text: ALA-LC

text: sultan

text: Egypt

text: Syria

text: Ayyubid dynasty

text: Sunni

text: Muslim

text: Kurdish

text: Crusader

text: Levant

text: Upper Mesopotamia

text: Hejaz

text: Yemen

text: North Africa

text: Fatimid Egypt

text: Shirkuh

text: Zengid

text: Nur ad-Din

text: vizier

text: Isma'ili Shia

text: Baghdad

text: Abbasid Caliphate

text: Palestine

text: Upper Egypt

text: Damascus

text: Hama

text: Homs

text: Battle of the Horns of Hama

text: al-Mustadi

text: Jazira

text: Assassins

text: Aleppo

text: Mosul

text: Battle of Hattin

text: Kingdom of Jerusalem

text: Hattin

text: mausoleum

text: Umayyad Mosque

text: Muslim

text: Arab

text: Turkish

text: Kurdish culture

text: Tikrit

text: Iraq

text: Yusuf

text: Salah ad-Din

text: laqab

text: Kurdish

text: Dvin

text: Armenia

text: Imad ad-Din Zengi

text: Mosul

text: Tigris River

text: Najm ad-Din Ayyub

text: Mujahed al-Din Bihruz

text: Seljuks

text: Asad al-Din Shirkuh

text: honour killing

text: Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad

text: Baalbek

text: Nur ad-Din

text: Aleppo

text: Zengids

text: Damascus

text: al-Wahrani

text: Euclid

text: Almagest

text: Qur'an

text: First Crusade

text: Jerusalem

text: taken

text: Christians

text: Arabs

text: Arabian horse

text: Hamasah

text: Abu Tammam

text: Kurdish

text: Arabic

text: Asad al-Din Shirkuh

text: Fatimid

text: al-Adid

text: Shawar

text: Dirgham

text: gold dinar

text: Bilbais

text: combined force of Crusaders

text: engage in a battle

text: River Nile

text: Giza

text: feigned retreat

text: Hugh of Caesarea

text: Ibn al-Athir

text: Alexandria

text: Amalric I

text: Kingdom of Jerusalem

text: Shia

text: Imad ad-Din

text: Cairo

text: Byzantine

text: Damietta

text: Baghdad

text: Abbasid

text: al-Mustanjid

text: Maliki

text: Shafi'i

text: al-Fustat

text: Darum

text: Templar

text: Gaza

text: Eilat

text: Gulf of Aqaba

text: faqih

text: khutba

text: al-Mustadi

text: Kerak

text: Montreal

text: Nubia

text: Armenia

text: Aswan

text: Turan-Shah

text: Ibrim

text: Yemen

text: Aden

text: Ayyubid Dynasty

text: Diyar Bakr

text: Jazira

text: as-Salih Ismail al-Malik

text: Aleppo

text: Saif al-Din

text: Bosra

text: Citadel of Damascus

text: Tughtakin ibn Ayyub

text: Tughtigin

text: Hamah

text: Homs

text: Rashid ad-Din Sinan

text: Assassins

text: Abu Qubays

text: Raymond of Tripoli

text: Nahr al-Kabir

text: Homs

text: Zengid

text: Mesopotamia

text: Damascus province

text: Horns of Hama

text: Orontes River

text: Ma'arat al-Numan

text: Friday prayer

text: Diyarbakir

text: Sultan's Mound

text: prisoners of war

text: Manbij

text: A'zaz

text: gambeson

text: Mardin

text: Keyfa

text: Ismaili

text: Assassins

text: Rashid ad-Din Sinan

text: an-Nusayriyah Mountains

text: nine fortresses

text: Masyaf

text: Mount Lebanon

text: Cairo Citadel

text: Giza

text: Moorish

text: Harim

text: Ascalon

text: William of Tyre

text: Sudan

text: Ramla

text: Lod

text: Gates of Jerusalem

text: King Baldwin

text: Templars

text: battle of Montgisard

text: camel

text: prisoners of war

text: beheaded

text: Golan Heights

text: Quneitra

text: al-Adil

text: Jordan River

text: Jacob's Ford

text: Banias

text: gold

text: besiege the fortress

text: Safad

text: commissariat

text: Raymond of Tripoli

text: Tartus

text: Artuqid

text: Keyfa

text: Geuk Su

text: Anatolia

text: Kilij Arslan II

text: Seljuk

text: Rum

text: dowry

text: Malatya

text: Abu Shama

text: Ramadan

text: hajj

text: Mecca

text: Nile River

text: Fayyum

text: Zabid

text: Imad ad-Din

text: Aden

text: Izz al-Din

text: Sinjar

text: Najd

text: Sinai Peninsula

text: Ailah

text: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Montreal

text: Galilee

text: Daburiyya

text: Kawkab al-Hawa

text: Beirut

text: Bekaa Valley

text: Mesopotamia

text: Gökböri

text: Harran

text: Euphrates

text: Edessa

text: Saruj

text: Raqqa

text: Qirqesiya

text: Nusaybin

text: Citadel of Aleppo

text: Bab Janan

text: Hanafi

text: Antioch

text: mamluk

text: Busra

text: Harim

text: Bohemond III of Antioch

text: Baalbek

text: Armenia

text: an-Nasir

text: Armenia

text: Raynald de Châtillon had sent ships

text: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Red Sea

text: Ibn Jubair

text: Aidab

text: Medina

text: Muhammad

text: Al-Maqrizi

text: Amid

text: Constantinople

text: Georgia

text: Almohad

text: Maghreb

text: Tikrit

text: Daquq

text: Khuzestan

text: Kish Island

text: Oman

text: Jordan River

text: Beisan

text: Shaubak

text: Nablus

text: Guy of Lusignan

text: Sepphoris

text: al-Fula

text: Ain Jalut

text: Zir'in

text: Forbelet

text: Mount Tabor

text: attack their main force

text: Raynald of Châtillon

text: trading

text: pilgrimage

text: Red Sea

text: Beirut

text: Mecca

text: Medina

text: besieged Kerak

text: Oultrejordain

text: Hajj

text: Mosul

text: Azerbaijan

text: Jibal

text: Zagros Mountains

text: Battle of Hattin

text: Guy of Lusignan

text: King Consort

text: Raymond III of Tripoli

text: execution

text: Muhammad

text: Jerusalem

text: Jerusalem

text: a siege

text: Frankish

text: Balian of Ibelin

text: Dome of the Rock

text: al-Aqsa Mosque

text: Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem

text: slavery

text: Ashkelon

text: Tyre

text: Lebanon

text: Conrad of Montferrat

text: Sibylla of Jerusalem

text: Antioch

text: besieging Acre

text: Tamar of Georgia

text: Bahā' ad-Dīn ibn Šaddād

text: Jerusalem

text: Jacques de Vitry

text: Bishop of Acre

text: Georgians

text: True Cross

text: battle of Hattin

text: Hattin

text: Third Crusade

text: Saladin tithe

text: Richard the Lionheart, King of England

text: Acre

text: Bahā' ad-Dīn

text: Battle of Arsuf

text: Joan of England, Queen of Sicily

text: Battle of Jaffa (1192)

text: Damascus

text: mausoleum

text: Umayyad Mosque

text: Syria

text: Wilhelm II

text: Germany

text: marble

text: sarcophagus

text: mausoleum

text: Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani

text: al-Afḍal Nur al-Din Ali

text: al-‘Azīz Imad al-Din Abu al-Fath Uthman

text: al-Ẓāhir Ghiyath al-Din Abu Mansur Ghazi

text: al-Mu‘aẓẓam Fakhr al-Din Abu Mansur Turanshah

text: al-Kamil Muhammad ibn Adil

text: Ismat al-Din Khatun

text: Nur al-Din Zengi

text: al-Shafi'i

text: chivalrous

text: knight

text: The Divine Comedy

text: limbo

text: Middle Ages

text: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

text: Nathan the Wise

text: Walter Scott

text: The Talisman

text: Jonathan Riley-Smith

text: Catholics

text: Greek Orthodox

text: German Emperor

text: Wilhelm II

text: Walter Scott

text: Baybars

text: governorate

text: Samarra

text: Iraq

text: Saladin Governorate

text: Salahaddin University

text: Erbil

text: Iraqi Kurdistan

text: Erbil

text: Citadel of Cairo

text: citadel

text: Ayyubid dynasty

text: Arab World

text: Arab nationalism

text: Arab–Israeli conflict

text: European Crusaders

text: Zionism

text: Gamal Abdel Nasser

text: Eagle of Saladin

text: United Arab Republic

text: Iraq

text: Libya

text: State of Palestine

text: Yemen

text: Egyptian Shia

text: List of Kurdish dynasties and countries

text: Sharaf Khan Bidlisi

text: List of rulers of Damascus

text: List of rulers of Egypt

text: Kingdom of Heaven

text: The Crusades

text: King Richard and the Crusaders

text: Saladin the Victorious

text: Salah al-Din (TV series)

text: Arn – The Knight Templar

text: Stanley Lane-Poole, "The Life of Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem", in "btm" format

text: Rosebault Ch.J. Saladin. Prince of Chivalri

text: De expugnatione terrae sanctae per Saladinum

text: Saladin: The Sultan and His Times, 1138–1193

text: Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade

categories: Medieval Muslim generals,Asharis,1193 deaths,Viziers of the Fatimid Caliphate,Kurdish Muslims,Rulers of Yemen,Muslims of the Second Crusade,Kurdish military personnel,Saladin,Kurdish Sunni Muslims,Ayyubid sultans of Egypt,People from Tikrit,1130s births,Muslims of the Third Crusade,12th-century Muslims,Ayyubid emirs of Damascus,Mujaddid

paragraph: Saladin

paragraph: An-Nasir Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( / ALA-LC: "Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb"; / ALA-LC: "Selahedînê Eyûbî"), known as Salah ad-Din or Saladin (; 11374 March 1193), was the first sultan of Egypt and Syria and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. A Sunni Muslim of Kurdish ethnicity, Saladin led the Muslim military campaign against the Crusader states in the Levant. At the height of his power, his sultanate included Egypt, Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, the Hejaz, Yemen and other parts of North Africa.

paragraph: He was originally sent to Fatimid Egypt in 1164 alongside his uncle Shirkuh, a general of the Zengid army, on the orders of their lord Nur ad-Din to help restore Shawar as vizier of the teenage Fatimid caliph . A power struggle ensued between Shirkuh and Shawar after the latter was reinstated. Saladin, meanwhile, climbed the ranks of the Fatimid government by virtue of his military successes against Crusader assaults against its territory and his personal closeness to al-Adid. After Shawar was assassinated and Shirkuh died in 1169, al-Adid appointed Saladin vizier, a rare nomination of a Sunni Muslim to such an important position in the Isma'ili Shia caliphate. During his tenure as vizier, Saladin began to undermine the Fatimid establishment and, following al-Adid's death in 1171, he abolished the and realigned the country's allegiance with the Sunni, Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate.

paragraph: In the following years, he led forays against the Crusaders in Palestine, commissioned the successful conquest of Yemen, and staved off pro-Fatimid rebellions in Upper Egypt. Not long after Nur ad-Din's death in 1174, Saladin launched his conquest of Syria, peacefully entering Damascus at the request of its governor. By mid-1175, Saladin had conquered Hama and Homs, inviting the animosity of other Zengid lords, the official rulers of Syria's various regions. Soon after, he defeated the Zengid army at the Battle of the Horns of Hama and was thereafter proclaimed the "Sultan of Egypt and Syria" by the Abbasid caliph al-Mustadi. Saladin made further conquests in northern Syria and Jazira, escaping two attempts on his life by the "Assassins", before returning to Egypt in 1177 to address issues there. By 1182, Saladin had completed the conquest of Muslim Syria after capturing Aleppo, but ultimately failed to take over the Zengid stronghold of Mosul.

paragraph: Under Saladin's command, the Ayyubid army defeated the Crusaders at the decisive Battle of Hattin in 1187, and thereafter wrested control of Palestine—including the city of Jerusalem—from the Crusaders, who had conquered the area 88 years earlier. Although the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem continued to exist until the late 13th century, its defeat at Hattin marked a turning point in its conflict with the Muslim powers of the region. Saladin died in Damascus in 1193, having given away much of his personal wealth to his subjects. He is buried in a mausoleum adjacent to the Umayyad Mosque. Saladin has become a prominent figure in Muslim, Arab, Turkish and Kurdish culture, and he has often been described as being the most famous Kurd in history.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Saladin was born in Tikrit in modern-day Iraq. His personal name was "Yusuf"; "Salah ad-Din" is a "laqab", an honorific epithet, meaning "Righteousness of the Faith." His family was most likely of Kurdish ancestry, and had originated from the village of Ajdanakan near the city of Dvin in central Armenia. The Rawadiya tribe he hailed from had been partially assimilated into the Arabic-speaking world by this time. In 1132, the defeated army of Imad ad-Din Zengi, the ruler of Mosul, found their retreat blocked by the Tigris River opposite the fortress of Tikrit, where Saladin's father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub served as the warden. Ayyub provided ferries for the army and gave them refuge in Tikrit. Mujahed al-Din Bihruz, a former Greek slave who had been appointed as the military governor of northern Mesopotamia for his service to the Seljuks, reprimanded Ayyub for giving Zengi refuge and in 1137 banished Ayyub from Tikrit after his brother Asad al-Din Shirkuh killed a friend of Bihruz in an honour killing. According to Baha ad-Din ibn Shaddad, Saladin was born on the same night that his family left Tikrit. In 1139, Ayyub and his family moved to Mosul, where Imad ad-Din Zengi acknowledged his debt and appointed Ayyub commander of his fortress in Baalbek. After the death of Zengi in 1146, his son, Nur ad-Din, became the regent of Aleppo and the leader of the Zengids.

paragraph: Saladin, who now lived in Damascus, was reported to have a particular fondness for the city, but information on his early childhood is scarce. About education, Saladin wrote "children are brought up in the way in which their elders were brought up." According to his biographers, Anne-Marie Eddé and al-Wahrani, Saladin was able to answer questions on Euclid, the Almagest, arithmetic, and law, but this was an academic ideal and it was study of the Qur'an and the "sciences of religion" that linked him to his contemporaries. Several sources claim that during his studies he was more interested in religion than joining the military. Another factor which may have affected his interest in religion was that, during the First Crusade, Jerusalem was taken by the Christians. In addition to Islam, Saladin had a knowledge of the genealogies, biographies, and histories of the Arabs, as well as the bloodlines of Arabian horses. More significantly, he knew the "Hamasah" of Abu Tammam by heart. He spoke Kurdish and Arabic.

paragraph: Section::::Early expeditions.

paragraph: Saladin's military career began under the tutelage of his uncle Asad al-Din Shirkuh, a prominent military commander under Nur ad-Din, the Zengid emir of Damascus and Aleppo and the most influential teacher of Saladin. In 1163, the vizier to the Fatimid caliph al-Adid, Shawar, had been driven out of Egypt by his rival Dirgham, a member of the powerful Banu Ruzzaik tribe. He asked for military backing from Nur ad-Din, who complied and, in 1164, sent Shirkuh to aid Shawar in his expedition against Dirgham. Saladin, at age 26, went along with them. After Shawar was successfully reinstated as vizier, he demanded that Shirkuh withdraw his army from Egypt for a sum of 30,000 gold dinars, but he refused, insisting it was Nur ad-Din's will that he remain. Saladin's role in this expedition was minor, and it is known that he was ordered by Shirkuh to collect stores from Bilbais prior to its siege by a combined force of Crusaders and Shawar's troops.

paragraph: After the sacking of Bilbais, the Crusader-Egyptian force and Shirkuh's army were to engage in a battle on the desert border of the River Nile, just west of Giza. Saladin played a major role, commanding the right wing of the Zengid army, while a force of Kurds commanded the left, and Shirkuh was stationed in the center. Muslim sources at the time, however, put Saladin in the "baggage of the centre" with orders to lure the enemy into a trap by staging a feigned retreat. The Crusader force enjoyed early success against Shirkuh's troops, but the terrain was too steep and sandy for their horses, and commander Hugh of Caesarea was captured while attacking Saladin's unit. After scattered fighting in little valleys to the south of the main position, the Zengid central force returned to the offensive; Saladin joined in from the rear.

paragraph: The battle ended in a Zengid victory, and Saladin is credited with having helped Shirkuh in one of the "most remarkable victories in recorded history", according to Ibn al-Athir, although more of Shirkuh's men were killed and the battle is considered by most sources as not a total victory. Saladin and Shirkuh moved towards Alexandria where they were welcomed, given money, arms and provided a base. Faced by a superior Crusader-Egyptian force attempting to besiege the city, Shirkuh split his army. He and the bulk of his force withdrew from Alexandria, while Saladin was left with the task of guarding the city.

paragraph: Section::::In Egypt.

paragraph: Section::::In Egypt.:Vizier of Egypt.

paragraph: Shirkuh was in a power struggle over Egypt with Shawar and Amalric I of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, in which Shawar requested Amalric's assistance. In 1169, Shawar was reportedly assassinated by Saladin, and Shirkuh died later that year. Nur ad-Din chose a successor for Shirkuh, but al-Adid appointed Saladin to replace Shawar as vizier.

paragraph: The reasoning behind the Shia caliph al-Adid's selection of Saladin, a Sunni, varies. Ibn al-Athir claims that the caliph chose him after being told by his advisers that "there is no one weaker or younger" than Saladin, and "not one of the emirs [commanders] obeyed him or served him". However, according to this version, after some bargaining, he was eventually accepted by the majority of the emirs. Al-Adid's advisers were also suspected of promoting Saladin in an attempt to split the Syria-based Zengids. Al-Wahrani wrote that Saladin was selected because of the reputation of his family in their "generosity and military prowess". Imad ad-Din wrote that after the brief mourning period for Shirkuh, during which "opinions differed", the Zengid emirs decided upon Saladin and forced the caliph to "invest him as vizier". Although positions were complicated by rival Muslim leaders, the bulk of the Syrian commanders supported Saladin because of his role in the Egyptian expedition, in which he gained a record of military qualifications.

paragraph: Inaugurated as vizier on 26 March, Saladin repented "wine-drinking and turned from frivolity to assume the dress of religion", according to Arabic sources of the time. Having gained more power and independence than ever before in his career, he still faced the issue of ultimate loyalty between al-Adid and Nur ad-Din. Later in the year, a group of Egyptian soldiers and emirs attempted to assassinate Saladin, but having already known of their intentions thanks to his intelligence chief Ali ibn Safyan, he had the chief conspirator, Naji, Mu'tamin al-Khilafa—the civilian controller of the Fatimid Palace—arrested and killed. The day after, 50,000 Black African soldiers from the regiments of the Fatimid army opposed to Saladin's rule, along with a number of Egyptian emirs and commoners, staged a revolt. By 23 August, Saladin had decisively quelled the uprising, and never again had to face a military challenge from Cairo.

paragraph: Towards the end of 1169, Saladin, with reinforcements from Nur ad-Din, defeated a massive Crusader-Byzantine force near Damietta. Afterward, in the spring of 1170, Nur ad-Din sent Saladin's father to Egypt in compliance with Saladin's request, as well as encouragement from the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph, al-Mustanjid, who aimed to pressure Saladin in deposing his rival caliph, al-Adid. Saladin himself had been strengthening his hold on Egypt and widening his support base there. He began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the region; he ordered the construction of a college for the Maliki branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as one for the Shafi'i denomination to which he belonged in al-Fustat.

paragraph: After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign against the Crusaders, besieging Darum in 1170. Amalric withdrew his Templar garrison from Gaza to assist him in defending Darum, but Saladin evaded their force and fell on Gaza instead. He destroyed the town built outside the city's castle and killed most of its inhabitants after they were refused entry into the castle. It is unclear exactly when, but during that same year, he attacked and captured the Crusader castle of Eilat, built on an island off the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. It did not pose a threat to the passage of the Muslim navy, but could harass smaller parties of Muslim ships and Saladin decided to clear it from his path.

paragraph: Section::::In Egypt.:Sultan of Egypt.

paragraph: According to Imad ad-Din, Nur ad-Din wrote to Saladin in June 1171, telling him to reestablish the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt, which Saladin coordinated two months later after additional encouragement by Najm ad-Din al-Khabushani, the Shafi'i "faqih", who vehemently opposed Shia rule in the country. Several Egyptian emirs were thus killed, but al-Adid was told that they were killed for rebelling against him. He then fell ill, or was poisoned according to one account. While ill, he asked Saladin to pay him a visit to request that he take care of his young children, but Saladin refused, fearing treachery against the Abbasids, and is said to have regretted his action after realizing what al-Adid had wanted. He died on 13 September, and five days later, the Abbasid "khutba" was pronounced in Cairo and al-Fustat, proclaiming al-Mustadi as caliph.

paragraph: On 25 September, Saladin left Cairo to take part in a joint attack on Kerak and Montreal, the desert castles of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with Nur ad-Din who would attack from Syria. Prior to arriving at Montreal, Saladin however withdrew back to Cairo as he received the reports that in his absence the Crusader leaders had increased their support to the traitors inside Egypt to attack Saladin from within and lessen his power especially the Fatimid who started plotting to restore their past glory. Because of this, Nur ad-Din went on alone.

paragraph: During the summer of 1173, a Nubian army along with a contingent of Armenian refugees were reported on the Egyptian border, preparing for a siege against Aswan. The emir of the city had requested Saladin's assistance and was given reinforcements under Turan-Shah, Saladin's brother. Consequently, the Nubians departed; but returned in 1173 and were again driven off. This time, Egyptian forces advanced from Aswan and captured the Nubian town of Ibrim. Saladin sent a gift to Nur ad-Din, who had been his friend and teacher, 60,000 dinars, "wonderful manufactured goods", some jewels, and an elephant. While transporting these goods to Damascus, Saladin took the opportunity to ravage the Crusader countryside. He did not press an attack against the desert castles, but attempted to drive out the Muslim Bedouins who lived in Crusader territory with the aim of depriving the Franks of guides.

paragraph: On 31 July 1173, Saladin's father Ayyub was wounded in a horse-riding accident, ultimately causing his death on 9 August. In 1174, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer Yemen to allocate it and its port Aden to the territories of the Ayyubid Dynasty.

paragraph: Section::::Conquest of Syria.

paragraph: Section::::Conquest of Syria.:Conquest of Damascus.

paragraph: In the early summer of 1174, Nur ad-Din was mustering an army, sending summons to Mosul, Diyar Bakr, and the Jazira in an apparent preparation of attack against Saladin's Egypt. The Ayyubids held a council upon the revelation of these preparations to discuss the possible threat and Saladin collected his own troops outside Cairo. On 15 May, Nur ad-Din died after falling ill the previous week and his power was handed to his eleven-year-old son as-Salih Ismail al-Malik. His death left Saladin with political independence and in a letter to as-Salih, he promised to "act as a sword" against his enemies and referred to the death of his father as an "earthquake shock".

paragraph: In the wake of Nur ad-Din's death, Saladin faced a difficult decision; he could move his army against the Crusaders from Egypt or wait until invited by as-Salih in Syria to come to his aid and launch a war from there. He could also take it upon himself to annex Syria before it could possibly fall into the hands of a rival, but he feared that attacking a land that formerly belonged to his master—forbidden in the Islamic principles in which he believed—could portray him as hypocritical, thus making him unsuitable for leading the war against the Crusaders. Saladin saw that in order to acquire Syria, he either needed an invitation from as-Salih, or to warn him that potential anarchy could give rise to danger from the Crusaders.

paragraph: When as-Salih was removed to Aleppo in August, Gumushtigin, the emir of the city and a captain of Nur ad-Din's veterans, assumed the guardianship over him. The emir prepared to unseat all his rivals in Syria and the Jazira, beginning with Damascus. In this emergency, the emir of Damascus appealed to Saif al-Din of Mosul (a cousin of Gumushtigin) for assistance against Aleppo, but he refused, forcing the Syrians to request the aid of Saladin, who complied. Saladin rode across the desert with 700 picked horsemen, passing through al-Kerak then reaching Bosra. According to his own account, was joined by "emirs, soldiers, and Bedouins—the emotions of their hearts to be seen on their faces." On 23 November, he arrived in Damascus amid general acclamation and rested at his father's old home there, until the gates of the Citadel of Damascus, whose commander Raihan initially refused to surrender, were opened to Saladin four days later, after a brief siege by his brother Tughtakin ibn Ayyub. He installed himself in the castle and received the homage and salutations of the inhabitants.

paragraph: Section::::Conquest of Syria.:Further conquests in Syria.

paragraph: Leaving his brother Tughtigin as Governor of Damascus, Saladin proceeded to reduce other cities that had belonged to Nur al-Din, but were now practically independent. His army conquered Hamah with relative ease, but avoided attacking Homs because of the strength of its citadel. Saladin moved north towards Aleppo, besieging it on 30 December after Gumushtigin refused to abdicate his throne. As-Salih, fearing capture by Saladin, came out of his palace and appealed to the inhabitants not to surrender him and the city to the invading force. One of Saladin's chroniclers claimed "the people came under his spell".

paragraph: Gumushtigin requested Rashid ad-Din Sinan, grand-master of the Assassins of Syria, who were already at odds with Saladin since he replaced the Fatimids of Egypt, to assassinate Saladin in his camp. On 11 May 1175, a group of thirteen Assassins easily gained admission into Saladin's camp, but were detected immediately before they carried out their attack by Nasih al-Din Khumartekin of Abu Qubays. One was killed by one of Saladin's generals and the others were slain while trying to escape. To deter Saladin's progress, Raymond of Tripoli gathered his forces by Nahr al-Kabir, where they were well placed for an attack on Muslim territory. Saladin later moved toward Homs instead, but retreated after being told a relief force was being sent to the city by Saif al-Din.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Saladin's rivals in Syria and Jazira waged a propaganda war against him, claiming he had "forgotten his own condition [servant of Nur ad-Din]" and showed no gratitude for his old master by besieging his son, rising "in rebellion against his Lord". Saladin aimed to counter this propaganda by ending the siege, claiming that he was defending Islam from the Crusaders; his army returned to Hama to engage a Crusader force there. The Crusaders withdrew beforehand and Saladin proclaimed it "a victory opening the gates of men's hearts". Soon after, Saladin entered Homs and captured its citadel in March 1175, after stubborn resistance from its defenders.

paragraph: Saladin's successes alarmed Saif al-Din. As head of the Zengids, including Gumushtigin, he regarded Syria and Mesopotamia as his family estate and was angered when Saladin attempted to usurp his dynasty's holdings. Saif al-Din mustered a large army and dispatched it to Aleppo, whose defenders anxiously had awaited them. The combined forces of Mosul and Aleppo marched against Saladin in Hama. Heavily outnumbered, Saladin initially attempted to make terms with the Zengids by abandoning all conquests north of the Damascus province, but they refused, insisting he return to Egypt. Seeing that confrontation was unavoidable, Saladin prepared for battle, taking up a superior position at the Horns of Hama, hills by the gorge of the Orontes River. On 13 April 1175, the Zengid troops marched to attack his forces, but soon found themselves surrounded by Saladin's Ayyubid veterans, who crushed them. The battle ended in a decisive victory for Saladin, who pursued the Zengid fugitives to the gates of Aleppo, forcing as-Salih's advisers to recognize Saladin's control of the provinces of Damascus, Homs and Hama, as well as a number of towns outside Aleppo such as Ma'arat al-Numan.

paragraph: After his victory against the Zengids, Saladin proclaimed himself king and suppressed the name of as-Salih in Friday prayers and Islamic coinage. From then on, he ordered prayers in all the mosques of Syria and Egypt as the sovereign king and he issued at the Cairo mint gold coins bearing his official title—"al-Malik an-Nasir Yusuf Ayyub, ala ghaya" "the King Strong to Aid, Joseph son of Job; exalted be the standard." The Abbasid caliph in Baghdad graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and declared him "Sultan of Egypt and Syria". The Battle of Hama did not end the contest for power between the Ayyubids and the Zengids, with the final confrontation occurring in the spring of 1176. Saladin had gathered massive reinforcements from Egypt while Saif al-Din was levying troops among the minor states of Diyarbakir and al-Jazira. When Saladin crossed the Orontes, leaving Hama, the sun was eclipsed. He viewed this as an omen, but he continued his march north. He reached the Sultan's Mound, c. 25 km from Aleppo, where his forces encountered Saif al-Din's army. A hand-to-hand fight ensued and the Zengids managed to plow Saladin's left wing, driving it before him, when Saladin himself charged at the head of the Zengid guard. The Zengid forces panicked and most of Saif al-Din's officers ended up being killed or captured—Saif al-Din narrowly escaped. The Zengid army's camp, horses, baggage, tents and stores were seized by the Ayyubids. The Zengid prisoners of war, however, were given gifts and freed. All of the booty from the Ayyubid victory was accorded to the army, Saladin not keeping anything himself.

paragraph: He continued towards Aleppo, which still closed its gates to him, halting before the city. On the way, his army took Buza'a, then captured Manbij. From there, they headed west to besiege the fortress of A'zaz on 15 May. Several days later, while Saladin was resting in one of his captain's tents, an assassin rushed forward at him and struck at his head with a knife. The cap of his head armour was not penetrated and he managed to grip the assassin's hand—the dagger only slashing his gambeson—and the assailant was soon killed. Saladin was unnerved at the attempt on his life, which he accused Gumushtugin and the Assassins of plotting, and so increased his efforts in the siege.

paragraph: A'zaz capitulated on 21 June, and Saladin then hurried his forces to Aleppo to punish Gumushtigin. His assaults were again resisted, but he managed to secure not only a truce, but a mutual alliance with Aleppo, in which Gumushtigin and as-Salih were allowed to continue their hold on the city and in return, they recognized Saladin as the sovereign over all of the dominions he conquered. The "emirs" of Mardin and Keyfa, the Muslim allies of Aleppo, also recognised Saladin as the King of Syria. When the treaty was concluded, the younger sister of as-Salih came to Saladin and requested the return of the Fortress of A'zaz; he complied and escorted her back to the gates of Aleppo with numerous presents.

paragraph: Section::::Conquest of Syria.:Campaign against the Assassins.

paragraph: Saladin had by now agreed truces with his Zengid rivals and the Kingdom of Jerusalem (the latter occurred in the summer of 1175), but faced a threat from the Ismaili sect known as the "Assassins", led by Rashid ad-Din Sinan. Based in the an-Nusayriyah Mountains, they commanded nine fortresses, all built on high elevations. As soon as he dispatched the bulk of his troops to Egypt, Saladin led his army into the an-Nusayriyah range in August 1176. He retreated the same month, after laying waste to the countryside, but failing to conquer any of the forts. Most Muslim historians claim that Saladin's uncle, the governor of Hama, mediated a peace agreement between him and Sinan.

paragraph: Saladin had his guards supplied with link lights and had chalk and cinders strewed around his tent outside Masyaf—which he was besieging—to detect any footsteps by the Assassins. According to this version, one night Saladin's guards noticed a spark glowing down the hill of Masyaf and then vanishing among the Ayyubid tents. Presently, Saladin awoke to find a figure leaving the tent. He saw that the lamps were displaced and beside his bed laid hot scones of the shape peculiar to the Assassins with a note at the top pinned by a poisoned dagger. The note threatened that he would be killed if he didn't withdraw from his assault. Saladin gave a loud cry, exclaiming that Sinan himself was the figure that had left the tent.

paragraph: Another version claims that Saladin hastily withdrew his troops from Masyaf because they were urgently needed to fend off a Crusader force in the vicinity of Mount Lebanon. In reality, Saladin sought to form an alliance with Sinan and his Assassins, consequently depriving the Crusaders of a potent ally against him. Viewing the expulsion of the Crusaders as a mutual benefit and priority, Saladin and Sinan maintained cooperative relations afterwards, the latter dispatching contingents of his forces to bolster Saladin's army in a number of decisive subsequent battlefronts.

paragraph: Section::::Return to Cairo and forays in Palestine.

paragraph: After leaving the an-Nusayriyah Mountains, Saladin returned to Damascus and had his Syrian soldiers return home. He left Turan Shah in command of Syria and left for Egypt with only his personal followers, reaching Cairo on 22 September. Having been absent roughly two years, he had much to organize and supervise in Egypt, namely fortifying and reconstructing Cairo. The city walls were repaired and their extensions laid out, while the construction of the Cairo Citadel was commenced. The deep Bir Yusuf ("Joseph's Well") was built on Saladin's orders. The chief public work he commissioned outside of Cairo was the large bridge at Giza, which was intended to form an outwork of defense against a potential Moorish invasion.

paragraph: Saladin remained in Cairo supervising its improvements, building colleges such as the Madrasa of the Sword Makers and ordering the internal administration of the country. In November 1177, he set out upon a raid into Palestine; the Crusaders had recently forayed into the territory of Damascus, so Saladin saw the truce as no longer worth preserving. The Christians sent a large portion of their army to besiege the fortress of Harim north of Aleppo, so southern Palestine bore few defenders. Saladin found the situation ripe and marched to Ascalon, which he referred to as the "Bride of Syria." William of Tyre recorded that the Ayyubid army consisted of soldiers, of which 8,000 were elite forces and were black soldiers from Sudan. This army proceeded to raid the countryside, sack Ramla and Lod, and dispersed themselves as far as the Gates of Jerusalem.

paragraph: Section::::Return to Cairo and forays in Palestine.:Battles and truce with Baldwin.

paragraph: The Ayyubids allowed King Baldwin to enter Ascalon with his Gaza-based Templars without taking any precautions against a sudden attack. Although the Crusader force consisted of only 375 knights, Saladin hesitated to ambush them because of the presence of highly skilled generals. On 25 November, while the greater part of the Ayyubid army was absent, Saladin and his men were surprised near Ramla in the battle of Montgisard. Before they could form up, the Templar force hacked the Ayyubid army down. Initially, Saladin attempted to organize his men into battle order, but as his bodyguards were being killed, he saw that defeat was inevitable and so with a small remnant of his troops mounted a swift camel, riding all the way to the territories of Egypt.

paragraph: Not discouraged by his defeat at Tell Jezer, Saladin was prepared to fight the Crusaders once again. In the spring of 1178, he was encamped under the walls of Homs, and a few skirmishes occurred between his generals and the Crusader army. His forces in Hama won a victory over their enemy and brought the spoils, together with many prisoners of war, to Saladin who ordered the captives to be beheaded for "plundering and laying waste the lands of the Faithful". He spent the rest of the year in Syria without a confrontation with his enemies.

paragraph: Saladin's intelligence services reported to him that the Crusaders were planning a raid into Syria. He ordered one of his generals, Farrukh-Shah, to guard the Damascus frontier with a thousand of his men to watch for an attack, then to retire, avoiding battle, and to light warning beacons on the hills, after which Saladin would march out. In April 1179, the Crusaders led by King Baldwin expected no resistance and waited to launch a surprise attack on Muslim herders grazing their herds and flocks east of the Golan Heights. Baldwin advanced too rashly in pursuit of Farrukh-Shah's force, which was concentrated southeast of Quneitra and was subsequently defeated by the Ayyubids. With this victory, Saladin decided to call in more troops from Egypt; he requested al-Adil to dispatch 1,500 horsemen.

paragraph: In the summer of 1179, King Baldwin had set up an outpost on the road to Damascus and aimed to fortify a passage over the Jordan River, known as Jacob's Ford, that commanded the approach to the Banias plain (the plain was divided by the Muslims and the Christians). Saladin had offered 100,000 gold pieces to Baldwin to abandon the project, which was particularly offensive to the Muslims, but to no avail. He then resolved to destroy the fortress, called Chastellet and manned by the Templars, moving his headquarters to Banias. As the Crusaders hurried down to attack the Muslim forces, they fell into disorder, with the infantry falling behind. Despite early success, they pursued the Muslims far enough to become scattered, and Saladin took advantage by rallying his troops and charged at the Crusaders. The engagement ended in a decisive Ayyubid victory, and many high-ranking knights were captured. Saladin then moved to besiege the fortress, which fell on 30 August 1179.

paragraph: In the spring of 1180, while Saladin was in the area of Safad, anxious to commence a vigorous campaign against the Kingdom of Jerusalem, King Baldwin sent messengers to him with proposals of peace. Because droughts and bad harvests hampered his commissariat, Saladin agreed to a truce. Raymond of Tripoli denounced the truce but was compelled to accept after an Ayyubid raid on his territory in May and upon the appearance of Saladin's naval fleet off the port of Tartus.

paragraph: Section::::Domestic affairs.

paragraph: In June 1180, Saladin hosted a reception for Nur al-Din Muhammad, the Artuqid "emir" of Keyfa, at Geuk Su, in which he presented him and his brother Abu Bakr with gifts, valued at over 100,000 dinars according to Imad al-Din. This was intended to cement an alliance with the Artuqids and to impress other "emirs" in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Previously, Saladin offered to mediate relations between Nur al-Din and Kilij Arslan II—the Seljuk Sultan of Rum—after the two came into conflict. The latter demanded that Nur al-Din return the lands given to him as a dowry for marrying his daughter when he received reports that she was being abused and used to gain Seljuk territory. Nur al-Din asked Saladin to mediate the issue, but Arslan refused.

paragraph: After Nur al-Din and Saladin met at Geuk Su, the top Seljuk "emir", Ikhtiyar al-Din al-Hasan, confirmed Arslan's submission, after which an agreement was drawn up. Saladin was later enraged when he received a message from Arslan accusing Nur al-Din of more abuses against his daughter. He threatened to attack the city of Malatya, saying, "it is two days march for me and I shall not dismount [my horse] until I am in the city." Alarmed at the threat, the Seljuks pushed for negotiations. Saladin felt that Arslan was correct to care for his daughter, but Nur al-Din had taken refuge with him, and therefore he could not betray his trust. It was finally agreed that Arslan's daughter would be sent away for a year and if Nur al-Din failed to comply, Saladin would move to abandon his support for him.

paragraph: Leaving Farrukh-Shah in charge of Syria, Saladin returned to Cairo at the beginning of 1181. According to Abu Shama, he intended to spend the fast of Ramadan in Egypt and then make the "hajj" pilgrimage to Mecca in the summer. For an unknown reason he apparently changed his plans regarding the pilgrimage and was seen inspecting the Nile River banks in June. He was again embroiled with the Bedouin; he removed two-thirds of their fiefs to use as compensation for the fief-holders at Fayyum. The Bedouin were also accused of trading with the Crusaders and, consequently, their grain was confiscated and they were forced to migrate westward. Later, Ayyubid warships were waged against Bedouin river pirates, who were plundering the shores of Lake Tanis.

paragraph: In the summer of 1181, Saladin's former palace administrator Qara-Qush led a force to arrest Majd al-Din—a former deputy of Turan-Shah in the Yemeni town of Zabid—while he was entertaining Imad ad-Din at his estate in Cairo. Saladin's intimates accused Majd al-Din of misappropriating the revenues of Zabid, but Saladin himself believed there was no evidence to back the allegations. He had Majd al-Din released in return for a payment of 80,000 dinars. In addition, other sums were to be paid to Saladin's brothers al-Adil and Taj al-Muluk Buri. The controversial detainment of Majd al-Din was a part of the larger discontent associated with the aftermath of Turan-Shah's departure from Yemen. Although his deputies continued to send him revenues from the province, centralized authority was lacking and internal quarrel arose between Izz al-Din Uthman of Aden and Hittan of Zabid. Saladin wrote in a letter to al-Adil: "this Yemen is a treasure house ... We conquered it, but up to this day we have had no return and no advantage from it. There have been only innumerable expenses, the sending out of troops ... and expectations which did not produce what was hoped for in the end."

paragraph: Section::::Imperial expansions.

paragraph: Section::::Imperial expansions.:Conquest of Mesopotamian hinterland.

paragraph: Saif al-Din had died earlier in June 1181 and his brother Izz al-Din inherited leadership of Mosul. On 4 December, the crown-prince of the Zengids, as-Salih, died in Aleppo. Prior to his death, he had his chief officers swear an oath of loyalty to Izz al-Din, as he was the only Zengid ruler strong enough to oppose Saladin. Izz al-Din was welcomed in Aleppo, but possessing it and Mosul put too great of a strain on his abilities. He thus, handed Aleppo to his brother Imad al-Din Zangi, in exchange for Sinjar. Saladin offered no opposition to these transactions in order to respect the treaty he previously made with the Zengids.

paragraph: On 11 May 1182, Saladin, along with half of the Egyptian Ayyubid army and numerous non-combatants, left Cairo for Syria. On the evening before he departed, he sat with his companions and the tutor of one of his sons quoted a line of poetry: "enjoy the scent of the ox-eye plant of Najd, for after this evening it will come no more." Saladin took this as an evil omen and he never saw Egypt again. Knowing that Crusader forces were massed upon the frontier to intercept him, he took the desert route across the Sinai Peninsula to Ailah at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. Meeting no opposition, Saladin ravaged the countryside of Montreal, whilst Baldwin's forces watched on, refusing to intervene. He arrived in Damascus in June to learn that Farrukh-Shah had attacked the Galilee, sacking Daburiyya and capturing Habis Jaldek, a fortress of great importance to the Crusaders. In July, Saladin dispatched Farrukh-Shah to attack Kawkab al-Hawa. Later, in August, the Ayyubids launched a naval and ground assault to capture Beirut; Saladin led his army in the Bekaa Valley. The assault was leaning towards failure and Saladin abandoned the operation to focus on issues in Mesopotamia.

paragraph: Kukbary (Gökböri), the "emir" of Harran, invited Saladin to occupy the Jazira region, making up northern Mesopotamia. He complied and the truce between him and the Zengids officially ended in September 1182. Prior to his march to Jazira, tensions had grown between the Zengid rulers of the region, primarily concerning their unwillingness to pay deference to Mosul. Before he crossed the Euphrates, Saladin besieged Aleppo for three days, signaling that the truce was over.

paragraph: Once he reached Bira, near the river, he was joined by Kukbary and Nur al-Din of Hisn Kayfa and the combined forces captured the cities of Jazira, one after the other. First, Edessa fell, followed by Saruj, then Raqqa, Qirqesiya and Nusaybin. Raqqa was an important crossing point and held by Qutb al-Din Inal, who had lost Manbij to Saladin in 1176. Upon seeing the large size of Saladin's army, he made little effort to resist and surrendered on the condition that he would retain his property. Saladin promptly impressed the inhabitants of the town by publishing a decree that ordered a number of taxes to be canceled and erased all mention of them from treasury records, stating "the most miserable rulers are those whose purses are fat and their people thin". From Raqqa, he moved to conquer al-Fudain, al-Husain, Maksim, Durain, 'Araban, and Khabur—all of which swore allegiance to him.

paragraph: Saladin proceeded to take Nusaybin which offered no resistance. A medium-sized town, Nusaybin was not of great importance, but it was located in a strategic position between Mardin and Mosul and within easy reach of Diyarbakir. In the midst of these victories, Saladin received word that the Crusaders were raiding the villages of Damascus. He replied "Let them... whilst they knock down villages, we are taking cities; when we come back, we shall have all the more strength to fight them." Meanwhile, in Aleppo, the "emir" of the city Zangi raided Saladin's cities to the north and east, such as Balis, Manbij, Saruj, Buza'a, al-Karzain. He also destroyed his own citadel at A'zaz to prevent it from being used by the Ayyubids if they were to conquer it.

paragraph: Section::::Imperial expansions.:Possession of Aleppo.

paragraph: Saladin turned his attention from Mosul to Aleppo, sending his brother Taj al-Muluk Buri to capture Tell Khalid, 130 km northeast of the city. A siege was set, but the governor of Tell Khalid surrendered upon the arrival of Saladin himself on 17 May before a siege could take place. According to Imad ad-Din, after Tell Khalid, Saladin took a detour northwards to Ain Tab, but he gained possession of it when his army turned towards it, allowing to quickly move backward another c. 100 km towards Aleppo. On 21 May, he camped outside the city, positioning himself east of the Citadel of Aleppo, while his forces encircles the suburb of Banaqusa to the northeast and Bab Janan to the west. He stationed his men dangerously close to the city, hoping for an early success.

paragraph: Zangi did not offer long resistance. He was unpopular with his subjects and wished to return to his Sinjar, the city he governed previously. An exchange was negotiated where Zangi would hand over Aleppo to Saladin in return for the restoration of his control of Sinjar, Nusaybin, and Raqqa. Zangi would hold these territories as Saladin's vassals on terms of military service. On 12 June, Aleppo was formally placed in Ayyubid hands. The people of Aleppo had not known about these negotiations and were taken by surprise when Saladin's standard was hoisted over the citadel. Two "emir"s, including an old friend of Saladin, Izz al-Din Jurduk, welcomed and pledged their service to him. Saladin replaced the Hanafi courts with Shafi'i administration, despite a promise he would not interfere in the religious leadership of the city. Although he was short of money, Saladin also allowed the departing Zangi to take all the stores of the citadel that he could travel with and to sell the remainder—which Saladin purchased himself. In spite of his earlier hesitation to go through with the exchange, he had no doubts about his success, stating that Aleppo was "the key to the lands" and "this city is the eye of Syria and the citadel is its pupil." For Saladin, the capture of the city marked the end of over eight years of waiting since he told Farrukh-Shah that ""we have only to do the milking and Aleppo will be ours"".

paragraph: After spending one night in Aleppo's citadel, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held Antioch. The city was held by Surhak, a "minor "mamluk"." Saladin offered him the city of Busra and property in Damascus in exchange for Harim, but when Surhak asked for more, his own garrison in Harim forced him out. He was arrested by Saladin's deputy Taqi al-Din on allegations that he was planning to cede Harim to Bohemond III of Antioch. When Saladin received its surrender, he proceeded to arrange the defense of Harim from the Crusaders. He reported to the caliph and his own subordinates in Yemen and Baalbek that was going to attack the Armenians. Before he could move, however, there were a number of administrative details to be settled. Saladin agreed to a truce with Bohemond in return for Muslim prisoners being held by him and then he gave A'zaz to Alam ad-Din Suleiman and Aleppo to Saif al-Din al-Yazkuj—the former was an "emir" of Aleppo who joined Saladin and the latter was a former "mamluk" of Shirkuh who helped rescue him from the assassination attempt at A'zaz.

paragraph: Section::::Imperial expansions.:Fight for Mosul.

paragraph: As Saladin approached Mosul, he faced the issue of taking over a large city and justifying the action. The Zengids of Mosul appealed to an-Nasir, the Abbasid caliph at Baghdad whose vizier favored them. An-Nasir sent Badr al-Badr (a high-ranking religious figure) to mediate between the two sides. Saladin arrived at the city on 10 November 1182. Izz al-Din would not accept his terms because he considered them disingenuous and extensive, and Saladin immediately laid siege to the heavily fortified city.

paragraph: After several minor skirmishes and a stalemate in the siege that was initiated by the caliph, Saladin intended to find a way to withdraw without damage to his reputation while still keeping up some military pressure. He decided to attack Sinjar, which was held by Izz al-Din's brother Sharaf al-Din. It fell after a 15-day siege on 30 December. Saladin's soldiers broke their discipline, plundering the city; Saladin only managed to protect the governor and his officers by sending them to Mosul. After establishing a garrison at Sinjar, he awaited a coalition assembled by Izz al-Din consisting of his forces, those from Aleppo, Mardin, and Armenia. Saladin and his army met the coalition at Harran in February 1183, but on hearing of his approach, the latter sent messengers to Saladin asking for peace. Each force returned to their cities and al-Fadil wrote: ""They [Izz al-Din's coalition] advanced like men, like women they vanished.""

paragraph: On 2 March, al-Adil from Egypt wrote to Saladin that the Crusaders had struck the "heart of Islam". Raynald de Châtillon had sent ships to the Gulf of Aqaba to raid towns and villages off the coast of the Red Sea. It was not an attempt to extend the Crusader influence into that sea or to capture its trade routes, but merely a piratical move. Nonetheless, Imad al-Din writes the raid was alarming to the Muslims because they were not accustomed to attacks on that sea, and Ibn al-Athir adds that the inhabitants had no experience with the Crusaders either as fighters or traders.

paragraph: Ibn Jubair was told that sixteen Muslim ships were burnt by the Crusaders, who then captured a pilgrim ship and caravan at Aidab. He also reported that they intended to attack Medina and remove Muhammad's body. Al-Maqrizi added to the rumor by claiming Muhammad's tomb was going to be relocated to Crusader territory so Muslims would make pilgrimages there. Al-Adil had his warships moved from Fustat and Alexandria to the Red Sea under the command of an Armenian mercenary Lu'lu. They broke the Crusader blockade, destroyed most of their ships, and pursued and captured those who anchored and fled into the desert. The surviving Crusaders, numbered at 170, were ordered to be killed by Saladin in various Muslim cities.

paragraph: From the point of view of Saladin, in terms of territory, the war against Mosul was going well, but he still failed to achieve his objectives and his army was shrinking; Taqi al-Din took his men back to Hama, while Nasir al-Din Muhammad and his forces had left. This encouraged Izz al-Din and his allies to take the offensive. The previous coalition regrouped at Harzam some 140 km from Harran. In early April, without waiting for Nasir al-Din, Saladin and Taqi al-Din commenced their advance against the coalition, marching eastward to Ras al-Ein unhindered. By late April, after three days of "actual fighting", according to Saladin, the Ayyubids had captured Amid. He handed the city to Nur al-Din Muhammad together with its stores, which consisted of 80,000 candles, a tower full of arrowheads, and 1,040,000 books. In return for a diploma granting him the city, Nur al-Din swore allegiance to Saladin, promising to follow him in every expedition in the war against the Crusaders, and repairing damage done to the city. The fall of Amid, in addition to territory, convinced Il-Ghazi of Mardin to enter the service of Saladin, weakening Izz al-Din's coalition.

paragraph: Saladin attempted to gain the Caliph an-Nasir's support against Izz al-Din by sending him a letter requesting a document that would give him legal justification for taking over Mosul and its territories. Saladin aimed to persuade the caliph claiming that while he conquered Egypt and Yemen under the flag of the Abbasids, the Zengids of Mosul openly supported the Seljuks (rivals of the caliphate) and only came to the caliph when in need. He also accused Izz al-Din's forces of disrupting the Muslim "Holy War" against the Crusaders, stating "they are not content not to fight, but they prevent those who can." Saladin defended his own conduct claiming that he had come to Syria to fight the Crusaders, end the heresy of the Assassins, and stop the wrong-doing of the Muslims. He also promised that if Mosul was given to him, it would lead to the capture of Jerusalem, Constantinople, Georgia, and the lands of the Almohads in the Maghreb, "until the word of God is supreme and the Abbasid caliphate has wiped the world clean, turning the churches into mosques". Saladin stressed that all this would happen by the will of God, and instead of asking for financial or military support from the caliph, he would capture and give the caliph the territories of Tikrit, Daquq, Khuzestan, Kish Island, and Oman.

paragraph: Section::::Wars against Crusaders.

paragraph: On 29 September 1182, Saladin crossed the Jordan River to attack Beisan, which was found to be empty. The next day his forces sacked and burned the town and moved westwards. They intercepted Crusader reinforcements from Karak and Shaubak along the Nablus road and took a number of prisoners. Meanwhile, the main Crusader force under Guy of Lusignan moved from Sepphoris to al-Fula. Saladin sent out 500 skirmishers to harass their forces, and he himself marched to Ain Jalut. When the Crusader force—reckoned to be the largest the kingdom ever produced from its own resources, but still outmatched by the Muslims—advanced, the Ayyubids unexpectedly moved down the stream of Ain Jalut. After a few Ayyubid raids—including attacks on Zir'in, Forbelet, and Mount Tabor—the Crusaders still were not tempted to attack their main force, and Saladin led his men back across the river once provisions and supplies ran low.

paragraph: Crusader attacks provoked further responses by Saladin. Raynald of Châtillon, in particular, harassed Muslim trading and pilgrimage routes with a fleet on the Red Sea, a water route that Saladin needed to keep open. In response, Saladin built a fleet of 30 galleys to attack Beirut in 1182. Raynald threatened to attack the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. In retaliation, Saladin twice besieged Kerak, Raynald's fortress in Oultrejordain, in 1183 and 1184. Raynald responded by looting a caravan of pilgrims on the Hajj in 1185. According to the later 13th-century "Old French Continuation of William of Tyre", Raynald captured Saladin's sister in a raid on a caravan; this claim is not attested in contemporary sources, Muslim or Frankish, however, instead stating that Raynald had attacked a preceding caravan, and Saladin set guards to ensure the safety of his sister and her son, who came to no harm.

paragraph: Following the failure of his Kerak sieges, Saladin temporarily turned his attention back to another long-term project and resumed attacks on the territory of ʻIzz ad-Dīn (Masʻūd ibn Mawdūd ibn Zangi), around Mosul, which he had begun with some success in 1182. However, since then, Masʻūd had allied himself with the powerful governor of Azerbaijan and Jibal, who in 1185 began moving his troops across the Zagros Mountains, causing Saladin to hesitate in his attacks. The defenders of Mosul, when they became aware that help was on the way, increased their efforts, and Saladin subsequently fell ill, so in March 1186 a peace treaty was signed.

paragraph: In July 1187, Saladin captured most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. On 4 July 1187, at the Battle of Hattin, he faced the combined forces of Guy of Lusignan, King Consort of Jerusalem, and Raymond III of Tripoli. In this battle alone the Crusader force was largely annihilated by Saladin's determined army. It was a major disaster for the Crusaders and a turning point in the history of the Crusades. Saladin captured Raynald and was personally responsible for his execution in retaliation for his attacks against Muslim caravans. The members of these caravans had, in vain, besought his mercy by reciting the truce between the Muslims and the Crusaders, but Raynald ignored this and insulted the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, before murdering and torturing a number of them. Upon hearing this, Saladin swore an oath to personally execute Raynald. Guy of Lusignan was also captured. Seeing the execution of Raynald, he feared he would be next. However, his life was spared by Saladin, who said of Raynald, "[i]t is not the wont of kings, to kill kings; but that man had transgressed all bounds, and therefore did I treat him thus."

paragraph: Section::::Wars against Crusaders.:Capture of Jerusalem.

paragraph: Saladin had captured almost every Crusader city. Saladin preferred to take Jerusalem without bloodshed and offered generous terms, but those inside refused to leave their holy city, vowing to destroy it in a fight to the death rather than see it handed over peacefully. Jerusalem capitulated to his forces on Friday, 2 October 1187, after a siege. When the siege had started, Saladin was unwilling to promise terms of quarter to the Frankish inhabitants of Jerusalem. Balian of Ibelin threatened to kill every Muslim hostage, estimated at 5,000, and to destroy Islam's holy shrines of the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa Mosque if such quarter were not provided. Saladin consulted his council and the terms were accepted. The agreement was read out through the streets of Jerusalem so that everyone might within forty days provide for himself and pay to Saladin the agreed tribute for his freedom. An unusually low ransom for the times (around US$50 today) was to be paid for each Frank in the city, whether man, woman, or child, but Saladin, against the wishes of his treasurers, allowed many families who could not afford the ransom to leave. Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem organised and contributed to a collection that paid the ransoms for about 18,000 of the poorer citizens, leaving another 15,000 to be enslaved. Saladin's brother al-Adil "asked Saladin for a thousand of them for his own use and then released them on the spot." Most of the foot soldiers were sold into slavery. Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin summoned the Jews and permitted them to resettle in the city. In particular, the residents of Ashkelon, a large Jewish settlement, responded to his request. The subject ordered the churches repurposed as horse stables and the church towers destroyed.

paragraph: Tyre, on the coast of modern-day Lebanon, was the last major Crusader city that was not captured by Muslim forces. Strategically, it would have made more sense for Saladin to capture Tyre before Jerusalem; Saladin, however, chose to pursue Jerusalem first because of the importance of the city to Islam. Tyre was commanded by Conrad of Montferrat, who strengthened its defences and withstood two sieges by Saladin. In 1188, at Tortosa, Saladin released Guy of Lusignan and returned him to his wife, Queen Sibylla of Jerusalem. They went first to Tripoli, then to Antioch. In 1189, they sought to reclaim Tyre for their kingdom but were refused admission by Conrad, who did not recognize Guy as king. Guy then set about besieging Acre.

paragraph: Saladin was on friendly terms with Queen Tamar of Georgia. Saladin's biographer Bahā' ad-Dīn ibn Šaddād reports that, after Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem, the Georgian Queen sent envoys to the sultan to request the return of confiscated possessions of the Georgian monasteries in Jerusalem. Saladin's response is not recorded, but the queen's efforts seem to have been successful as Jacques de Vitry, the Bishop of Acre, reports the Georgians were, in contrast to the other Christian pilgrims, allowed a free passage into the city with their banners unfurled. Ibn Šaddād furthermore claims that Queen Tamar outbid the Byzantine emperor in her efforts to obtain the relics of the True Cross, offering 200,000 gold pieces to Saladin who had taken the relics as booty at the battle of Hattin, but to no avail.

paragraph: Section::::Wars against Crusaders.:Third Crusade.

paragraph: Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem prompted the Third Crusade (1189–1192), financed in England by a special "Saladin tithe". Richard the Lionheart, King of England led Guy's siege of Acre, conquered the city and executed 3,000 Muslim prisoners, including women and children. Bahā' ad-Dīn wrote:

paragraph: The armies of Saladin engaged in combat with the army of King Richard at the Battle of Arsuf on 7 September 1191, at which Saladin's forces suffered heavy losses and were forced to withdraw. After the battle of Arsuf, Richard occupied Jaffa, restoring the city's fortifications. Meanwhile, Saladin moved south, where he dismantled the fortifications of Ascalon to prevent this strategically important city, which lay at the junction between Egypt and Palestine, from falling into Crusader hands.

paragraph: In October 1191, Richard began restoring the inland castles on the coastal plain beyond Jaffa in preparation for an advance on Jerusalem. During this period, Richard and Saladin passed envoys back and forth, negotiating the possibility of a truce. Richard proposed that his sister, Joan of England, Queen of Sicily, should marry Saladin's brother and that Jerusalem could be their wedding gift. However, Saladin rejected this idea when Richard insisted that Saladin's brother convert to Christianity.

paragraph: In January 1192, Richard's army occupied Beit Nuba, just twelve miles from Jerusalem, but withdrew without attacking the Holy City. Instead, Richard advanced south on Ascalon, where he restored the fortifications. In July 1192, Saladin tried to threaten Richard's command of the coast by attacking Jaffa. The city was besieged, and Saladin very nearly captured it; however, Richard arrived a few days later and defeated Saladin's army in a battle outside the city.

paragraph: The Battle of Jaffa (1192) proved to be the last military engagement of the Third Crusade. After Richard reoccupied Jaffa and restored its fortifications, he and Saladin again discussed terms. At last Richard agreed to demolish the fortifications of Ascalon, while Saladin agreed to recognize Crusader control of the Palestinian coast from Tyre to Jaffa. The Christians would be allowed to travel as unarmed pilgrims to Jerusalem, and Saladin's kingdom would be at peace with the Crusader states for the following three years.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Saladin died of a fever on 4 March 1193, at Damascus, not long after King Richard's departure. In Saladin’s possession at the time of his death were one piece of gold and forty pieces of silver. He had given away his great wealth to his poor subjects, leaving nothing to pay for his funeral. He was buried in a mausoleum in the garden outside the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. Originally the tomb was part of a complex which also included a school, Madrassah al-Aziziah, of which little remains except a few columns and an internal arch. Seven centuries later, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany donated a new marble sarcophagus to the mausoleum. However, the original sarcophagus was not replaced; instead, the mausoleum, which is open to visitors, now has two sarcophagi: the marble one placed on the side and the original wooden one, which covers Saladin's tomb. (Muslims are buried in a simple shroud, so if there are any sarcophagi present, they are usually used for covering the top of the Islamic burials.)

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani compiled a list of Saladin's sons along with their dates of birth, according to information provided by Saladin late in his reign. They were:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. al-Afḍal Nur al-Din Ali (b. 1 Shawwal 565 AH ( June 1170) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. al-‘Azīz Imad al-Din Abu al-Fath Uthman (b. 8 Jumada I 567 AH ( January 1172) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::3. al-Ẓāfir Muzaffar al-Din Abu al-Abbas Khidr (b. 5 Sha'ban 568 AH (March 1173) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. al-Ẓāhir Ghiyath al-Din Abu Mansur Ghazi (b. mid-Ramadan 568 AH (May 1173) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::5. al-Mu‘izz Fath al-Din Abu Ya'qub Ishaq (b. Rabi I 570 AH (October/November 1174) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::6. al-Mu’ayyad Najm al-Din Abu al-Fath Mas'ud (b. Rabi I 571 AH (September/October 1175) in Damascus)

paragraph: BULLET::::7. al-A‘izz Sharaf al-Din Abu Yusuf Ya'qub (b. Rabi II 572 AH (October/November 1176) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::8. al-Zāhir Mujir al-Din Abu Sulayman Dawud (b. Dhi al-Qi'dah 573 AH (May 1178) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::9. al-Mufaḍḍal Qutb al-Din Musa, later called al-Muẓaffar (b. 573 AH (1178) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::10. al-Ashraf Izz al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad (b. 575 AH (1179/1180) in Sham)

paragraph: BULLET::::11. al-Muḥsin Zahir al-Din Abu al-Abbas Ahmad (b. Rabi I 577 AH (July/August 1181) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::12. al-Mu‘aẓẓam Fakhr al-Din Abu Mansur Turanshah (b. Rabi I 577 AH (July/August 1181) in Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::13. al-Jawwād Rukn al-Din Abu Sa'id Ayyub (b. Rabi I 578 AH (July/August 1182))

paragraph: BULLET::::14. al-Ghālib Nasir al-Din Abu al-Fath Malikshah (b. Rajab 578 AH (November/December 1182))

paragraph: BULLET::::15. al-Manṣūr Abu Bakr (b. after Saladin's death (1193) in Harran)

paragraph: The sons who were full brothers were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Afḍal, al-Ẓāfir, and al-Mufaḍḍal

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-‘Azīz, al-Mu’ayyad, and al-A‘izz.

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Ẓāhir and al-Zāhir

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Mu‘izz and al-Jawwād

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Ashraf and al-Muḥsin

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Mu‘aẓẓam, al-Ghālib, and al-Manṣūr

paragraph: The sons listed by Imad number fifteen, but elsewhere he writes that Saladin was survived by seventeen sons and one daughter. According to Abu Hamah, Imad missed two sons who were born to slave-women: Imad al-Din Shadhi and Nusrat al-Din Marwan. As for Saladin's daughter, she was Mu'nisah Khatun; she married her cousin al-Kamil Muhammad ibn Adil. Saladin also had other children who died before him, such as al-Mansur Hasan and Ahmad. Al-Zahir Dawud, whom Imad listed eighth, is recorded as being his twelfth son in a letter written by Saladin's minister.

paragraph: Not much is known of Saladin's wives or slave-women. He married Ismat al-Din Khatun, the widow of Nur al-Din Zengi, in 1176. She did not have children. One of his wives, Shamsah, is buried with her son al-Aziz in the tomb of al-Shafi'i.

paragraph: Section::::Recognition and legacy.

paragraph: Section::::Recognition and legacy.:Western world.

paragraph: Saladin eventually achieved a great reputation in Europe as a chivalrous knight, due to his fierce struggle against the crusaders and his generosity. In "The Divine Comedy" he is mentioned as one of the virtuous non-Christians in limbo. Although Saladin faded into history after the Middle Ages, he appears in a sympathetic light in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's play "Nathan the Wise" (1779) and in Sir Walter Scott's novel "The Talisman" (1825). The contemporary view of Saladin originates mainly from these texts. According to Jonathan Riley-Smith, Scott's portrayal of Saladin was that of a "modern [19th-century] liberal European gentlemen, beside whom medieval Westerners would always have made a poor showing". Despite the Crusaders' slaughter when they originally conquered Jerusalem in 1099, Saladin granted amnesty and free passage to all common Catholics and even to the defeated Christian army, as long as they were able to pay the aforementioned ransom (the Greek Orthodox Christians were treated even better, because they often opposed the western Crusaders).

paragraph: Notwithstanding the differences in beliefs, the Muslim Saladin was respected by Christian lords, Richard especially. Richard once praised Saladin as a great prince, saying that he was without doubt the greatest and most powerful leader in the Islamic world. Saladin in turn stated that there was not a more honorable Christian lord than Richard. After the treaty, Saladin and Richard sent each other many gifts as tokens of respect but never met face to face. In April 1191, a Frankish woman's three-month-old baby had been stolen from her camp and sold on the market. The Franks urged her to approach Saladin herself with her grievance. According to Bahā' al-Dīn, Saladin used his own money to buy the child back:

paragraph: Section::::Recognition and legacy.:Muslim world.

paragraph: In 1898, German Emperor Wilhelm II visited Saladin's tomb to pay his respects. The visit, coupled with anti-imperialist sentiments, led nationalist Arabs to reinvent the image of Saladin and portray him as a hero of the struggle against the West. The image of Saladin they used was the romantic one created by Walter Scott and other Europeans in the West at the time. It replaced Saladin's reputation as a figure who had been largely forgotten in the Muslim world, eclipsed by more successful figures, such as Baybars of Egypt.

paragraph: Modern Arab states have sought to commemorate Saladin through various measures, often based on the image created of him in the 19th-century west. A governorate centered around Tikrit and Samarra in modern-day Iraq, Saladin Governorate, is named after him, as is Salahaddin University in Erbil, the largest city of Iraqi Kurdistan. A suburban community of Erbil, Masif Salahaddin, is also named after him.

paragraph: Few structures associated with Saladin survive within modern cities. Saladin first fortified the Citadel of Cairo (1175–1183), which had been a domed pleasure pavilion with a fine view in more peaceful times. In Syria, even the smallest city is centred on a defensible citadel, and Saladin introduced this essential feature to Egypt.

paragraph: Although the Ayyubid dynasty that he founded would only outlive him by 57 years, the legacy of Saladin within the Arab World continues to this day. With the rise of Arab nationalism in the 20th Century, particularly with regard to the Arab–Israeli conflict, Saladin's heroism and leadership gained a new significance. Saladin's recapture of Palestine from the European Crusaders is considered an inspiration for modern-day Arabs' opposition to Zionism. Moreover, the glory and comparative unity of the Arab World under Saladin was seen as the perfect symbol for the new unity sought by Arab nationalists, such as Gamal Abdel Nasser. For this reason, the Eagle of Saladin became the symbol of revolutionary Egypt, and was subsequently adopted by several other Arab states (the United Arab Republic, Iraq, Libya, the State of Palestine, and Yemen).

paragraph: Among Egyptian Shia, Saladin is dubbed "Kharab al-Din", the destroyer of religion—a derisive play on the name "Saladin."

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Kurdish dynasties and countries

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sharaf Khan Bidlisi

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Damascus

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Egypt

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kingdom of Heaven"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Crusades"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "King Richard and the Crusaders"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Saladin the Victorious"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Salah al-Din (TV series)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Arn – The Knight Templar"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stanley Lane-Poole, "The Life of Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem", in "btm" format

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rosebault Ch.J. Saladin. Prince of Chivalri

paragraph: BULLET::::- De expugnatione terrae sanctae per Saladinum A European account of Saladin's conquests of the Crusader states.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saladin: The Sultan and His Times, 1138–1193

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard and Saladin: Warriors of the Third Crusade

description: Muslim leader. First Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty

wikidata_label: Saladin

wikipedia_title: Saladin


text:
American colonies
East Florida
Germany
Philadelphia
Annapolis, Maryland
Boston
Dedham, Massachusetts
Nathaniel Ames
Florida
Seven Years' War
St. Augustine, Florida
St. Johns River
Tampa Bay
John Bartram
George Gauld
John William Gerard de Brahm
Harvard University
"A description of East-Florida"

categories: Year of birth missing,German male writers,German botanists,Place of birth missing,Year of death missing,17th-century German writers

paragraph: William Stork

paragraph: Dr William Stork (flourished 17511768) practiced as an oculist in England and the American colonies, and subsequently settled in the British colony of East Florida and published pamphlets encouraging its settlement. Some accounts state that he was initially from Germany, but do not provide primary references which prove the claim.

paragraph: Stork advertised in London in 1751 and 1752 that he was the oculist to the Princess of Wales. He then advertised his services as an oculist in Jamaica in 1760. He arrived in Philadelphia and advertised his services as an oculist in 1761. He travelled up and down the Eastern colonies from Annapolis, Maryland to Boston between 1761 and 1764. From the diary of Dedham, Massachusetts physician Nathaniel Ames, we know that Stork performed cataract couching. Stork is the first known to have performed cataract couching in the area that became the United States.

paragraph: The British acquired Florida from the Spanish by the treaty of 1763 which ended the Seven Years' War (i.e. the French and Indian War). Stork made a career change in 1764, and decided to be a plantations agent in the colony of East Florida. Stork was in Florida in 1765, and traveled to England by 1766, when the first edition of his Florida journal was published. He then travelled back to Florida in 1767, and "died with the fright" during an insurrection of indentured servants in August 1768.

paragraph: His "An Account of East Florida", written in English, was published in three editions, two in 1766, subtitled "With Remark on its Future Importance to Trade and Commerce" and a third in 1769, as "A description of East-Florida", subtitled "with a journal kept by John Bartram of Philadelphia, botanist to His Majesty for the Floridas : upon a journey from St. Augustine up the river St. John's, as far as the lakes : with explanatory botanical notes, illustrated with an accurate map of East-Florida, and two plans, one of St. Augustine, and the other of the Bay of Espiritu Santo", the latter referring to St. Augustine, Florida, St. Johns River, the bay now known as Tampa Bay, and the botanist John Bartram.

paragraph: The book reputedly featured a plagiarised copy of a map by George Gauld, who wrote (speaking of himself in the third person):

paragraph: A manuscript work by John William Gerard de Brahm, in the library of Harvard University, listing the residents of East Florida up to 1771, refers to him as "William Stork, Esq., historian".

paragraph: The published work by de Brahm lists "Storck William Esqr." as a Florida inhabitant between the years 1763 and 1771 "In the King's Employ" under the category of "Draughtsmen" with the stated qualifications "Oculist, Physician", with his status listed as "Dead."

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A description of East-Florida" (1769) scans and description

description: botanist and historian who visited the British colony of East Florida and published pamphlets encouraging its settlement

wikidata_label: William Stork

wikipedia_title: William Stork


text: Swedish

text: coloratura

text: lyric soprano

text: opera

text: Royal Swedish Opera

text: Hovsångerska

text: voice teacher

text: Alnön

text: Gustavsberg

text: silent film

text: Stockholm

text: John Forsell

text: Jussi Björling

text: Lina Pagliughi

text: Adolphe Adam

text: La poupée de Nuremberg

text: La bohème

text: Copenhagen

text: Oslo

text: Helsinki

text: Larsson

text: The Princess of Cyprus

text: World War II

text: Royal Albert Hall

text: Handel

text: Mozart

text: Berwald

text: Delibes

text: Ernest Ansermet

text: Le nozze di Figaro

text: Metropolitan Opera

text: Rigoletto

text: The New York Times

text: Havana

text: Hamburg

text: Riccione

text: Giuseppe Di Stefano

text: Covent Garden

text: La traviata

text: art song

text: Royal College of Music

text: Gösta Winbergh

text: Solveig Kringelborn

text: master class

text: Sundsvall

text: La traviata

text: BBC

text: Picture Page

text: Lycksalighetens ö

text: La poupée de Nuremberg

text: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: Madama Butterfly

text: Le nozze di Figaro

text: Così fan tutte

text: Rigoletto

text: Les contes d'Hoffmann

text: La belle Hélène

text: Roméo et Juliette

text: Le postillon de Lonjumeau

text: Manon

text: Manon Lescaut

text: Faust

text: Fidelio

text: La bohème

text: Pagliacci

text: Un ballo in maschera

text: Il barbiere di Siviglia

text: Thaïs

text: Ariadne auf Naxos

text: LP

text: Jussi Björling

text: Roméo et Juliette

text: Sigurd Björling

text: Il trovatore

text: Manon Lescaut

text: Don Giovanni

text: Le nozze di Figaro

text: Die Zauberflöte

text: Naxos Records

text: Schymberg, Hjördis (Soprano)

text: Metropolitan Opera

text: Greenwood Publishing Group

text: Hjördis Schymberg

text: The New York Times

text: MetOpera Database

text: Sveriges Radio P2

text: Hjördis Schymberg Special

categories: 2008 deaths,People from Sundsvall,20th-century opera singers,1909 births,Swedish operatic sopranos

paragraph: Hjördis Schymberg

paragraph: Hjördis Gunborg Schymberg (April 24, 1909 – September 8, 2008) was a Swedish coloratura and lyric soprano active on the opera stage and in concert halls between 1934 and 1968. One of the leading singers of the Royal Swedish Opera, she was awarded the title of "Hovsångerska" (Court Singer) in 1943, and in her later years became a distinguished voice teacher.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Hjördis Schymberg was born on the island of Alnön on April 24, 1909, the fourth of five musically talented sisters. Her father worked in the local lumber mill and her mother was a seamstress. As a child, she played both the violin and piano and sang with the Gustavsberg children's orchestra. She and her sisters also sang in cafes and performed music to accompany silent films. At the age of 16, she had her own radio program, "Tant Hjördis sjunger med barnen" (Aunt Hjördis sings with children), but it was not until 1929 that she began formal vocal training with Brita von Vegesack. Three years later, she went to Stockholm where she studied under John Forsell, who was also the teacher of Jussi Björling. Schymberg and Bjorling were to sing together later, including a highly celebrated rendition of O Soave Fanciulla, recorded in 1941. A scholarship gave her the opportunity for further study in Italy under Renato Bellini and Lina Pagliughi.

paragraph: She made her stage debut in 1934 as Berthe in a matinée performance of Adolphe Adam's comic opera "La poupée de Nuremberg". Later that year she sang Mimì to Björling's Rodolfo for their 1934 role debuts in "La bohème" and went on to sing with him over 100 times, including his last performance in Stockholm in 1960. She soon became one of the leading sopranos of the Royal Swedish Opera and also sang regularly in Copenhagen, Oslo, and Helsinki.

paragraph: She created the title role in Larsson's "The Princess of Cyprus" in 1937.

paragraph: However, her international career was delayed by World War II. Her first major engagement outside Scandinavia came in 1946 when she was scheduled to appear in London's Royal Albert Hall in a concert of arias by Handel, Mozart, Berwald and Delibes, conducted by Ernest Ansermet. Schymberg's American debut came in 1947 when she sang Susanna in "Le nozze di Figaro" at New York's Metropolitan Opera. The manager Edvard Johnson had heard her already back in 1938 and wanted her to appear at the Metropolitan. She was given a contract for the following season after her debut in 1947 but she never returned to the Metropolitan. She also appeared there in the same season as Gilda in "Rigoletto". A review of her Met debut in "The New York Times" described her:

paragraph: Comely, petite and graceful, she was an ideal Susanna to the eye. Her impersonation was refined and filled with the spirit of youth. She brought the needed vivacity and sly humor to her interpretation and gave it real human appeal in a natural and unaffected way that won immediate favor with the large audience.

paragraph: She went on to give a series of concerts in the United States in 1947 and also appeared in Havana, Hamburg and Riccione later on where she sang in "Rigoletto" opposite Giuseppe Di Stefano as the Duke of Mantua. Her Covent Garden debut came in 1951 as Violetta in "La traviata".

paragraph: Schymberg retired from the Royal Swedish Opera company in 1959, but continued to perform in operas, concerts, art song recitals and recordings until 1968 when she gave her farewell performance at the Royal Swedish Opera. In her later years she taught singing at the Royal College of Music in Stockholm. Amongst her pupils were several prominent Scandinavian opera singers including Gösta Winbergh, Sylvia Lindenstrand, Laila Andersson-Palme, and Solveig Kringelborn. In 1997 she donated Schymbergsgården, her childhood home in Alnön, to the Schymbergsgården Foundation which she established for the benefit of young singers and musicians. Schymbergsgården is now a venue for summer concerts and master classes.

paragraph: Hjördis Schymberg died in Stockholm in the early hours of September 8, 2008 at the age of 99.

paragraph: The Hjördis Schymberg Foundation has announced its first singing competition, open to young professionals, with the final stage planned for Sundsvall in October 2018.

paragraph: Section::::Repertoire.

paragraph: Hjördis Schymberg's signature role was Violetta in "La traviata", which she sang over 140 times between 1939 and 1968. The BBC also filmed her in costume singing arias from the opera for a 1951 episode of "Picture Page". In 1945 she sang Zephyr in the premiere of Rosenberg's opera "Lycksalighetens ö". Over the course of her career she sang over 50 other roles including:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Berthe in "La poupée de Nuremberg"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blonde in "Die Entführung aus dem Serail"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Butterfly in "Madama Butterfly"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Countess Almaviva in "Le nozze di Figaro"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fiordiligi in Così fan tutte"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gilda in "Rigoletto"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giulietta in "Les contes d'Hoffmann"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hélène in "La belle Hélène"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Juliette in "Roméo et Juliette"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Madeleine in "Le postillon de Lonjumeau"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Manon in Massenet's "Manon"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Manon in Puccini's "Manon Lescaut"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marguerite in "Faust"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marzelline in "Fidelio"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mimì in "La bohème"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nedda in "Pagliacci"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Olympia in "Les contes d'Hoffmann"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oscar in "Un ballo in maschera"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rosina in "Il barbiere di Siviglia"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Susanna in "Le nozze di Figaro"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thaïs in "Thaïs"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zerbinetta in "Ariadne auf Naxos"

paragraph: Section::::Recordings.

paragraph: In 1975 the Unique Opera Records Corporation released on LP the complete live recording of "La traviata" performed at the Swedish Royal Opera on 29 August 1939 with Hjördis Schymberg as Violetta and Jussi Björling as Alfredo in his last assumption of the role. Excerpts from that recording can still be found in some CD compilations such as "The Jussi Björling Series – Radamès, Alfredo, Roméo" (Bluebell ABCD 103). Other CD recordings featuring Schymberg include:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gounod: "Roméo et Juliette" (Jussi Björling, Hjördis Schymberg, Leon Björker and Sigurd Björling). Recorded live in 1940 at the Royal Swedish Opera. Label: Bluebell ABCD 088

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal Swedish Opera Archives Vol 1 — "Il trovatore" and "Manon Lescaut" (Schymberg sings with Jussi Björling in "Manon Lescaut", recorded live in 1959). Label: Caprice Records, CAP 22051

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal Swedish Opera Archives Vol 6 – "Mozart at the Royal Swedish Opera 1952–1967" (Schymberg sings in excerpts from "Don Giovanni", "Le nozze di Figaro", and "Die Zauberflöte"). Label: Caprice Records CAP 22059

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hjördis Schymberg, Soprano" (arias by Handel, Gluck, Mozart, Weber, Rossini, Scarlatti, Donizetti, Verdi, Gounod, Bizet, Dvorák, and Puccini). Label: Bluebell ABCD 105

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Forsling, Göran, Review: 'The Jussi Björling Series – Radamès, Alfredo, Roméo, "MusicWeb International", January 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henrysson, Harald and Flaster, Sue, Liner notes: "The Bjorling Collection, Vol. 3: Opera Arias and Duets (1936–1944)" Naxos Records, 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- MetOpera Database, Schymberg, Hjördis (Soprano) – performance record at the Metropolitan Opera.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Östlund, Björn, 2009.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shaman, William et al. "More EJS: Discography of the Edward J. Smith Recordings", Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schymbergsgården Foundation (Stiftelsen Schymbergsgården), Hjördis Schymberg, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Strauss, Noel, "Swedish Soprano Bows in Figaro", "The New York Times", February 16, 1947, p. 59, reprinted on the MetOpera Database.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sveriges Radio P2, Hjördis Schymberg Special 29 December 2008

description: singer

wikidata_label: Hjördis Schymberg

wikipedia_title: Hjördis Schymberg


text:
Spanish
Claudio Coello
Cathedral of Toledo
Philip V of Spain
José del Olmo
Palace of Aranjuez
Francisco Herrera
Palace of la Granja de San Ildefonso
Eugenio Llaguno y Amirola
Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez
digital version

categories: 18th-century Spanish architects,1726 deaths,Spanish people of German descent,18th-century Spanish painters,Year of birth uncertain,Year of birth unknown,Spanish male painters,Spanish Baroque painters

paragraph: Teodoro Ardemans

paragraph: Teodoro de Ardemans or Ardmans (ca. 1661–1726) was a Spanish architect and painter.

paragraph: Ardemans was born in Madrid to a German father.

paragraph: He was a disciple of the painter Claudio Coello, although he mainly practiced architecture; the municipality of Toledo named him master of the Cathedral of Toledo. In 1702, King Philip V of Spain named him to succeed José del Olmo as the master for Royal works, and in 1704 as their chamber painter. He worked on the extensive renovations of the Palace of Aranjuez, including completing the facade to a design of Francisco Herrera. He also helped in the decoration of the Palace of la Granja de San Ildefonso, including the chapel.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Noticias de los arquitectos y arquitectura de España desde su restauración". Eugenio Llaguno y Amirola y Juan Agustín Ceán Bermúdez, Madrid 1829. digital version

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aterido Fernández, Ángel, "Teodoro Ardemans, pintor", Anuario del Departamento de Historia y Teoría del Arte, (UAM), vol. VII-VIII, 1995-1996, p. 133-148.

alias:
Teodoro Ardemáns
Théodore Ardemans

description: Spanish artist

wikidata_label: Teodoro Ardemans

wikipedia_title: Teodoro Ardemans


text:
Königsberg
Berlin
West Berlin
take-out
currywurst
tomato paste
Worcestershire sauce
curry powder
Google Doodle
currywurst
Hamburg
Uwe Timm
Ronald Schill
Deutsches Currywurst Museum Berlin

categories: People from Königsberg,1999 deaths,Berlin cuisine,1913 births,German chefs

paragraph: Herta Heuwer

paragraph: Herta Charlotte Heuwer (née Pöppel; 30 June 1913, Königsberg – 3 July 1999, Berlin) owned and ran a food kiosk in West Berlin. She is frequently credited with the invention of the take-out dish that would become the world-renowned currywurst, supposedly on 4 September 1949. On 29 June 2003, the day before what would have been her 90th birthday, a plaque was dedicated in her honour on the corner of Kant and Kaiser Friedrich Streets, Berlin where she had her kiosk. The original Currywurst was a boiled sausage, fried, with a sauce of tomato paste, Worcestershire sauce, curry powder and other ingredients.

paragraph: In January 1951, Heuwer registered a trademark for her sauce, "Chillup".

paragraph: She moved her business to a larger facility at Kaiser-Friedrich-Straße 59, which, during its heyday, was open day and night and employed 19 saleswomen. A plaque at this location commemorates the woman and her invention.

paragraph: On 30 June 2013, the centenary of Heuwer's birthday, was celebrated with a Google Doodle.

paragraph: Other sources claim that currywurst was invented in Hamburg. Author Uwe Timm contends in his novel "The Discovery of Currywurst" that he had eaten currywurst in Hamburg as early as 1947, but the inventor of Currywurst in his novel, Lena Brücker, is an admitted literary license. However, that did not prevent the former Hamburg Senator of the Interior Ronald Schill from honoring Lena Brücker in 2003.

paragraph: Food historians such as Petra Foede believe that, as with most culinary creation myths, several rather than a single person were involved in developing this dish, sausage sellers experimenting with various spice mixes in order to replace the tomato ketchup that was unavailable during the immediate postwar years.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Deutsches Currywurst Museum Berlin

description: German cook

wikidata_label: Herta Heuwer

wikipedia_title: Herta Heuwer


text:
Sigmaringen
Cölln
Karl I
Ernst, Margrave of Baden-Durlach
canon
Lutheran
Catholic
Berlin Cathedral
Lohra
Volkmar Wolf of Hohnstein

categories: Counts of Hohenzollern,1587 deaths,16th-century German people,1554 births

paragraph: Joachim of Zollern

paragraph: Joachim von Hohenzollern (21 June 1554 in Sigmaringen – 7 July 1587 in Cölln) was a titular Count of Hohenzollern.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Joachim was the 4th surviving son of Count Karl I of Hohenzollern (1516–1576) from his marriage to Anna (1512–1579), the daughter of Ernst, Margrave of Baden-Durlach.

paragraph: As the younger son, he was destined for a career in the clergy, typically as a canon. In order to avoid this, Joachim converted to the Lutheran faith. He was the only member of the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern to do so. He broke away from the Catholic relatives and moved the Protestant court of the Elector of Brandenburg in Berlin.

paragraph: Joachim died on 7 July 1587 and was buried in Berlin Cathedral.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and issue.

paragraph: On 6 July 1578 in Lohra, he married Anna (d. 1620), the daughter of Count Volkmar Wolf of Hohnstein. They had one son:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Johann Georg (1580–1622), Count of Hohenzollern, Lord of Königsberg-Kynau, married:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. in 1606 to Baroness Elonore of Promnitz (1576–1611)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. in 1613 to baroness Katharina Berka of Duba and Leipa (d. 1633)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gustav Schilling: "Geschichte des Hauses Hohenzollern, in genealogisch fortlaufenden Biographien aller seiner Regenten von den ältesten bis auf die neuesten Zeiten, nach Urkunden und andern authentischen Quellen", F. Fleischer, 1843, p. 72

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://www.hohenzollern-home.com/hbisn.htm

description: Titular Count of Hohenzollern

wikidata_label: Joachim of Zollern

wikipedia_title: Joachim of Zollern