text: Umayyad Caliphate

text: Umayyad dynasty

text: caliphate

text: caliph

text: Umayyad clan

text: Uthman ibn Affan

text: Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan

text: Ali ibn Abi Talib

text: Battle of Siffin

text: Hasan ibn Ali

text: a peace treaty

text: Levant

text: Aegean Sea

text: Sea of Marmara

text: Cyzicus

text: Mecca

text: Abu Sufyan ibn Harb

text: Hind bint Utbah

text: Banu Umayya

text: Banu Abd-Shams

text: Quraysh tribe

text: Mecca

text: Saudi Arabia

text: Abu Sufyan ibn Harb

text: 'Abd Manaf Ibn Qusay

text: Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan

text: hijra

text: Yazid ibn Muawiya

text: Husain ibn Ali

text: Battle of Kerbala

text: Heraclius

text: Battle of Yarmouk

text: Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan

text: Khalid ibn al-Walid

text: Umar

text: Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah

text: 'Amr ibn al-'As

text: Maysum

text: Jacobite Christian

text: Caesarea

text: 'Amr ibn al-'As

text: 'Amr ibn al-'As

text: Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan

text: 'Amr ibn al-'As

text: 'Amr ibn al-'As

text: Arab-Byzantine Wars

text: Monophysite Christians

text: Copts

text: Jacobite Syrian Christian

text: Battle of the Masts

text: siege of Constantinople

text: Marwan I

text: Uthman

text: assassinated in 656

text: Ali

text: Battle of Siffin

text: Kharijites

text: Jerusalem

text: Hassan

text: peace treaty with Hasan

text: Yazid ibn Muawiyah

text: siege to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople

text: Greek fire

text: Mardaites

text: Sicily

text: Uqba ibn Nafi

text: Kairouan

text: Tunisia

text: Tariq ibn Ziyad

text: Musa bin Nusayr

text: Al-Masjid an-Nabawi

text: Umar

text: Bayt al-mal

text: Bayt al-mal

text: Rashidun caliphate

text: Umayyad

text: Umar

text: Christians

text: Maysum

text: divan

text: chancellery

text: Barid

text: Abdullah ibn Umar

text: Abdullah ibn Umar

text: Battle of Yarmouk

text: Asmā' bint Abu Bakr

text: Battle of Yarmouk

text: Robert Payne

text: Byzantine navy

text: Battle of the Masts

text: Constantinople

text: mosque

text: hadith

text: Al-Dhahabi

text: Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani

text: Sahih

text: Sahih Muslim

text: Arabic culture

text: Ibn Taymiyyah

text: Shia Islam

text: Battle of Siffin

text: Muhammad's true successor

text: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Yazid

text: Companions of Muhammad

text: Battle of Karbala

text: Malik al-Ashtar

text: Hujr ibn Adi

text: Ammar ibn Yasir

text: Abu Hurairah

text: Sahih al-Bukhari

text: Ubaydullah ibn Abbas

text: Second Fitna

text: Utba ibn Abi Sufyan

categories: People of the First Fitna,7th-century Umayyad caliphs,680 deaths,Male Sahabah,602 births,Arab generals,7th-century heads of government,People from Mecca

paragraph: Muawiyah I

paragraph: Muawiyah I (; 602 – 26 April 680) was the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate. He was the first who established the Umayyad dynasty in Islam of the caliphate, and was the second caliph from the Umayyad clan, the first being Uthman ibn Affan.

paragraph: Muawiyah was appointed as the Governor of Syria after his brother Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan died. In 657, Muawiya's army attacked the army of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the Battle of Siffin. After the death of Ali in 661, Muawiya's army approached that of Ali's son and successor, Hasan ibn Ali. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Hasan signed a peace treaty with Muawiyah. Muawiyah then assumed power.

paragraph: In power, Muawiyah developed a navy in the Levant and used it to confront the Byzantine Empire in the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara. The caliphate conquered several territories including Cyzicus which were subsequently used as naval bases.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and family.

paragraph: Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan was born in Mecca to Abu Sufyan ibn Harb and Hind bint Utbah (602 CE) into the Banu Umayya sub-clan of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraysh tribe. Quraysh controlled the city of Mecca (in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia) and the Banu Abd-Shams were among the most influential of its citizens. In his youth, a stranger looked at Muawiyah and said; I think that this man will rule over his people. Upon hearing him, Hind his mother replied; May I lose him if he were to rule only over his people. His father Abu Sufyan ibn Harb struggled against Islam until Muhammad's army entered Mecca in 630.

paragraph: Muawiyah, Muhammad and Ali shared the same great-great grandfather, 'Abd Manaf Ibn Qusay, who had four sons: Hashim, Muttalib, Nawfal, and Abd Shams. Hashim was the great grandfather of Ali and Muhammad. Umayyah Ibn Abd Shams was the great grandfather of Muawiyah.

paragraph: Muawiyah and remaining members of his family were open opponents of the Muslims before the ascendancy of Muhammad. Along with his two older brothers, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and Utbah, Muawiyah was one of the members of the hunting party of his maternal uncle Walid bin Utbah that pursued Muhammad during the "hijra" (migration), when Muhammad was hiding in "Ghar al-Thawr" (Cave of the Bull).

paragraph: In 630, Muhammad and his followers entered Mecca, and most of the Meccans, including the Abd-Shams clan, formally submitted to Muhammad and accepted Islam.

paragraph: Section::::Appearance.

paragraph: Ibn Kathir wrote in his book "Al-Bidāya wa-n-nihāya": "In terms of his appearance, he was fair and tall, thick, bald with a white head and he had a beard that he used to colour with henna".

paragraph: Section::::Early career in Syria.

paragraph: During the time of Abu Bakr, Muawiyah used to serve under his brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan (not to be confused with Muawiyah's son Yazid ibn Muawiya who was the caliph during the period in which Husain ibn Ali was martyred at the Battle of Kerbala). Muawiyah was one of the first to be sent into Syria.

paragraph: In May 636, Emperor Heraclius launched a major expedition against the Muslims, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636. In the battle, Muawiyah's brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan served under Khalid ibn al-Walid and Abu Ubaydah and was in command of one of the wings and Muawiyah was his second in command. Muawiyah's mother Hind also took part in the battle.

paragraph: Section::::Governor of Syria.

paragraph: In 639, Muawiyah was appointed as the governor of Syria by the second caliph Umar after his brother the previous governor Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan and the governor before him Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. 'Amr ibn al-'As was sent to take on the Byzantine army in Egypt.

paragraph: With limited resources Muawiyah's marriage to Maysum was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, that was a large Jacobite Christian Arab tribe in Syria. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysum, Muawiyah started to use the Jacobite Christians, against the Romans. Muawiya's wife Maysum (Yazid's mother) was also a Jacobite Christian. With limited resources and the Byzantine just over the border, Muawiyah worked in cooperation with the local Christian population.

paragraph: According to some books the town of Caesarea was taken by Muawiyah in 640, when the last Byzantine Roman garrison in Syria and Palestine surrendered. But according to Al-Imam Al-Waqidi, the author of the oldest history books on Islam it was Muawiyah's friend 'Amr ibn al-'As who expelled the Roman army from Caesarea. 'Amr ibn al-'As who along with Muawiyah's brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan who later became the governor of Syria, expelled the Roman armies from many Syrian cities and later 'Amr ibn al-'As also moved into Egypt.

paragraph: Under Muawiyah's governance the Syrian army became a major military force. He picked out the best leaders from various tribes whereas elsewhere in the state the military units were still based along tribal lines. He personally saw to the comfort and the equipment of the troops, increased their pay and paid them on a regular basis when they were on duty. He kept the troops in training by an annual expedition against the Byzantines and therefore kept the Byzantines in a constant state of unease and therefore kept his northern border safe. He encouraged innovations in military technology. Muawiyah's armies used "Minjenique" machines to propel large stones onto enemy ramparts. He modernized the army, introducing specialized units for desert combat and snowy terrains. New forts were also built.

paragraph: Muawiya left the Byzantine and Persian administrative structures intact, being sure not to give his largely non-Muslim subjects any incentive to revolt.

paragraph: The postal system, which was created by Omar ibn al Khattab for military use, was now opened to the public by Muawiya. Uthman dismissed 'Amr ibn al-'As from governorship of Egypt so Muawiyah asked him to join him in Syria.

paragraph: Section::::Governor of Syria.:Battle of the Masts and expansion in the Mediterranean.

paragraph: Muawiya was one of the first to realize the full importance of having a navy; as long as the Byzantine fleet could sail the Mediterranean unopposed, the coastline of Syria, Palestine and Egypt would never be safe. Muawiyah along with Abdullah ibn Sa'd the new governor of Egypt successfully persuaded Uthman to give them permission to construct a large fleet in the dockyards of Egypt and Syria. Therefore, to stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy; manned by Monophysite Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors and Muslim troops. During his naval expeditions in AH 28 he took Rhodes and later in AH 29 he took Cyprus. He was accompanied by one of his other wives, Katwa, who died in the course of the expedition. Muawiyah had asked Umar once and Uthman twice for permissions to undertake such naval expeditions.

paragraph: The first real naval engagement between the Muslim and the Byzantine navy was the so-called Battle of the Masts (Dhat al-sawari) or Battle of Phoenix off the Lycian coast in 655.

paragraph: Under the instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn al-Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople.

paragraph: As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of the restrictions on the governors.

paragraph: Section::::Governor of Syria.:First Fitna.

paragraph: After Caliph Uthman was assassinated in 656, his successor Ali could not arrest and punish the perpetrators. He argued he could not arrest the killers because the killers are in the height of power. Ali believed Mu'awiyah used this as an opportunity to seek their political ambitions due to finding Ali's caliphate against their own benefit, as he did not want to acknowledge Ali's rule.

paragraph: Their troops confronted each other in the Battle of Siffin in 657, which was finally resolved by negotiations. These negotiations made Ali's claim to the caliphate dubious and some of his supporters broke away into a group known as the Kharijites. The Kharijite rebellion against Ali culminated in his assassination in 661. At the time, Mu'awiyah already controlled Syria and Egypt, and with the largest force in the Muslim realm, he laid the strongest claim on the caliphate.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.

paragraph: Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661.

paragraph: He came to Madina and spoke to the people, saying, "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I have followed a course with you which contains fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so be pleased with what comes to you from me even if it is little. When good is continuous, even if it is little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim."

paragraph: He also said in an address which he delivered to the people, "O people! By Allah, it is easier to move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed their way of conduct falling short of those before me, but none after me will equal me in it."

paragraph: Ali's caliphate lasted for around 4 years. After the treaty with Ali's son Hassan, Muawiyah ruled for nearly 20 years most of which were spent expanding the state.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Military expeditions.

paragraph: After the peace treaty with Hasan, Muawiyah turned his attention back to the Romans. In 674, Umayyad naval and army forces under the command of Muawiyah's son, Yazid ibn Muawiyah, laid siege to the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, but were defeated when the Byzantines introduced Greek fire to the naval battlefield. After most of the Arab fleet was destroyed and the Mardaites gained victory in Asia Minor, Muawiyah was compelled to conclude a peace treaty with Byzantium and to pay a yearly tribute to the Emperor.

paragraph: Further west, the Umayyads were keenly aware of Sicily's strategic importance and Muawiya was the first caliph to begin raiding the island in 670. That same year, the Umayyad general Uqba ibn Nafi founded the garrison town Kairouan in Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia). It was used both as a base for military operations and as an administrative centre for north Africa, replacing Carthage. A few years later the Umayyads also crossed over into Spain and southern France under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa bin Nusayr.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Leadership style.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Leadership style.:Welfare state.

paragraph: During the time of Muhammad, the poor were fed in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina. The revenues of the land in Fadak near Madina were also used for the poor as ṣadaqa, and travellers in need. Later Umar formalized the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit and pensions for the children and the elderly.

paragraph: Both Ali and Muawiyah continued the welfare state. Ali was extremely caring towards the poor and when he became caliph the revenue from the land of Fadak continued to go towards the poor.

paragraph: Because of Muawiyah's families previous opposition to the Muslims, before they converted to Islam, there was still some level of resentment towards him. Some of his relatives had been killed in battles fighting against the Muslims. But Muawiyah felt that after his conversion to Islam, for over 20 years, he had been the governor of Syria and expanded the state, confronted the Romans, built up a good administration, a good economy and therefore felt that people should not resent his past.

paragraph: On one occasion, Mu'awiya ascended the minbar and praised Allah. When he wanted to speak, a lad of the Ansar interrupted him and said, "Mu'awiya! What makes you and the people of your house more entitled to this wealth than us! We have no wrong action against you that we know of other than our slaying of your uncle Walid, your grandfather 'Uqba, and your brother Hanzala." Mu'awiya said, "By Allah, nephew, you did not kill them. Rather Allah killed them with angels upon angels at the hands of the sons of their father. That was not a fault nor a loss." The Ansari said, "So where is the fault and loss then?" He said, "You spoke the truth. Do you need something?" He said, "Yes. I look after an old woman and sisters and things have been hard on us." Mu'awiya said, "Take what you can from the treasury." The boy took it and then Mu'awiya resumed his khutba.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Leadership style.:Conduct towards non-Muslim subjects.

paragraph: Muawiyah governed the geographically and politically disparate caliphate, which now spread from north Africa in the west to Afghanistan in the east, by strengthening the power of his allies in the newly conquered territories. Prominent positions in the emerging governmental structures were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria itself. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base.

paragraph: Muawiya's wife Maysum (Yazid's mother) was also a Jacobite Christian from the Kalb tribe. His marriage to Maysum was also politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, that was a large Jacobite Christian Arab tribe in Syria. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysum, Muawiyah also used the Jacobite Christians, against the Romans.

paragraph: Muawiyah is reported to have said: "I observed the Messenger of Allah perform Wudhoo (ablution) and when he finished, he looked at me and said; 'O Muawiyah! If you get to rule then fear Allah and be just to the people.' Due to that statement of the Prophet I was convinced that I would one day be held accountable for undertaking the task"

paragraph: Tom Holland writes Christians, Jews, Samaritans and Manichaeans were all treated well by Muawiyah. Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake. Savagely though Muawiyah prosecuted his wars against the Romans, yet his subjects, no longer trampled by rival armies, no longer divided by hostile watchtowers, knew only peace at last. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted."

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Leadership style.:Political finesse.

paragraph: In a manner similar to Byzantine administrative practices, Muawiyah instituted several bureaucracies, called "divans", to aid him in the governance and the centralization of the caliphate and the empire. Early Arabic sources credit two "diwan"s in particular to Muawiyah: the "Diwan al-Khatam" (chancellery) and the "Barid" (postal service), both of which greatly improved communications within the empire.

paragraph: Mu'awiya could be seen speaking to the people on the minbar of Damascus wearing a patched garment. Yunus ibn Maysar al-Himyari said, "I saw Mu'awiya riding in the Damascus market wearing a shirt with a patched pocket, going along in the Damascus markets."

paragraph: Muawiyah was very skilled at dealing with the Romans. Abdullah ibn Zubayr, who could see troubles ahead after the death of Muawiyah and was opposed to the appointment of Yazid, later said of Muawiyah: "Truly the son of Hind deployed a dexterity and mental resourcefulness as one will never see after him. When we tried to impose something on him, an irritated lion with claws unsheathed would not show more audacity than him. He knew when to give into us, to even allow himself to be tricked when we tried to do that to him. He was the most artful of men, more crafty than a thief. I wished that we would never lose him, just as a rock remaining on this summit" pointing to the mountain of Abu Qubays outside Mekka.

paragraph: When his friends expressed surprise at the vastness of his gifts to his opponents, he told them "a war costs infinitely more".

paragraph: Muawiya was welcome to his subjects at every hour of the day, including mealtimes. Therefore, he knew what people were thinking and saying.

paragraph: Muawiya and his governors maintained an open table for people to come in and eat. Once an Arab seated at the end of the room did not hesitate to pull to himself a plate which had been placed in front of Muawiya. So Muawiyah said "You plunder very far!" The Arab replied, "After a year of drought, it is necessary to be well placed in order to find pasture!"

paragraph: The deliberations between Muawiyah and the people took place in the community mosque, where the people were free and unconstrained towards the khalif.

paragraph: Muawiya did not rely on the old aristocracy but looked for merit and loyalty. Most of his prominent governors were not even Qurayshi let alone Umayyad. He also had the faculty of winning over and retaining people he distrusted like Amr ibn al As. His most important early governor in Kufa was Mughira ibn Shuba. At Tabri recounted: "Al-Mughira liked things to run smoothly; he behaved well with the people and did not ask sectarians about their sect. All he would say was "Allah has decreed that you will continue to disagree and Allah will judge between His creatures concerning that about which they disagree." So people felt safe with him. Until the Kharijites resorted to violence then the Kufas agreed to expel them.

paragraph: He also paid a lot of attention to the economy and agriculture; this allowed him to finance his expeditions.

paragraph: According to al-Qasim bin Mukhaimirah, Abu Maryam al-Azdi said that he entered upon Muawiyah who said: "What blesses us with your presence, O Abu Fulan (Father of so and so a common Arab expression)? " I said: "A hadeeth I heard that I want to tell you. I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: 'Whoever Allah entrusts with authority over the affairs of the Muslims and he neglects the needs and wants of the poor amongst them, Allah will neglect him and his needs and wants." He added that Muawiyah appointed a man in charge of addressing the people's needs upon hearing the Hadith.

paragraph: Section::::Caliphate.:Appointment of son as successor.

paragraph: One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. Yazid was experienced militarily, after taking part in various expeditions and the siege of Constantinople but politically inexperienced. Marwan also wanted Yazid to be the caliph so that he could run things behind the scenes, as he would become the senior member of the Umayyad clan after Muawiyah's death. Mohammad, Abu Bakr and Umar also mistrusted Marwan and he had lived in Taif during their rule, where he became friends with Hajjaj.

paragraph: Tom Holland writes "Tempers in Medina were not helped by the fact that the governor in the oasis was none other than the fabulously venal and slippery Marwan. Rumours abounded that it was he, back in the last calamitous days of Uthman's rule who had double crossed the war band that had come to Uthman. The locals mistrust of their governor ran particularly deep. Nothing he had done had helped to improve his reputation for double dealing.

paragraph: Ibn Kathir wrote in his book "Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah" that "in the year 56 AH Muawiyah called on the people including those within the outlying territories to pledge allegiance to his son, Yazeed, to be his heir to the Caliphate after him. Almost all the subjects offered their allegiance, with the exception of Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr (the son of Abu Bakr), Abdullah ibn Umar (the son of Umar), al-Husain bin Ali (the son of Ali), Abdullah bin Az-Zubair (The grandson of Abu Bakr) and Abdullah ibn Abbas (Ali's cousin). Because of this Muawiyah passed through al-Madinah on his way back from Makkah upon completion of his Umrah Pilgrimage where he summoned each one of the five aforementioned individuals and threatened them. The speaker who addressed Muawiyah sharply with the greatest firmness amongst them was Abdurrahman bin Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq, while Abdullah bin Umar bin al-Khattab was the most soft spoken amongst them.

paragraph: Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr and Abdullah ibn Umar were mid level Muslim commanders at the Battle of Yarmouk that took Syria. Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr's sister Asmā' bint Abu Bakr also fought in the Battle of Yarmouk and was opposed to Yazid.

paragraph: Muawiyah then delivered a sermon, having stood these five men below the pulpit in full view of the people after which the people pledged allegiance to Yazeed as they stood in silence without displaying their disagreement or opposition for fear of being humiliated. Saeed bin Uthman bin Affan, the son of Uthman also criticized Muawiyah for putting forward Yazeed." They tolerated Muawiyah but did not like Yazeed.

paragraph: The following year Muawiyah removed Marwan bin al Hakam from the position of governor in Madina and appointed al-Waleed bin Utbah bin Abi Sufyan.

paragraph: Muawiyah warned his son Yazid that Husayn, the younger brother of Hasan ibn Ali, would potentially be a problem for the dynasty. However, according to some sources, Muawiyah advised his son to act towards Husayn "gently". According to a claim by a sunni source, Muawiyah warned Yazid against mistreating Husayn ibn Ali. His final warning to Yazid was:

paragraph: "As for Husayn what can I tell you concerning him? Be careful not to confront him except in a good way. Extend to him a free hand [literally, "a long rope"], and let him roam the earth as he pleases. Do not harm him, yet show him the thunder and lightning [of your anger]. Never confront him with the weapons of war but rather bestow on him generous gifts. Give him a place of honor near you and treat him with due reverence. Be careful O my son, that you do not meet God with his blood, lest you be among those that will perish"

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Muhammad bin Uqbah said that when death approached, Muawiyah said, "I wish I were an ordinary man from the Quraish living in Dhu Tuwa and that I had never been invested with authority as caliph"

paragraph: Muhammad bin Seereen said, "When Muawiyah was on the brink of death, he began to mark out the floor. Then he turned his face and marked out another spot on the floor, after which he started to cry and say: "O Allah! Indeed, You said in Your Book "Verily, Allah forgives not that partners should be set up with Him (in worship), but He forgives everything else to whom He wills" [an-Nisa 4:48] Therefore, O Allah, make me amongst those You will forgive".

paragraph: Al-Utbi narrated from his father that when Muawiya was dying, he quoted the following verses to those present (in at-Taweel poetry):

paragraph: "Death is inevitable because of what we are; consciousness of what lies after death is much more awful and lurid".

paragraph: Then, he said: "O Allah! Reduce my lapses, pardon the shortcomings and overlook my ignorance, for You are All Forgiving. My mistakes are all my own and not attributable to You; only You can forgive me and grant me refuge"

paragraph: It is reported that he passed out and once he regained consciousness, he said to his family, "Fear Allah, for verily He safeguards whoever shows regard for something for His sake and He does not safeguard whoever shows a disregard for something for His sake" and upon uttering this he died.

paragraph: Robert Payne quotes Muawiyah in "History of Islam" as telling his son Yazid to defeat Hussein, who was surely preparing an army against him, but to deal with him gently thereafter, as Hussein was a descendant of Muhammad but to deal with Abdullah al-Zubair swiftly, as Muawiyah feared him the most.

paragraph: Muawiyah died on 26 April 680.

paragraph: Muawiya used to bring water to Muhammad, and it was in the course of that service that he received the shirt in which he was buried. He said, "I used to bring wudu water to the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. He said "Shall I not clothe you in a shirt? I said, "Yes indeed, by my father and mother! So he removed the shirt he had on and clothed me in it". He kept that shirt for his burial.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: By his creation of a fleet, Muawiyah was the driving force of the Muslim effort against Byzantium. His navy challenged the Byzantine navy and raided the Byzantine islands and coasts at will. The shocking defeat of the imperial fleet by the young Muslim navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655 was a critical turning point. It opened up the Mediterranean, considered a "Roman lake", and began a centuries-long series of naval conflicts over the control of the Mediterranean. This also allowed the expansion of the state into north Africa and Spain. Trade between the Muslim eastern and southern shores and the Christian northern shores almost ceased during this period, isolating western Europe from developments in the Muslim world: "In antiquity, and again in the high Middle Ages, the voyage from Italy to Alexandria was a commonplace; in early Islamic times the two countries were so remote that even the most basic information was unknown" Muawiyah also initiated the first large-scale raids into Anatolia from 641 on.

paragraph: Muawiyah greatly beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the very gates of Constantinople at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in Anatolia.

paragraph: Muawiyah had a personal library collection ("bayt al-hikmah") that was enlarged by his successors "throughout the Umayyad period.… This first major library outside of a mosque was known to include works on astrology, medicine, chemistry, military science, and various practical arts and applied sciences in addition to religion."

paragraph: Muawiyah had a few rare virtues. He was politically adept in dealing with the eastern Roman Empire and was therefore made into a secretary by Muhammad. Once peace was established, Muawiya reconciled many of the people who had been fighting each other by his generosity and fairness. Even the most stubborn of opponents would often melt under his generosity and diplomacy. He also managed through fine diplomacy to balance out the tribal rivalries.

paragraph: During Mu'awiya's rule he put into practice the advice that Muhammad had given him, "When you rule, do it well." He was scrupulous about justice and was generous and fair to people of all classes. He honoured people who possessed ability and talent and helped them to advance their talents, regardless of their tribe. He displayed great forbearance towards the rashness of ignorant men and great generosity towards the grasping. He made the judgements of the Shari'a binding on everyone with resolution, compassion and diligence. He led them in their prayers and directed them in their gatherings. He led them in their wars. In short, he proved to be a balanced and model ruler. 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas stated that he did not see a man more suited to rule than Mu'awiya.

paragraph: It must be said, however, that the rise of Mu'awiyah came partly through his family connections to the Umayyad tribe. During the later part of Uthman bin Affan's rule, Ali advised Uthman to keep a check on Mu'awiyah's growing power saying:

paragraph: I will tell you that everyone appointed by 'Umar bin al Khattab was kept under close scrutiny by him. If (Umar) heard a single word concerning him he would flog him, then punish him with the utmost severity. But you do not do [that]. You have been weak and easygoing with your relatives.

paragraph: Uthman replied:

paragraph: Do you know that Umar kept Mu'awiyah in office throughout his entire caliphate, and I have only done the same." 'Ali answered, "I adjure you by God, do you know that Mu'awiyah was more afraid of Umar than was Umar's own slave Yarfa?" "Yes," said (Uthman). 'Ali went on, "In fact Mu'awiyah makes decisions on issues without [consulting] you, and you know it. Thus, he says to the people. 'This is Uthman's command.' You hear of this, but do not censure him.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Early non-Muslim literature.

paragraph: The Greek historian Theophanus does not call Muawiyah a king or an emperor, but rather a 'primus inter pares', or in Greek, a "protosymboulos", "a first among equals", in the midst of his 'symboulioi'. Theophanus also referred to Umar ibn al-Khattab as "Primus inter pares".

paragraph: After the peace treaty with Hassan, in the book "The Great Arab Conquests" Hugh Kennedy writes that "The Nestorian Christian John bar Penkaye writing in the 690s, has nothing but praise for the first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya, of whose reign he says 'the peace throughout the world was such that we have never heard, either from our fathers or from our grandparents, or seen that there had ever been any like it'".

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.

paragraph: The traditional medieval Sunni perception of Caliph Muawiyah I has a wide spectrum. It is based on when it was written and who wrote it and where.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Early Medinan literature.

paragraph: In the early literature like Musnad Ahmed 4/216 there are hadith like this one:

paragraph: A narration tells that Muhammad prayed to God in favour of Muawiyah: "Allahumma (O Allah) guide him and guide people by him." This narration is in many "hadith" (narration) books. Al-Dhahabi says that this narration has a strong predication (reference). Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani (a modern narrations critic) also said: all the men of the predication (reference) are trustworthy and then he explained how the predication is strong.

paragraph: Even the earliest pro-Shia accounts of al-Masudi are more balanced. al-Masudi in Ibn Hisham is the earliest Shia account of Muawiyah and he recounts that Muawiyah spent a great deal of time in prayer, in spite of the burden of managing a large empire.

paragraph: Az-Zuhri stated that Muawiya led the Hajj Pilgrimage with the people twice during his era as caliph.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Early Abbasid literature from Iraq.

paragraph: Books written in the early Abbasid period like al-baladhuri "The Origins of the Islamic State" provide a more accurate and balanced history. Ibn Hisham also wrote about these events.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Later Abbasid literature.

paragraph: After killing off most of the Umayyads and destroying the graves of the Umayyad rulers apart from Muawiyah and Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz, the history books written during the later Abbasid period are more anti Umayyad.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Later Abbasid literature from Iran.

paragraph: The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are even more anti Umayyad. Iran was Sunni at the time. There was much anti Arab feeling in Iran after the fall of the Persian empire. This anti Arab feeling also influenced the books on Islamic history. Al-Tabri was also written in Iran during that period. Al-Tabri was a huge collection including all the text that he could find, from all the sources. It was a collection preserving everything for future generations to codify and for future generations to judge if it was true or false. It contains text like this:

paragraph: To the following narration (reported by two different Sahabah):

paragraph: Abdullah ibn Umar narrates that he heard Rasulallah (Muhammad) say:

paragraph: ""Mu′awiyah shall not die on the path of Islam.""

paragraph: Narrated by Jabir bin Abdullah who testified that he heard Rasulallah (Muhammad) say:

paragraph: ""At the time of his death, Mu'awiyah shall not be counted as member of my Muslim Ummah.""

paragraph: Some of the classical literature by eminent (Sunni) Islamic figures in the Abbasid period records:

paragraph: Muawiyah's opposition to Ali manifested itself in the following practice instituted during his caliphate,

paragraph: which was the verbal abuse and insult of Ali Ibn Abi Talib during the sermons in the mosques. This was even done on the pulpit of the Mosque of Muhammad in Medinah. (This practice lasted for 65 years and was ended by Umayyad caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz.)

paragraph: For example, Tabari recorded:

paragraph: Saad Ibn Abi Al-Waqqas narrated-

paragraph: Nisa'i and Muslim narrate a Sahih hadith, wherein Muhammad summoned Muawiyah who snubbed him and continued eating his meal – Muhammad then cursed Muawiyah with the words: "May Allah never fill his belly!" Nisa'i was not the only Sunni scholar who accepted this hadith – there were many others, the foremost being Bukhari and Muslim who compiled the "Sahih Muslim". It has been argued that in the Arabic culture and language the expression is a colloquialism which means a wish that the person's belly be so full of blessings of God (in the form of food) that his belly cannot take any more, or that he wishes the person's blessings to be without an end. However, the two pre-eminent masters of Sunni hadith, Bukhari and Muslim, have rejected absolutely the latter apology for Muawiyah. Further, Nisa'i was murdered when he recited this hadith in the presence of pro-Muawiya Arab-speaking Syrians as it was perceived as a curse of Muawiyah, which debases the unreferenced suggestion that the term was a form of praise and not condemnation.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Later Abbasid literature from Syria.

paragraph: Ibn Taymiyyah (1263 to 1328) said: "Muawiyah did not call himself to be a khaleefah and was not given the oath of allegiance to it when he fought Ali. He fought not because he considered himself to be the khaleef or deserving of the khilaafah. This they all agreed upon and he himself would affirm this to whomever asked him. He and his companions did not consider it permissible that they initiate the fight against Ali and his companions. But Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) and his companions believed that Muawiyah and his companions must pledge allegiance and show obedience to Ali, due to his authority such that there be only one khaleefah for the Muslims. Considering them defecting from this obligation he decided that Muawiyah and his companions should be fought until they fulfilled it. All this so that obedience and unity occur. Muawiyah and his companions did not see that it was obligatory upon them and if they were fought against they would consider themselves oppressed because Uthman was killed oppressively as was agreed by all the Muslims at the time and his killers were in Ali's camp, he having authority over them"

paragraph: Ibn Kathir (1301-1373) said: "Uthmaan was killed oppressively, may Allah be pleased with him. Muawiyah was demanding that Ali hand over Uthman's killers so that he may take vengeance from them, as he was also an Umayyid. Ali was asking Muawiyah for respite until he had established himself and then he would hand them over. At the same time he was requesting Muawiyah to surrender Shaam to him. However Muaawiyah refused that until Ali surrendered those who killed Uthman."

paragraph: According to Ibn Katheer in his book Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah, Imam Ahmed was asked about what had happened between Muawiyah and Ali, he recited the Verse "That was a nation who has passed away. They shall receive the reward of what they earned and you of what you earned. And you will not be asked of what they used to do" Al-Baqarah 2:134.

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Modern Sunni literature.

paragraph: Despite his endeavours in the expansion of the caliphate and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty, the persona of Caliph Muawiyah I evokes a controversial figure in standard Islamic history whose legacy has never quite been able to shed the taint of his opposition to the Rashidun Caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib.

paragraph: The late (Sunni) theologian Mawdudi (founder of Jamaat-E-Islami) wrote that the establishment of the caliphate as (essentially) a monarchy began with the caliphate of Muawiyah I. It wasn't the kind where Muawiyah was appointed by the Muslims. Mawdudi elaborated that Muawiyah wanted to be caliph and fought in order to attain the caliphate, not really depending upon the acceptance of the Muslim community. The people did not appoint Muawiyah as a caliph, he became one by force, and consequently the people had no choice but to give him their pledge of allegiance ("bay'ah"). Had the people not given Muawiyah their allegiance at that time, it wouldn't have meant so much as losing their rank or position, as much as it would have meant bloodshed and conflict. This certainly couldn't have been given preference over peace and order. Following Hasan ibn Ali's abdication of the caliphate, all the Muslims (including the "Sahabah" and "Tabi'een") gave their pledge of allegiance to Muawiyah I, bringing an end to civil war. That year was called the "Aam Al Jamaat" (Year of Unification). As Mawdudi pointed out, Muawiyah's own speech during the initial days of his caliphate expressed his own awareness of this:

paragraph: "By Allah, while taking charge of your government I was not unaware of the fact that you are unhappy over my taking over of government and you people don't like it. I am well aware of whatever is there in your hearts regarding this matter but still I have taken it from you on the basis of my sword… Now if you see that I am not fulfilling your rights, then you should be happy with me with whatever is there."

paragraph: Section::::Views on Muawiyah.:Muslim literature.:Shia view.

paragraph: Muawiyah I is a reviled figure in Shia Islam for several reasons. Firstly, because of his involvement in the Battle of Siffin against Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom the Shia Muslims believe was Muhammad's true successor; secondly, for the breaking of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali, after the death of Hasan ibn Ali, one of broken terms being appointing his son Yazid as his successor; thirdly, because they believe that he is responsible for the killing of Hasan ibn Ali by bribing his wife Ja'dah binte Ash'as to poison him whereas the Sunni texts do not say that his wife killed him; and fourthly because some Shia think that he distorted their interpretation of Islam to match his rule; whereas the Sunnis do not say that he distorted Islam, as he was a political leader at a certain time in history to whom Hassan and Hussein also gave their allegiance, whereas they say that Islam is based on the Quran and the teaching of Muhammad and its main center of learning was in Madina not in Syria and they say that Islam was completed at the time of Muhammad and use the verses "This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion" Quran 5:5. "Indeed, it is I who sent down the Qur'an and indeed, I will be its guardian." The Holy Qur'an, Chapter 15, Verse 9. Fifthly, for the deaths of various Companions of Muhammad who fought alongside Ali in the Battle of Siffin.

paragraph: According to Shia view, Muawiyah opposed Ali, out of sheer greed for power and wealth. His reign opened the door to the persecution of Ali's supporters, slaughtering of his followers, and unlawful imprisonment of his supporters, which only worsened when Yazid came into power and the Battle of Karbala ensued. Muawiyah is alleged to have killed many of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), either in battle or by poison, due to his lust for power. Muawiyah killed several historical figures, including the Sahabah, Amr bin al-Hamiq, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Malik al-Ashtar, Hujr ibn Adi (to which the families of Abu Bakr and Umar condemned Muawiyah for, and the Sahaba deemed his killer to be cursed) and Abd al-Rahman bin Hasaan (buried alive for his support of Ali).

paragraph: According to the Shia Muawiyah was also responsible for instigating the Battle of Siffin, the bloodiest battle in Islam's history, whereas many early history books state that Ali went north to Syria, to make the Syrians give him allegiance. In the Battle of Siffin over 70,000 people (among them many of the last surviving companions of Muhammad) were killed. Notable among the Companions who were killed by Muawiyah's forces in the battle of Siffin was Ammar ibn Yasir, an old man of 95 at the time of his death. Shia Muslims see his being killed at the hands of Muawiyah's army as significant because of a well-known hadith, present in both the Shia and Sunni books of hadith, narrated by Abu Hurairah and others, in which Muhammad is recorded to have said: "The transgressing party shall kill you", "Sahih Muslim" and "Sahih al-Bukhari.

paragraph: The killing of the two children of Ubaydullah ibn Abbas the ancestor of the Abbasids can also be found in Sunni books from the Abbasid period and Shia texts.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Second Fitna

paragraph: BULLET::::- Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, his brother

description: Umayyad king

wikidata_label: Muawiyah I

wikipedia_title: Muawiyah I


text:
Pen Argyl, Pennsylvania
dirt
modified racing
NASCAR
Sprint Cup Series
Bridgeport, New Jersey
Middletown, New York
Daytona 500
Talladega Superspeedway
Harry Hyde
1979 Daytona 500
125 mile qualifying race
Benny Parsons
draft
Richard Petty
Donnie Allison
Cale Yarborough
Rockingham Speedway
Tom Pistone
Stroker Ace
sprint cars
Williams Grove Speedway
Selinsgrove Speedway
Port Royal Speedway
World of Outlaws
Orange County Fair Speedway
A. Scott Enterprises official website
Scott's Fashions' official website

categories: People from Northampton County, Pennsylvania,1949 births,NASCAR drivers,20th-century American racing drivers,Living people

paragraph: Tighe Scott

paragraph: Tighe Scott (born June 2, 1949) is a retired American racecar driver from Pen Argyl, Pennsylvania. He competed in dirt modified racing before moving up into the NASCAR Winston Cup (now Sprint Cup Series). He had 18 top-ten finishes in 89 races, with a career best 13th-place finish in the 1978 Winston Cup.

paragraph: Section::::Racing career.

paragraph: Scott began as a dirt modified and sportsman driver in Pennsylvania, New York and New Jersey at tracks like Bridgeport, New Jersey and Middletown, New York.

paragraph: Scott was given the opportunity to race in the 1976 Daytona 500 by car owner Walter Ballard. He started 18th in the race and finished 35th after crashing on the 58th lap. Scott described the experience, "That was the first time I had ever raced on asphalt. My first time on the track, I had no idea what I was up against. It took me a couple days to get myself up to speed." He competed in five more NASCAR races that season. After a sixth-place finish at Talladega Superspeedway, Ballard offered him a full-time ride.

paragraph: Scott ran 26 of 30 races that season to finish 20th in season points. In 1978, Scott had his highest points finish when he finished 13th in season points.

paragraph: Scott's father, owner of Scotty's Fashions, hired Harry Hyde to be the crew chief for his family team in 1979 with Tighe Scott as the driver. Their first race together was for the 1979 Daytona 500. Scott blew a tire in his 125 mile qualifying race, so he had to start 33rd in the main event. He worked his way into the top-five in the race. "I was with guys I had never run alongside of before," Scott said. "Our car didn’t have the horsepower they had. I couldn’t lead, but I could run good in the draft." Scott was in third place in the race when he went into the pits for his final pit stop with 30 laps left. He entered the pits at full speed (which was legal and common at that time), and spun from some water on pit row right before his pit stall. Benny Parsons' car was overheating in the pits. It took Scott some time to refire the car and he returned to the track 3/4 of a lap behind the leaders. He was unable to draft with any cars and he went a lap down with one lap left. Richard Petty won the race after the Donnie Allison/Cale Yarborough crash led to a fight in the infield. Scott finished sixth in the race. At the following race at Rockingham Speedway, Scott recorded his best NASCAR result when he finished fourth. His team's lack of funds enabled them to race in only 15 more events that season.

paragraph: He ran ten races in 1980. Scott's final race was at the 1982 Daytona 500 for Tom Pistone. He started 30th and finished 29th after crashing on the 81st lap. The crash footage was featured in the movie Stroker Ace.

paragraph: He returned to his roots, racing sprint cars on Pennsylvania and New York tracks. In 1983 he raced sprint cars at Williams Grove Speedway and Selinsgrove Speedway, and won a race at Selinsgrove. The following season he raced at these and other tracks including Port Royal Speedway and a World of Outlaws (WoO) event at Orange County Fair Speedway. His final race happened in 1985. That season he competed in four WoO events and won his second last feature in a local event at Williams Grove.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: As of 2008, Scott runs the construction and excavating business A. Scott Enterprises. He also operates "Scotty's Fashions", a family garment business started by his father. He is married to his second wife, the former Kathy Toman, and he has three sons and four grandchildren.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. Scott Enterprises official website

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scott's Fashions' official website

description: American racing driver

wikidata_label: Tighe Scott

wikipedia_title: Tighe Scott


text:
Belgian
sports shooter
1900 Summer Olympics
pigeon shoot
International Olympic Committee
francs

categories: Olympic gold medalists for Belgium,Olympic shooters of Belgium,Year of birth missing,Shooters at the 1900 Summer Olympics,Belgian male sport shooters,Year of death missing

paragraph: Léon de Lunden

paragraph: Léon de Lunden was a Belgian sports shooter who competed at the 1900 Summer Olympics. He won the first prize in the live pigeon shoot, an event that was unique to the 1900 Games and is no longer recognised by the International Olympic Committee. He totaled 21 kills during the tournament to take gold. He won 5,000 francs for his victory.

description: sport shooter

wikidata_label: Léon de Lunden

wikipedia_title: Léon de Lunden


text:
James A. Baker
William Marsh Rice
James Baker
Madison County, Alabama
Lauderdale County, Alabama
Civil War
Reconstruction
Baker Botts
Houston and Texas Central
Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad
Missouri Pacific Railroad
Southern Pacific
Rice University
James A. Baker (born 1857)
Reagan
G. H. W. Bush administration
James A. Baker III

categories: 1821 births,1897 deaths,People from Huntsville, Texas,People from Alabama,American jurists,Texas state court judges,Members of the Texas Legislature

paragraph: James A. Baker (born 1821)

paragraph: James Addison Baker ("the elder") (March 3, 1821 – February 24, 1897) was a state legislator, state judge, and a lawyer. He is the first of four generations of persons named James Addison Baker, all of whom practiced law. He was known as "Judge Baker" after 1864. His son, also named James A. Baker, was a personal attorney for William Marsh Rice; and his great-grandson is James Baker, former President's Chief of Staff and former Secretary of State.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: James Addison Baker was born on March 3, 1821 to Elijah Adam and Jane Saxton Baker in Madison County, Alabama. Elijah farmed a plantation created from an 1826 land grant in Lauderdale County, Alabama. Elijah and Jane had nine children, with only six surviving childhood: five sons and one daughter.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Baker taught at a local school in 1839. He started a law career in 1841, first as a clerk for a chancery court, then joining the Alabama bar and practicing as a lawyer in 1843.

paragraph: Baker was wedded to Caroline Hightower in 1849, and the marriage ended in her death in January 1852. Just a few months later Baker moved to Huntsville, Texas, where he practiced law for two decades. His in-laws were already established there, and he was involved in the family's businesses and estates. His four brothers joined him in Huntsville during the 1850s.

paragraph: In 1860, Baker was elected to represent the Huntsville region in the Texas legislature. He volunteered to serve the Confederacy in the Civil War, reporting for duty in Galveston, but remaining only for six months. He ran in a special election in 1862 to fill an unexpired term in the 7th Texas Judicial District. He won the election in May and presided over his first case in December. The court was located in Houston, but he returned to Huntsville to reside with his family between while the court was out of session. His last case ended on June 1, 1865. The Reconstruction Governor of Texas removed Baker from his post. Baker subsequently relocated to Houston to practice as an attorney in that city, which was renamed Gray, Botts, and Baker to acknowledge its new junior partner. This firm is more recently known as Baker Botts.

paragraph: While practicing law in Huntsville, Baker specialized in railroad issues. As Houston was emerging as a hub for rail transport, Gray, Botts, and Baker increased its activity in railroad law. The firms' first railroad clients were the Houston and Texas Central and the Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad, and it handled matters such as shipper's liability as a common carrier and liquidating land grants. Later the firm represented Jay Gould and the Missouri Pacific Railroad, with Baker as a key member of Gould's legal team. After 1893, the firm by then known as Baker & Botts, was general counsel for the Southern Pacific.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Baker married Rowena Crawford on September 27, 1853 in Huntsville. After a first child who died in infancy, Rowena bore four more children: James, "Minnie," and Anna who survived childhood.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Baker died February 24, 1897 and is interred in Huntsville. Baker was a partner for a law firm started in 1840 by Peter Gray, later known as Baker, Botts and Baker, and more recently known as Baker Botts, having celebrated its 175th anniversary in 2015.

paragraph: Baker was the father of Houston banker, lawyer, and original Rice University trustee James A. Baker (born 1857) and the great-grandfather of the Reagan and G. H. W. Bush administration political figure James A. Baker III.

description: American politician

wikidata_label: James Addison Baker the elder

wikipedia_title: James A. Baker (born 1821)


text:
Bex
Geneva
Swiss
Reformed theology
Lausanne
François Diday
Bernese Oberland
Ecole des Beaux-Arts
Claude Lorrain
Orientalist
Eugène Fromentin
Nile
Dead Sea
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism

categories: Orientalist painters,19th-century Swiss painters,1834 births,Swiss male painters,1890 deaths

paragraph: Auguste Veillon

paragraph: Louis-Auguste Veillon (29 December 1834, Bex – 5 January 1890, Geneva) was a Swiss painter, noted for his Orientalist works.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: After obtaining a degree in Reformed theology in Lausanne, he joined François Diday at his studio in Geneva, where he primarily painted seascapes and mountain scenes from the Bernese Oberland. In 1858, he enrolled at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. While in Paris, he spent a considerable amount of time in the Louvre, copying the works of the masters, especially the 17th-century Dutch masters and the work of Claude Lorrain. He later reported that this discipline led him to the "luminism" characteristic of his paintings.

paragraph: In Paris, he made the acquaintance of the Orientalist artist, Eugène Fromentin who was his neighbour. This marked a turning point in Veillon's work and aroused his interest in Orientalist subject matter. He traveled to Rome, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Egypt, then lived in Venice for two years, before settling down in Geneva.

paragraph: Veillon travelled to Egypt at least four times. In 1873, he stayed there with his friend, the artist, Etienne Duval (1824-1919), for a period of four months. In Egypt, he focussed on producing work with Orientalist themes, featuring landscapes showing the Nile or the Dead Sea. His works were very popular, especially in Switzerland.

paragraph: Although he travelled extensively, Geneva remained at the centre of his life and work. He died there on 5 January 1890 at the age of 65 years.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Veillon distanced himself from the Romantic school of his master, Diday, instead pursuing a more realistic approach. He used soft brush strokes and a slightly pastel colour palette.

paragraph: "'Select list of paintings"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bedouins at Rest"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bord du Lac à Rivaz" (Lakeshore at Rivaz)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Les Pêcheurs de la Région de Naples," (Fishermen of the Naples Region)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Punta della Dogana, Venise" (Dogana Bridge, Venice)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dutch River Landscape with the town of Dordrecht in the background"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tunis"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Calm Water"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Temple of Philae, Aswan"

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Orientalist artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orientalism

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rudolf Pestalozzi, "Louis Auguste Veillon," 1891

alias:
auguste louis veillon
a. veillon
Louis Auguste Veillon
a. l. veillon
auguste-louis veillon
l. a. veillon
Louis-Auguste Veillon

description: Swiss artist

wikidata_label: Auguste Veillon

wikipedia_title: Auguste Veillon


text:
Ancient Egypt
Thirteenth Dynasty
Dahshur
Jacques de Morgan
pyramid
Amenemhat III
canopic chest
burial good
Nub
hetep
broad collar
was scepter
canopic jar
Hor
Miroslav Verner
Twelfth Dynasty
Nubhetepti
Great Royal Wife
scarabs

paragraph: Nubhetepti-khered

paragraph: Nubhetepti-khered was an Ancient Egyptian "king's daughter" of the Thirteenth Dynasty. She is basically only known from her undisturbed burial at Dahshur which was discovered in 1894 by Jacques de Morgan, close to the pyramid of Amenemhat III.

paragraph: Her burial was found at the end of a long corridor. It consisted of two chambers, one above the other. The lower chamber contained the coffin and the canopic chest of the princess. In the upper chamber were placed several burial goods.

paragraph: The body of Nubhetepti-khered was placed in a wooden coffin, decorated with inscribed gold leaf. In the coffin were found the remains of an inner, mummyform, gilded coffin. The body of Nubhetepti-khered was adorned with a broad collar and with armlets and anklets. Next to the body were found several royal insignia, such as a flail and a was scepter. The wooden canopic chest was also adorned with gold leaf and contained four canopic jars made of alabaster.

paragraph: In the chamber above the burial chamber were found several pottery vessels. There was a box with ointment jars and a second, long box with further royal insignia. Nubhetepti-khered is so far not yet known outside her burial. She was most likely related to king Hor, who was buried next to her. Otherwise, Miroslav Verner believes that she was a daughter of Amenemhat III of the previous Twelfth Dynasty, who was the original owner of the whole funerary complex.

paragraph: Since the "khered" part of the name means child, it is possible that her mother was called Nubhetepti, and indeed there is a Great Royal Wife from this period, who is called Nubhetepti on a few scarabs.

description: ancient Egyptian princess

wikidata_label: Nubhetepti-khered

wikipedia_title: Nubhetepti-khered


text:
Turin
Peveragno
Cuneo
Ostrołęka
général de brigade
Napoleon I of France
armée d'Italie
aide de camp
Victor
Loano
Marengo
château de Versailles

categories: 1771 births,French commanders of the Napoleonic Wars,1807 deaths,French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars,French military personnel killed in the Napoleonic Wars

paragraph: François Frédéric Campana

paragraph: Francesco Federico Campana (15 February 1771 in Turin, Peveragno or Cuneo – 16 February 1807 in Ostrołęka) was an Italian général de brigade who served in the armies of Napoleon I of France.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Commander of Turin's National Guard, he began his career in the French revolutionary armies operating in Italy (known as the armée d'Italie) and became aide de camp to general Victor. He fought in the 1795 campaign against the Austro-Sardinians and was wounded at Loano. He became prefect of Marengo in 1803 after becoming a general, and fought in the 1805, 1806 and 1807 campaigns. He was killed in battle at Ostrołęka in 1807 and on Napoleon's orders his name was engraved on the bronze tablets at the château de Versailles.

description: Italian general

wikidata_label: François Frédéric Campana

wikipedia_title: François Frédéric Campana


text: Lille

text: Mexico

text: organized crime

text: France

text: Supreme Court of Justice

text: Mexico City

text: Cuernavaca

text: Mexican Federal Police

text: Televisa

text: TV Azteca

text: Felipe Calderón

text: Nicolas Sarkozy

text: television show

text: Mexican Federal Police

text: Genaro García Luna

text: TV network

text: Procuraduría General de la República

text: Mexican Supreme Court

text: Frank Berton

text: Nicolas Sarkozy

text: Felipe Calderón

text: Mexican Drug War

text: Denise Dresser

text: Carmen Aristegui

text: Jorge Volpi

categories: French emigrants to Mexico,Living people,1974 births

paragraph: Florence Cassez

paragraph: Florence Marie Louise Cassez Crépin (born 17 November 1974 in Lille) is a French woman convicted in Mexico of belonging to the kidnapping gang Los Zodiacos ("The Zodiacs"). She received a 60-year sentence for the crimes of kidnapping, organized crime, and illegal possession of firearms. The sentence and a possible extradition to her home country created diplomatic tensions between France and Mexico. Cassez denies all charges.

paragraph: On 23 January 2013 the Supreme Court of Justice of Mexico ordered Cassez's immediate release due to police simulating for filming her arrest the day after her real arrest. She was repatriated to France on 24 January 2013.

paragraph: Section::::Relationship with Israel Vallarta.

paragraph: In 2003, Florence Cassez arrived in Mexico legally as tourist, to live and work with her brother, who was there with his Mexican wife. She met the kidnapper Israel Vallarta the following year, through her brother. The pair began a difficult relationship that alienated her friends, who sensed that he was trouble. She returned to France in the summer of 2005 but Vallarta contacted her and she returned to Mexico to live at his ranch. Cassez found a job in a hotel and looked for an apartment closer to her job.

paragraph: Section::::The arrest.

paragraph: Florence Cassez's arrest took place on Thursday, 8 December 2005 on the Mexico City-Cuernavaca Highway, as she rode with Vallarta. She had been living with him, and they were seen together always. She was detained overnight, then moved to Vallarta's house in the early morning hours of Friday, 9 December 2005. The Mexican Federal Police, which had tipped off several journalists, staged a fake arrest that TV crews from the Mexican networks Televisa and TV Azteca reported live. Three kidnapped victims were freed and four persons—including Cassez—arrested. Cassez was then presented as a member of the kidnapping gang "Los Zodiaco", something she has always denied. Vallarta, who was the leader of the kidnapping band, also stated that Cassez had nothing to do with his kidnapping activity. Mexican public opinion is divided between those who believe she is "undoubtedly guilty," and those who believe the Felipe Calderón administration was using her as a scapegoat. There was also a debate whether judges should give preference to the legal procedure over justice, and so free Cassez, as demanded by Nicolas Sarkozy. The main irregularity was on legal procedures regarding the procedures to arrest an individual.

paragraph: A few weeks later, during a live television show, Cassez called and confronted the head of Mexican Federal Police, Genaro García Luna, with the truth about the staged arrest. In the weeks that followed, Daniel Cabeza de Vaca, the Attorney General of Mexico, was forced to admit that the arrest seen on TV was staged. He also tried to shift the blame on journalists, claiming they had requested it. As a result, one journalist, Pablo Reinah, was fired by his TV network. Reinah filed a lawsuit for defamation. In March 2007, the Mexican justice ruled that Reinah had no knowledge that the arrest of Florence Cassez and Israel Vallarta was staged.

paragraph: Since August 2006, an official probe has been launched by the Mexican police against the federal agents who arrested Florence Cassez. On 21 March 2012, Three Ministers of the Mexican Supreme Court, concluded that many fundamental rights of Florence Cassez were violated in her arrest. Later that week the Procuraduría General de la República declared that it would start an investigation to search for those responsible of violating her fundamental rights and for staging the arrest.

paragraph: Section::::The legal case.

paragraph: The Federal Police claimed that three victims were held hostage in the ranch where Cassez lived from September to December 2005, which belonged to Israel Vallarta. However, a couple who owned a restaurant nearby declared that they had the keys to the ranch and that a few days before the arrest staged by the police, they could detect no victims or any suspicious activity in the ranch.

paragraph: The two judgments made by the Mexican tribunals are based on controversial testimonies.

paragraph: Section::::The legal case.:The official testimonies.:Cristina Rios Valladares' Testimony.

paragraph: Cristina Ríos Valladares, and her 11-year-old son Cristián Hilario claimed that they were hostages of Florence Cassez. They were held hostage for 52 days, from 9 October 2005 to 9 December 2005. During their captivity, the victims were blindfolded and only heard the voices of their kidnappers. In their first declaration, they didn't recognize Cassez's voice. However the victims later changed their testimony claiming it was Cassez who would taunt them and torture them.

paragraph: Section::::The legal case.:The official testimonies.:Ezequiel Elizalde's testimony.

paragraph: Ezequiel Elizalde was the third hostage freed during the staged arrest. He was held hostage for 65 days. In his testimony he claims he was sexually and physically abused by Cassez and her boyfriend. Elizalde also said they gave him baths while he was blind-folded and handcuffed. He also testified that Cassez threatened to cut off his finger and ear, and Cassez had even used a needle to anaesthetize his hand. Ezequiel Elizalde now lives in the US. He continues to maintain that Florence Cassez was one of his kidnappers.

paragraph: Section::::The legal case.:The official testimonies.:Controversy over David Orozco's testimony.

paragraph: In May 2009, some Mexican TV networks aired a video provided by the Mexican Federal Police showing a statement by David Orozco, a man presented as a member of the Los Zodíacos kidnapping gang. The man identified Cassez as one of the leaders of Los Zodíacos. However, in June 2010 a court document, signed by Judge Eduardo Javier Sáenz Hernández, surfaced, showing that Orozco later denied what he said on the video. He said he had been coerced into making the video statement by masked policemen who tortured him with electric shocks and threatened to kidnap his wife and his son. On the other hand, , president of the association "Alto al Secuestro" (Stop the Kidnappings) stated that there have been many cases where Mexican kidnappers claim to have been tortured in order to exonerate themselves.

paragraph: Section::::The legal steps of the case.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 8 December 2005: Florence Cassez is arrested.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 9 December: with TV crews filming, the police staged a "recreation" of a raid on the compound where already-freed hostages were "rescued" and Vallarta and Cassez were "arrested."

paragraph: BULLET::::- 25 April 2008: Cassez is condemned to 96 years in prison. She is identified as guilty of the following: organized crime; illegal deprivation of three people's liberty; possession of firearms used exclusively by the army.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2 March 2009: The sentence is reduced to 76 years in prison, then to 60 years to conform to the Mexican legislation that sets this time span as the limit of incarceration.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009: Cassez claims that the Strasbourg Convention, signed by Mexico, allows her to be transferred to a French jail. At French insistence, Mexico set up a committee of legal experts from France and Mexico to study the transfer. The request is ultimately denied because in France she would not have 60 years in jail as in Mexico, and because France can not ensure the punishment, she must stay in Mexico.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In August 2010, lawyers for Florence Cassez file an appeal to the Mexican Supreme Court, arguing that her arrest was unconstitutional and that her rights were violated.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 10 February 2012: the appeals court upholds her conviction for kidnapping.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 21 March 2012: the Mexican Supreme court rejects, 3–2, Florence Cassez' release petition.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 22 January 2013: the Mexican Supreme court accepts, 3–2, Florence Cassez' release petition, without trial.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 23 January 2013: Florence Cassez is freed and immediately flown back to France.

paragraph: Section::::Appeal to the Mexican Supreme Court.

paragraph: In August 2010, Florence Cassez's lawyers filed an appeal to the Mexican Supreme Court, arguing that the arrest of Cassez is unconstitutional and that the rights of their client were violated.

paragraph: Initiated on 30 August 2010 by Florence Cassez's lawyers, the appeal "en amparo" is the equivalent for the court of last resort. The verdict pronounced soon by the Seventh Collegiate Tribunal in the penal case covers formal points rather than the charge, which remains the same.

paragraph: The court of last resort covers points on form. The request is directly addressed at the authority that pronounced the judgment, which transfers it to a district collegial tribunal of three magistrates.

paragraph: The three magistrates who deliberated on the Cassez case are: Ricardo Ojeda Bohorquez, President of the Collegiate Tribunal. Having received a doctorate of law of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), he is a federal judge since 1992 and a circuit judge since 1997; Carlos Hugo Luna Ramos, judge rapporteur. He has been a judge of a circuit tribunal since 1987; Manuel Barcena Villanueava is a specialist in penal and constitutional law, who was appointed circuit judge in 2000 through an opposition competition.

paragraph: For Florence Cassez, there were could be three possible scenarios:

paragraph: (1) The Seventh Circuit Tribunal could proclaim Florence Cassez innocent overturning the judgment of the court of appeals. This would result in her immediate release from prison and could return to France. This decision would have confirmed the suspicions of the defense concerning the faults in the form, but it would not affect the charges held against her; (2) The tribunal could have recognized some of the irregularities underlined in the court of last resort. In this case, new proceedings would be launched and the case would be re-examined while Cassez remained in custody; (3) The verdict could be reconfirmed; Florence Cassez would have to serve her sentence. In this case, the defense's arguments concerning the faults in the form would be judged not pertinent by the magistrates.

paragraph: On 10 February 2011, an appeals court upheld her conviction (scenario 3) for kidnapping, The court said in a statement that her conviction and 60-year-sentence would stand. The court said prosecutors had proven Cassez's guilt in four 2005 kidnappings, and that irregularities alleged by her defense attorney had not hindered the case.

paragraph: 7 March 2012. The Mexican Supreme Court reporter proposes freeing Florence Cassez based on the following reasons; The non respect of the presumption of innocence, the non respect of consular rights and the delay in presentation before the justice. A decision by five judges to whom the request was delivered is expected for 21 March, according to the Cassez' lawyer.

paragraph: On 21 March 2012, The Mexican Supreme Court rejected the appeal and proposal of freeing Cassez by a 3-2 decision. The court accepted there was police misconduct and violations of Ms Cassez's rights after her detention. "Four Supreme Court judges say that my client had a truncated trial, she had her rights violated, that evidence was fabricated, so today we are angry and ashamed," said her lawyer Frank Berton. The court asked Judge Olga Sanchez to review the case, which could lead to a re-trial.

paragraph: Section::::Impact on French-Mexican relations.

paragraph: On 9 March 2009, during Nicolas Sarkozy's visit to Mexico, he requested that Cassez be transferred to a French prison, something she may be entitled to under the 1983 Strasbourg Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons, signed by both France and Mexico. Felipe Calderón agreed to setting up a binational committee to settle this matter. However, given that she has been sentenced to 61 years and that 20 years is the maximum prison term permitted in France, Mexico finally decided in June 2009 that Cassez would remain in Mexico to serve her full term.

paragraph: Mexico cancelled its participation of 2011 "The Year of Mexico in France" (350 events, films, and symposia planned) as the French president Sarkozy declared that this year-long event was going to be dedicated to Cassez, and each individual event would have some sort of remembrance of the Frenchwoman.

paragraph: France would present the issue at the G-20 in 2012, when Mexico takes over from France as head of the grouping.

paragraph: Section::::Public opinion in Mexico.

paragraph: Most Mexicans consider Cassez to be guilty, since she was indicted on the charges brought against her and freed on technical grounds. Only 10% of Mexicans polled believe in her innocence. For some Mexicans, the Cassez affair is a case of crime and punishment, and for others is a matter of administration of justice. For the current administration it is vital that Cassez remain in jail to support the legitimacy of the current Mexican Drug War and national public security policies. Intellectuals, such as Denise Dresser, Carmen Aristegui, and Mexican Writer Jorge Volpi, are among those who advocate liberty for Cassez, based on the illegality of the process. On the other hand, anti-crime activist Isabel Miranda de Wallace, former candidate for Mexico City's mayorship and mother of a son who was kidnapped and killed, is among those who claim that victim rights are more important than the Cassez affair.

description: French woman convicted of kidnapping

wikidata_label: Florence Cassez

wikipedia_title: Florence Cassez


text:
Underworld
Brian Eno
Matthew Herbert
2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony
Rick Smith
Tomato
Cardiff
new wave
synthpop
Freur
Rick Smith
Doot-Doot
Get Us out of Here
Essex
Underworld
2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony
Rick Smith
Edgeland
Universal
Leo Abrahams
Brian Eno
Someday World
Warp
High Life
Edgeland
Universal
Leo Abrahams
Someday World
Warp
Brian Eno
High Life
Universal
Matthew Herbert
Faber and Faber

categories: People from Worcester,English singer-songwriters,English film score composers,Writers from Worcestershire,English new wave musicians,1957 births,Musicians from Worcestershire,English male singers,Living people

paragraph: Karl Hyde

paragraph: Karl Hyde (born 10 May 1957) is an English musician and artist. He is a founding member of British electronic group Underworld. Hyde has also released a solo album, made albums with Brian Eno and Matthew Herbert, and contributed towards the score for the London 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony alongside Rick Smith.

paragraph: He is a founding member of the multi-discipline design and film collective Tomato and has published several books.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Hyde moved to Cardiff in the late 1970s to study at Cardiff College of Art. There he formed the new wave-synthpop band Freur in 1982 with Rick Smith and Alfie Thomas. The band released two albums, "Doot-Doot" and "Get Us out of Here", before relocating to Essex, and renaming themselves Underworld. They have continued to make music since.

paragraph: He contributed towards the score for the London 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony, alongside Underworld's Rick Smith who was the ceremony's Musical Director.

paragraph: In January 2013, Hyde announced the release date for his debut solo album, "Edgeland." It was released worldwide on 22 April that year through Universal. It was co-produced by Leo Abrahams.

paragraph: In 2014, Hyde collaborated with English musician and record producer Brian Eno on the album "Someday World," which was released on Warp. The first single from this album, "The Satellites", was released in March 2014. Within weeks of the album's release, it was announced that a second album, "High Life", would be released on 30 June (1 July in North America), also through Warp.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:With The Screen Gemz.

paragraph: BULLET::::- I Just Can't Stand Cars / Teenage Teenage (7" Single, 1979)

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Solo album by Hyde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Edgeland" (Universal, 2013) – co-produced by Leo Abrahams

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Singles by Hyde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Cut Clouds" (Universal, 2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Boy with the Jigsaw Puzzle Fingers" (Universal, 2013)

paragraph: Section::::Discography.:Albums with others.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Someday World" (Warp, 2014) – with Brian Eno

paragraph: BULLET::::- "High Life" (Warp, 2014) – with Brian Eno

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fatherland (Original Music from the Stage Show)" (Universal, 2017) – with Matthew Herbert

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Publication by Hyde.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "I Am Dogboy: The Underworld Diaries." London: Faber and Faber, 2016. . Contains diary entries, autobiographical writing, photographs and abstract poetry.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.:Publications paired with John Warwicker.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mmm ... Skyscraper I Love You: a Typographic Journal of New York." London: Booth-Clibborn, 2002. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- "In the Belly of Saint Paul." Underworld Print, 2003. .

description: English musician and artist

wikidata_label: Karl Hyde

wikipedia_title: Karl Hyde


text: Spanish

text: cinematographer

text: Barcelona

text: Spain

text: Cuba

text: Francisco Franco

text: Havana

text: Rome

text: Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia

text: New York City

text: Cuban Revolution

text: Paris

text: Éric Rohmer

text: François Truffaut

text: Days of Heaven

text: Terrence Malick

text: The Wild Child

text: Academy Award for Best Cinematography

text: Academy Award

text: Kramer vs. Kramer

text: The Blue Lagoon

text: Sophie's Choice

text: John Lennon

text: Andrew Solt

text: Cuba

text: Mauvaise Conduite

text: Fidel Castro

text: Giorgio Armani

text: Martin Scorsese

text: Calvin Klein

text: Richard Avedon

text: Freixenet

text: Human Rights Watch

text: César Award

text: The Last Metro

text: lymphoma

text: New York City

categories: 1992 deaths,Deaths from lymphoma,Spanish expatriates in France,Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia alumni,Spanish cinematographers,LGBT people from Spain,1930 births,Spanish expatriates in the United States,Best Cinematographer Academy Award winners,AIDS-related deaths in New York (state),César Award winners

paragraph: Néstor Almendros

paragraph: Néstor Almendros Cuyás, (30 October 1930 – 4 March 1992) was a Spanish cinematographer. One of the highest appraised contemporary cinematographers, "Almendros was an artist of deep integrity, who believed the most beautiful light was natural light...he will always be remembered as a cinematographer of absolute truth...a true master of light".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Néstor Almendros Cuyás was born in Barcelona, Spain, but at 18 moved to Cuba to join his exiled anti-Francisco Franco father. In Havana, he wrote film reviews. Then he went on to study in Rome at the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia. He directed six shorts in Cuba and two in New York City.

paragraph: After the 1959 Cuban Revolution, he returned and made several documentaries for the Castro regime. But after two of his shorts ("Gente en la playa" and "La tumba francesa") were banned, he moved to Paris. There he became the favorite collaborator of Éric Rohmer and François Truffaut.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Almendros began his Hollywood career with "Days of Heaven" (1978), written and directed by Terrence Malick, who admired Almendros' work on "The Wild Child" (1970). Almendros was impressed by Malick's knowledge of photography and his willingness to use little studio lighting. The film's cinematography was modeled after silent films, which often used natural light. In 1979, Almendros won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for "Days of Heaven".

paragraph: Almendros received Academy Award nominations for his work on "Kramer vs. Kramer" (1979), "The Blue Lagoon" (1980) and "Sophie's Choice" (1982).

paragraph: Almendros was the cinematographer for the John Lennon documentary, "" (1988), directed by Andrew Solt.

paragraph: In his later years, Almendros co-directed two documentaries about the human rights situation in Cuba: "Mauvaise Conduite" (1984) ("Improper Conduct") about the persecution of gay people in Cuba; and "Nadie escuchaba" ("Nobody Was Listening"), about the alleged arrest, imprisonment and torture of former comrades of Fidel Castro. He also shot several prestigious advertisements for Giorgio Armani (directed by Martin Scorsese), Calvin Klein (directed by Richard Avedon) and Freixenet.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy and honors.

paragraph: Human Rights Watch International has named an award after him by establishing the Nestor Almendros Award for Courage in Filmmaking and it is given every year at the Human Rights Watch International Film Festival.

paragraph: In 1980, Almendros won the César Award for François Truffaut's "The Last Metro".

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: In 1992, Néstor Almendros died of AIDS-related lymphoma in New York City at the age of 61.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Spanish Academy Award winners and nominees

description: Spanish cinematographer and film director

wikidata_label: Néstor Almendros

wikipedia_title: Néstor Almendros