text: early German

text: Protestant

text: Reformed tradition

text: Strasbourg

text: Lutheran

text: Calvinist

text: Anglican

text: Dominican Order

text: Martin Luther

text: monastic vows

text: Reformation

text: Franz von Sickingen

text: Wissembourg

text: excommunication

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Matthew Zell

text: Wolfgang Capito

text: Caspar Hedio

text: Huldrych Zwingli

text: eucharist

text: Tetrapolitan Confession

text: Wittenberg Concord

text: Philipp Melanchthon

text: Catholics

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Charles V

text: Schmalkaldic War

text: Augsburg Interim

text: Thomas Cranmer

text: Book of Common Prayer

text: Cambridge, England

text: ecumenism

text: Holy Roman Empire

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Reformation

text: Electorate of Saxony

text: Martin Luther

text: Frederick III

text: John

text: John Frederick

text: Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse

text: Charles V

text: Ottoman Empire

text: free imperial cities

text: Strasbourg

text: humanist

text: artisan

text: Sélestat

text: Alsace

text: coopers

text: Latin school

text: Dominican Order

text: novice

text: acolyte

text: Strasbourg church

text: Williamites

text: friar

text: deacon

text: Heidelberg

text: dogmatics

text: Mainz

text: ordained

text: university

text: humanism

text: Johannes Froben

text: Erasmus

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: scholasticism

text: Johannes von Staupitz

text: Augustinians

text: Wittenberg

text: Martin Luther

text: Heidelberg Disputation

text: Beatus Rhenanus

text: Ninety-five Theses

text: baccalaureus

text: Jacob van Hoogstraaten

text: Grand Inquisitor

text: Cologne

text: Johann Reuchlin

text: Ulrich von Hutten

text: Imperial Knight

text: Franz von Sickingen

text: Wolfgang Capito

text: Ludwig V, Elector Palatine

text: Frederick

text: Nuremberg

text: Willibald Pirckheimer

text: Andreas Osiander

text: Landstuhl

text: Wissembourg

text: sola scriptura

text: Franciscan

text: Speyer

text: excommunicating

text: Knights' Revolt

text: Strasbourg

text: Zürich

text: Huldrych Zwingli

text: Matthew Zell

text: St Aurelia's Church

text: Caspar Hedio

text: Thomas Murner

text: satires

text: prior provincial

text: Augustinians

text: burghers

text: religious images

text: justification by faith

text: Mass

text: Catholic

text: monastic vows

text: veneration

text: purgatory

text: order of service

text: liturgical garments

text: altar

text: cathedral

text: collegiate church

text: St. Thomas

text: Young St Peter

text: Old St Peter

text: eucharist

text: real presence

text: present by the Holy Spirit

text: exegetical

text: Johannes Bugenhagen

text: sacramental union

text: treatise

text: impanation

text: Bern

text: Marburg Colloquy

text: Philip of Hesse

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Charles V

text: Diet of Augsburg

text: Philipp Melanchthon

text: Augsburg Confession

text: Tetrapolitan Confession

text: Konstanz

text: Memmingen

text: Lindau

text: Basel

text: Coburg

text: Ulm

text: Isny

text: Schmalkaldic League

text: Jakob Sturm

text: Elector of Saxony

text: apocalyptic

text: Anabaptists

text: Melchior Hoffman

text: Caspar Schwenckfeld

text: Clemens Ziegler

text: synod

text: Church of the Penitent Magdalens

text: Münster Rebellion

text: Kassel

text: Eisenach

text: Heinrich Bullinger

text: First Helvetic Confession

text: Johannes Bugenhagen

text: Wittenberg Concord

text: John Calvin

text: Geneva

text: bigamous

text: lady-in-waiting

text: Georg of Saxony

text: colloquy

text: Leipzig

text: Electorate of Saxony

text: Georg Witzel

text: ecumenical

text: Truce of Frankfurt

text: sola fide

text: Haguenau

text: Worms

text: Nicholas Perrenot de Granvelle

text: Johannes Gropper

text: Cologne

text: Hermann von Wied

text: private masses

text: auricular confession

text: transubstantiation

text: Joachim II, Elector of Brandenburg

text: Diet of Regensburg

text: Johannes Eck

text: Julius Pflug

text: Johann Pistorius

text: papal legate

text: Gasparo Contarini

text: magisterium

text: plague

text: Wibrandis Rosenblatt

text: Johannes Oecolampadius

text: Hermann von Wied

text: territorial diet

text: Bonn

text: cathedral chapter

text: Bonn cathedral

text: Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg

text: University of Cologne

text: Schmalkaldic War

text: Battle of Mühlberg

text: Paul Fagius

text: Johannes Marbach

text: Diet of Augsburg

text: Augsburg Interim

text: Thomas Cranmer

text: English Reformation

text: Edward VI

text: Regius Professor of Divinity

text: University of Cambridge

text: Peter Martyr

text: Oxford University

text: John Hooper

text: bishop of Gloucester

text: vestments controversy

text: Jan Laski

text: Stranger church

text: Tower of London

text: John Cheke

text: deacons

text: Book of Common Prayer

text: liturgical calendar

text: piety

text: genuflections

text: Walter Haddon

text: Matthew Parker

text: Great St Mary's

text: Cambridge

text: Mary I

text: Elizabeth I

text: Reformed churches

text: Anglicans

text: Puritans

text: Lutherans

text: Calvinists

text: ecumenism

text: Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce

text: Hochstratus Ovans

text: Bucer Research Office in Heidelberg

text: Bucer Research Office in Erlangen

text: Short biography of Martin Bucer

categories: People excommunicated by the Catholic Church,16th-century German writers,16th-century male writers,1491 births,16th-century German Protestant theologians,German Calvinist and Reformed theologians,16th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians,German Dominicans,1551 deaths,German Protestant Reformers,Academics of the University of Cambridge,People from Sélestat

paragraph: Martin Bucer

paragraph: Martin Bucer (early German: "Martin Butzer"; 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551) was a German Protestant reformer in the Reformed tradition based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican doctrines and practices. Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order, but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his monastic vows to be annulled. He then began to work for the Reformation, with the support of Franz von Sickingen.

paragraph: Bucer's efforts to reform the church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church, and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg. There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell, Wolfgang Capito, and Caspar Hedio. He acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers, Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli, who differed on the doctrine of the eucharist. Later, Bucer sought agreement on common articles of faith such as the Tetrapolitan Confession and the Wittenberg Concord, working closely with Philipp Melanchthon on the latter.

paragraph: Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation. Through a series of conferences organised by Charles V, he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome. He did not achieve this, as political events led to the Schmalkaldic War and the retreat of Protestantism within the Empire. In 1548, Bucer was persuaded, under duress, to sign the Augsburg Interim, which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship. However, he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim, and forced him to leave.

paragraph: In 1549, Bucer was exiled to England, where, under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer, he was able to influence the second revision of the "Book of Common Prayer". He died in Cambridge, England, at the age of 59. Although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination, many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own. He is remembered as an early pioneer of ecumenism.

paragraph: Section::::Historical context.

paragraph: In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Empire was a centralised state in name only. The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a powerful check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor. The division of power between the emperor and the various states made the Reformation in Germany possible, as individual states defended reformers within their territories. In the Electorate of Saxony, Martin Luther was supported by the elector Frederick III and his successors John and John Frederick. Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse—whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine—also supported the Reformation, and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer. The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects. At the same time, he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy. The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the ecclesiastical developments within the Empire.

paragraph: In addition to the princely states, free imperial cities, nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments, were scattered throughout the Empire. As the Reformation took root, clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates. It was in a free imperial city, Strasbourg, that Martin Bucer began his work. Located on the western frontier of the Empire, Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke. Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism, in which humanist social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role. Along with a group of free imperial cities in the south and west of the German lands, Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation. It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen. In Bucer's time, social unrest was growing as lower-level artisans resented their social immobility and the widening income gap. The citizens may not have planned revolution, but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives.

paragraph: Section::::Early years (1491–1523).

paragraph: Martin Bucer was born in Sélestat (Schlettstadt), Alsace, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. His father and grandfather, both named Claus Butzer, were coopers (barrelmakers) by trade. Almost nothing is known about Bucer's mother. Bucer likely attended Sélestat's prestigious Latin school, where artisans sent their children. He completed his studies in the summer of 1507 and joined the Dominican Order as a novice. Bucer later claimed his grandfather had forced him into the order. After a year, he was consecrated as an acolyte in the Strasbourg church of the Williamites, and he took his vows as a full Dominican friar. In 1510, he was ordained as a deacon.

paragraph: By 1515, Bucer was studying theology in the Dominican monastery in Heidelberg. The following year, he took a course in dogmatics in Mainz, where he was ordained a priest, returning to Heidelberg in January 1517 to enroll in the university. Around this time, he became influenced by humanism, and he started buying books published by Johannes Froben, some by the great humanist Erasmus. A 1518 inventory of Bucer's books includes the major works of Thomas Aquinas, leader of medieval scholasticism in the Dominican order.

paragraph: In April 1518, Johannes von Staupitz, the vicar-general of the Augustinians, invited the Wittenberg reformer Martin Luther to argue his theology at the Heidelberg Disputation. Here Bucer met Luther for the first time. In a long letter to his mentor, Beatus Rhenanus, Bucer recounted what he learned, and he commented on several of Luther's "Ninety-five Theses". He largely agreed with them and perceived the ideas of Luther and Erasmus to be in concordance. Because meeting Luther posed certain risks, he asked Rhenanus to ensure his letter did not fall into the wrong hands. He also wrote his will, which contains the inventory of his books. In early 1519, Bucer received the "baccalaureus" degree, and that summer he stated his theological views in a disputation before the faculty at Heidelberg, revealing his break with Aquinas and scholasticism.

paragraph: The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers. A fellow Dominican, Jacob van Hoogstraaten, the Grand Inquisitor of Cologne, tried to prosecute Johann Reuchlin, a humanist scholar. Other humanists, including the nobles Ulrich von Hutten and Imperial Knight Franz von Sickingen, took Reuchlin's side. Hoogstraten was thwarted, but he now planned to target Bucer. On 11 November 1520, Bucer told the reformer Wolfgang Capito in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as a follower of Luther. To escape Dominican jurisdiction, Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows. Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows, and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican order.

paragraph: For the next two years, Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten. He also worked for a time at the court of Ludwig V, Elector Palatine, as chaplain to Ludwig's younger brother Frederick. Sickingen was a senior figure at Ludwig's court. This appointment enabled Bucer to live in Nuremberg, the most powerful city of the Empire, whose governing officials were strongly reformist. There he met many people who shared his viewpoint, including the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer and the future Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander. In September 1521, Bucer accepted Sickingen's offer of the position of pastor at Landstuhl, where Sickingen had a castle, and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522. In summer 1522, he met and married Elisabeth Silbereisen, a former nun.

paragraph: Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg. On his way, Bucer stopped in the town of Wissembourg, whose leading reformer, Heinrich Motherer, asked him to become his chaplain. Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately, preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders. On the basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation ("sola scriptura"), he preached that the Mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ, but rather the reception of God's gift of salvation through Christ. He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible. He summarised his convictions in six theses, and called for a public disputation. His opponents, the local Franciscans and Dominicans, ignored him, but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town's monasteries. The bishop of Speyer reacted by excommunicating Bucer, and although the town council continued to support him, events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger. His leading benefactor, Franz von Sickingen, was defeated and killed during the Knights' Revolt, and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive. The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave, and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg.

paragraph: Section::::Reformer in Strasbourg (1523–1525).

paragraph: Bucer, excommunicated and without means of subsistence, was in a precarious situation when he arrived in Strasbourg. He was not a citizen of the city, a status that afforded protection, and on 9 June 1523 he wrote an urgent letter to the Zürich reformer, Huldrych Zwingli, pleading for a safe post in Switzerland. Fortunately for Bucer, the Strasbourg council was under the influence of the reformer, Matthew Zell; during Bucer's first few months in the city he worked as Zell's unofficial chaplain and was able to give classes on books of the Bible. The largest guild in Strasbourg, the "Gärtner" or Gardeners, appointed him as the pastor of St Aurelia's Church on 24 August 1523. A month later the council accepted his application for citizenship.

paragraph: In Strasbourg, Bucer joined a team of notable reformers: Zell, who took the role of the preacher to the masses; Wolfgang Capito, the most influential theologian in the city; and Caspar Hedio, the cathedral preacher. One of Bucer's first actions in the cause of reform was to debate with Thomas Murner, a monk who had attacked Luther in satires. While the city council vacillated on religious issues, the number of people supporting the Reformation and hostile towards the traditional clergy had grown.

paragraph: The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger, the prior provincial of the Augustinians, denounced the reformist preachers and the burghers of Strasbourg as heretics. On 5 September 1524, angry mobs broke into the monasteries, looting and destroying religious images. Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested, including Treger. After the council requested an official statement from the reformers, Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation, including justification by faith ("sola fide"). He rejected the Mass and Catholic concepts such as monastic vows, veneration of saints, and purgatory. He refused to recognise the authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government. Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg. With his departure, overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city.

paragraph: The reformers' first goal was the creation of a new order of service—at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli's liturgy. They presented proposals for a common order of service for the entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich. In Bucer's book "Grund und Ursach" (Basis and Cause), published in December 1524, he attacked the idea of the Mass as a sacrifice, and rejected liturgical garments, the altar, and certain forms of ritual. It was also this publication that acknowledged the introduction of congregational German hymn singing in the city. (Only his preface to the 1541 "Gesangbuch" surpassed it in terms of musical significance.) By May 1525, liturgical reforms had been implemented in Strasbourg's parish churches, but the city council decided to allow masses to continue in the cathedral and in the collegiate churches St. Thomas, Young St Peter, and Old St Peter.

paragraph: Section::::Dialogue with Luther and Zwingli (1524–1530).

paragraph: Beginning in 1524, Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers, the eucharist. In this dispute, he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Luther believed in a corporeal or physical real presence of Christ; and Zwingli believed Christ's body and blood where made present by the Holy Spirit. By late 1524, Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and, after some exegetical studies, accepted Zwingli's interpretation. However, he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ, other matters being secondary. In this respect he differed from Zwingli.

paragraph: In March 1526, Bucer published "Apologia", defending his views. He proposed a formula that he hoped would satisfy both sides: different understandings of scripture were acceptable, and church unity was assured so long as both sides had a "child-like faith in God". Bucer stated that his and Zwingli's interpretation on the eucharist was the correct one, but while he considered the Wittenberg theologians to be in error, he accepted them as brethren as they agreed on the fundamentals of faith. He also published two translations of works by Luther and Johannes Bugenhagen, interpolating his own interpretation of the Lord's Supper into the text. This outraged the Wittenberg theologians and damaged their relations with Bucer. In 1528, when Luther published , detailing Luther's concept of the sacramental union, Bucer responded with a treatise of his own, . It took the form of a dialogue between two merchants, one from Nuremberg who supported Luther and the other from Strasbourg who supported Bucer, with the latter winning over his opponent. Bucer noted that as Luther had rejected impanation, the idea that Christ was "made into bread", there was no disagreement between Luther and Zwingli; both believed in a spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist. Luther harshly rejected Bucer's interpretation.

paragraph: During this time, Bucer and Zwingli remained in close touch, discussing other aspects of theology and practice such as the use of religious images and the liturgy. Bucer did not hesitate to disagree with Zwingli on occasion, although unity between Strasbourg and the Swiss churches took priority over such differences. In 1527, Bucer and Capito attended a disputation in Bern to decide whether the city should accept reformed doctrines and practices. Bucer provided strong support for Zwingli's leading role in the disputation, which finally brought the Reformation to Bern.

paragraph: The last meeting between Zwingli and Luther was at the Marburg Colloquy of October 1529, organised by Philip of Hesse and attended by various leading reformers, including Bucer. Luther and Zwingli agreed on 13 of the 14 topics discussed, but Zwingli did not accept the doctrine of the real presence, on which Luther would not compromise. After the discussion broke down between the two, Bucer tried to salvage the situation, but Luther noted, "It is obvious that we do not have one and the same spirit." The meeting ended in failure. The following year, Bucer wrote of his disappointment at doctrinal inflexibility:

paragraph: Section::::Competing Protestant confessions (1530–1533).

paragraph: The extent of the theological division among the reformers became evident when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V asked them to present their views to him in 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg. Philipp Melanchthon, the main delegate from Wittenberg, quickly prepared the draft that eventually became the Augsburg Confession. The Wittenberg theologians rejected attempts by Strasbourg to adopt it without the article on the Lord's Supper. In response, Bucer wrote a new confession, the "Confessio Tetrapolitana" (Tetrapolitan Confession), so named because only four cities adopted it, Strasbourg and three other southern German cities, Konstanz, Memmingen, and Lindau. A copy of Melanchthon's draft was used as the starting point and the only major change was the wording on the article on the eucharist. According to Eells, the article on the eucharist in the Tetrapolitan Confession stated, "In this sacrament his true body and true blood are truly given to eat and drink, as food for their souls, and to eternal life, that they may remain in him and he in them". The ambiguous word "truly" was not defined.

paragraph: Charles, however, decreed on 22 September that all reformers must reconcile with the Catholic faith, or he would use military force to suppress them. This prompted Melanchthon to call a meeting with Bucer and after lengthy discussions they agreed on nine theses, which they sent to Luther and to Strasbourg. The Strasbourg magistrates forwarded them to Basel and Zürich. Bucer met Luther in Coburg on 26–28 September. Luther still rejected Bucer's theses, but he encouraged him to continue the search for unity. Bucer then traveled to several southern German cities, including Ulm, Isny, Konstanz, Memmingen, and Lindau, and to the Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich. In Zurich on 12 October, he presented the articles to Zwingli, who neither opposed him nor agreed with him.

paragraph: In February 1531, the evangelical princes and cities of the empire set up the Protestant Schmalkaldic League to defend the reformed religion. Strasbourg's Jakob Sturm negotiated the city's inclusion on the basis of the Tetrapolitan Confession. By this time, Bucer's relationship with Zwingli was deteriorating. Strasbourg's political ties with the Elector of Saxony, and Bucer's partial theological support of Luther, became too much for Zwingli, and on 21 February 1531, he wrote to Bucer ending their friendship. When representatives of the southern German cities convened in Ulm on 23–24 March 1532 to discuss their alliance with the Schmalkaldic League, Bucer advised them to sign the Augsburg Confession, if they were being pressured to do so. For Bucer to recommend the rival confession over his own version surprised the Swiss cities. Luther continued his polemical attacks on Bucer, but Bucer was unperturbed: "In any case, we must seek unity and love in our relationships with everyone," he wrote, "regardless of how they behave toward us." In April and May 1533, he again toured the southern German cities and Swiss cities. The latter remained unconvinced and did not join the Protestant alliance.

paragraph: Section::::Organising the Strasbourg church (1529–1534).

paragraph: While these events unfolded, the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress. Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded. On 20 February 1529, Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended. In its place, two preaching services ("Predigtgottesdienste") per Sunday were held in all the parish churches. On 5 January 1530, when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities, the , the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches. Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated. He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse, and he advocated in a treatise for their orderly removal. First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained, and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images.

paragraph: Bucer's priority in Strasbourg was to instill moral discipline in the church. To this end, special wardens ("Kirchenpfleger"), chosen from among the laity, were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice. His concerns were motivated by the effects of a rapidly rising refugee population, attracted by Strasbourg's tolerant asylum policies. Influxes of refugees, particularly after 1528, had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg. These men were inspired by a variety of apocalyptic and mystical doctrines, and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church. Significant numbers of refugees were Anabaptists and spiritualists, such as the followers of Melchior Hoffman, Caspar Schwenckfeld, and Clemens Ziegler. Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimize their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers. On 30 November 1532, the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards, officially sanction the reformed faith, and refute the "sectarian" doctrines. The ruling authorities, who had allowed sectarian congregations to thrive among the refugees and lower orders, would only expel the obvious troublemakers. Bucer insisted that the council urgently take control of all Christian worship in the city for the common good.

paragraph: In response to the petition, the council set up a commission that proposed a city synod. For this gathering, Bucer provided a draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine. The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the Church of the Penitent Magdalens to debate Bucer's text, eventually accepting it in full. Sectarian leaders were brought before the synod and questioned by Bucer. Ziegler was dismissed and allowed to stay in Strasbourg; Hoffmann was imprisoned as a danger to the state; and Schwenckfeld left Strasbourg of his own accord.

paragraph: Following the synod, the city council dragged its heels for several months. The synod commission, which included Bucer and Capito, decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church. It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church, with responsibility for supervising doctrine, appointing church wardens, and maintaining moral standards. Still the council delayed, driving the pastors to the brink of resignation. Only when Hoffman's followers seized power in Münster, in the Münster Rebellion, did the council act, fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg. On 4 March 1534, the council announced that Bucer's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith. All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave the city. The decision established a new church in Strasbourg, with Capito declaring, "Bucer is the bishop of our church."

paragraph: Section::::Champion of Protestant unity (1534–1538).

paragraph: By 1534, Bucer was a key figure in the German Reformation. He repeatedly led initiatives to secure doctrinal agreement between Wittenberg, the south German cities, and Switzerland. In December 1534, Bucer and Melanchthon held productive talks in Kassel, and Bucer then drafted ten theses that the Wittenberg theologians accepted. In October 1535, Luther suggested a meeting in Eisenach to conclude a full agreement among the Protestant factions. Bucer persuaded the south Germans to attend, but the Swiss, led by Zwingli's successor Heinrich Bullinger, were skeptical of his intentions. Instead they met in Basel on 1 February 1536 to draft their own confession of faith. Bucer and Capito attended and urged the Swiss to adopt a compromise wording on the eucharist that would not offend the Lutherans. The true presence of Christ was acknowledged while a natural or local union between Christ and the elements was denied. The result was the First Helvetic Confession, the success of which raised Bucer's hopes for the upcoming meeting with Luther.

paragraph: The meeting, moved to Wittenberg because Luther was ill, began on 21 May 1536. To the surprise of the south Germans, Luther began by attacking them, demanding that they recant their false understanding of the eucharist. Capito intervened to calm matters, and Bucer claimed that Luther had misunderstood their views on the issue. The Lutherans insisted that unbelievers who partake of the eucharist truly receive the body and blood of Christ. Bucer and the south Germans believed that they receive only the elements of the bread and the wine. Johannes Bugenhagen formulated a compromise, approved by Luther, that distinguished between the unworthy ("indigni") and the unbelievers ("impii"). The south Germans accepted that the unworthy receive Christ, and the question of what unbelievers receive was left unanswered. The two sides then worked fruitfully on other issues and on 28 May signed the Wittenberg Concord. Strasbourg quickly endorsed the document, but much coaxing from Bucer was required before he managed to convince all the south German cities. The Swiss cities were resistant, Zürich in particular. They rejected even a mild statement suggesting a union of Christ with the elements of the eucharist. Bucer advised the Swiss to hold a national synod to decide on the matter, hoping he could at least persuade Bern and Basel. The synod met in Zürich from 28 May to 4 April 1538, but Bucer failed to win over a single city. The Swiss never accepted or rejected the Wittenberg Concord.

paragraph: Bucer's influence on the Swiss was eventually felt indirectly. In summer 1538, he invited John Calvin, the future reformer of Geneva, to lead a French refugee congregation in Strasbourg. Bucer and Calvin had much in common theologically and maintained a long friendship. The extent to which Bucer influenced Calvin is an open question among modern scholars, but many of the reforms that Calvin later implemented in Geneva, including the liturgy and the church organisation, were originally developed in Strasbourg.

paragraph: Section::::Advice to Philip of Hesse (1538–1539).

paragraph: When Philip of Hesse's law on the protection of the Jews in his territory expired in 1538, he commissioned Bucer to create a new policy. Philip gave him a draft that was tolerant in the regulation of their affairs. Bucer rejected the favourable conditions and recommended that Jews be prohibited from all trades except those providing minimum subsistence. His "Judenratschlag" also included his first use of negative stereotypes of the Jews. Philip's ordinance of 1539 represented a compromise. He allowed the Jews to engage in trade and commerce but included strict rules on their association with Christians. The potential for an arbitrary enforcement of the new policy was frightening, and as a result many Jews chose to leave Hesse. For this Bucer must share part of the blame.

paragraph: In November 1539, Philip asked Bucer to produce a theological defence of bigamy, since he had decided to contract a bigamous marriage. Bucer reluctantly agreed, on condition the marriage be kept secret. Bucer consulted Luther and Melanchthon, and the three reformers presented Philip with a statement of advice ("Wittenberger Ratschlag"); later, Bucer produced his own arguments for and against bigamy. Although the document specified that bigamy could be sanctioned only under rare conditions, Philip took it as approval for his marriage to a lady-in-waiting of his sister. When rumours of the marriage spread, Luther told Philip to deny it, while Bucer advised him to hide his second wife and conceal the truth. Some scholars have noted a possible motivation for this notorious advice: the theologians believed they had advised Philip as a pastor would his parishioner, and that a lie was justified to guard the privacy of their confessional counsel. The scandal that followed the marriage caused Philip to lose political influence, and the Reformation within the Empire was severely compromised.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrinal issues (1539–1542).

paragraph: At the end of 1538, shortly before the Catholic Duke Georg of Saxony died, a religious colloquy was convened in Leipzig to discuss potential reforms within the Duchy. The Electorate of Saxony sent Melanchthon, and Philip of Hesse sent Bucer. The Duchy itself was represented by Georg Witzel, a former Lutheran who had reconverted to Catholicism. In discussions from 2 to 7 January 1539, Bucer and Witzel agreed to defer controversial points of doctrine, but Melanchthon withdrew, feeling that doctrinal unity was a prerequisite of a reform plan. Bucer and Witzel agreed on fifteen articles covering various issues of church life. Bucer, however, made no doctrinal concessions: he remained silent on critical matters such as the mass and the papacy. His ecumenical approach provoked harsh criticism from other reformers.

paragraph: In the Truce of Frankfurt of 1539, Charles and the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League agreed on a major colloquy to settle all religious issues within the Empire. Bucer placed great hopes on this meeting: he believed it would be possible to convince most German Catholics to accept the doctrine of "sola fide" as the basis for discussions on all other issues. Under various pseudonyms, he published tracts promoting a German national church. A conference in Haguenau began on 12 June 1540, but during a month's discussion the two sides failed to agree on a common starting point. They decided to reconvene in Worms. Melanchthon led the Protestants, with Bucer a major influence behind the scenes. When the colloquy again made no progress, the imperial chancellor, Nicholas Perrenot de Granvelle, called for secret negotiations. Bucer then began working with Johannes Gropper, a delegate of the archbishop of Cologne, Hermann von Wied. Aware of the risks of such apparent collusion, he was determined to forge unity among the German churches. The two agreed on twenty-three articles in which Bucer conceded some issues toward the Catholic position. These included justification, the sacraments, and the organisation of the church. Four disputed issues were left undecided: veneration of the saints, private masses, auricular confession, and transubstantiation. The results were published in the "Worms Book", which they confidentially presented to a prince on each side of the religious divide: Philip of Hesse and Joachim II, Elector of Brandenburg.

paragraph: The Worms Book laid the groundwork for final negotiations at the Diet of Regensburg in 1541. Charles created a small committee, consisting of Johannes Eck, Gropper, and Julius Pflug on the Catholic side and Melanchthon, Bucer, and Johann Pistorius on the Protestant side. The basis for discussion was the "Regensburg Book"—essentially the Worms Book with modifications by the papal legate, Gasparo Contarini, and other Catholic theologians. The two sides made a promising start, reaching agreement over the issue of justification by faith. But they could not agree on the teaching authority of the Church, the Protestants insisting it was the Bible, the Catholics the "magisterium"—in other words, the pope and his bishops. Into the article on the mass and the Lord's Supper, Contarini had inserted the concept of transubstantiation, which was also unacceptable to the Protestants. As a result, the colloquy became deadlocked. To salvage some of the agreements reached, Charles and Granvelle had the Regensburg Book reprinted with additional articles in which the Protestants were allowed to present their views. However, Luther in Wittenberg and the papal court in Rome had by this time seen the book, and they both publicly rejected the article on justification by faith. The failure of the conference was a major setback for Bucer.

paragraph: After Bucer's return from Regensburg, the city of Strasbourg was struck by the plague. First, Bucer's friend and colleague Wolfgang Capito succumbed to the disease; then Bucer's wife Elisabeth died on 16 November 1541. How many children Elisabeth had borne is unknown; several died during child-birth or at a young age. One son, Nathanael, although mentally and physically handicapped, survived to adulthood and remained with the Bucer family throughout his life. During Elisabeth's final hours, she urged Bucer to marry Capito's widow, Wibrandis Rosenblatt, after her death. He married Rosenblatt on 16 April 1542, as her fourth husband—she had outlived Ludwig Keller, Johannes Oecolampadius, and Wolfgang Capito. She brought with her four children from her previous marriages. The new couple produced a daughter, whom they named Elisabeth.

paragraph: Section::::Reform in the Electorate of Cologne (1542–1547).

paragraph: On 5 February 1542, Bucer and Gropper met with Hermann von Wied, archbishop-elector of Cologne, to discuss the introduction of church reform in his archdiocese. As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire, the archbishop of Cologne was a key political figure for both the emperor and the reformers. After consulting the territorial diet, the archbishop enlisted Bucer to lead the reform, and on 14 December Bucer moved to Bonn, the capital of the electorate. His selection caused consternation in the Cologne cathedral chapter, the clerics assisting the archbishop. The hostility of the clergy soon caused a rift between Bucer and Gropper. On 19 December, the chapter lodged a formal protest against Bucer's appointment, but von Wied supported his new protégé and Bucer was allowed to stay. He led a small congregation at Bonn cathedral, where he preached three times a week, although his main responsibility was to plan reform.

paragraph: In January 1543, Bucer began work on a major document for von Wied, . Melanchthon joined him in Bonn in May, and Caspar Hedio a month later, to help draft the document. At the beginning of July, Bucer discussed the draft with the archbishop, who, after studying it, submitted the document to the territorial diet on 23 July. Although the cathedral chapter flatly rejected it, the diet ruled in favour of the reform programme. The final document was over three hundred pages and covered a number of subjects on doctrine, church law, and liturgy. Some of the principles proposed include justification by faith, the acceptance of baptism and the Lord's Supper as the only valid sacraments, the offering of the cup to the laity, the holding of worship services in the vernacular, and the authorisation of priests to marry.

paragraph: These first steps toward reform were halted on 17 August 1543 when Charles V and his troops entered Bonn. The emperor was engaged in a harsh campaign to assert his claim over lands contested by Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Bucer was forced to return to Strasbourg shortly afterwards. When the anti-reformist Cologne cathedral chapter and the University of Cologne appealed to both emperor and pope for protection against their archbishop, Charles took their side. Bucer wrote several treatises defending von Wied's reformation plan, including a six-hundred-page book, "Beständige Verantwortung" (Steadfast Defence), but he was unable to influence the course of events. Von Wied was excommunicated on 16 April 1546, and he formally surrendered his electoral titles on 25 February 1547. Bucer's congregation in Bonn wrote to him in dismay at this disaster. Bucer reassured them that Christians who humble themselves before God eventually receive his protection.

paragraph: Section::::Rejecting the Augsburg Interim (1547–1549).

paragraph: With the onset of the Schmalkaldic War in 1546, Protestants began a gradual retreat within the Empire. On 21 March 1547, Strasbourg surrendered to the imperial army, and the following month the decisive imperial victory at the Battle of Mühlberg ended most Protestant resistance. In Strasbourg, Bucer and his colleagues, including Matthew Zell, Paul Fagius and Johannes Marbach, continued to press the council to bring more discipline and independence to the church. Charles V overruled their efforts at the Diet of Augsburg, which sat from September 1547 to May 1548. The Diet produced an imperial decree, the provisional Augsburg Interim, which imposed Catholic rites and ceremonies throughout the Empire, with a few concessions to the Reformation. To make the document acceptable to the Protestants, Charles needed a leading figure among the reformers to endorse it, and he selected Bucer.

paragraph: Bucer arrived in Augsburg on 30 March 1548 of his own volition. On 2 April, after he was shown the document, he announced his willingness to ratify it if certain changes were made; but the time for negotiations had passed, and Charles insisted on his signature. When he refused, he was placed under house arrest on 13 April, and shortly afterwards in close confinement. On 20 April, he signed the Interim and was immediately freed.

paragraph: Despite this capitulation, Bucer continued to fight. On his return to Strasbourg, he stepped up his attacks on Catholic rites and ceremonies, and on 2 July published the , a confessional statement calling on Strasbourg to repent and to defend reformed principles outlined in twenty-nine articles. Charles ordered all copies destroyed. Tension grew in Strasbourg, as Bucer's opponents feared he was leading the city to disaster. Many Strasbourg merchants left to avoid a potential clash with imperial forces. On 30 August, the guild officials voted overwhelmingly to begin negotiations to introduce the Interim. Bucer stood firm; even after the city of Konstanz surrendered and accepted the Interim, he called for Strasbourg to reject it unconditionally. In January 1549, with plans underway for the implementation of the Interim in Strasbourg, Bucer and his colleagues continued to attack it, producing a memorandum on how to preserve the Protestant faith under its directives. With no significant support left, Bucer and Fagius were finally relieved of their positions and dismissed on 1 March 1549. Bucer left Strasbourg on 5 April a refugee, as he had arrived twenty-five years earlier.

paragraph: Section::::Exile in England (1549–1551).

paragraph: Bucer received several offers of sanctuary, including Melanchthon's from Wittenberg and Calvin's from Geneva. He accepted Archbishop Thomas Cranmer's invitation to come to England; from his correspondence with several notable Englishmen, he believed that the English Reformation had advanced with some success. On 25 April 1549 Bucer, Fagius, and others arrived in London, where Cranmer received them with full honours. A few days later, Bucer and Fagius were introduced to Edward VI and his court. Bucer's wife Wibrandis and his stepdaughter Agnes Capito (daughter of Wolfgang Capito) joined him in September. The following year, Wibrandis arranged for the rest of her children and her elderly mother to come to England.

paragraph: Bucer took the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Cambridge. In June he entered a controversy when Peter Martyr, another refugee who had taken the equivalent Regius Professor position at Oxford University, debated with Catholic colleagues over the issue of the Lord's Supper. Martyr asked Bucer for his support, but Bucer did not totally agree with Martyr's position and thought that exposure of differences would not assist the cause of reform. Unwilling to see the eucharist conflict repeat itself in England, he told Martyr he did not take sides, Catholic, Lutheran, or Zwinglian. He said, "We must aspire with the utmost zeal to edify as many people as we possibly can in faith and in the love of Christ—and to offend no one."

paragraph: In 1550, another conflict arose when John Hooper, the new bishop of Gloucester, refused to don the traditional vestments for his consecration. The vestments controversy pitted Cranmer, who supported the wearing of clerical garments, against Hooper, Martyr and Jan Laski, the pastor of the Stranger church in London. As it was known that Bucer had reformed the church services in Strasbourg to emulate the simplicity of the early church, Hooper expected Bucer's support. However, Bucer tried to stay out of the fray, arguing that there were more important issues to deal with—lack of pastors and pastoral care, the need for catechismal instruction, and the implementation of church discipline. Hooper refused to be swayed, and was imprisoned in the Tower of London until he accepted Cranmer's demand.

paragraph: Bucer had ambitious goals in diffusing the Reformation throughout England. He was disappointed, therefore, when those in power failed to consult him in bringing about change. On learning about the custom of presenting a memorandum to the king every new year, he worked on a major treatise which he gave as a draft to his friend John Cheke on 21 October 1550. The was the culmination of Bucer's many years of experience, a summary of his thought and theology that he described as his legacy. In it he urged Edward VI to take control of the English Reformation, and proposed that Parliament introduce fourteen laws of reform, covering both ecclesiastical and civil matters. In his view the Reformation was not only concerned with the church, but in all areas of life. Noting the difficult social conditions in England, he promoted the role of deacons to care for the poor and needy. He described marriage as a social contract rather than a sacrament, hence he permitted divorce, a modern idea that was considered too advanced for its time. He advocated the restructuring of economic and administrative systems with suggestions for improving industry, agriculture, and education. His ideal society was distinctively authoritarian, with a strong emphasis on Christian discipline. The "De Regno Christi" was never to be the charter of the English Reformation that Bucer intended: it was finally printed not in England but in Basel, in 1557.

paragraph: Bucer's last major contribution to the English Reformation was a treatise on the original 1549 edition of the "Book of Common Prayer". Cranmer had requested his opinion on how the book should be revised, and Bucer submitted his response on 5 January 1551. He called for the simplification of the liturgy, noting non-essential elements: certain holidays in the liturgical calendar, actions of piety such as genuflections, and ceremonies such as private masses. He focused on the congregation and how the people would worship and be taught. How far Bucer's critique influenced the 1552 second edition of the Prayer Book is unknown. Scholars agree that although Bucer's impact on the Church of England should not be overestimated, he exercised his greatest influence on the revision of the Prayer Book.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Bucer's time in England was dogged by illnesses, including rheumatism, coughs, and intestinal ailments. Symptoms such as vomiting, shivering, and sweating suggest severe tuberculosis. In February 1551, his health finally broke down, and on the 22nd he dictated an addition to his will. He named Walter Haddon and Matthew Parker as executors, commended his loved ones to Thomas Cranmer, and thanked his stepdaughter Agnes Capito for taking care of him. On 28 February, after encouraging those near him to do all they could to realise his vision as expressed in "De Regno Christi", he died at the age of 59. He was buried in the church of Great St Mary's in Cambridge before a large crowd of university professors and students.

paragraph: In a letter to Peter Martyr, John Cheke wrote a fitting eulogy:

paragraph: Bucer left his wife Wibrandis a significant inheritance consisting mainly of the household and his large collection of books. She eventually returned to Basel, where she died on 1 November 1564 at the age of 60.

paragraph: When Mary I came to the throne, she had Bucer and Fagius tried posthumously for heresy as part of her efforts to restore Catholicism in England. Their caskets were disinterred and their remains burned, along with copies of their books. On 22 July 1560, Elizabeth I formally rehabilitated both reformers. A brass plaque on the floor of Great St Mary's marks the original location of Bucer's grave.

paragraph: After Bucer's death, his writings continued to be translated, reprinted, and disseminated throughout Europe. No "Buceran" denomination, however, emerged from his ministry, probably because he never developed a systematic theology as Melanchthon had for the Lutheran church and Calvin for the Reformed churches. Several groups, including Anglicans, Puritans, Lutherans, and Calvinists, claimed him as one of their own. The adaptability of his theology to each confessional point-of-view also led polemicists to criticise it as too accommodating. His theology could be best summarised as being practical and pastoral rather than theoretical. Bucer was not so concerned about staking a doctrinal claim "per se", but rather he took a standpoint in order to discuss and to win over his opponents. At the same time his theological stand was grounded in the conditions of his time where he envisioned the ideal society to be one that was led by an enlightened, God-centred government with all the people united under Christian fellowship. Martin Bucer is chiefly remembered for his promotion of doctrinal unity, or ecumenism, and his lifelong struggle to create an inclusive church.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Judgement of Martin Bucer Concerning Divorce

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hochstratus Ovans

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- . Translated from .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- . Translated from .

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- . Links to the digitised versions of the early editions of Bucer's works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bucer Research Office in Heidelberg

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bucer Research Office in Erlangen

paragraph: BULLET::::- Short biography of Martin Bucer

description: Protestant reformer

wikidata_label: Martin Bucer

wikipedia_title: Martin Bucer


text:
Dolný Kubín
Slovak
biathlete
1999
Biathlon World Championships

categories: Olympic biathletes of Slovakia,Biathlon World Championships medalists,Biathletes at the 2002 Winter Olympics,Biathletes at the 1998 Winter Olympics,Competitors at the 1999 Winter Universiade,Slovak female biathletes,Universiade medalists in biathlon,Biathletes at the 1994 Winter Olympics,1973 births,People from Dolný Kubín,Biathletes at the 2010 Winter Olympics,Competitors at the 2001 Winter Universiade,Biathletes at the 2006 Winter Olympics,Universiade silver medalists for Slovakia,Living people,Universiade gold medalists for Slovakia

paragraph: Martina Halinárová

paragraph: Martina Halinárová, née Jašicová, also known as Schwarzbacherová from her first marriage, (born 22 April 1973 in Dolný Kubín) is a Slovak biathlete.

paragraph: She won a silver medal at the 1999 Biathlon World Championships.

alias:
Martina Halinarova
Martina Schwarzbacherová
Martina Schwarzbacherova
Martina Jasicova
Martina Jašicová
Martina Jasiková

description: Slovak biathlete

wikidata_label: Martina Halinárová

wikipedia_title: Martina Halinárová


text: American football

text: running back

text: Miami Dolphins

text: American Football League

text: National Football League

text: World Football League

text: undefeated 1972 team

text: Don Shula

text: Super Bowl

text: fullback

text: Larry Csonka

text: Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

text: World Football League

text: Lincoln Park, New Jersey

text: football

text: baseball

text: basketball

text: Boonton High School

text: Morris County

text: defensive back

text: George

text: Hanover, Pennsylvania

text: Pittsburgh Steelers

text: college football

text: Wyoming

text: WAC

text: Most Valuable Player

text: Sun Bowl

text: Florida State

text: 1968 Sugar Bowl

text: LSU

text: Senior Bowl

text: College All-Star Game

text: Green Bay Packers

text: Chicago

text: NFL

text: quarterback

text: Norm Van Brocklin

text: AFL

text: Miami Dolphins

text: Draft

text: common draft

text: Mercury Morris

text: Super Bowl VII

text: Paul Hornung

text: Tom Matte

text: Frank Gifford

text: Jim Langer

text: AFL All-Star

text: touchdown

text: Nick Buoniconti

text: Paul Warfield

text: Bob Griese

text: Nick Buoniconti

text: Kansas City Chiefs

text: Cleveland Browns

text: Pittsburgh Steelers

text: Super Bowl

text: Super Bowl VI

text: Dallas Cowboys

text: Super Bowl VII

text: Washington Redskins

text: Super Bowl VIII

text: Minnesota Vikings

text: Miami Herald

text: Sports Illustrated

text: Walter Iooss

text: Dave Anderson

text: World Football League

text: Memphis Southmen

text: World Football League

text: Birmingham Vulcans

text: New York Giants

text: Bill Arnsparger

text: Denver Broncos

text: Super Bowl XII

text: Washington Redskins

text: Broward County

text: Fort Lauderdale

text: Allie Kiick

categories: Washington Redskins players,Memphis Southmen players,American Football League All-Star players,Super Bowl champions,American football running backs,Players of American football from New Jersey,Wyoming Cowboys football players,Miami Dolphins players,1946 births,Denver Broncos players,People from Lincoln Park, New Jersey,Living people

paragraph: Jim Kiick

paragraph: James Forrest Kiick (born August 9, 1946) is a former professional American football player, a running back for the Miami Dolphins in the American Football League (AFL) from 1968 to 1969 and in the National Football League (NFL) from 1970 through 1977, except for 1975 when he played in the World Football League.

paragraph: He was a member of the undefeated 1972 team, and was an integral part of the ball-control running game which characterized the Dolphins under head coach Don Shula in the early 1970s. Kiick played in three Super Bowls and is the Dolphins' fourth all-time leading rusher. He and fullback Larry Csonka were known as "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid," in 1973 co-wrote a book, "Always on the Run". They shocked the sports world in 1974 when they signed with the newly formed World Football League.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Born and raised in Lincoln Park, New Jersey, Kiick played football, baseball, and basketball at Boonton High School. He made the All-Morris County team, but as a defensive back, not as a running back, and graduated in 1964. His father, George, a native of Hanover, Pennsylvania, played in the NFL for the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1940 and 1945.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: After high school in New Jersey, Kiick went west and played college football at Wyoming from 1965 through 1967, and was the Cowboys' leading rusher each of those years. He totalled 1,714 yards and ten touchdowns on 431 carries, and 561 yards and five touchdowns on 52 pass receptions. He was the first player ever to earn first-team All-WAC honors three times. As a junior, he was named the Most Valuable Player in the 1966 Sun Bowl win over Florida State, rushing 25 times for 135 yards and two touchdowns, and catching four passes for 42 yards. Kiick was co-captain of the team as a senior and led undefeated Wyoming to the 1968 Sugar Bowl against LSU, where he rushed 19 times for 75 yards and a touchdown and caught five passes for 48 yards. Wyoming led 13–0 at halftime, but was outplayed in the second half and lost 20–13.

paragraph: Kiick played in the Senior Bowl, and was selected to play in the 1968 College All-Star Game against the Green Bay Packers in Chicago, where he first met Csonka. (In a foreshadowing of things to come, they went out drinking every night.) Csonka was named the All-Stars' Most Valuable Player, but Kiick never got into the game. He showed up at the All-Stars' training camp out of shape, and the All-Stars' coach, ex-NFL quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, decided Kiick had a bad attitude and benched him.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Dolphins.

paragraph: Kiick was selected by the AFL's Miami Dolphins in the fifth round (118th overall) of the 1968 Draft, the second year of pro football's common draft. Director of Player Personnel Joe Thomas said Kiick was drafted for his "quick feet." He signed a two-year, no-cut contract for $15,000 the first year, $17,000 the second year, plus a $7,000 bonus. He was the primary halfback for the next four years, and missed only one game in that period. Beginning with the 1972 season, he had to share halfback duties with other players, most notably Mercury Morris, as Shula decided a faster back would better complement Csonka. Kiick started only three of 14 regular season games in 1972 as he became primarily a short-yardage and goal-line specialist, although he did start Super Bowl VII at the end of the season.

paragraph: Although not blessed with breakaway speed, the , Kiick was a versatile player; in addition to being an effective inside power runner, he was also an excellent blocker and clutch pass receiver. He had over 1,000 yards combined rushing and receiving in each of his first four years. He was often compared to such well-known all-purpose backs as Paul Hornung, Tom Matte, and his boyhood idol, Frank Gifford. Teammate Jim Langer described him as "a very heady runner and receiver." He played hurt and rarely fumbled. Kiick once played with a broken toe, a broken finger, a hip pointer and a badly bruised elbow. He led the Dolphins in rushing in 1968 (621 yards) and 1969 (575 yards) and was selected for the AFL All-Star game both years. His nine rushing touchdowns in 1969 led the AFL, and his 1,155 total yards from scrimmage in 1970 led the AFC and ranked fifth in the NFL. In 1971, he had his best year as a runner, rushing for 738 yards and three touchdowns. He was the only player to rank in the top 15 in both receptions and rushing yardage in both 1970 and 1971. He led the Dolphins in receiving in 1970 and was second in 1968 and 1971.

paragraph: Wrote teammate Nick Buoniconti,

paragraph: Kiick negotiated a one-year $32,000 contract during the 1970 training camp after initially being offered $20,000. Kiick and Csonka didn't report to training camp in 1971 during contract negotiations. The Dolphins were offering each player less than $40,000 a year. After two weeks of negotiations, they ended up signing three-year contracts for about $60,000 a year, which was commensurate with what the other stars on the team, such as Paul Warfield, Bob Griese and Nick Buoniconti, were being paid. (They were also fined $2,800 apiece.)

paragraph: In the longest game in NFL history, the 27-24 double-overtime victory over the Kansas City Chiefs in the 1971 AFC playoffs, Kiick rushed 15 times for 56 yards and scored a touchdown. In the 1972 AFC playoff game against the Cleveland Browns, he rushed 14 times for 50 yards and scored the decisive touchdown. In the 1972 AFC championship game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, he rushed only eight times for 15 yards, but those 15 yards produced two touchdowns, including the decisive one.

paragraph: Kiick played in three consecutive Super Bowls with the Dolphins. In Super Bowl VI, he rushed 10 times for 40 yards, and caught three passes for 21 yards, but the Dolphins failed to score a touchdown and were trounced by the Dallas Cowboys, 24–3. In Super Bowl VII, he caught two passes for six yards, and rushed 12 times for 38 yards, scoring the decisive touchdown, a one-yard blast, as Miami defeated the Washington Redskins 14–7, completing their perfect 17-0 season. In Super Bowl VIII, he rushed seven times for ten yards and scored the second of Miami's three touchdowns, diving in headfirst from the one yard line (his only touchdown of the 1973 season). It was said by Kiick, "my specialty--the one-yard gallop." Miami dominated the Minnesota Vikings, 24–7.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Celebrity.

paragraph: Kiick and Csonka were roommates at training camp and on the road. Their hell-raising typically included consuming large quantities of alcohol. In 1969 sportswriter Bill Braucher of the Miami Herald, upon hearing of their exploits on and off the field, dubbed them "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" (Csonka was Sundance, Kiick was Butch). A TV film was made of their exploits, showing them riding horseback into the sunset on Miami Beach, and they even posed for a poster dressed in western garb.

paragraph: The "Sports Illustrated" issue of August 7, 1972, featured a profile of Kiick and Csonka. This issue has become a collector's item because of the cover photograph of Kiick and Csonka by famed SI photographer Walter Iooss, with Csonka making an obscene gesture with the middle finger of his right hand across his left shin. Kiick was such a celebrity in South Florida by the summer of 1972 that a petty criminal (Ron Davis) who bore a passing resemblance to Kiick was able to rent a luxury home on Key Biscayne, make public appearances, and get engaged, passing himself off as Kiick, before being caught.

paragraph: In 1973, Kiick and Csonka, in collaboration with sportswriter Dave Anderson, published a book, "Always on the Run". (A second edition, with an additional chapter covering the 1973 season, Super Bowl VIII, and their signing with the World Football League was published in 1974.) Kiick and Csonka discuss their childhoods, their college football careers, their sometimes stormy relationship with Don Shula, their experiences as pro football players, and the sometimes outrageous behavior of their teammates. There is an extensive discussion of how Kiick lost his starting role to Mercury Morris at the 1972 training camp. The book provides insight into the history of the Dolphins and the state of professional football in the late Sixties and early and mid Seventies. The book was excerpted in the September 1973 issue of "Esquire" magazine, with Kiick and Csonka on the cover of the magazine, dressed as Old-West dandies.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:WFL.

paragraph: In 1975, Kiick and teammates Csonka and Warfield played for the Memphis Southmen of the World Football League. Kiick had wanted out of Miami ever since he lost his starting role. The trio's press conference in March 1974 announcing what was then the richest three-player deal in sports was national news and shocked the sports world. They signed three-year guaranteed contracts beginning in 1975 with a total value, including perks, of $3.5 million. Csonka's salary was $1.4 million, Warfield's $900,000, Kiick's $700,000. Each player would also receive a luxury car every year and a three-bedroom luxury apartment.

paragraph: Twelve games into its eighteen-game schedule, the second-year league failed in October 1975. The Southmen finished 7–4, in second place in the Eastern Division behind the 9–3 Birmingham Vulcans. Kiick led the team in touchdowns (ten), action points (five), and points scored (75). He finished second on the team in rushing, with 121 carries for 462 yards and nine touchdowns, and tied for second with Warfield in receiving, with 25 catches for 259 yards and one touchdown.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Broncos and Redskins.

paragraph: Following his brief, disappointing, but lucrative detour to the WFL, Kiick has stated that he wanted to join Csonka with the New York Giants but Giants coach Bill Arnsparger, who had been Miami's defensive coordinator, was opposed because he was concerned Kiick would be a bad influence on Csonka. So he returned to the NFL in a back-up role for the Denver Broncos in 1976. He rushed 32 times for 115 yards and one touchdown, and caught 12 passes for 92 yards and a touchdown. Kiick was released during the 1977 regular season and missed out on the Broncos' playoff run to Super Bowl XII. (On the same day he was released by the Broncos, his house burned down and he got divorced.) He was then picked up by the Washington Redskins on December 1, but Kiick played in just one game for them, was waived in June 1978, and then retired.

paragraph: Kiick ended his AFL/NFL career with 1,029 rushing attempts for 3,759 yards and 29 touchdowns, and 233 pass receptions for 2,302 yards and four touchdowns. He fumbled only 15 times, completed two passes for 38 yards, and ran back a kickoff for 28 yards.

paragraph: Section::::After football.

paragraph: Kiick worked as a private investigator for the Broward County Public Defenders Office, and has been president of Kiick Sports Promotions in Fort Lauderdale. He was inducted into the University of Wyoming's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1996. He developed dementia and as of 2017 was living in an assisted care facility. His daughter is professional tennis player Allie Kiick.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of American Football League players

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- University of Wyoming Athletics Hall of Fame   Jim Kiick, inducted 1996

description: American football player

wikidata_label: Jim Kiick

wikipedia_title: Jim Kiick


text: museum curator

text: scientific instrumentation

text: Joseph Black

text: Joseph Priestley

text: museums

text: working class

text: material culture

text: Science Museum, London

text: National Museums of Scotland

text: British Museum

text: London

text: Science History Institute

text: Philadelphia

text: Finchley

text: St John's College

text: University of Oxford

text: Royal Scottish Museum

text: Science Museum, London

text: Frank Greenaway

text: Royal Scottish Museum

text: National Museums of Scotland

text: Edinburgh

text: British Museum

text: Queen Elizabeth II Great Court

text: Norman Foster

text: Queen

text: Neil MacGregor

text: Association of Independent Libraries

text: Institute for Advanced Study

text: Princeton University

text: University of Cambridge

text: Clare Hall, Cambridge

text: Chemical Heritage Foundation

text: Science History Institute

text: Philadelphia

text: Carsten Reinhardt

text: scientific instrumentation

text: museums

text: Joseph Black

text: Joseph Priestley

text: Society of Antiquaries of London

text: Royal Society of Chemistry

text: Dexter Award

text: Cambridge University Press

text: Frank Greenaway

text: List of directors of the British Museum

text: British Museum Great Court

categories: People associated with the Science Museum, London,Living people,1944 births,Fellows of St John's College, Oxford,British chemists,Alumni of St John's College, Oxford,Fellows of Clare Hall, Cambridge,British curators,Directors of the British Museum,Place of birth missing (living people),Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London

paragraph: Robert G. W. Anderson

paragraph: Robert Geoffrey William Anderson, (born 2 May 1944) is a British museum curator and historian of chemistry. He has wide-ranging interests in the history of chemistry, including the history of scientific instrumentation, the work of Joseph Black and Joseph Priestley, the history of museums, and the involvement of the working class in material culture. He has been Director of the Science Museum, London, the National Museums of Scotland, and the British Museum, London. He became interim president and CEO of the Chemical Heritage Foundation (now the Science History Institute) in Philadelphia in 2016, and was named its ongoing president and CEO on 11 January 2017.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: Anderson was born 2 May 1944 to Herbert Patrick Anderson and Kathleen Diana Burns. Anderson was educated at Woodhouse Grammar School, a former state grammar school in Finchley in North London, followed by St John's College at the University of Oxford. He completed his B.A. in chemistry in 1966, and his B.Sc., and his Doctor of Philosophy (D. Phil.) in 1970. He studied the electrical conduction in free radical solutions and inelastic scattering of neutrons from adsorbed molecules.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: Anderson joined the Royal Scottish Museum as an Assistant Keeper in 1970. In 1975, he moved to the chemistry department of the Science Museum, London. He became an Assistant Keeper of Chemistry. One of his challenges in 1976 was to incorporate materials from the history of medicine collection of the Wellcome Museum of the History of Medicine, which were acquired as a permanent loan. He organized a conference and edited "an excellent and detailed account" to celebrate the 250th Anniversary of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Edinburgh, "The Early Years of the Edinburgh Medical School." This was followed bty a catalogue in 1978: "The Playfair Collection and the Teaching of Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh 1713-1858." Anderson was also in charge of the renovation and expansion of the chemistry and industrial chemistry galleries in 1977. He became keeper of chemistry, succeeded Frank Greenaway as director from 1980 to 1984.

paragraph: Anderson returned to the Royal Scottish Museum as director from 1984 to 1985. When the Royal Scottish Museum amalgamated with National Museum of Antiquities in 1985, he became the director of the new National Museums of Scotland in Edinburgh, a position he retained until 1992.

paragraph: In 1992 Anderson joined the British Museum in London, where he was director from 1992 to 2002. Anderson oversaw the £100 million millennium project redevelopment of the British Museum's Queen Elizabeth II Great Court, designed by Norman Foster and opened by the Queen on 6 December 2000. Anderson was succeeded as director of the British Museum in 2002 by Neil MacGregor.

paragraph: Anderson has been president of the Scientific Instrument Commission of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (1982–1997), and of the British Society for the History of Science (1988–1990). In 2004, Anderson became president of the Association of Independent Libraries.

paragraph: Anderson has held visiting academic posts at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton University and at the Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities (CRASSH) at the University of Cambridge (2002–2003). He is an Emeritus Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge.

paragraph: As of 28 July 2016, Anderson became interim president and CEO of the Chemical Heritage Foundation (now the Science History Institute), a history of science organization in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He succeeded German historian of science Carsten Reinhardt. On 11 January 2017 Anderson was named the institution's ongoing president and CEO.

paragraph: Anderson has published at least 14 monographs or catalogues and at least 50 papers. His publications include works on the history of scientific instrumentation, the history of museums, and the work of Joseph Black and Joseph Priestley.

paragraph: Section::::Awards and honors.

paragraph: Robert Anderson is a member of the International Academy of the History of Science, and a Commandeur de l’Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France). He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1990), the Society of Antiquaries of London (1986) and of the Royal Society of Chemistry.

paragraph: Robert Anderson is a recipient of the Dexter Award (1986) and of the Paul Bunge Prize which he was awarded in 2016 for a lifetime of "outstanding achievement in writing about and promoting the understanding of historic scientific instruments."

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. G. W. Anderson, Presidential Address: 'What Is Technology?': Education through Museums in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. "The British Journal for the History of Science", Volume 25, Number 2, pages 169–184, June 1992. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The British Society for the History of Science.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frank Greenaway, a colleague at the Science Museum

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of directors of the British Museum

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tom Phillips: Portraits: Dr Robert Anderson, 2003

paragraph: BULLET::::- British Museum Great Court

description: British chemist

wikidata_label: Robert G. W. Anderson

wikipedia_title: Robert G. W. Anderson


text:
Caucasian
Mithridates VI of Pontus
Roman Republic
Pompey
Plutarch
Persian
Sinor
Valerius Maximus

categories: Ancient queens consort,2nd-century BC women,1st-century BC women,Queens of Pontus,Women in Hellenistic warfare

paragraph: Hypsicratea

paragraph: Hypsicratea or Hipsicratea (flourished 63 BC), was a Caucasian woman who became Queen of Pontus. She ruled a confederacy of states with King Mithridates VI of Pontus.

paragraph: As sixth and the most famous wife of Mithridates VI, she loved her husband so much that she donned a male disguise, learned warrior skills, and followed him into exile. When he was defeated and put to flight, wherever he sought refuge, even in the most remote solitude. She considered that wherever her husband was, there she would find her kingdom, her riches, and her country, which was of the greatest comfort and solace to Mithridates in his many misfortunes. She assisted him in all labours including the hazards of the war. She rode with him in battle, to suppress rebellions and to fight against the Roman Republic. She is noted to have fought with ax, lance, sword, and bow and arrow.

paragraph: During Mithridates' defeat by Pompey, Hypsicratea broke free of Pompey's blockade and while the rest dispersed she was one of only three who remained by the King's side. Plutarch wrote that she was

paragraph: ""...always manly (androdes) and extremely bold, the king consequently liked to call her Hypsicrates. At that time taking possession of a cloak and horse of a Persian man she neither flagged in body before the distances they ran nor did she weary of tending the body and horse of the king, until they came to a place called Sinor, which was full of the king's coins and treasures.""

paragraph: Valerius Maximus observes that she departed with a chief ornament of her beauty.

paragraph: ""The Queen Hypsicratea too loved her husband Mithradates, with all the stops of affection let out, and for his sake she thought it a pleasure to change the outstanding splendor of her beauty for a masculine style. For she cut her hair and habituated herself to horse and arms, so that she might more easily participate in his tools and danger. Indeed when he was defeated by Cn. Pompey, and fleeing through wild peoples, she followed him with body and soul equally indefatigable. Her extraordinary fidelity was for Mithradates his greatest solace and most pleasant comfort in those bitter and difficult conditions, for he considered that he was wandering with house and home because his wife was in exile along with him.""

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Orosius, "Historiae adversus paganos vi.5.3-5"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Valerius Maximus, "Factorum et dictorum memorabilium libri vi.6"

wikidata_label: Hypsicratea

wikipedia_title: Hypsicratea


text:
British
Governor of the Bank of England
Nottingham High School
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
World War II
Order of the British Empire
Gray's Inn
City
J. Henry Schroder & Co
secondary banking crisis
Privy Council
Territorial Decoration
life peer
Gloucestershire
Order of the Garter
Morgan Stanley
Group of Thirty
Pilgrim Trust
Lord Richardson of Duntisbourne

categories: British bankers,Crossbench life peers,1915 births,2010 deaths,Members of the Order of the British Empire,Deputy Lieutenants of Gloucestershire,Knights of the Garter,People educated at Nottingham High School,Royal Artillery officers,Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge,Members of Gray's Inn,Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom,Governors of the Bank of England,British Army personnel of World War II

paragraph: Gordon Richardson, Baron Richardson of Duntisbourne

paragraph: Gordon William Humphreys Richardson, Baron Richardson of Duntisbourne (25 November 1915 – 22 January 2010) was a British banker, former lawyer, and former Governor of the Bank of England.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Richardson was born to John Robert and Nellie Richardson, and was educated at Nottingham High School and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

paragraph: He served during World War II and became a Member of the Order of the British Empire, Military Division, in 1944. He was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1946, becoming a member of the Bar Council between 1951 and 1955, but abandoned law for a career in the City. He became a director of J. Henry Schroder & Co in 1957, and was later chairman between 1962 and 1973.

paragraph: He was appointed Governor of the Bank of England in 1973, and remained in that position until 1983. November 1973 saw a run on London and County Securities, marking the start of the secondary banking crisis.

paragraph: While serving as governor, Richardson joined the Privy Council (1976) and was awarded the Territorial Decoration (1979). He was created a life peer as Baron Richardson of Duntisbourne, of Duntisbourne in the County of Gloucestershire, and a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter, both in 1983.

paragraph: Richardson was a member of the Morgan Stanley advisory board from 1984. Between 1985 and 1991, he was a member of the Group of Thirty, and thereafter remained as their Honorary Chair. He was chairman of the Pilgrim Trust from 1984 to 1989.

paragraph: On the evening of Friday 22 January 2010, the Bank of England released a statement announcing Richardson's death.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lord Richardson of Duntisbourne – Daily Telegraph obituary

description: British banker


text: Navajo

text: silversmith

text: Navajo Nation

text: Winslow, Arizona

text: Navajo Reservation

text: silversmith

text: silversmith

text: List of Native American artists

text: Tommy Singer

categories: Navajo artists,1940 births,People from Winslow, Arizona,Native American jewelers,Living people

paragraph: Tommy Singer

paragraph: Tommy Singer (born 1940; death May 31, 2014) was a Navajo silversmith who specialized in chip-inlay jewelry. He died in a motorcycle accident on May 31, 2014. His inlaid turquoise, coral, and silver pieces incorporated traditional Navajo designs. Singer gained acclaim as the originator of the chip inlay design which he developed in the 1970s.

paragraph: Singer was a member of the Navajo Nation from Winslow, Arizona. He perfected his craft working on the Navajo reservation in a small studio surrounded with his family and other tribal members.

paragraph: He grew up on the Navajo Reservation and was taught silversmithing by his father, beginning at the age of seven. In the 1960s he invented the "chip-inlay" technique of using turquoise or coral chips in this silverwork. This technique has become widespread in his community. He also used stamps and work in overlay.

paragraph: When asked about his work, Singer said,"Every piece is made with the various meanings from my traditional ways - the Navajo way of living. My father was a silversmith, too. He taught me, and wanted me to continue this trade. It was my father's dream that I learn to silversmith so that I could continue his beliefs."

paragraph: After his death, his wife, Rosita (Rose), has continued to create jewelry using designs Singer created prior to his passing. These items are stamped with "T&R Singer."

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Native American artists

paragraph: BULLET::::- Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tommy Singer,

description: Navajo silversmith

wikidata_label: Tommy Singer

wikipedia_title: Tommy Singer