text:
Whig
Thomas Brand
Hertfordshire
Helston
Hertfordshire
House of Lords
Barbarina
Sir Chaloner Ogle, 1st Baronet
Henry
London

categories: UK MPs 1812–1818,1851 deaths,UK MPs 1818–1820,1774 births,Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for constituencies in Cornwall,Whig (British political party) MPs for English constituencies,UK MPs 1806–1807,Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies,UK MPs 1807–1812

paragraph: Thomas Brand, 20th Baron Dacre

paragraph: Thomas Brand, 20th Baron Dacre (25 March 1774 – 21 March 1851) was a British peer and Whig politician.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Dacre was the eldest son of Thomas Brand, of The Hoo, Hertfordshire, and Gertrude, 19th Baroness Dacre, daughter of the Hon. Charles Roper.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: Dacre entered Parliament for Helston in January 1807, a seat he only held until May of the same year, when he was returned for Hertfordshire. He continued to represent this constituency until 1819, when he succeeded his mother in the barony of Dacre and entered the House of Lords.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Lord Dacre married Barbarina, daughter of Admiral Sir Chaloner Ogle, 1st Baronet and widow of Valentine Wilmot, in 1819. The marriage was childless. He died at The Hoo, Hertfordshire, in March 1851, aged 76, and was succeeded in the barony by his younger brother, Henry. Lady Dacre died in London in May 1854, aged 86.

description: British politician

wikidata_label: Thomas Brand, 20th Baron Dacre

wikipedia_title: Thomas Brand, 20th Baron Dacre


text:
Whig
Sir Jacob Astley, 5th Baronet
Magdalen College, Oxford
Melton Constable Hall
High Sheriff of Norfolk
Norfolk West
House of Lords
barony of Hastings
Melton Constable
Georgiana Caroline
Sir Henry Dashwood, 3rd Baronet

categories: UK MPs 1832–1835,1859 deaths,Whig (British political party) MPs,People from North Norfolk (district),UK MPs 1835–1837,High Sheriffs of Norfolk,1797 births,Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies

paragraph: Jacob Astley, 16th Baron Hastings

paragraph: Jacob Astley, 16th Baron Hastings (13 November 1797 – 27 December 1859), known as Sir Jacob Astley, Bt, between 1817 and 1841, was a British peer and Whig politician.

paragraph: Section::::Background and education.

paragraph: Hastings was the eldest son of Sir Jacob Astley, 5th Baronet, and Hester, daughter of Samuel Browne. He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1817 he succeeded his father to the baronetcy and to the family seat of Melton Constable Hall in Norfolk.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: Hastings was High Sheriff of Norfolk between 1821 and 1822. In 1832 he was returned to Parliament for Norfolk West, a seat he held until 1832. In 1841 the House of Lords announced that Hastings was one of the co-heirs to the barony of Hastings, a peerage which had been dormant since 1389 and technically abeyant since 1542, as a descendant of Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Hastings, de jure 14th Baron Hastings. At that time he lived in Melton Constable. Later the same year the abeyance was terminated in his favour and he was issued a writ to the House of Lords.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Lord Hastings married Georgiana Caroline, daughter of Sir Henry Dashwood, 3rd Baronet, in 1819. They had two sons. In 1835 Georgiana gave birth to a daughter, named Georgiana, fathered by Captain Thomas Garth of the 15th Hussars. She died in June of the same year, aged 39. Lord Hastings died in December 1859, aged 62, and was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, Jacob.

description: British politician

wikidata_label: Jacob Astley, 16th Baron Hastings

wikipedia_title: Jacob Astley, 16th Baron Hastings


text: United States Navy

text: Medal of Honor

text: New York City

text: Cypress Hills National Cemetery

text: Norway

text: Massachusetts

text: Cienfuegos, Cuba

categories: Norwegian-born Medal of Honor recipients,United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients,1873 births,Norwegian emigrants to the United States,American military personnel of the Spanish–American War,Burials at Cypress Hills National Cemetery,United States Navy sailors,Spanish–American War recipients of the Medal of Honor,1924 deaths,Military personnel from Massachusetts

paragraph: Anton Olsen (Medal of Honor)

paragraph: Ordinary Seaman Anton Olsen (April 26, 1867 – June 23, 1924) was a United States Navy quartermaster who received the Medal of Honor.

paragraph: Section::::Medal of Honor recipients.

paragraph: Olsen died on June 23, 1924. He is buried in New York City in Cypress Hills National Cemetery, Section 2, Grave No. 9158.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rank and organization: Ordinary Seaman, U.S. Navy. *Born: 26 April 1867, in Norway. *Accredited to: Massachusetts. G.O. No.: 529, 2 November 1899.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: On board the during the operation of cutting the cable leading from Cienfuegos, Cuba, 11 May 1898. Facing the heavy fire of the enemy, Olsen displayed extraordinary bravery and coolness throughout this period.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Spanish–American War

wikidata_label: Anton Olsen

wikipedia_title: Anton Olsen (Medal of Honor)


text:
Lecce
Rome
Italian
economist
Rome
Fascist
liberalism
public choice

categories: 1858 births,1943 deaths,Italian economists

paragraph: Antonio de Viti de Marco

paragraph: Antonio de Viti de Marco (30 September 1858, in Lecce – 1 December 1943, in Rome) was an Italian economist. He was professor of public finance in Rome from 1887 until 1931, when he resigned rather than take an oath of loyalty to the Fascist regime. He was a longtime editor of the "Giornale degli Economisti".

paragraph: He has been described as "an unyielding defender of liberalism". His writings on public goods, taxation and public debt set the foundation for modern theories of public choice.

description: Italian economist and politician

wikidata_label: Antonio De Viti De Marco

wikipedia_title: Antonio de Viti de Marco


text: professional baseball

text: pitcher

text: Major League Baseball

text: Cincinnati Reds

text: Duarte High School

text: Duarte, California

text: Citrus Community College

text: Glendora, California

text: Lewis-Clark State College

text: Lewiston, Idaho

text: Cincinnati Reds

text: 2005 First-Year Player Draft

text: Billings Mustangs

text: Pioneer League

text: Dayton Dragons

text: Midwest League

text: Sarasota Reds

text: Florida State League

text: Chattanooga

text: Southern League

text: Texas League

text: Louisville Bats

text: Arizona Fall League

text: Peoria Javelinas

text: 40-man roster

text: Alex Gonzalez

text: Héctor Carrasco

text: strikeout

text: Kelly Shoppach

text: Sarasota

text: doubleheader

text: September call-up

text: Logan Ondrusek

text: Aroldis Chapman

text: Russ Springer

text: 2nd baseman

text: Wilson Valdez

text: Babe Ruth

text: Ryan Madson

text: Oakland Athletics

text: Tampa Bay Rays

text: Somerset Patriots

text: Atlanta Braves

text: Gwinnett Braves

text: Texas Rangers

text: San Diego Padres

text: Toros de Tijuana

text: Mexican Baseball League

text: Rieleros de Aguascalientes

text: Acereros de Monclova

text: MiLB.com

text: Retrosheet

text: Pura Pelota

categories: Chattanooga Lookouts players,Lewis–Clark State Warriors baseball players,Dayton Dragons players,Gwinnett Braves players,Sarasota Reds players,Cincinnati Reds players,Somerset Patriots players,American expatriate baseball players in Mexico,Baseball players from California,El Paso Chihuahuas players,Yaquis de Obregón players,Acereros de Monclova players,Louisville Bats players,Cañeros de Los Mochis players,People from West Covina, California,Leones del Escogido players,Toros de Tijuana players,Major League Baseball pitchers,Living people,Rieleros de Aguascalientes players,Montgomery Biscuits players,Peoria Javelinas players,Midland RockHounds players,Caribes de Anzoátegui players,American baseball players of Mexican descent,Round Rock Express players,1983 births,Billings Mustangs players,Mexican League baseball pitchers

paragraph: Carlos Fisher

paragraph: Charles Edward "Carlos" Fisher (born February 22, 1983) is an American professional baseball pitcher who is a free agent. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Cincinnati Reds.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Fisher graduated from Duarte High School (Duarte, California) in 2001. He attended Citrus Community College in Glendora, California before attending Lewis-Clark State College in Lewiston, Idaho.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Cincinnati Reds.

paragraph: The Cincinnati Reds drafted Carlos Fisher in the 11th round of the 2005 First-Year Player Draft. He was signed by scout Howard Bowens.

paragraph: Fisher started his career as a starting pitcher with the Billings Mustangs rookie class team in 2005, where he went 4-4 with a 4.19 ERA. He was Pioneer League Pitcher of the Week on 6/26.

paragraph: He played 2006 for the class-A Dayton Dragons. He 12-5 with a 2.76 ERA in 150 innings. Fisher was Midwest League Pitcher of the Week on 4/23.

paragraph: Carlos pitched seven games for the Sarasota Reds in 2007, going 4-1 with a 2.20 ERA. He was Florida State League Pitcher of the Week on 4/16. The Reds promoted him to Chattanooga, their double-A team, and he 5-9 with a 4.29 ERA. Fisher was Southern League Pitcher of the Week on 7/23. He was named to the mid-season All-Star teams for the FSL, Southern League, and Texas League in 2007.

paragraph: Fisher was converted to a reliever in 2008. He started the year with Chattanooga. He went 1-5 with a 3.73 ERA in 36 games, along with 8 saves. He was then promoted to the triple-A Louisville Bats. In 14 games, he was 5-0 with a 1.04 ERA. Fisher participated in the 2008 Arizona Fall League as a member of the Peoria Javelinas. He pitched in 10 games (10.0 innings), struck out 10 batters and notched three saves, but was 0-1 with a 10.80 ERA. He was added to the Reds' 40-man roster on November 20.

paragraph: He started the 2009 season with Louisville. In 18 innings, he was 2-0 with a 2.00 ERA. The Reds recalled him on May 22.

paragraph: On May 24, 2009, Carlos Fisher made his Major League debut in the eleventh inning of a 3-3 game against the Cleveland Indians. In his first Major League appearance, Fisher pitched one scoreless inning and earned the win after Alex Gonzalez hit a walk-off RBI double in the bottom of the inning. The win made him the first Reds pitcher to earn a win his debut since Héctor Carrasco did on April 4, 1994. He got his first big league strikeout against the first batter he faced (Kelly Shoppach). Fisher spent the rest of the season with the Reds until being optioned to Sarasota between games of a doubleheader on August 31. He pitched two scoreless innings in two games for the single-A Reds before being recalled again as a September call-up. He finished the season with the Reds, and his 2009 MLB totals were 1-1, 4.47 ERA, 52.1 innings pitched, 48 K and 31 BB.

paragraph: Fisher split the 2010 season with the Reds and the Bats. He started the season with Louisville, but was called up to replace Logan Ondrusek. He was sent down and called up a few more times, including being called up in favor of Aroldis Chapman when Russ Springer went on the DL. He went 1-1 with a 2.23 ERA for Louisville in 30 games. In 18 games for the Reds he went 1-1 with a 5.64 ERA. Fisher was left off the Reds post-season roster.

paragraph: Fisher spen 2011 split between the Reds and the Bats yet again. Fisher went 4 and 1 in AAA with an ERA of 3.35 in 40.1 innings of work. With the Reds he went 0 and 3 with an ERA of 4.50 in 24 innings of work. One of his losses in the majors in 2011 was a 19 inning game that he gave up the walk-off hit. The winner in this game was the Phillies starting 2nd baseman that day Wilson Valdez. This was the first time a player started the game in the field and won the game on the mound since Babe Ruth

paragraph: Fisher was removed from the Reds 40 man roster prior to 2012 season to make space for Ryan Madson.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Oakland Athletics/Tampa Bay Rays.

paragraph: Fisher played in the Oakland Athletics and Tampa Bay Rays organizations in 2013.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Somerset Patriots.

paragraph: He started 2014 with the Somerset Patriots of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Atlanta Braves.

paragraph: He had his contract purchased by the Atlanta Braves on June 21, 2014. The Braves assigned Fisher to the Triple A Gwinnett Braves, where he spent the remainder of the 2014 season. Fisher started the 2015 season with Gwinnett as well. He elected free agency on November 6, 2015.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Texas Rangers.

paragraph: On February 2, 2016, Fisher signed a minor league contract with the Texas Rangers.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:San Diego Padres.

paragraph: During the 2016 offseason, Fisher signed a minor league contract with the San Diego Padres.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Mexican League (2017–2018).

paragraph: On June 6, 2017, Fisher was loaned to the Toros de Tijuana of the Mexican Baseball League. On March 18, 2018, Fisher was traded to the Rieleros de Aguascalientes. On July 3, 2018, he was traded to the Acereros de Monclova. He became a free agent after the season.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: , or MiLB.com, or Retrosheet, or Pura Pelota

description: Major League Baseball pitcher for the Cincinnati Reds

wikidata_label: Carlos Fisher

wikipedia_title: Carlos Fisher


text:
India
Buddhist
Esoteric Buddhism
Chinese
Chang'an
Vajrabodhi
Amoghavajra
Magadha
Odra
Odisha
Bhauma-Kara dynasty
Nālandā
Emperor Xuanzong
Tang Dynasty
Chán
Yi Xing
Chinese Buddhist
dhāraṇīs
mantra
Huiguo
Kūkai
Jp
Japan

categories: 735 deaths,Vajrayana,Buddhism in India,Shingon Buddhism,637 births,Tendai,7th-century Indian monks,Indian Buddhist monks,History of Buddhism

paragraph: Śubhakarasiṃha

paragraph: Śubhakarasiṃha (637-735 CE) () was an eminent Indian Buddhist monk and master of Esoteric Buddhism, who arrived in the Chinese capital Chang'an (now Xi'an) in 716 CE and translated the "", better known as the "Mahāvairocana Sūtra". Four years later another master, Vajrabodhi (670-741 CE), and his pupil Amoghavajra (705-775 CE), would arrive and proceeded to translate other scriptures, thus establishing a second esoteric tradition. Along with these other masters, Śubhakarasiṃha was responsible for bringing Esoteric Buddhism to the height of its popularity in China.

paragraph: Section::::Life in India.

paragraph: According to the Chinese sources, Śubhakarasiṃha was born in India as the oldest son of Buddhakara (Fo-shou Wang). Li Hua's "Shan-wu-wei-hsing-chuang" states that his family originated in Magadha. Because of unrest in their native kingdom, they had migrated to Odra (in present-day Odisha). Modern scholars theorize that Śubhakarasiṃha may have been an ancestor of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty, which ruled in Odisha between 8th and 10th centuries, and whose kings included people named Śubhakara.

paragraph: According to his biography, Śubhakarasiṃha ascended to the throne as king when he was thirteen years old. Although emerging victorious from a power struggle with his older brothers, he turned over his position to his oldest brother and entered the monastic life. He became well known for his supernatural abilities, and finally settled in Nālandā where he met the master Dharmagupta. After being instructed by him, Śubhakarasiṃha became a traveling teacher, and was then told by Dharmagupta to go further east to China.

paragraph: Section::::Life in China.

paragraph: When Śubhakarasiṃha arrived in China, he was already eighty years old. Upon his arrival, he became well known for his supernatural abilities, and became favored by Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. It was during this time that he translated several works of Esoteric Buddhism including the "".

paragraph: Section::::With Yixing.

paragraph: According to Robert Sharf, Chán Master Yi Xing (Ch. 一行禅師) was the most eminent of his students. Yixing belonged to the northern school of Chán Buddhism, but this was not seen by Chinese Buddhist culture as being fundamentally different from the esoteric teachings of Śubhakarasiṃha. Around the turn of the eighth century, the northern school was known for its esoteric practices of dhāraṇīs and mantras.

paragraph: Section::::In Shingon Buddhism.

paragraph: Śubhakarasiṃha was the first patriarch of the Shingon teachings in China. Following Śubhakarasiṃha, the lineage is traced to his student Chán Master Yixing, then to Huiguo (Ch. 惠果), and finally to Kūkai (Jp. 空海), who brought the teachings of Śubhakarasiṃha and his translation of the "" to Japan.

wikidata_label: Śubhakarasiṃha

wikipedia_title: Śubhakarasiṃha


text:
Ottoman
Napoleon
Egypt
Battle of Abukir
napoleonguide.com

categories: Ottoman military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars

image: 512px-Саид_Мустафа-паша.jpg

paragraph: Mustafa Pasha (Egypt)

paragraph: Mustafa Pasha was an Ottoman commander who had fought against Russia and Napoleon's army in Egypt. He lost the Battle of Abukir in 1799.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- napoleonguide.com

wikidata_label: Mustafa Pasha

wikipedia_title: Mustafa Pasha (Egypt)


text: First Sergeant

text: American

text: 7th U.S. Cavalry

text: Indian Wars

text: Medal of Honor

text: Battle of Wounded Knee

text: Wounded Knee Massacre

text: Spanish–American War

text: Schellsburg, Pennsylvania

text: 7th Cavalry Regiment

text: U.S. Army

text: Cleveland, Ohio

text: Dakota Territory

text: Sioux

text: Big Foot

text: Wounded Knee Creek

text: Battle of Wounded Knee

text: Medal of Honor

text: private

text: Fort Riley, Kansas

text: 10th Infantry Regiment

text: Battle of Santiago de Cuba

text: Bedloe's Island

text: New York

text: 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment

text: first sergeant

text: Chicago, Illinois

text: 4th Infantry Regiment

text: Angel Island

text: California

text: San Francisco, California

text: corporal

text: Presidio of Monterey

text: 8th Infantry Regiment

text: Fort Santiago

text: Manila

text: Philippine Islands

text: San Mateo, California

text: first lieutenant

text: Veterans Administration

text: first sergeant

categories: Burials at Golden Gate National Cemetery,People from Bedford County, Pennsylvania,American military personnel of the Indian Wars,United States Army Medal of Honor recipients,American Indian Wars recipients of the Medal of Honor,1867 births,1950 deaths

paragraph: Mosheim Feaster

paragraph: First Sergeant Mosheim Feaster (May 27, 1867 – March 18, 1950) was an American soldier in the U.S. Army who served with the 7th U.S. Cavalry during the Indian Wars. He was one of twenty men awarded the Medal of Honor for extraordinary gallantry at the Battle of Wounded Knee, but now called the Wounded Knee Massacre, on December 29, 1890. He later served in the Spanish–American War.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Mosheim Feaster was born in Schellsburg, Pennsylvania on May 27, 1867 to Conrad and Mary Feaster. He enlisted in Company E, 7th Cavalry Regiment, U.S. Army on October 23, 1889 in Cleveland, Ohio. Assigned to frontier duty in the Dakota Territory, Feaster took part in campaigns against the Sioux during the late-1880s. His unit was ordered to bring in the Sioux chief Big Foot, on the morning of December 29, 1890, they surrounded his camp on the banks of Wounded Knee Creek. Although intending to place Big Foot under arrest and disarm his followers, fighting broke out resulting in what was then called the Battle of Wounded Knee. Feaster was cited for "extraordinary gallantry" during the battle by advancing to an exposed position and holding it under heavy fire. He was one of twenty soldiers who received the Medal of Honor for his actions. Feaster was discharged as a private on June 22, 1893 at Fort Riley, Kansas.

paragraph: Feaster re-enlisted on October 9, 1893 at Cleveland in Company E, 10th Infantry Regiment, U.S. Army. On July 1, 1898 Feaster, a sergeant, performed gallantly "gallantry in advancing beyond the general line in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. On October 8, 1898, he was discharged as a sergeant at Bedloe's Island, New York upon termination of his service.

paragraph: On December 5, 1898, Feaster re-enlisted in Company E or Company H, 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment, again in Cleveland. While a corporal during this enlistment, he was cited for his action in Cuba. He was discharged as a first sergeant when his service expired on December 4, 1901.

paragraph: Feaster served at least four more tours of duty:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Enlisting February 14, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois in Company M, 4th Infantry Regiment and being discharged on February 23, 1905 at Angel Island, California as a private.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Enlistling February 25, 1905 in San Francisco, California in Company M of an infantry Regiment and being discharged on February 24, 1908 at Chicago as a corporal

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Enlisting March 5, 1908 in Chicago in the recruiting service for the infantry and being discharged on March 4, 1911 at Chicago as a sergeant.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Enlisting March 18, 1911 at the Presidio of Monterey, California in Company K, 8th Infantry Regiment and being discharged on March 14, 1914 at Fort Santiago, Manila, Philippine Islands as a sergeant.

paragraph: Feaster probably re-enlisted upon discharge in March 1914; in September 1914 First Sergeant Feaster, still assigned to Company K, was placed on the retired list.

paragraph: Feaster died on March 18, 1950 in San Mateo, California. His grave marker shows his rank as first lieutenant. His record in the Veterans Administration Nationwide Gravesite Locator reflects a rank of first sergeant.

paragraph: Section::::Medal of Honor citation.

paragraph: Rank and organization: Private, Company E, 7th U.S. Cavalry. Place and date: At Wounded Knee Creek, S. Dak., December 29, 1890. Entered service at: Schellburg, Pa. Birth: Schellburg, Pa. Date of issue: June 23, 1891.

paragraph: Citation:

paragraph: "The President of the United States of America, in the name of Congress, takes pleasure in presenting the Medal of Honor to Private Mosheim Feaster, United States Army, for extraordinary gallantry on December 29, 1890, while serving with Company E, 7th U.S. Cavalry, in action at Wounded Knee Creek, South Dakota."

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Medal of Honor recipients for the Indian Wars

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "United States Census, 1930," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:XCFB-KPN : accessed 19 June 2017), F Mosheim Feaster, San Francisco (Districts 251-409), San Francisco, California, United States; citing enumeration district (ED) ED 252, sheet 16A, line 28, family 264, NARA microfilm publication T626 (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 2002), roll 203; FHL microfilm 2,339,938.

wikidata_label: Mosheim Feaster

wikipedia_title: Mosheim Feaster


text: Nobel Prize in Literature

text: symbolist

text: anticolonialism

text: The New York Times

text: puritan

text: USSR

text: Protestant

text: Paris University

text: Charles Gide

text: Italy

text: Normandy

text: Oscar Wilde

text: Algiers

text: La Roque-Baignard

text: commune

text: Maderia

text: St. Brélade's Bay

text: Jersey

text: Nouvelle Revue Française

text: Marc Allégret

text: Dorothy Bussy

text: Albert Camus

text: Jean-Paul Sartre

text: Fyodor Dostoyevsky

text: Corydon

text: Théo van Rysselberghe

text: Si le grain ne meurt

text: Joseph Conrad

text: Heart of Darkness

text: Lord Jim

text: French Equatorial Africa

text: Marc Allégret

text: Middle Congo

text: Republic of the Congo

text: Ubangi-Shari

text: Central African Republic

text: Chad

text: Cameroon

text: Travels in the Congo

text: Return from Chad

text: natural resource

text: slavery

text: anti-colonialism

text: impact of colonialism

text: fellow traveler

text: Maxim Gorky

text: Soviet Union

text: The God That Failed

text: Blanche Monnier

text: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade

text: Tunis

text: Nobel Prize in Literature

text: Index of Forbidden Books

text: Les faux-monnayeurs

text: Oscar Wilde

text: Corydon

text: Colonialism

text: LGBT culture in Paris

text: Mise en abyme

text: Alan Sheridan

text: "Catherine Gide Foundation"

text: Center for Gidian Studies

text: Amis d'André Gide

text: Period newspaper articles on Gide

text: André Gide: A Brief Introduction

text: Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–7

categories: LGBT writers from France,1951 deaths,Nobel laureates in Literature,French communists,Writers from Paris,Modernist writers,LGBT novelists,Western writers about Soviet Russia,Fyodor Dostoyevsky scholars,Lycée Henri-IV alumni,French male novelists,French Protestants,French Nobel laureates,French anti-communists,French people of Italian descent,1869 births,LGBT rights activists from France,Modern pederasty,French novelists,French travel writers,French-language LGBT writers,Male essayists,French essayists,LGBT Nobel laureates

paragraph: André Gide

paragraph: André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (in 1947). Gide's career ranged from its beginnings in the symbolist movement, to the advent of anticolonialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, at the time of his death his obituary in "The New York Times" described him as "France's greatest contemporary man of letters" and "judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti."

paragraph: Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively), which a strict and moralistic education had helped set at odds. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints, and centers on his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is shaped by the same ethos, as indicated by his repudiation of communism after his 1936 voyage to the USSR.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father was a Paris University professor of law who died in 1880. His uncle was the political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots back to Italy, with his ancestors, the Guidos, moving to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, due to persecution.

paragraph: Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, "The Notebooks of André Walter" (French: "Les Cahiers d'André Walter"), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one.

paragraph: In 1893 and 1894, Gide traveled in Northern Africa, and it was there that he came to accept his attraction to boys.

paragraph: He befriended Oscar Wilde in Paris, and in 1895 Gide and Wilde met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but, in fact, Gide had already discovered this on his own.

paragraph: Section::::The middle years.

paragraph: In 1895, after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he became mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.

paragraph: In 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brélade's Bay and lived there while residing in Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him.

paragraph: In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine "Nouvelle Revue Française" ("The New French Review"). In 1916, Marc Allégret, only 15 years old, became his lover. Marc was the son – one of five children – of Élie Allégret, who years before had been hired by Gide's mother to tutor her son in light of his weak grades in school, after which he and Gide became fast friends; Élie Allégret was best man at Gide's wedding. Gide and Marc fled to London, in retribution for which his wife burned all his correspondence – "the best part of myself," he later commented. In 1918, he met Dorothy Bussy, who was his friend for over thirty years and translated many of his works into English.

paragraph: In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for writers such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of "Corydon" (1924) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.

paragraph: In 1923, he sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a woman who was much younger than he. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his closest female friend, Maria Monnom, the wife of his friend the Belgian neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide and damaged the relation with van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual liaison with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine became his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built for each on the rue Vavin). She worshiped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship.

paragraph: Gide's legal wife, Madeleine, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in his memoir of Madeleine, "Et nunc manet in te".

paragraph: In 1924, he published an autobiography, "If it Die..." (French: "Si le grain ne meurt").

paragraph: In the same year, he produced the first French language editions of Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" and "Lord Jim".

paragraph: After 1925, he began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals.

paragraph: Section::::Africa.

paragraph: From July 1926 to May 1927, he traveled through the French Equatorial Africa colony with his lover Marc Allégret. Gide went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called "Travels in the Congo" (French: "Voyage au Congo") and "Return from Chad" (French: "Retour du Tchad"). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the "Large Concessions" regime (French: "Régime des Grandes Concessions"), "i.e.," a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all of the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related, for instance, how natives were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to slavery. The book had important influence on anti-colonialism movements in France and helped re-evaluate the impact of colonialism.

paragraph: Section::::Russia.

paragraph: During the 1930s, he briefly became a communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any communist party). As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet communism, breaking with his socialist friends in "Retour de L'U.R.S.S." in 1936.

paragraph: In the 1949 anthology "The God That Failed" Gide describes his early enthusiasm:

paragraph: Section::::1930s and 1940s.

paragraph: In 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case called "La Séquestrée de Poitiers", changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.

paragraph: In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious "Bibliothèque de la Pléiade".

paragraph: He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight". He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the "Index of Forbidden Books" in 1952.

paragraph: Section::::Gide's life as a writer.

paragraph: Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual:

paragraph: "Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it." But his "capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself."

paragraph: Section::::Gide's life as a writer.:Writings.

paragraph: André Gide's writings spanned many genres – "As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters."

paragraph: But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, "It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work." "Here, as in the "oeuvre" as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the "comic, more inventive, even fantastic" pieces, to the later "serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, "with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences."

paragraph: Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the "Journal" that Sheridan calls "the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression." "His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In "Les faux-monnayeurs", Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's." "In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive," Gide replied, 'I think it would be my "Journal."'" Beginning at the age of eighteen or nineteen, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to thirteen hundred pages.

paragraph: Section::::Gide's life as a writer.:Struggle for values.

paragraph: "Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his "Cahiers de André Gide" essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'" Gide wrote in his "Journal" in 1930: "The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental."

paragraph: As a whole, "The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks."

paragraph: Section::::Sexuality.

paragraph: In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted "sodomites" and boy-loving "pederasts", categorizing himself as the latter.

paragraph: In the company of Oscar Wilde, he had several sexual encounters with young boys abroad.

paragraph: Gide's novel "Corydon", which he considered his most important work, erects a defense of pederasty.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Colonialism

paragraph: BULLET::::- LGBT culture in Paris

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mise en abyme"

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Notes

paragraph: Sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alan Sheridan, "André Gide: A Life in the Present." Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Noel I. Garde [Edgar H. Leoni], "Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History". New York:Vangard, 1964. OCLC 3149115

paragraph: BULLET::::- For a chronology of Gide's life, see pages 13–15 in Thomas Cordle, "André Gide" (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969.

paragraph: BULLET::::- For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pages 655-678 in Alan Sheridan, "André Gide: A Life in the Present." Harvard, 1999.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Website of the "Catherine Gide Foundation", held by Catherine Gide, his daughter.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Center for Gidian Studies

paragraph: BULLET::::- Amis d'André Gide "in French"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Period newspaper articles on Gide "interface in French"

paragraph: BULLET::::- André Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature

paragraph: BULLET::::- André Gide: A Brief Introduction

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–7

alias:
André Paul Guillaume Gide
Andre Gide
Andre Paul Guillaume Gide

description: French novelist and essayist

enwikiquote_title: André Gide

wikidata_label: André Gide

wikipedia_title: André Gide


text: Alsatian

text: polymath

text: Lutheran

text: Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method

text: Christian view

text: Pauline Christianity

text: Paul

text: mysticism

text: Justification by Faith

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: Reverence for Life

text: Albert Schweitzer Hospital

text: Lambaréné

text: French Equatorial Africa

text: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Organ Reform Movement

text: Alsace

text: Alsatian

text: Gunsbach

text: Lutheran-Evangelical

text: EPCAAL

text: Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer

text: Protestant Reformation

text: Thirty Years' War

text: German language

text: Mulhouse

text: gymnasium

text: Abitur

text: organ

text: Richard Wagner

text: organist

text: Charles-Marie Widor

text: Saint-Sulpice, Paris

text: Johann Sebastian Bach

text: Kaiser Wilhelm University

text: Strasbourg

text: Otto Lohse

text: Bayreuth Festival

text: Der Ring des Nibelungen

text: Parsifal

text: Kant

text: Sorbonne

text: Aristide Cavaillé-Coll

text: Marie Jaëll

text: University of Berlin

text: University of Strasbourg

text: University of Tübingen

text: pipe organ

text: J. S. Bach's

text: Chorale Preludes

text: Lutheran

text: Ernest Newman

text: Ernst Cassirer

text: Cosima Wagner

text: Wahnfried

text: Clara Faisst

text: Orgelbewegung

text: Vienna

text: reed pipe

text: Silbermann

text: flue pipe

text: stops

text: fugue

text: counterpoint

text: Isidor Philipp

text: Paris Conservatory

text: Paris Bach Society

text: Barcelona

text: Bach's organ works

text: pedal piano

text: Mendelssohn

text: César Franck

text: Max Reger

text: Donald Tovey

text: The Art of Fugue

text: below

text: Hans Münch

text: church of Saint Nicholas

text: Oberammergau Passion Play

text: Saint Thomas

text: The Quest of the Historical Jesus

text: mysticism

text: Attis

text: Osiris

text: Mithras

text: Brahman

text: Buddha

text: Platonism

text: Stoicism

text: Spinoza

text: Schopenhauer

text: Hegel

text: sonship

text: eschatology

text: Jewish eschatology

text: justification by faith

text: Martin Luther

text: Jaroslav Pelikan

text: Hellenism

text: deification

text: Sacraments

text: predestinarian

text: elected

text: baptism

text: physician

text: Jesus′ mental health

text: Helene Bresslau

text: Harry Bresslau

text: Lambaréné

text: Ogooué

text: Albert Schweitzer Hospital

text: Port Gentil

text: Cape Lopez

text: sandflea

text: framboesia

text: eating sores

text: dysentery

text: malaria

text: sleeping sickness

text: leprosy

text: hernias

text: necrosis

text: constipation

text: nicotine poisoning

text: fetishism

text: cannibalism

text: Mbahouin

text: Galoa

text: Mpongwe

text: World War I

text: anaemia

text: Bordeaux

text: Garaison

text: Saint-Rémy-de-Provence

text: Noel Gillespie

text: salvarsan

text: Germanin

text: tryparsamide

text: vibrion

text: World War II

text: colonizers

text: paternalistic

text: colonialist

text: racist

text: liberals

text: Edgar Berman

text: negro

text: Chinua Achebe

text: John Gunther

text: Sir Albert Cook

text: James Cameron

text: Chinua Achebe

text: Joseph Conrad

text: Heart of Darkness

text: Reverence for Life

text: Western civilization

text: ethical

text: Descartes

text: Kant

text: Age of Enlightenment

text: Will

text: pessimist

text: Schopenhauer

text: materialism

text: Herbert Spencer

text: Charles Darwin

text: Brahmin

text: volition

text: Indian religious

text: Jain

text: ahimsa

text: Rhena Schweitzer Miller

text: Königsfeld im Schwarzwald

text: Pierre Fresnay

text: Jeanne Moreau

text: Hugh O'Brian

text: Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: nuclear tests

text: nuclear weapon

text: Albert Einstein

text: Otto Hahn

text: Bertrand Russell

text: The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy

text: Holocaust

text: Order of Merit

text: Queen Elizabeth II

text: chevalier

text: Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem

text: Ogooué River

text: Jean-Paul Sartre

text: Albert Schweitzer Fellowship

text: Eugen Drewermann

text: Königsfeld im Schwarzwald

text: Edinburgh University

text: Oxford

text: London

text: Queen's Hall

text: Columbia Records

text: All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower

text: church of Ste Aurélie

text: Silbermann

text: Lorraine

text: figure-8 microphone

text: cardioid microphone

text: condenser microphones

text: Edition Peters

text: Pierre Fresnay

text: Albert Schweitzer

text: Jean-Pierre Marielle

text: The Light in the Jungle

text: Malcolm McDowell

text: The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles

text: André Wilms

text: Jeff McCarthy

text: Jeroen Krabbé

text: Fulltext scan

text: Ernest Newman

text: Vol. 1

text: Vol. 2

text: List of peace activists

text: Award-winning documentary about him

text: Albert Schweitzer info

text: Internet Archive

text: Albert Schweitzer Papers

text: John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer

text: Helfferich Collection

text: Harvard Divinity School

text: Cambridge

text: What Jesus was thinking

categories: Protestant missionaries in Gabon,1875 births,German Nobel laureates,Tamil–German translators,Translators to German,German writers in French,German anti–nuclear weapons activists,19th-century German people,German Lutheran clergy,German humanitarians,Lutheran pacifists,Male organists,French classical organists,German medical writers,People from Kaysersberg-Vignoble,French Christian pacifists,German Christian pacifists,French biblical scholars,French humanitarians,Nobel Peace Prize laureates,French anti–nuclear weapons activists,French medical writers,19th-century French people,20th-century German Protestant theologians,Christian medical missionaries,Lutheran missionaries in Africa,French writers in German,French Unitarians,French tropical physicians,German classical organists,French Nobel laureates,20th-century German writers,Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class),Music historians,1965 deaths,Bach scholars,Critics of the Christ myth theory,German Lutheran missionaries,Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society,French Lutheran missionaries,Environmental philosophers,Health in Gabon,People from Alsace-Lorraine,20th-century French writers,German male non-fiction writers,Pupils of Isidor Philipp,19th-century French writers,University of Tübingen alumni,19th-century German writers,French Lutherans,Lutheran philosophers,German Unitarians,Honorary members of the Order of Merit,German Lutheran theologians

paragraph: Albert Schweitzer

paragraph: Albert Schweitzer (14 January 18754 September 1965) was an Alsatian polymath. He was a theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of "being in Christ" as primary and the doctrine of Justification by Faith as secondary.

paragraph: He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", becoming the eighth Frenchman to be awarded that prize. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, in the part of French Equatorial Africa which is now Gabon. As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement ("Orgelbewegung").

paragraph: Section::::Nationality.

paragraph: Schweitzer was born in the province of Alsace, which was a part of the Holy Roman Empire up to the Thirty Year War. In 1648, with the Treaty of Westphalia, the Habsburgs renounced their claims to its territory, when it became a part of France for the first time. In 1871, through the Treaty of Frankfurt, Alsace became a part of the German Empire ("Reichsland"), becoming French a second time in 1919, after Germany's defeat during the First World War. Schweitzer considered himself French, but wrote mostly in German. His mother-tongue was Alsatian, a Low Alemannic German dialect, although he was also fluent in French and High-German.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: Schweitzer was born in Kaysersberg, Haute Alsace, the son of Louis Schweitzer and Adèle Schillinger. He spent his childhood in the Alsatian village of Gunsbach, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village became home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose.

paragraph: Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of German language. At the Mulhouse gymnasium he received his "Abitur" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his profound enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner. In 1893, he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began.

paragraph: From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch, the brother of his former teacher, organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J.S. Bach's music. Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen" and "Parsifal", which deeply impressed him. In 1898, he went back to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on "The Religious Philosophy of Kant" at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. In 1899, Schweitzer spent the summer semester at the University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree in University of Strasbourg. He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899.

paragraph: In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913.

paragraph: Section::::Music.

paragraph: Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899, he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.

paragraph: The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study "J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète", written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it. The result was two volumes ("J. S. Bach"), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it "one of the best interpretations" of Bach. During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried. He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend.

paragraph: His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century "Orgelbewegung", which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer had intended. In 1909, he addressed the "Third Congress of the International Society of Music" at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. This provided the basis for the "International Regulations for Organ Building". He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing the same music together.

paragraph: Schweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory.

paragraph: In 1905, Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J.S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought.

paragraph: On departure for Lambaréné in 1913, he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard. Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice: but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. According to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962, and stories told that "his fingers were still lively" on the old instrument at 88 years of age.

paragraph: Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's "The Art of Fugue" to Schweitzer.

paragraph: Schweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described below.

paragraph: One of his notable pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch.

paragraph: Section::::Theology.

paragraph: In 1899, Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas, from which he had just graduated, and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent.

paragraph: In 1906, he published "Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung" ("History of Life-of-Jesus research"). This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as "The Quest of the Historical Jesus". Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: but this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In 1931, he published "Mystik des Apostels Paulus" ("The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle"); a second edition was published in 1953.

paragraph: Section::::Theology.:"The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906)".

paragraph: In The Quest, Schweitzer reviewed all former work on the "historical Jesus" back to the late 18th century. He showed that the image of Jesus had changed with the times and outlooks of the various authors, and gave his own synopsis and interpretation of the previous century's findings. He maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism. Schweitzer writes:

paragraph: The concept that Christianity started as a Jewish apocalyptic movement is evidenced by the teachings of the historical Jesus concerning the end of days. Not only did he preach he would rise from the grave, but that he would also ascend to heaven and one day return to judge and rule over the world, saying that no one, including himself, knew the exact time of his return, but it would be before the end of the first generation of followers. In The Quest of the Historical Jesus, Schweitzer verifies and cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfillment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. He noted that in the gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation", with his "coming in the clouds with great power and glory" (St. Mark), and states when it will happen: "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (St. Matthew, 24:34) or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, "Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you," as well as "But the end of all things is at hand," (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely, I come quickly." (Revelation 22:20).

paragraph: Schweitzer observes that Jesus very specifically states "not seal up the words of the prophecy" and promises that some of his listeners, as well as the high priest at his trial, would be alive to see him return to the Earth. He says, "Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near" (Revelation 1:3). St. Paul spoke of the last times, "Brethren, the time is short, it remaineth, that both they that have wives be as though they had none," (1 Corinthians 7:29) and "God hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son," (Hebrews 1:2). Also, "There be some standing here which shall not taste of death till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom" (Matthew 16:28) as well as "until they see that the kingdom of God has come with power," (Mark 9:1) and "till they see the kingdom of God" (Luke 9:27) reinforce this prophecy. Schweitzer observes that St. Paul, urgently, believed in the immediacy of the Second Coming of Jesus.

paragraph: Schweitzer insists that it is unreasonable for modern followers of Jesus to believe that "coming quickly", "near", and "soon" could mean hundreds, much less thousands, of years of the faithful waiting for a second coming. His evidence is verses "Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near." (Revelation 1:3) "And he said to me, 'These words are faithful and true'; and the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent His angel to show to His bond-servants the things which must soon take place." as well as "And behold, I am coming quickly. Blessed is he who heeds the words of the prophecy of this book." He references "And he said to me, "Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is near" (Revelation 22:6, 7, 10, 12). "All these things shall come upon this generation" (Matthew 23:36) as well. Schweitzer's observations are in stark contrast to many modern variants of Christian belief, those allegedly ignoring these verses. Schweitzer concludes that 1st-century Christian theology; first belief, originating in the lifetimes of the very first followers of Jesus, is totally incompatible with modern theology.

paragraph: Section::::Theology.:"The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931)".

paragraph: In "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle", Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism "has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal." Additionally, he argues that this view of a "union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions."

paragraph: On the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in first-century A.D. society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the "conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself." Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found "among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel."

paragraph: Next, Schweitzer poses the question: "Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as "mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ." He summarizes Pauline mysticism as "being in Christ" rather than "being in God."

paragraph: Paul's imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future. Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of "being-in-God." Rather, Paul uses the phrase "being-in-Christ" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of "being-in-Christ" is not a "static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again." The "realistic" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community.

paragraph: One of Schweitzer's major arguments in "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle" is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase "being in Christ", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by "being in Christ." Jaroslav Pelikan, in his Foreword to "The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle," points out that:

paragraph: Section::::Theology.:"The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931)".:Paul's "Realism" versus Hellenistic "Symbolism".

paragraph: Schweitzer contrasts Paul's "realistic" dying and rising with Christ to the "symbolism" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ rather than the "symbolic" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, the Christian is continually renewed throughout their lifetime due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist "lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience.

paragraph: Another major difference between Paul's "realism" and Hellenistic "symbolism" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that "Paul's thought follows predestinarian lines." He explains, "only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God." Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ.

paragraph: Section::::Medicine.

paragraph: At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a physician. However, the committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be "incorrect". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching.

paragraph: Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, "The Psychiatric Study of Jesus". He defended Jesus′ mental health in it. In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau.

paragraph: In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital. In spring 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (Albert Schweitzer Hospital) near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné.

paragraph: In the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometers to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw sores, "framboesia" (yaws), tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin.

paragraph: Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, was an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in autumn 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with two 13-foot rooms (consulting room and operating theatre) and with a dispensary and sterilising room in spaces below the broad eaves. The waiting room and dormitory (42 by 20 feet) were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a 30-yard path leading from the hospital to the landing-place. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Galoa (Mpongwe) who first came as a patient.

paragraph: After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the countries were at war, were put under supervision by the French military at Lambaréné, where Schweitzer continued his work. In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in Oxford University, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, "The Decay and Restoration of Civilization" and "Civilization and Ethics". The two remaining volumes, on "The World-View of Reverence for Life " and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed.

paragraph: In 1924, he returned without his wife, but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925–6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and tryparsamide. Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work.

paragraph: He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II.

paragraph: Section::::Schweitzer's views.

paragraph: Section::::Schweitzer's views.:Colonialism.

paragraph: Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men" but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers:

paragraph: Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in Africa, he said:

paragraph: Section::::Schweitzer's views.:Paternalism.

paragraph: Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic, colonialist, and racist in his attitude towards Africans, and in some ways his views did differ from that of many liberals and other critics of colonialism. For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow." Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children. He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying "With regard to the negroes, then, I have coined the formula: 'I am your brother, it is true, but your elder brother.'" Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed". Later in life he became more convinced that "modern civilization" was actually inferior to or the same as previous cultures in terms of morality.

paragraph: American journalist John Gunther visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers. By comparison, his contemporary Sir Albert Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses.

paragraph: Section::::Hospital conditions.

paragraph: The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé.

paragraph: The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel "Heart of Darkness": "In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being."

paragraph: Section::::Reverence for life.

paragraph: The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of "Reverence for Life" (""Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben""). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation.

paragraph: In the Preface to "Civilization and Ethics" (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live.

paragraph: Schweitzer wrote, "True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live.'" In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible.

paragraph: Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.

paragraph: For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity.

paragraph: Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence. Albert Schweitzer noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book "Indian Thought and Its Development":

paragraph: Section::::Later life.

paragraph: After the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923, the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum.

paragraph: From 1939–48 he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept traveling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY).

paragraph: Schweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952, accepting the prize with the speech, "The Problem of Peace". From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958, he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in "Peace or Atomic War". In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his "Declaration of Conscience" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, "The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for."

paragraph: Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film "The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer", narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied.

paragraph: In 1955, he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem.

paragraph: Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself.

paragraph: His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.

paragraph: Schweitzer was a vegetarian. However, in an account written by Dr. Edgar Berman, it is suggested that Schweitzer consumed fried liver at a Sunday dinner in Lambaréné.

paragraph: The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer, however, considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his Hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just "my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné." Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create "their own Lambaréné" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law, and divinity). The peer-supporting lifelong network of "Schweitzer Fellows for Life" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school.

paragraph: Section::::International Albert Schweitzer Prize.

paragraph: The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum.

paragraph: Section::::Sound recordings.

paragraph: Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on "Religion in Modern Civilization" at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London. Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936.

paragraph: Section::::Sound recordings.:The Schweitzer Technique.

paragraph: Schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as "The Schweitzer Technique", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is mult-ed, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments.

paragraph: Section::::Sound recordings.:Columbia recordings.

paragraph: Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Queen's Hall: Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Vol 3, 10); (BWV 727); (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)).

paragraph: BULLET::::- All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); (Vol 5, 45); (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); (Vol 5, 8); (Vol 5, 9); (Vol 6, 12b); (Vol 5, 6); (Vol 5, app 5); (Vol 5, 4); (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15).

paragraph: Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary "Albert Schweitzer." Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chorale-Preludes: (1st and 2nd versions, Peters Vol 5, 45); (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); (Vol 5, 30); (Vol 5, 17); (Vol 5, 27); (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)).

paragraph: The above were released in the United States as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175.

paragraph: Section::::Sound recordings.:Philips recordings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565.

paragraph: BULLET::::- César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E Major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor.

paragraph: Section::::Portrayals.

paragraph: Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include:

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1952 biographical film "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1957 biographical film "Albert Schweitzer" in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1962 TV remake of "Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer", with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1990 biographical film "The Light in the Jungle", with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- Two 1992 episodes of the television series "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles" ("German East Africa, December 1916" and "Congo, January 1917"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 1995 biographical film "Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné", with André Wilms as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 2006 TV biographical film "Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa", with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The 2009 biographical film "Albert Schweitzer – Ein Leben für Afrika", with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- . Fulltext scan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- . English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911. Fulltext scans (English): Vol. 1, Vol. 2.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (first printed in "Musik", vols 13 and 14 (5th year)).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization" and "Civilization and Ethics" ("The Philosophy of Civilization", Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, "The Philosophy of Civilization" (Prometheus Books, 1987),

paragraph: BULLET::::- translated as

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Afrikanische Geschichten" (Felix Meiner, Leipzig u. Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as "From My African Notebook" (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with Foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of peace activists

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Award-winning documentary about him

paragraph: BULLET::::- Albert Schweitzer info at Internet Archive

paragraph: BULLET::::- Albert Schweitzer Papers at Syracuse University

paragraph: BULLET::::- John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Helfferich Collection, collected by Reginald H. Helfferich on Albert Schweitzer, is at the Andover-Harvard Theological Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

paragraph: BULLET::::- What Jesus was thinking An interpretation and restatement of Schweitzer's last book, The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity

description: French-German physician, theologian, musician and philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Albert Schweitzer

wikidata_label: Albert Schweitzer

wikipedia_title: Albert Schweitzer


text: Russia

text: Joseph Stalin

text: Sergey Yesenin

text: Vsevolod Meyerhold

text: NKVD

text: Odessa

text: linguist

text: archaeologist

text: sailor

text: railroad engineer

text: Roman Catholic

text: Orthodox Christianity

text: social democrat

text: Russian Revolution of 1905

text: Bendery

text: gymnasium

text: Kiev

text: Socialist-Revolutionary Party

text: Sergey Yesenin

text: Sergey Yesenin

text: White Sea

text: Vologda

text: Oryol

text: People's Commissariat for Food

text: Moscow

text: Tatiana

text: Anatoly Marienhof

text: Vsevolod Meyerhold

text: biomechanics

text: Igor Ilyinsky

text: Stalin

text: avant-garde

text: Constantin Stanislavski

text: exsanguination

text: NKVD

text: Arkadiy Vaksberg

text: Beria

text: Vagankovo Cemetery

text: Lavrenti Beria

text: Tatiana

text: Konstantin

text: journalist

text: statistician

categories: People from Odessa,1939 deaths,Russian-German people,Great Purge victims from Ukraine,Unsolved murders in the Soviet Union,Soviet stage actresses,Deaths by stabbing in Russia,1894 births,Burials at Vagankovo Cemetery

paragraph: Zinaida Reich

paragraph: Zinaida Nikolayevna Reich (the last name also spelled Raikh or Raih; ; – 15 July 1939) was a Russian actress and became one of the main stars of the Meyerhold Theatre until it was closed under Joseph Stalin.

paragraph: Reich married poet Sergey Yesenin and had two children with him. After their divorce, she married the director Vsevolod Meyerhold. In 1939 Meyerhold was arrested by the NKVD, and she was brutally stabbed in her apartment by NKVD agents who staged a robbery

paragraph: Section::::Family and early years.

paragraph: Zinaida Nikolayevna Reich was born in the village of Blizhniye Melnitsy near Odessa.

paragraph: Her mother was Anna Ivanovna Viktorova, a Russian noblewoman and niece of a notable Russian linguist and archaeologist, Alexey Viktorov (). Her father was of German descent, Augustus Reich, who worked as a sailor and a railroad engineer. In order to marry Anna, Augustus Reich (originally a Roman Catholic) accepted Orthodox Christianity and was baptised as Nikolay Andreyevich Reich. Augustus Reich was an early social democrat and had been twice politically exiled to the North of Russia prior to meeting Anna. As he continued his activity, during the Russian Revolution of 1905, the family was exiled from Odessa to Bendery.

paragraph: Zinaida Reich studied in a gymnasium in Bendery but was expelled for her political activities before completing the eighth (last) grade. She enrolled in the Kiev Higher Education Courses for Women, and in 1913 she became a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party.

paragraph: She worked as a technical editor for "Delo Naroda" (People's Cause), a newspaper of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. There she met the poet Sergey Yesenin, who at that time was influenced by the Party. Yesenin settled in Saint Petersburg in March 1917.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage to Sergey Yesenin.

paragraph: In spring 1917 Reich met Sergey Yesenin. The young people fell in love. They traveled to the White Sea and Russian North and got married in Kiriko-Ulitovskaya Church near Vologda on 4 August 1917. After the wedding, the couple moved to Oryol, where her parents lived.

paragraph: In September 1917 the couple returned to Saint Petersburg, where Reich worked for the People's Commissariat for Food (NarkomProd). In 1918 the People's Commissariat moved to Moscow and so did the couple. As Zinaida was pregnant, she moved to be with her parents in Oryol while Yesenin continued his literary career in Moscow.

paragraph: Reich returned to Moscow when their daughter, Tatiana, was one year old, but she and Yesenin quarreled. In February 1920 Reich gave birth to their son Konstantin, but the couple continued to live separately. At that time Reich lived in a shelter for mothers with infants. On 5 October 1921 Zinaida Reich and Sergey Yesenin were officially divorced.

paragraph: The story of the couple is known from the memoir "Novel without Lies" (1926) (Роман без вранья) written by Yesenin's close friend, room-mate and allegedly homosexual lover Anatoly Marienhof. Marienhof described Reich as a "crummy Jewish dame with fleshy lips on a face round as a dinner-plate". He wrote that Yesenin allegedly was upset when he saw his black-haired son, Konstantin. "No Yesenin had ever been black-haired", he allegedly said. Reich had dark hair, which is genetically dominant over light hair. Historians have doubted that Marienhof's description of Reich is accurate. She was of German-Russian ancestry and Russian Orthodox by faith.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage to Meyerhold.

paragraph: Reich studied at the "State Experimental Theatre Workshops," headed by famous theatrical director Vsevolod Meyerhold. Meyerhold was 20 years older than she; at the time he had been married for 25 years to his wife Olga and had three daughters with her. He ended up getting a divorce, and Reich and Meyerhold married in 1922.

paragraph: Yesenin and Reich had a relationship after her second marriage. The poet often broke into the house of Meyerholds demanding to see his former wife and children. Reich and Yesenin met secretly in her friend's apartment. Yesenin committed suicide on 23 December 1925.

paragraph: Section::::Star of Meyerhold Theater.

paragraph: Reich worked as an actress and was featured as a star of the Meyerhold Theatre from 1923 until her death in 1939. According to the theatre critic N. Volkov:The works of Vsevolod Meyerhold of the 1920s and 1930s cannot be understood without Zinaida Reich ... In all his productions, Meyerhold was building 'mise en scenes' to feature Zinaida Reich ... If he was afraid that Zinaida would not manage her part, he would create beneficial 'mise en scenes' for her... Together with Meyerhold, Reich traveled his creative path: from experiments in biomechanics to deeper psychologism".).

paragraph: Meyerhold took the family name Meyerhold-Reich as a sign of their partnership.

paragraph: Not everyone accepted that a young actress with no experience had become the star of the famous theatre. According to Anatoly Marienhof, when Meyerhold had suggested that he would make Reich a great actress, Marienhof said he might as well invent electric lamps. Marienhof wrote that one needed no talent to become a famous actress – only Meyerhold as the husband and idiots as the public. The actor Igor Ilyinsky was so upset that Reich received all the major roles that he left the Meyerhold Theater. Later, he revised his opinion of her acting talent and appreciated her.

paragraph: Section::::Murder.

paragraph: In the early 1930s, as Stalin repressed all avant-garde art and experimentation, the government declared Meyerhold's work as antagonistic and alien to the Soviet people. His theatre was closed down in January 1938. The ailing Constantin Stanislavski, then the director of an opera theatre (now known as Stanislavsky and Nemirovich-Danchenko Music Theatre), invited Meyerhold to lead his company.

paragraph: Stanislavski died in August 1938. Meyerhold directed his theatre for nearly a year until he was arrested in Leningrad on June 20, 1939. Twenty-five days later, his wife Zinaida Reich was found dying in their Moscow apartment on 15 July 1939. Two unknown assailants broke into the Reich-Meyerhold apartment during the night of 14–15 July. They stabbed her 17 times, including through the eyes. She died of exsanguination early the next morning, 15 July. Reich had sent both her children out of the apartment that night, and nothing was taken from the apartment. The murder is generally regarded as having been organized by the NKVD. According to Arkadiy Vaksberg, "Beria needed this sadistic farce" because the actress was extraordinary popular, independent, outspoken and known for saying: "if Stalin can make no sense of art, let him ask Meyerhold, and he will explain"

paragraph: Zinaida Reich was buried at Vagankovo Cemetery near the grave of her first husband, Sergey Yesenin. As Meyerhold was executed by the NKVD on 2 February 1940 after a confession from torture, the location of his remains is not known. Supporters erected a memorial to him at Reich's gravesite.

paragraph: Her Moscow apartment was given to the chauffeur of Lavrenti Beria who just became the head of the NKVD. Since the end of the Soviet Union, the whole apartment has been restored. It is now maintained and operated as the "Meyerhold Museum".

paragraph: Reich's daughter, Tatiana (1918–92), became a notable writer. Her son Konstantin (1920–86) became a journalist and a prominent football statistician.

description: Russian actress

wikidata_label: Zinaida Reich

wikipedia_title: Zinaida Reich