of Andronikos.

paragraph: Andronikos was portrayed in the novel "Baudolino" by Umberto Eco, with much detail being given to his grisly end.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andrey Bogolyubsky

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gibbon, Edward. "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Chapter 48.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Grünbart, Michael, 'Die Macht des Historiographen – Andronikos (I.) Komnenos und sein Bild', in "Zbornik Radova Vizantinoloskog Instituta" 48, 2011, pp. 75–85

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan, "Byzantium and the Crusades", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan, 'Collusion with the infidel as a pretext for military action against Byzantium', in "Clash of Cultures: the Languages of Love and Hate", ed. Sarah Lambert and Helen Nicholson, Brepols, 2012, pp. 99–117.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium", Oxford University Press, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mihai Tiuliumeanu, "Andronic I Comnenul", Iași, 2000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Treadgold, Warren, "A History of the Byzantine State and Society", Stanford University Press, 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eustathios of Thessaloniki 'The Capture of Thessaloniki' (Byzantina Australiensia 8), Canberra 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The full text of a lecture by John Melville-Jones on the life of this emperor is located at: . It is accompanied by an extensive bibliography.

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Andronikos I Komnenos

wikipedia_title: Andronikos I Komnenos


text: King of Hungary

text: Croatia

text: Principality of Halych

text: Béla III of Hungary

text: Principality of Halych

text: boyar

text: crusade

text: Holy Land

text: Emeric of Hungary

text: Croatia

text: Dalmatia

text: Hum

text: Ladislaus III

text: Lodomeria

text: Rus' principalities

text: boyar

text: Fifth Crusade

text: servientes regis

text: Golden Bull of 1222

text: nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary

text: Diploma Andreanum

text: Transylvanian Saxon

text: Jews

text: Muslims

text: Holy See

text: prelate

text: Gertrude of Merania

text: Elizabeth of Hungary

text: Béla

text: Coloman

text: Beatrice d'Este

text: Stephen

text: Béla III

text: Agnes of Antioch

text: Principality of Halych

text: Vladimir II Yaroslavich

text: Roman Mstislavich

text: Rurik Rostislavich

text: Belgorod Kievsky

text: boyar

text: Orthodox

text: Casimir II of Poland

text: crusade

text: Holy Land

text: Emeric

text: Leopold VI, Duke of Austria

text: Mački

text: Croatia

text: Dalmatia

text: Frankopans

text: Babonići

text: Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre

text: Miroslav of Hum

text: Hum

text: Cetina

text: Neretva

text: Pope Innocent III

text: Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác

text: excommunication

text: Lake Balaton

text: Gertrude of Merania

text: Berthold, Duke of Merania

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Ladislaus

text: Varaždin

text: Gornji Kneginec

text: Esztergom

text: Hont-Pázmány

text: Thomas the Archdeacon

text: Pilis Abbey

text: Constance of Aragon

text: Austria

text: Leopold VI, Duke of Austria

text: Vienna

text: John, Archbishop of Kalocsa

text: Székesfehérvár

text: ispán

text: counties

text: Vsevolod Svyatoslavich

text: Prince of Chernigov

text: Daniel Romanovich

text: Lodomeria

text: Vladimir Igorevich

text: Leszek I of Poland

text: Galician–Volhynian Chronicle

text: Roman Igorevich

text: Split

text: Omiš

text: archbishops of Split

text: Benedict, son of Korlát

text: Mstislav Mstislavich

text: Prince of Zvenigorod

text: Bishop of Bamberg

text: Philip

text: King of the Germans

text: Szepesség

text: Spiš

text: Berthold

text: Archbishop of Kalocsa

text: Ban of Croatia

text: Dalmatia

text: anonymous author

text: The Deeds of the Hungarians

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Zadar

text: had been lost to the Venetians

text: Domald of Sidraga

text: Géza

text: Saxons

text: Vlachs

text: Székelys

text: Pechenegs

text: Joachim

text: Count of Hermannstadt

text: Sibiu

text: Boril of Bulgaria

text: Cuman

text: Barancs

text: Vidin

text: Barcaság

text: Țara Bârsei

text: Teutonic Knights

text: Pilis Hills

text: Peter, son of Töre

text: Palatine

text: Bánk Bár-Kalán

text: Béla

text: Coloman

text: Salomea

text: Przemyśl

text: Przemyśl

text: treasurer

text: Denis, son of Ampud

text: farmed out royal income

text: Stephen Nemanjić

text: Grand Prince of Serbia

text: Ravno

text: Ćuprija

text: Henry

text: Latin Emperor of Constantinople

text: Yolanda de Courtenay

text: Sava

text: Pope Honorius III

text: Steven Runciman

text: Latin Empire

text: Peter of Courtenay

text: Fifth Crusade

text: Pontius de Cruce

text: Templar

text: Zagreb

text: Leopold VI of Austria

text: Otto I, Duke of Merania

text: Acre

text: John of Brienne

text: King of Jerusalem

text: Grand Masters of the Hospitallers

text: Templars

text: Teutonic Knights

text: Jordan River

text: Al-Adil I

text: Sultan of Egypt

text: Beisan

text: relic

text: marriage at Cana

text: Saint Stephen

text: Margaret the Virgin

text: Thomas

text: Bartholomew

text: Aaron's rod

text: Raoul of Merencourt

text: Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem

text: Tripoli

text: Bohemond IV of Antioch

text: Melisende of Lusignan

text: Cilicia

text: Leo I of Armenia

text: Andrew

text: Isabella

text: Seldjuk

text: Sultanate of Rum

text: Nicaea

text: İznik

text: Maria Laskarina

text: Theodore I Laskaris

text: Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria

text: James of Vitry

text: Jews

text: Muslims

text: consecration

text: udvornici

text: castle folk

text: royal servants

text: Julius Kán

text: Golden Bull of 1222

text: ispán

text: Hungarian nobility

text: Magna Carta

text: Theodore Csanád

text: Diploma Andreanum

text: Saxons

text: Hermannstadt

text: Sibiu

text: Barcaság

text: Duke of Transylvania

text: Cumans

text: Przemyśl

text: Terebovl

text: Kremenets

text: Simon Kacsics

text: Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom

text: Pope Gregory IX

text: interdict

text: Giacomo Pecoraria

text: Bereg

text: Esztergom

text: Frederick II, Duke of Austria

text: Beatrice D'Este

text: John, Bishop of Bosnia

text: Egres Abbey

text: Gertrude of Merania

text: Mary

text: Bela IV

text: Elisabeth

text: Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia

text: Coloman

text: Andrew of Hungary, Prince of Halych

text: Yolanda de Courtenay

text: Yolanda

text: James I of Aragon

text: Beatrice d'Este

text: Stephen

text: Mary

text: Béla

text: Elisabeth

text: Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia

text: canonized

text: Yolanda

text: James I of Aragon

text: Stephen

text: Andrew

text: House of Árpád

categories: 12th-century Hungarian people,Kings of Croatia,1177 births,13th-century monarchs in Europe,Christians of the Fifth Crusade,1235 deaths,Burials at Oradea Cathedral, Crişana,House of Árpád,Kings of Hungary

paragraph: Andrew II of Hungary

paragraph: Andrew II (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and 1210. He was the younger son of Béla III of Hungary, who entrusted him with the administration of the newly conquered Principality of Halych in 1188. Andrew's rule was unpopular, and the boyars (or noblemen) expelled him. Béla III willed property and money to Andrew, obliging him to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. Instead, Andrew forced his elder brother, King Emeric of Hungary, to cede Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage to him in 1197. The following year, Andrew occupied Hum.

paragraph: Despite the fact that Andrew did not stop conspiring against Emeric, the dying king made Andrew guardian of his son, Ladislaus III, in 1204. After the premature death of Ladislaus, Andrew ascended the throne in 1205. According to historian László Kontler, "[i]t was amidst the socio-political turmoil during [Andrew's] reign that the relations, arrangements, institutional framework and social categories that arose under Stephen I, started to disintegrate in the higher echelons of society" in Hungary. Andrew introduced a new grants policy, the so-called "new institutions", giving away money and royal estates to his partisans despite the loss of royal revenues. He was the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of "King of Halych and Lodomeria". He waged at least a dozen wars to seize the two Rus' principalities, but the local boyars and neighboring princes prevented him from conquering the principalities. He participated in the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218, but the crusade was a failure.

paragraph: When the "servientes regis", or "royal servants", rose up, Andrew was forced to issue the Golden Bull of 1222, confirming their privileges. This led to the rise of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary. His "Diploma Andreanum" of 1224 listed the liberties of the Transylvanian Saxon community. The employment of Jews and Muslims to administer the royal revenues led him into conflict with the Holy See and the Hungarian prelates. Andrew pledged to respect the privileges of the clergymen and to dismiss his non-Christian officials in 1233, but he never fulfilled the latter promise.

paragraph: Andrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was murdered in 1213 because her blatant favoritism towards her German kinsmen and courtiers stirred up discontent among the native lords. The veneration of their daughter, Elizabeth of Hungary, was confirmed by the Holy See during Andrew's lifetime. After Andrew's death, his sons, Béla and Coloman, accused his third wife, Beatrice d'Este, of adultery and never considered her son, Stephen, to be a legitimate son of Andrew.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Childhood and youth ( 1177–1197).

paragraph: Andrew was the second son of King Béla III and Béla's first wife, Agnes of Antioch. The year of Andrew's birth is not known, but modern historians agree that he was born around 1177. Andrew was first mentioned in connection to his father's invasion of the Principality of Halych in 1188. That year, Béla III invaded Halych upon the request of its former prince, Vladimir II Yaroslavich, who had been expelled by his subjects. Béla forced the new prince, Roman Mstislavich, to flee. After conquering Halych, he granted it to Andrew. Béla also captured Vladimir Yaroslavich and imprisoned him in Hungary.

paragraph: After Béla's withdrawal from Halych, Roman Mstislavich returned with the assistance of Rurik Rostislavich, Prince of Belgorod Kievsky. They tried to expel Andrew and his Hungarian retinue, but the Hungarians routed the united forces of Mstislavich and Rostislavich. A group of local boyars offered the throne to Rostislav Ivanovich, a distant cousin of the imprisoned Vladimir Yaroslavich. Béla III sent reinforcements to Halych, enabling Andrew's troops to repel the attacks. Andrew's reign remained unpopular in Halych, because the Hungarian soldiers insulted local women and did not respect Orthodox churches. Consequently, the local boyars allied with their former prince, Vladimir Yaroslavich, who had escaped from captivity and returned to Halych. Duke Casimir II of Poland also supported Vladimir Yaroslavich, and they expelled Andrew and his retinue from the principality in August 1189 or 1190. Andrew returned to Hungary after his defeat. He did not receive a separate duchy from his father, who only gave him estates and money. On his deathbed, Béla III, who had pledged to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, ordered Andrew to fulfill his vow. Andrew's father died on 23 April 1196, and Andrew's older brother, Emeric, succeeded him.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia (1197–1204).

paragraph: Andrew used the funds that he inherited from his father to recruit supporters among the Hungarian lords. He also formed an alliance with Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, and they plotted against Emeric. Their united troops routed the royal army at Mački, Slavonia, in December 1197. Under duress, King Emeric gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew as an appanage. In practice, Andrew administered Croatia and Dalmatia as an independent monarch. He minted coins, granted land and confirmed privileges. He cooperated with the Frankopans, Babonići, and other local lords. The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre settled in the province during his rule. Taking advantage of Miroslav of Hum's death, Andrew invaded Hum and occupied at least the land between the Cetina and Neretva rivers. He styled himself, "By the grace of God, Duke of Zadar and of all Dalmatia, Croatia and Hum" in his charters.

paragraph: Pope Innocent III urged Andrew to lead a crusade the Holy Land, but Andrew hatched a new conspiracy against Emeric with the help of John, Abbot of Pannonhalma, Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, and many other prelates and lords. The Pope threatened him with excommunication if he failed to fulfill his father's vow, but Andrew did not yield. The conspiracy was uncovered on 10 March 1199, when King Emeric seized letters written by Andrew's partisans to Bishop Boleslaus. That summer, royal troops routed Andrew's army near Lake Balaton, and Andrew fled to Austria. A papal legate mediated a reconciliation between Andrew and Emeric, who allowed Andrew to return to Croatia and Dalmatia in 1200. Andrew married Gertrude of Merania; her father, Berthold, Duke of Merania, owned extensive domains in the Holy Roman Empire along the borders of Andrew's duchy.

paragraph: When Emeric's son, Ladislaus, was born around 1200, Andrew's hopes to succeed his brother as king were shattered. Pope Innocent confirmed the child's position as heir to the crown, declaring that Andrew's future sons would only inherit Andrew's duchy. Andrew planned a new rebellion against his brother, but King Emeric captured him without resistance near Varaždin in October 1203.

paragraph: Andrew was first imprisoned in the fort of Gornji Kneginec, then in Esztergom. Alexander of the Hont-Pázmány clan freed him in early 1204. Having fallen ill, King Emeric had his son, Ladislaus, crowned king on 26 August. Andrew reconciled with his dying brother, who entrusted him with "the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority", according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:His nephew's guardian (1204–1205).

paragraph: King Emeric died on 30 November 1204. Andrew governed the kingdom as Ladislaus's regent, but he counted his regnal years from the time of his brother's death, showing that he already regarded himself as the lawful monarch during Ladislaus III's reign. Pope Innocent told Andrew that he should remain loyal to Ladislaus. Instead, Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited for Ladislaus in Pilis Abbey. Ladislaus's mother, Constance of Aragon, fled from Hungary, taking her son to Austria. Andrew prepared to war against Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, but Ladislaus suddenly died in Vienna on 7 May 1205.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:"New institutions" and campaigns in Halych (1205–1217).

paragraph: John, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 29 May 1205. Andrew introduced a new policy for royal grants, which he called "new institutions" in one of his charters. He distributed large portions of the royal domainroyal castles and all estates attached to themas inheritable grants to his supporters, declaring that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable." His "new institutions" altered the relations between the monarchs and the Hungarian lords. During the previous two centuries, a lord's status primarily depended on the income he received for his services to the monarch; after the introduction of the "new institutions", their inheritable estates yielded sufficient revenues. This policy also diminished the funds upon which the authority of the "ispáns", or heads, of the countieswho were appointed by the monarchshad been based.

paragraph: During his reign, Andrew was intensely interested in the internal affairs of his former principality of Halych. He launched his first campaign to recapture Halych in 1205 or 1206. Upon the boyars' request, he intervened against Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov, and his allies on behalf of Daniel Romanovich, the child-prince of Halych, and Lodomeria. Svyatoslavich and his allies were forced to withdraw. Andrew adopted the title of "King of Galicia and Lodomeria", demonstrating his claim to suzerainty in the two principalities.

paragraph: After Andrew returned to Hungary, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich's distant cousin, Vladimir Igorevich, seized both Halych and Lodomeria, expelling Daniel Romanovich and his mother. They fled to Leszek I of Poland, who suggested that they visit Andrew. However, Vladimir Igorevich "sent many gifts" to both Andrew and Leszek, dissuading "them from attacking him" on behalf of Romanovich, according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". Vladimir Igorevich's rebellious brother, Roman Igorevich, soon came to Hungary, seeking Andrew's assistance. Roman returned to Halych and expelled Vladimir Igorevich with the help of Hungarian auxiliary troops.

paragraph: Andrew confirmed the liberties of two Dalmatian townsSplit and Omišand issued a new charter listing the privileges of the archbishops of Split in 1207. Taking advantage of a conflict between Roman Igorevich and his boyars, Andrew sent troops to Halych under the command of Benedict, son of Korlát. Benedict captured Roman Igorevich and occupied the principality in 1208 or 1209. Instead of appointing a new prince, Andrew made Benedict governor of Halych. Benedict "tortured boyars and was addicted to lechery", according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". The boyars offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, Prince of Zvenigorod, if he could overthrow Benedict. Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych, but he could not defeat Benedict.

paragraph: Queen Gertrude's two brothers, Ekbert, Bishop of Bamberg, and Henry II, Margrave of Istria, fled to Hungary in 1208 after they were accused of participating in the murder of Philip, King of the Germans. Andrew granted large domains to Bishop Ekbert in the Szepesség region (now Spiš, Slovakia). Gertrude's youngest brother, Berthold, had been Archbishop of Kalocsa since 1206; he was made Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1209. Andrew's generosity towards his wife's German relatives and courtiers discontented the local lords. According to historian Gyula Kristó, the anonymous author of "The Deeds of the Hungarians" referred to the Germans from the Holy Roman Empire when he sarcastically mentioned that " the Romans gaze on the goods of Hungary." In 1209, Zadar, which had been lost to the Venetians, was liberated by one of Andrew's Dalmatian vassals, Domald of Sidraga, but the Venetians recaptured the town a year later.

paragraph: Roman Igorevich reconciled with his brother, Vladimir Igorevich, in early 1209 or 1210. Their united forces vanquished Benedict's army, expelling the Hungarians from Halych. Vladimir Igorevich sent one of his sons, Vsevolod Vladimirovich, "bearing gifts to the king in Hungary" to appease Andrew, according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". A group of discontented Hungarian lords offered the crown to Andrew's cousins, the sons of Andrew's uncle, Géza; they lived in "Greek land". However, the cousins' envoys were captured in Split in 1210. In the early 1210s, Andrew sent "an army of Saxons, Vlachs, Székelys and Pechenegs" commanded by Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt, (now Sibiu, Romania) to assist Boril of Bulgaria's fight against three rebellious Cuman chieftains. Around the same time, Hungarian troops occupied Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo, Serbia), which had been lost to Bulgaria under Emeric. Andrew's army defeated the Cumans at Vidin. Andrew granted the Barcaság (now Țara Bârsei, Romania) to the Teutonic Knights. The Knights were to defend the easternmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Cumans and encourage their conversion to Catholicism.

paragraph: A group of boyars, who were alarmed by the despotic acts of Vladimir Igorevich, asked Andrew to restore Daniel Romanovich as ruler of Halych in 1210 or 1211. Andrew and his alliesLeszek I of Poland and at least five Rus' princessent their armies to Halych and restored Daniel Romanovich. Local boyars expelled Daniel Romanovich's mother in 1212. She persuaded Andrew to personally lead his army to Halych. He captured Volodislav Kormilchich, the most influential boyar, and took him to Hungary. After Andrew withdrew from Halych, the boyars again offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, who expelled Daniel Romanovich and his mother from the principality. Andrew departed for a new campaign against Halych in summer 1213. During his absence, Hungarian lords who were aggrieved at Queen Gertrude's favoritism towards her German entourage captured and murdered her and many of her courtiers in the Pilis Hills on 28 September. When he heard of her murder, Andrew returned to Hungary and ordered the execution of the murderer, Peter, son of Töre. However, Peter's accomplices, including Palatine Bánk Bár-Kalán, did not receive severe punishments. A group of Hungarian lords, whom Andrew called "perverts" in one of his letters, was plotting to dethrone Andrew and crown his eldest son, the eight-year-old Béla, but they failed to dethrone him and could only force Andrew to consent to Béla's coronation in 1214.

paragraph: Andrew and Leszek of Poland signed a treaty of alliance, which obliged Andrew's second son, Coloman, to marry Leszek of Poland's daughter, Salomea. Andrew and Leszek jointly invaded Halych in 1214, and Coloman was made prince. He agreed to cede Przemyśl to Leszek of Poland. The following year, Andrew returned to Halych and captured Przemyśl. Leszek of Poland soon reconciled with Mstislav Mstislavich; they jointly invaded Halych and forced Coloman to flee to Hungary. A new officer of state, the treasurer, was responsible for the administration of the royal chamber from around 1214 onwards. However, royal revenues had significantly diminished. Upon the advice of the treasurer, Denis, son of Ampud, Andrew imposed new taxes and farmed out royal income from minting, salt trade and custom duties. The yearly exchange of coins also produced more revenue for the royal chamber. However, these measures provoked discontent in Hungary.

paragraph: Andrew signed a new treaty of alliance with Leszek of Poland in the summer of 1216. Leszek and Andrew's son, Coloman, invaded Halych and expelled Mstislav Mstislavich and Daniel Romanovich, after which Coloman was restored. That same year, Andrew met Stephen Nemanjić, Grand Prince of Serbia, in Ravno (now Ćuprija, Serbia). He persuaded Stephen Nemanjić to negotiate with Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who was the uncle of Andrew's second wife, Yolanda de Courtenay. Stephen Nemanjić was crowned king of Serbia in 1217. Andrew planned to invade Serbia, but Stephen Nemanjić's brother, Sava, dissuaded him, according to both versions of the "Life of Sava".

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Andrew's crusade (1217–1218).

paragraph: In July 1216, the newly elected Pope Honorius III once again called upon Andrew to fulfill his father's vow to lead a crusade. Andrew, who had postponed the crusade at least three times (in 1201, 1209 and 1213), finally agreed. Steven Runciman, Tibor Almási and other modern historians say that Andrew hoped that his decision would increase his likelihood of being elected as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, because his wife's uncle, Emperor Henry, had died in June. According to a letter written by Pope Honorius in 1217, envoys from the Latin Empire had actually informed Andrew that they planned to elect either him or his father-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, as emperor. The barons of the Latin Empire elected Peter of Courtenay in the summer of 1216.

paragraph: Andrew sold and mortgaged royal estates to finance his campaign, which became part of the wider Fifth Crusade. He renounced his claim to Zadar in favor of the Republic of Venice so that he could secure shipping for his army. He entrusted Hungary to Archbishop John of Esztergom, and gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Pontius de Cruce, the Templar Prior of Vrana. In July 1217, Andrew departed from Zagreb, accompanied by Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I, Duke of Merania. His army was so largeat least 10,000 mounted soldiers and uncountable infantrymenthat most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later. The ships transported them to Acre, where they landed in October.

paragraph: The leaders of the crusade included John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Leopold of Austria, the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers, the Templars and the Teutonic Knights. They held a war council in Acre, with Andrew leading the meeting. In early November, the Crusaders launched a campaign for the Jordan River, forcing Al-Adil I, Sultan of Egypt, to withdraw without fighting; the crusaders then pillaged Beisan. After the crusaders returned to Acre, Andrew did not participate in any other military actions. Instead, he was collecting relics, including a water jug allegedly used at the marriage at Cana, the heads of Saint Stephen and Margaret the Virgin, the right hands of the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew and a part of Aaron's rod. If Thomas the Archdeacon's report of certain "evil and audacious men" in Acre who "treacherously passed him a poisoned drink" is reliable, Andrew's inactivity was because of illness.

paragraph: Andrew decided to return home at the very beginning of 1218, even though Raoul of Merencourt, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, threatened him with excommunication. Andrew first visited Tripoli and participated in the marriage of Bohemond IV of Antioch and Melisende of Lusignan on 10 January. From Tripoli, he travelled to Cilicia, where he and Leo I of Armenia betrothed Andrew's youngest son, Andrew, and Leo's daughter, Isabella. Andrew proceeded through the Seldjuk Sultanate of Rum before arriving in Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey). His cousins (the sons of his uncle, Géza) attacked him when he was in Nicaea. He arranged the marriage of his oldest son, Béla, to Maria Laskarina, a daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris. When he arrived in Bulgaria, Andrew was detained until he "gave full surety that his daughter would be united in marriage" to Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, according to Thomas the Archdeacon. Andrew returned to Hungary in late 1218. Andrew's "crusade had achieved nothing and brought him no honor", according to historian Thomas C. Van Cleve. Oliver of Padernborn, James of Vitry and other 13th-century authors blamed Andrew for the failure of crusade.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Golden Bull (1218–1222).

paragraph: When he returned to Hungary, Andrew complained to Pope Honorius that his kingdom was "in a miserable and destroyed state, deprived of all of its revenues." A group of barons had even expelled Archbishop John from Hungary. Andrew was in massive debt because of his crusade, which forced him to impose extraordinarily high taxes and debase coinage. In 1218 or 1219, Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych and captured Andrew's son, Coloman. Andrew compromised with Mstislavich. Coloman was released, and Andrew's youngest son and namesake was betrothed to Mstislavich's daughter. In 1220, a group of lords persuaded Andrew to make his eldest son, Béla, the Duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia.

paragraph: Andrew employed Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues, which caused a discord between Andrew and the Holy See starting in the early 1220s. Pope Honorius urged Andrew and Queen Yolanda to prohibit Muslims from employing Christians. Andrew confirmed the privileges of clergymen, including their exemption from taxes and their right to be exclusively judged by church courts, but also prohibited the consecration of "udvornici", castle folk and other serfs in early 1222. However, a new conflict emerged between Andrew and the Holy See after he persuaded Béla to separate from his wife, Maria Laskarina. An "immense crowd" approached Andrew around June 1222, demanding "grave and unjust things", according to a letter of Pope Honorius. Actually, the royal servantswho were landowners directly subject to the monarch's power and obliged to fight in the royal armyassembled, forcing Andrew to dismiss Julius Kán and his other officials. Andrew was also forced issue a royal charter, the Golden Bull of 1222. The charter summarized the liberties of the royal servants, including their exemption from taxes and the jurisdiction of the "ispáns". The last clause of the Golden Bull authorized "the bishops as well as the other barons and nobles of the realm, singularly and in common" to resist the monarch if he did not honor the provisions of the charter. The Golden Bull clearly distinguished the royal servants from the king's other subjects, which led to the rise of the Hungarian nobility. The Golden Bull is commonly compared with England's "Magna Carta" — a similar charter which was sealed a few years earlier in 1215. A significant difference between them is that, in England, the settlement strengthened the position of all the royal subjects but, in Hungary, the aristocracy came to dominate both the crown and the lower orders.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Conflicts with son and the Church (1222–1234).

paragraph: Andrew discharged Palatine Theodore Csanád and restored Julius Kán in the second half of 1222. The following year, Pope Honorius urged Andrew to launch a new crusade. If the report of the "Continuatio Claustroneuburgensis" is reliable, Andrew took the cross to show that he intended to launch a new crusade, but no other sources mention this event. Andrew planned to arrange a new marriage for his eldest son, Béla, but Pope Honorius mediated a reconciliation between Béla and his wife in the autumn of 1223. This angered Andrew, and Béla fled to Austria. He returned in 1224 after the bishops persuaded Andrew to forgive him.

paragraph: In his "Diploma Andreanum" of 1224, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the "Saxons" who inhabited the region of Hermannstadt in southern Transylvania (now Sibiu, Romania). The following year, he launched a campaign against the Teutonic Knights, who had attempted to eliminate his suzerainty. The Knights were forced to leave Barcaság and the neighboring lands. Andrew's envoys and Leopold VI of Austria signed a treaty on 6 June, which ended the armed conflicts along the Hungarian-Austrian border. As part of the treaty, Leopold VI paid an indemnification for the damages that his troops had caused in Hungary. Andrew made his oldest son, Béla, Duke of Transylvania. Béla's former duchy was given to Andrew's second son, Coloman, in 1226. Duke Béla started expanding his suzerainty over the Cumans, who inhabited the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains. Andrew launched a campaign against Mstislav Mstislavich in 1226 because the latter refused to grant Halych to Andrew's youngest son despite a previous compromise. Andrew besieged and captured Przemyśl, Terebovl, and other fortresses in Halych. However, his troops were routed at Kremenets and Zvenigorod, forcing him to withdraw. Despite his victories, Mstislavich ceded Halych to Andrew's son in early 1227.

paragraph: In 1228, Andrew authorized his son, Béla, to revise his previous land grants. Pope Honorius also supported Béla's efforts. Béla confiscated the domains of two noblemen, Simon Kacsics and Bánk Bár-Kalán, who had taken part in the conspiracy to murder Queen Gertrude. In 1229, upon Béla's proposal, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the Cuman chieftains who had subjected themselves to Béla. Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom, made a complaint about Andrew to the Holy See, because Andrew continued to employ Jews and Muslims. Pope Gregory IX authorized the archbishop to perform acts of religious censure to persuade Andrew to dismiss his non-Christian officials. Under duress, Andrew issued a new Golden Bull in 1231, which confirmed that Muslims were banned from employment, and empowered the Archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the king if he failed to honor the provisions of the new Golden Bull. In the second half of the year, Andrew invaded Halych and restored his youngest son, Andrew, to the throne.

paragraph: Archbishop Robert excommunicated Palatine Denis and put Hungary under an interdict on 25 February 1232, because the employment of Jews and Muslims continued despite the Golden Bull of 1231. Since the archbishop accused the Muslims of persuading Andrew to seize church property, Andrew restored properties to the archbishop, who soon suspended the interdict. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Giacomo Pecoraria as his legate to Hungary and promised that nobody would be excommunicated without the pope's special authorization. Although Andrew departed for Halych to support his youngest son in a fight against Daniel Romanivich, he continued his negotiations with the papal legate. On 20 August 1233, in the forests of Bereg, he vowed that he would not employ Jews and Muslims to administrate royal revenues, and would pay 10,000 marks as compensation for usurped Church revenues. Andrew repeated his oath in Esztergom in September.

paragraph: Andrew and Frederick II, Duke of Austria, signed a peace treaty in late 1233. Andrew, who had been widowed, married the 23-year-old Beatrice D'Este on 14 May 1234, even though his sons were sharply opposed to his third marriage. John, Bishop of Bosnia, put Hungary under a new interdict in the first half of 1234, because Andrew had not dismissed his non-Christian officials despite his oath of Bereg. Andrew and Archbishop Robert of Esztergom protested against the bishop's act at the Holy See.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Last years (1234–1235).

paragraph: Danilo Romanovich laid siege to Halych, and Andrew's youngest son died during the siege in the autumn of 1234. However, Andrew stormed Austria in the summer of 1235, forcing Duke Frederick to pay an indemnification for damages that his troops had caused while raiding Hungary. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory declared on 31 August that Andrew and his sons could only be excommunicated by the authorization of the Holy See. Andrew died on 21 September, and was buried in Egres Abbey.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- With Gertrude of Merania (b. ±1185):

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mary (b. 1203/1204), married Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bela IV (b. 1206)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elisabeth (b. 1207, d. 1231), married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coloman (b. ±1210)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andrew of Hungary, Prince of Halych

paragraph: BULLET::::- With Yolanda de Courtenay (b. ±1198)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yolanda (b. ±1219) married James I of Aragon

paragraph: BULLET::::- With Beatrice d'Este (23 years old at the time of marriage in 1234)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stephen

paragraph: Andrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was born around 1185, according to historian Gyula Kristó. Their first child, Mary, was born in 1203 or 1204. She became the wife of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. Andrew's eldest son, Béla, was born in 1206. He later succeeded his father as king. Béla's younger sister, Elisabeth, was born in 1207. She married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia. She died in 1231 and was canonized during Andrew's life. Andrew's second son, Coloman, was born in 1208. His third son, Andrew, was born around 1210. Coloman and Andrew each ruled the Principality of Halych for a short period.

paragraph: Two years after his first wife was murdered, Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay, who was born around 1198. Their only child, Yolanda, was born around 1219 and married James I of Aragon. Andrew's third wife, Beatrice D'Este, was about twenty-three when they married in 1234. She gave birth to a son, Stephen, after Andrew's death. However, Andrew's two older sons, Béla and Coloman, accused her of adultery and considered her child to be a bastard. Her grandson, Andrew, became the last monarch of the House of Árpád.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians" (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); "Anonymus and Master Roger"; CEU Press; .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split" (Latin text by Olga Perić, edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle" (An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky) (1973). Wilhelm Fink Verlag. LCCN 72-79463.

description: King of Hungary

wikidata_label: Andrew II of Hungary

wikipedia_title: Andrew II of Hungary


text: privateer

text: Royal Navy

text: castaway

text: marooned

text: captain

text: South Pacific Ocean

text: buccaneer

text: War of the Spanish Succession

text: Cinque Ports

text: William Dampier

text: Juan Fernández Islands

text: Woodes Rogers

text: Daniel Defoe

text: Robinson Crusoe

text: Lower Largo

text: Fife

text: Kirk Session

text: buccaneer

text: privateer

text: South Pacific Ocean

text: Kinsale

text: letters of marque

text: Lord High Admiral

text: War of the Spanish Succession

text: captain

text: Cinque Ports

text: sailing master

text: Cape Horn

text: Santa María

text: ambush

text: prize ship

text: Más a Tierra

text: Juan Fernández archipelago

text: musket

text: hatchet

text: Bible

text: Lima, Peru

text: spiny lobster

text: sea lions

text: feral goat

text: turnip

text: cabbage leaves

text: pepper berries

text: Rat

text: feral cat

text: barrel

text: pepper

text: psalms

text: privateer

text: piloted

text: Thomas Dover

text: Woodes Rogers

text: scurvy

text: second mate

text: Guayaquil

text: Guayas River

text: galleons

text: Dutch East Indies

text: Cape of Good Hope

text: the Downs

text: Richard Steele

text: Bristol

text: Royal Navy

text: Plymouth

text: master's mate

text: piracy

text: yellow fever

text: Daniel Defoe

text: Tim Severin

text: mid-latitudes

text: Caribbean

text: tropical

text: William Cowper

text: Charles Dickens

text: The Pickwick Papers

text: Patrick Kavanagh

text: W. S. Gilbert

text: Bab Ballads

text: Joshua Slocum

text: Sailing Alone Around the World

text: Allan Cole

text: Chris Bunch

text: The Wolf Worlds

text: Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe

text: stop motion

text: Walter Tournier

text: The Walt Disney Company

text: Lord Aberdeen

text: Lady Aberdeen

text: Thomas Stuart Burnett

text: Eduardo Frei Montalva

text: Robinson Crusoe Island

text: Más Afuera

text: Alejandro Selkirk Island

text: archaeological

text: navigational dividers

text: Spiegel Online

text: The Scotsman

text: "The Real Robinson Crusoe"

text: Smithsonian

text: Google Maps

categories: People from Lower Largo,Robinson Crusoe,Circumnavigators of the globe,Privateers,Juan Fernández Islands,18th-century Scottish people,18th century in Chile,Deaths from yellow fever,Maritime folklore,Castaways,1676 births,Burials at sea,1721 deaths,People who died at sea,Date of birth unknown

paragraph: Alexander Selkirk

paragraph: Alexander Selkirk (167613 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent four years and four months as a castaway (1704–1709) after being marooned by his captain on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived that ordeal, but succumbed to tropical illness a dozen years later while serving aboard off West Africa.

paragraph: Selkirk was an unruly youth, and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on "Cinque Ports", captained by Thomas Stradling under the overall command of William Dampier. Stradling's ship stopped to resupply at the uninhabited Juan Fernández Islands, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there.

paragraph: By the time he was eventually rescued by English privateer Woodes Rogers, in company with Dampier, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicised after his return to England, becoming a source of inspiration for writer Daniel Defoe's fictional character Robinson Crusoe.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and privateering.

paragraph: Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his "indecent conduct in church", but he "did not appear, being gone to sea". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for assaulting his brothers.

paragraph: Early on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703 he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorising their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain. Dampier was captain of "St George" and Selkirk served on "Cinque Ports", "St George"s companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling. By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.

paragraph: In February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn, the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, "St Joseph", only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed. The easy capture of "Asunción", a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men's hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar and flour; then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704 Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.

paragraph: Section::::Castaway.

paragraph: In September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier, Captain Stradling brought "Cinque Ports" to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.

paragraph: Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel, and wanted to make the necessary repairs before going any farther. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes. Selkirk immediately regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.

paragraph: "Cinque Ports" did indeed later founder off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Lima, Peru, where they endured a harsh imprisonment.

paragraph: Section::::Castaway.:Life on the island.

paragraph: At first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Juan Fernández. During this time he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathered on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island's interior. Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats—introduced by earlier sailors—provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, cabbage leaves and dried pepper berries offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.

paragraph: Selkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach, he built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping, and he employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.

paragraph: Childhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he had no need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary. He sang psalms and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.

paragraph: During his sojourn on the island, two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. As a Scotsman and a privateer, he would have faced a grim fate if captured and therefore did his best to hide himself. Once, he was spotted and chased by a group of Spanish sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to notice him. The would-be captors then gave up and sailed away.

paragraph: Section::::Castaway.:Rescue.

paragraph: Selkirk's long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of "Duke", a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion "Duchess". Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk. After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy. The "Duke" captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who mischievously referred to Selkirk as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers' men, who were suffering from scurvy.

paragraph: Captain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk's physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: "One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was." He made Selkirk "Duke"s second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, "Increase", before it was ransomed by the Spanish.

paragraph: Selkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where a number of wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and looted the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing. His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of "Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño", renamed "Bachelor", on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies. Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of "Duke", arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711. He had been away for eight years.

paragraph: Section::::Later life and influence.

paragraph: Selkirk's experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in England. Fellow crewmember Edward Cooke mentioned Selkirk's ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition, "A Voyage to the South Sea and Round the World" (1712). A more detailed recounting was published by the expedition's leader, Rogers, within months. The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for "The Englishman" newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of "Duke"'s plundered wealth—about £800 (equivalent to £ today). However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.

paragraph: After a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again. In September 1713 he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and may have been kept in confinement for two years. He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early in 1717 but apparently did not marry. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy. While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis. He was serving as master's mate on board , engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa, when he died on 13 December 1721, succumbing to the yellow fever that plagued the voyage. He was buried at sea.

paragraph: When Daniel Defoe published "The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows "a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland", in the words of modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare. Yet Crusoe's island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character, though most literary scholars now accept that his was "just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about".

paragraph: Section::::In other literary works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William Cowper's "The Solitude Of Alexander Selkirk" is about Selkirk's feelings as the castaway lived all alone on the island. This poem gave rise to the common phrase "monarch of all I survey" via the verse:

paragraph: poem:::I am monarch of all I survey,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Dickens used Selkirk as a simile in Chapter Two of "The Pickwick Papers" (1836): "Colonel Builder and Sir Thomas Clubber exchanged snuff-boxes, and looked very much like a pair of Alexander Selkirks—'Monarchs of all they surveyed. This is also a reference to William Cowper's poem.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem "Inniskeen Road: July Evening":

paragraph: poem:::Oh, Alexander Selkirk knew the plight

paragraph: BULLET::::- In "Etiquette", one of W. S. Gilbert's "Bab Ballads", Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways:

paragraph: poem:::These passengers, by reason of their clinging to a mast,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book "Sailing Alone Around the World" (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk's stay.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch's Sten science fiction series, Book Two, "The Wolf Worlds", the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: A slackit way f'r a mon,' Alex mourned to himself. 'Ah didnae ken Ah'd ever be Alex Selkirk.

paragraph: Section::::In film.

paragraph: "Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe" is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk's life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012, distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.

paragraph: Section::::Commemoration.

paragraph: Selkirk has been memorialised in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.

paragraph: The Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk's Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay. On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe's fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located to the west.

paragraph: Section::::Archaeological findings.

paragraph: An archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that likely belonged to Selkirk. It was "a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers" dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers, and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession. The artefact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk's Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Trapped on a Pacific Island: Scientists Research the Real Robinson Crusoe" by Marco Evers (6 February 2009) in "Spiegel Online"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Island Gives Up Secret of Real Robinson Crusoe" in "The Scotsman" (22 September 2005)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Real Robinson Crusoe" by Bruce Selcraig (July 2005) in "Smithsonian"

paragraph: BULLET::::- An account of a trip to Selkirk's Island by James S. Bruce and Mayme S. Bruce (Spring 1993) in "The Explorers Journal"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On a Piece of Stone: Alexander Selkirk on Greater Land" by Edward E. Leslie (1988) in "Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls: True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors" (pp. 61–85)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Satellite imagery of the Juan Fernández Islands from Google Maps

description: Scottish sailor

wikidata_label: Alexander Selkirk

wikipedia_title: Alexander Selkirk