text: social activist

text: Self-Respect Movement

text: Dravidar Kazhagam

text: Tamil Nadu

text: Indian National Congress

text: Brahmin

text: satyagraha

text: Vaikom

text: Kerala

text: British Malaya

text: Europe

text: Russia

text: Justice Party

text: C. N. Annadurai

text: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: Dravida Nadu

text: rationalism

text: self-respect

text: women’s rights

text: caste

text: exploitation

text: marginalisation

text: South India

text: Indo-Aryan

text: Erode

text: Coimbatore district

text: Madras Presidency

text: Tamil

text: Nagammai

text: Maniammai

text: Chengalpattu

text: Dravidian language

text: Tamil

text: arranged marriage

text: agitations

text: Kasi

text: Shiva

text: Kashi Vishwanath

text: Hinduism

text: Brahmanic

text: Brahmins

text: sacred thread

text: shastras

text: South India

text: Kasi

text: theist

text: Kasi

text: atheist

text: Indian National Congress

text: Khadi

text: untouchability

text: Non-Cooperation movement

text: Temperance movement

text: Madras Presidency

text: Tirupur

text: indifference

text: Travancore

text: untouchability

text: Harijans

text: Satyagraha

text: Satyagraha

text: Eleanor Zelliot

text: political education

text: self respect

text: superstitious belief

text: caste

text: brother

text: sisterhood

text: equal rights

text: child marriages

text: Civil Law

text: homes for orphans

text: Propagation

text: Kudi Arasu

text: presidency

text: Tamil districts

text: social revolution

text: World Depression

text: Malaya

text: Nagapattinam

text: Tamil Malaysians

text: Penang

text: Ipoh

text: S. Ramanathan

text: political systems

text: social movements

text: social progress

text: Ceylon

text: political ideology

text: social concept

text: socio-economic

text: Marxist

text: private ownership

text: socio-political

text: Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari

text: Chief Minister

text: Madras Presidency

text: Tamil nationalists

text: A. T. Panneerselvam

text: anti-Hindi protests

text: North Indians

text: South India

text: anti-Hindi agitations

text: social justice

text: Sanskritic social class-value hierarchy

text: inequalities

text: Dravidian movement

text: politics of Tamil Nadu

text: Tamils

text: Dravidar Kazhagam

text: P. T. Rajan

text: Dalit

text: liberation of women

text: women's education

text: orphanage

text: Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai

text: Sanskrit

text: Hindi

text: self-determination

text: P. Kakkan

text: Thiagaraya Nagar

text: Tamil society

text: minority

text: exploiting

text: majority

text: caste

text: rational

text: scientific knowledge

text: Tamil society

text: rational

text: archanas

text: rationalist

text: right to property

text: arranged marriages

text: enslave

text: dowry system

text: dowry death

text: birth control

text: liberation of women

text: chastity

text: Devadasi

text: armed services

text: Tamil society

text: State departments

text: child marriage

text: Islamic

text: social progress

text: social system

text: caste distinctions

text: rationalist

text: north

text: Tamil Nadu

text: Tamilakkam

text: Samathuvapuram

text: Government of Tamil Nadu

text: Tamil

text: Telugu

text: Malayalam

text: Kannada

text: Old Tamil

text: Dravidian languages

text: Dravidian languages

text: Andhras

text: Malayali people

text: Tamil alphabet

text: stone inscriptions

text: Tamil letters

text: Thiruvalluvar

text: Self-respect

text: caste

text: Vedic

text: Manu

text: Sudras

text: Aryan religion

text: Vedas

text: North India

text: South India

text: Tamil

text: protection

text: minorities

text: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar

text: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: South India

text: separatist

text: Tamils

text: anti-Brahmanism

text: government jobs

text: judiciary

text: atheism

text: anti-Brahminism

text: Dravidian movement

text: merchant

text: caste

text: Subramanya Bharathi

text: Vaikom Satyagraha

text: socio-political

text: social issues

text: Mahasabha

text: Hindu-Muslim unity

text: Bangalore

text: Varnasrama

text: orthodox

text: inhumane

text: pragmatic

text: Maria Misra

text: philosophe

text: Catholic

text: diatribes

text: enlightenment

text: Rama

text: degradation

text: Ramayana

text: shoed

text: Krishna

text: marginalised

text: communities

text: converting

text: Islam

text: Buddhism

text: Tiruchirapalli

text: monotheistic

text: Martin Luther

text: reformer

text: Ram Mohan Roy

text: liberation

text: priesthood

text: Raja of Bobbili

text: effigies

text: Rama

text: Sita

text: Lakshmana

text: Ravana

text: Kumbakarna

text: Indrajit

text: Tamils

text: Tiruchirapalli

text: rationalist

text: manuscripts

text: K. Veeramani

text: Thanjavur

text: C.N. Annadurai

text: M. Karunanidhi

text: V. Gopalswamy

text: Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: S. Ramadoss

text: Pattali Makkal Katchi

text: Thol. Thirumavalavan

text: Dalit Panthers of India

text: Bahujan Samaj Party

text: Kanshi Ram

text: K. Kamaraj

text: Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh

text: Mayawati

text: Kavignar Inkulab

text: Bharathidasan

text: Kamal Haasan

text: Sathyaraj

text: N. S. Krishnan

text: W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar

text: Uttar Pradesh

text: Lalai Singh Yadav

text: Hindi

text: Sathyaraj

text: Khushboo Sundar

text: Periyar

text: Gnana Rajasekaran

text: Sathyaraj

text: Kalavadiya Pozhudugal

text: Thangar Bachan

text: Periyar

text: Thanthai Periyar

text: Periyar Kural

text: Rationalist/Social Reformer

text: The Revolutionary Sayings of Periyar

text: `The economic interest... that was the contradiction'

text: Thanthai Periyar

categories: Indian atheists,Tamil-language writers,Justice Party (India) politicians,Anti-Brahminism,Indian social reformers,Dravidian movement,Indian rationalists,Indian reformers,Tamil activists,1973 deaths,People from Erode district,Tamil Nadu politicians,Kannada people,Critics of religions,1879 births

paragraph: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy

paragraph: Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), commonly known as Periyar, also referred to as Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist, and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is known as the 'Father of Dravidian Movement'. He has done exemplary works against Brahminical dominance, caste prevalence and women oppression in Tamil Nadu.

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of Brahmins. He questioned the subjugation of non-Brahmin Dravidians as Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from non-Brahmins but opposed and discriminated non-Brahmins in cultural and religious matters. In 1924, E.V. Ramasamy participated in a non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikom, Kerala. From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy made a tour of British Malaya, Europe, and Russia which influenced him. In 1939, E.V. Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party, and in 1944, he changed its name to "Dravidar Kazhagam". The party later split with one group led by C. N. Annadurai forming the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949. While continuing the Self-Respect Movement, he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu ("land of the Dravidians)".

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy promoted the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of caste. He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early years.

paragraph: Erode Venkata Ramasamy was born on 17 September 1879 in Erode, then a part of the Coimbatore district of the Madras Presidency. E.V. Ramasamy's father is a,Venkatappa Nayakar (or Venkata), and his mother was Chinnathyee, Muthammal. He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy. He later came to be known as "Periyar" meaning 'respected one' or 'elder' in Tamil.

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy married when he was 19, and had a daughter who lived for only 5 months. His first wife, Nagammai, died in 1933. E.V. Ramasamy married for a second time in July 1948. His second wife, Maniammai, continued E.V. Ramasamy's social work after his death in 1973, but his thoughts and ideas then were advocated by Dravidar Kazhagam.

paragraph: In 1929, E.V. Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste title "Naicker" from his name at the First Provincial Self-Respect Conference of Chengalpattu. He could speak three Dravidian languages: Kannada, Telugu and Tamil.

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy's father arranged for his wedding when he was nineteen. The bride, Nagammai, was only thirteen. Despite having an arranged marriage, Periyar and Nagammai were already in love with each other. Nagammai actively supported her husband in his later public activities and agitations. Two years after their marriage, a daughter was born to them. However, their daughter died when she was five months old. The couple had no more children.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Kasi Pilgrimage Incident.

paragraph: In 1904, E.V. Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kasi to visit the revered Shiva temple of Kashi Vishwanath. Though regarded as one of the holiest sites of Hinduism, he witnessed immoral activities such as begging, and floating dead bodies. His frustrations extended to functional Hinduism in general when he experienced what he called Brahmanic exploitation.

paragraph: However, one particular incident in Kasi had a profound impact on E.V. Ramasamy's ideology and future work. At the worship site there were free meals offered to guests. To E.V. Ramasamy's shock, he was refused meals at choultries, which exclusively fed Brahmins. Due to extreme hunger, E.V. Ramasamy felt compelled to enter one of the eateries disguised as a Brahmin with a sacred thread on his bare chest, but was betrayed by his moustache. The gatekeeper at the temple concluded that E.V. Ramasamy was not a Brahmin, as Brahmins were not permitted by the Hindu "shastras" to have moustaches. He not only prevented Periyar's entry but also pushed him rudely into the street.

paragraph: As his hunger became intolerable, Periyar was forced to feed on leftovers from the streets. Around this time, he realised that the eatery which had refused him entry was built by a wealthy non-Brahmin from South India. This discriminatory attitude dealt a blow to Periyar's regard for Hinduism, for the events he had witnessed at Kasi were completely different from the picture of Kasi he had in mind, as a holy place which welcomed all. Ramasamy was a theist until his visit to Kasi, after which his views changed and he became an atheist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Member of Congress Party (1919–1925).

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 after quitting his business and resigning from public posts. He held the chairmanship of Erode Municipality and wholeheartedly undertook constructive programs spreading the use of Khadi, picketing toddy shops, boycotting shops selling foreign cloth, and eradicating untouchability. In 1921, Periyar courted imprisonment for picketing toddy shops in Erode. When his wife as well as his sister joined the agitation, it gained momentum, and the administration was forced to come to a compromise. He was again arrested during the Non-Cooperation movement and the Temperance movement. In 1922, Periyar was elected the President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee during the Tirupur session, where he advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education. His attempts were defeated in the Congress party due to a strong presence of discrimination and indifference, which led to his leaving the party in 1925.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Vaikom Satyagraha (1924–1925).

paragraph: According to the prevalent caste system in Kerala and the rest of India, low-caste Hindus were denied entry into temples.

paragraph: In Kerala, they were denied permission to walk on the roads that led to the temples also. (Kerala state was formed in 1956; earlier it was broadly divided into Malabar (North Kerala), Cochin and Travancore kingdoms).

paragraph: In the Kakinada meet of the Congress Party in 1923, T K Madhavan presented a report citing the discrimination faced by the depressed castes in Kerala. That session decided to promote movements against untouchability.

paragraph: In Kerala, a committee was formed comprising people of different castes to fight untouchability in the region. The committee was chaired by K Kelappan; the rest of the members were T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, Kurur Neelakantan Namboodiripad and T R Krishnaswami Iyer.

paragraph: The movement started on 30 March 1924.

paragraph: There was a board outside the Vaikom Mahadeva Temple which prohibited entry of avarnas (lower castes).

paragraph: The Satyagrahis moved to enter the temple in batches of three. They were resisted and arrested by the police.

paragraph: Gandhiji, Chatampi Swamikal and Sree Narayana Guru lend their support to the movement.

paragraph: The movement gained all-India prominence and support came from far and wide.

paragraph: The Akalis of Punjab lend their support by setting up kitchens to provide food to the Satyagrahis.

paragraph: Even Christian and Muslim leaders came forward for support. This was shunned by Gandhiji who wanted the movement to be an intra-Hindu affair.

paragraph: On advice from Gandhiji, the movement was withdrawn temporarily in April 1924.

paragraph: After the talks with caste-Hindus failed, the leaders resumed the movement. Leaders T K Madhavan and K P Kesava Menon were arrested.

paragraph: E V Ramaswamy (Periyar) came from Tamil Nadu to give his support. He was arrested.

paragraph: On 1 October 1924, a group of savarnas (forward castes) marched in a procession and submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani Sethulakshmi Bai of Travancore with about 25000 signatures for temple entry to everyone.

paragraph: Gandhiji also met with the Regent Maharani. This procession of savarnas was led by Mannath Padmanabhan Nair. Starting with about 500 people at Vaikom, the number increased to about 5000 when the procession reached Thiruvananthapuram in November 1924.

paragraph: In February 1924, they decided to launch a ‘Keralaparyatanam’ to gain temple entry and also the right to use public roads for every Hindu irrespective of caste or creed. |url=https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/vaikom-satyagraha |

paragraph: In Vaikom, a small town in Kerala state, then Travancore, there were strict laws of untouchability in and around the temple area. "Dalits", also known as Harijans were not allowed into the close streets around and leading to the temple, let alone inside it. Anti-caste feelings were growing and in 1924 Vaikom was chosen as a suitable place for an organised "Satyagraha." Under his guidance a movement had already begun with the aim of giving all castes the right to enter the temples. Thus, agitations and demonstrations took place. On 14 April, Periyar and his wife Nagamma arrived in Vaikom. They were immediately arrested and imprisoned for participation. In spite of Gandhi's objection to non-Keralites and non-Hindus taking part, Periyar and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn. He received the title "Vaikom Veeran", given by his followers who participated in the Satyagraha.

paragraph: The way in which the "Vaikom Satyagraha" events have been recorded provides a clue to the image of the respective organisers. In an article entitle "Gandhi and Ambedkar, A Study in Leadership", Eleanor Zelliot relates the 'Vaikom Satyagraha', including Gandhi's negotiations with the temple authorities in relation to the event. Furthermore, the editor of E.V. Ramasamy's "Thoughts" states that Brahmins purposely suppressed news about E.V. Ramasamy's participation. A leading Congress magazine, "Young India", in its extensive reports on Vaikom never mentions E.V. Ramasamy.

paragraph: In Kerala, a committee was formed comprising people of different castes to fight untouchability in the region. The committee chaired by K Kelappan, composed of T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, Kurur Neelakantan Namboodiripad and T R Krishnaswami Iyer.

paragraph: In February 1924, they decided to launch a ‘Keralaparyatanam’ to gain temple entry and also the right to use public roads for every Hindu irrespective of caste or creed.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Self-Respect Movement.

paragraph: Periyar and his followers campaigned constantly to influence and pressure the government to take measures to remove social inequality,(abolish untouchability, manual scavenging system etc) even while other nationalist forerunners focused on the struggle for political independence. The Self-Respect Movement was described from the beginning as "dedicated to the goal of giving non-Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past".

paragraph: In 1952, the Periyar "Self-Respect Movement Institution" was registered with a list of objectives of the institution from which may be quoted as for the diffusion of useful knowledge of political education; to allow people to live a life of freedom from slavery to anything against reason and self respect; to do away with needless customs, meaningless ceremonies, and blind superstitious beliefs in society; to put an end to the present social system in which caste, religion, community and traditional occupations based on the accident of birth, have chained the mass of the people and created "superior" and "inferior" classes... and to give people equal rights; to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brother/sisterhood; to give equal rights to women; to prevent child marriages and marriages based on law favourable to one sect, to conduct and encourage love marriages, widow marriages, inter caste and inter-religious marriages and to have the marriages registered under the Civil Law; and to establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions. Propagation of the philosophy of "self respect" became the full-time activity of Periyar since 1925. A Tamil weekly "Kudi Arasu" started in 1925, while the English journal "Revolt" started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English educated people. The "Self-Respect Movement" began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the Justice Party from the beginning. In May 1929, a conference of Self-Respect Volunteers was held at Pattukkotai under the presidency of S. Guruswami. K.V. Alagiriswami took charge as the head of the volunteer band. Conferences followed in succession throughout the Tamil districts of the former Madras Presidency. A training school in Self-Respect was opened at Erode, the home town of Periyar. The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:International travel (1929–1932).

paragraph: Between 1929 and 1935, under the strain of World Depression, political thinking worldwide received a jolt from the spread of international communism. Indian political parties, movements and considerable sections of leadership were also affected by inter-continental ideologies. The Self-Respect Movement also came under the influence of the leftist philosophies and institutions. E.V. Ramasamy, after establishing the "Self-Respect Movement" as an independent institution, began to look for ways to strengthen it politically and socially. To accomplish this, he studied the history and politics of different countries, and personally observed these systems at work.

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy toured Malaya for a month, from December 1929 to January 1930, to propagate the "self-respect" philosophy. Embarking on his journey from Nagapattinam with his wife Nagammal and his followers, E.V. Ramasamy was received by 50,000 Tamil Malaysians in Penang. During the same month, he inaugurated the Tamils Conference, convened by the Tamils Reformatory Sangam in Ipoh, and then went to Singapore. In December 1931 he undertook a tour of Europe, accompanied by S. Ramanathan and Erode Ramu, to personally acquaint himself with their political systems, social movements, way of life, economic and social progress and administration of public bodies. He visited Egypt, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Germany, England, Spain, France and Portugal, staying in Russia for three months. On his return journey he halted at Ceylon and returned to India in November 1932.

paragraph: The tour shaped the political ideology of E.V. Ramasamy to achieve the social concept of Self-Respect. The communist system obtained in Russia appealed to him as appropriately suited to deal with the social ills of the country. Thus, on socio-economic issues Periyar was Marxist, but he did not advocate for abolishing private ownership. Immediately after his return, E.V. Ramasamy, in alliance with the enthusiastic communist, M. Singaravelar, began to work out a socio-political scheme incorporating socialist and self-respect ideals. This marked a crucial stage of development in the "Self-Respect Movement" which got politicised and found its compatibility in Tamil Nadu.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Opposition to Hindi.

paragraph: In 1937, when Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in schools, thereby igniting a series of anti-Hindi agitations. Tamil nationalists, the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam, and E.V. Ramasamy organised anti-Hindi protests in 1938 which ended with numerous arrests by the Rajaji government.

paragraph: During the same year, the slogan "Tamil Nadu for Tamilians" was first raised by E.V. Ramasamy in protest against the introduction of Hindi in schools. He explained that the introduction of Hindi was a dangerous mechanism used by the Aryans to infiltrate Dravidian culture. He reasoned that the adoption of Hindi would make Tamils subordinate to the Hindi speaking North Indians. E.V. Ramasamy explained that Hindi would not only halt the progress of Tamil people, but would also completely destroy their culture and nullify the progressive ideas that had been successfully inculcated through Tamil in the recent decades.

paragraph: Cutting across party lines, South Indian politicians rallied together in their opposition to Hindi. There were recurrent anti-Hindi agitations in 1948, 1952 and 1965.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:As President of the Justice Party (1938–1944).

paragraph: A political party known as the "South Indian Libertarian Federation" (commonly referred to as "Justice Party") was founded in 1916, principally to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups. The party's goal was to render social justice to the non-Brahmin groups. To gain the support of the masses, non-Brahmin politicians began propagating an ideology of equality among non-Brahmin castes. Brahmanical priesthood and Sanskritic social class-value hierarchy were blamed for the existence of inequalities among non-Brahmin "caste" groups.

paragraph: In 1937, when the government required that Hindi be taught in the school system, E.V. Ramasamy organised opposition to this policy through the "Justice Party". After 1937, the Dravidian movement derived considerable support from the student community. In later years, opposition to Hindi played a big role in the politics of Tamil Nadu. The fear of the Hindi language had its origin in the conflict between Brahmins and non-Brahmins. To the Tamils, acceptance of Hindi in the school system was a form of bondage. When the "Justice Party" weakened in the absence of mass support, E.V. Ramasamy took over the leadership of the party after being jailed for opposing Hindi in 1939. Under his tutelage the party prospered, but the party's conservative members, most of whom were rich and educated, withdrew from active participation.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Dravidar Kazhagam (1944–onwards).

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Dravidar Kazhagam (1944–onwards).:Formation of the "Dravidar Kazhagam".

paragraph: At a rally in 1944, Periyar, in his capacity as the leader of the Justice Party, declared that the party would henceforth be known as the "Dravidar Kazhagam", or "Dravidian Association". However, a few who disagreed with Periyar started a splinter group, claiming to be the original Justice Party. This party was led by veteran Justice Party leader P. T. Rajan and survived until 1957.

paragraph: The "Dravidar Kazhagam" came to be well known among the urban communities and students. Villages were influenced by its message. Hindi, and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood, were identified as alien symbols that should be eliminated from Tamil culture. Brahmins, who were regarded as the guardians of such symbols, came under verbal attack. From 1949 onwards, the "Dravidar Kazhagam" intensified social reformist work and put forward the fact that superstitions were the cause for the degeneration of Dravidians. The "Dravidar Kazhagam" vehemently fought for the abolition of untouchability amongst the "Dalits". It also focused its attention on the liberation of women, women's education, willing marriage, widow marriage, orphanages and mercy homes.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Dravidar Kazhagam (1944–onwards).:Split with Annadurai.

paragraph: In 1949, E.V. Ramasamy's chief lieutenant, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, established a separate association called the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" (DMK), or Dravidian Progressive Federation. This was due to differences between the two, while Periyar advocated a separate independent Dravidian or Tamil state, Annadurai compromised with the Delhi government, at the same time claiming increased state independence. E.V. Ramasamy was convinced that individuals and movements that undertake the task of eradicating the social evils in the Indian sub-continent have to pursue the goal with devotion and dedication without deviating from the path and with uncompromising zeal. Thus, if they contest elections aiming to assume political power, they would lose vigour and sense of purpose. But among his followers, there were those who had a different view, wanting to enter into politics and have a share in running the government. They were looking for an opportunity to part with E.V. Ramasamy. Thus, when E.V. Ramasamy married Maniammai on 9 July 1948, they quit the "Dravidar Kazhagam", stating that E.V. Ramasamy married maniammayar who was daughter of kanagasabhai when he was 70 and she 32. Those who parted company with E.V. Ramasamy joined the DMK. Though the DMK split from the "Dravidar Kazhagam", the organisation made efforts to carry on E.V. Ramasamy's Self-Respect Movement to villagers and urban students. The DMK advocated the thesis that the Tamil language was much richer than Sanskrit and Hindi in content, and thus was a key which opened the door to subjects to be learned. The "Dravidar Kazhagam" continued to counter Brahminism, Indo-Aryan propaganda, and uphold the Dravidians' right of self-determination.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Dravidar Kazhagam (1944–onwards).:Later years.

paragraph: In 1956, despite warnings from P. Kakkan, the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, Periyar organised a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama. Periyar was subsequently arrested and confined to prison.

paragraph: The activities of Periyar continued when he went to Bangalore in 1958 to participate in the All India Official Language Conference. There he stressed the need to retain English as the Union Official Language instead of Hindi. Five years later, Periyar travelled to North India to advocate the eradication of the caste system. In his last meeting at Thiagaraya Nagar, Chennai on 19 December 1973, Periyar declared a call for action to gain social equality and a dignified way of life. On 24 December 1973, Periyar died at the age of 94.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.

paragraph: Periyar spent over fifty years giving speeches, propagating the realisation that everyone is an equal citizen and the differences on the basis of caste and creed were man-made to keep the innocent and ignorant as underdogs in the society. Although Periyar's speeches were targeted towards the illiterate and more mundane masses, scores of educated people were also swayed. Periyar viewed reasoning as a special tool. According to him, all were blessed with this tool, but very few used it. Thus Periyar used reasoning with respect to subjects of social interest in his presentations to his audiences. Communal differences in Tamil society were considered by many to be deep-rooted features until Periyar came to the scene.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Rationalism.

paragraph: The bedrock of E.V. Ramasamy’s principles and the movements that he started was rationalism. He thought that an insignificant minority in society was exploiting the majority and trying to keep it in a subordinate position forever. He wanted the exploited to sit up and think about their position, and use their reason to realise that they were being exploited by a handful of people. If they started thinking, they would realise that they were human beings like the rest, that birth did not and should not endow superiority over others and that they must awaken themselves and do everything possible to improve their own lot.

paragraph: Likewise, E.V. Ramasamy explained that wisdom lies in thinking and that the spear-head of thinking is rationalism. On caste, he stated that no other living being harms or degrades its own class. But man, said to be a rational living being, does these evils. The differences, hatred, enmity, degradation, poverty, and wickedness, now prevalent in the society are due to lack of wisdom and rationalism and not due to God or the cruelty of time. E.V. Ramasamy had written in his books and magazines dozens of times of various occasions that the British rule is better than self-rule

paragraph: E.V. Ramasamy also blamed the capitalists for their control of machineries, creating difficulties for the workers. According to his philosophy, rationalism, which has to lead the way for peaceful life to all, had resulted in causing poverty and worries to the people because of dominating forces. He stated that there is no use of simply acquiring titles or amassing wealth if one has no self-respect or scientific knowledge. An example he gave was the West sending messages to the planets, while the Tamil society in India were sending rice and cereals to their dead forefathers through the Brahmins.

paragraph: In a message to the Brahmin community, Periyar stated, "in the name of god, religion, and sastras you have duped us. We were the ruling people. Stop this life of cheating us from this year. Give room for rationalism and humanism". He added that "any opposition not based on rationalism, science, or experience will one day or another, reveal the fraud, selfishness, lies and conspiracies".

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Self-respect.

paragraph: Periyar's philosophy of self-respect was based on his image of an ideal world and a universally accepted one. His philosophy preaches that human actions should be based on rational thinking. Further, the outcome of the natural instinct of human beings is to examine every object and every action and even nature with a spirit of inquiry, and to refuse to submit to anything irrational as equivalent to slavery. Thus, the philosophy of self-respect taught that human actions should be guided by reason, right and wrong should follow from rational thinking and conclusions drawn from reason should be respected under all circumstances. Freedom means respect to thoughts and actions considered 'right' by human beings on the basis of 'reason'. There is not much difference between 'freedom' and 'self-respect'.

paragraph: Periyar's foremost appeal to people was to develop self-respect. He preached that the Brahmins had monopolised and cheated other communities for decades and deprived them of self-respect. He stated that most Brahmins claimed to belong to a "superior" community with the reserved privilege of being in charge of temples and performing archanas. He felt that they were trying to reassert their control over religion by using their superior caste status to claim the exclusive privilege to touch idols or enter the sanctum sanctorum.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Women’s rights.

paragraph: As a rationalist and ardent social reformer, Periyar advocated forcefully throughout his life that women should be given their legitimate position in society as the equals of men and that they should be given good education and have the right to property. He thought age and social customs was not a bar in marrying women. He was keen that women should realise their rights and be worthy citizens of their country.

paragraph: Periyar fought against the orthodox traditions of marriage as suppression of women in Tamil Nadu and throughout the Indian sub-continent. Though arranged marriages were meant to enable a couple to live together throughout life, it was manipulated to enslave women. Much worse was the practice of child marriages practised throughout India at the time. It was believed that it would be a sin to marry after puberty. Another practice, which is prevalent today, is the dowry system where the bride's family is supposed to give the husband a huge payment for the bride. The purpose of this was to assist the newly wedded couple financially, but in many instances dowries were misused by bridegrooms. The outcome of this abuse turned to the exploitation of the bride's parents wealth, and in certain circumstances, lead to dowry deaths. There have been hundreds of thousands of cases where wives have been murdered, mutilated, and burned alive because the father of the bride was unable to make the dowry payment to the husband. Periyar fiercely stood up against this abuse meted out against women.

paragraph: Women in India also did not have rights to their families' or husbands' property. Periyar fought fiercely for this and also advocated for women to have the right to separate or divorce their husbands under reasonable circumstances. While birth control remained taboo in society of Periyar's time, he advocated for it not only for the health of women and population control, but for the liberation of women.

paragraph: He criticised the hypocrisy of chastity for women and argued that it should either apply also to men, or not at all for both genders. While fighting against this, Periyar advocated getting rid of the Devadasi system. In his view it was an example of a list of degradations of women, attaching them to temples for the entertainment of others, and as temple prostitutes. Further, for the liberation of women, Periyar pushed for their right to have an education and to join the armed services and the police force.

paragraph: According to biographer M.D. Gopalakrishnan, Periyar and his movement achieved a better status for women in Tamil society. Periyar held that, in matters of education and employment, there should be no difference between men and women. Gopalakrishnan states that Periyar's influence in the State departments and even the Center made it possible for women to join police departments and the army. Periyar also spoke out against child marriage.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Talks about Inflation.

paragraph: SC leaders in Tamil Nadu have for long accused EVR of saying, contemptuously, in a meeting that the cloth prices had gone up because the ‘Pariah’ caste women started wearing jackets. In 1963, many Ambedkarite magazines in Tamil Nadu had reported this speech. Anbu Ponnoviam, a venerated historian who had meticulously documented the lives of SC leaders and spiritual personalities, had written that as a keen observer of EVR from 1939, he was one of those who were shocked when he heard EVR offering Pariah women wearing jackets and Pariah men becoming literate as reasons for the rise in cloth prices and unemployment (Nasthikam, 2 March 1963).

paragraph: A Chennai-based magazine, Ambedkar, in its 1963 November-December issue, pointed out that despite SC leaders strongly condemning EVR’s statement. The proof for the statement came from Dravidianists themselves when the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) magazine Murasoli published a cartoon highlighting the anti-SC mindset of EVR.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Social reform and eradication of caste.

paragraph: Periyar wanted thinking people to see their society as far from perfect and in urgent need of reform. He wanted the government, the political parties and social workers to identify the evils in society and boldly adopt measures to remove them. Periyar's philosophy did not differentiate social and political service. According to him, the first duty of a government is to run the social organisation efficiently, and the philosophy of religion was to organise the social system. Periyar stated that while Christian and Islamic religions were fulfilling this role, the Hindu religion remained totally unsuitable for social progress. He argued that the government was not for the people, but, in a "topsy-turvy" manner, the people were for the government. He attributed this situation to the state of the social system contrived for the advantage of a small group of people.

paragraph: One of the areas of Periyar's focus was on the upliftment of rural communities. In a booklet called "Village Uplift", Periyar pleaded for rural reform. At that time rural India still formed the largest part of the Indian subcontinent, in spite of the ongoing process of urbanisation. Thus, the distinction between rural and urban had meant an economic and social degradation for rural inhabitants. Periyar wanted to eradicate the concept of "village" as a discrimination word among places, just as the concept of "outcast" among social groups. Periyar advocated for a location where neither the name nor the situation or its conditions imply differences among people. He further advocated for the modernisation of villages by providing public facilities such as schools, libraries, radio stations, roads, bus transport, and police stations.

paragraph: Periyar felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions to dominate over society, so he emphasised that individuals must first develop self-respect and learn to analyse propositions rationally. According to Periyar, a self-respecting rationalist would readily realise that the caste system had been stifling self-respect and therefore he or she would strive to get rid of this menace.

paragraph: Periyar stated that the caste system in South India is, due to Indo-Aryan influence, linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north. Ancient Tamil Nadu (part of Tamilakkam) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions ("Tinai"), determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living. Periyar also argued that birds, animals, and worms, which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes, or differences of high and low in their own species. But man, considered to be a rational being, was suffering from these because of religion and discrimination.

paragraph: The Samathuvapuram (Equality Village) social equality system introduced by the Government of Tamil Nadu in the late 1990s is named after Ramasamy.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Tamil language and writing.

paragraph: Periyar claimed that Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada came from the same mother language of Old Tamil. He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states. Nevertheless, current understanding of Dravidian languages contradicts such claims. For example, the currently known classification of Dravidian languages provides the following distinct classes: Southern (including Tamil–Malayalam, Kannada and Tulu); Central (including Telugu–Kui and Kolami–Parji); and, Northern (including Kurukh–Malto and Brahui).

paragraph: With relation to writing, Periyar stated that using the Tamil script about the arts, which are useful to the people in their life and foster knowledge, talent and courage, and propagating them among the masses, will enlighten the people. Further, he explained that it will enrich the language, and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil. Periyar also stated that if words of North Indian origin (Sanskrit) are removed from Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, only Tamil will be left. On the Brahmin usage of Tamil, he stated that the Tamil spoken by the Andhras and the Malayali people was far better than the Tamil spoken by the Brahmins. Periyar believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture, and that it will make the Kannadigas, Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant. With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language, Periyar stated that "a time will come for unity. This will go on until there is an end to the North Indian domination. We shall reclaim an independent sovereign state for us".

paragraph: At the same time, Periyar was also known to have made controversial remarks on the Tamil language and people from time to time. On one occasion, he referred to the Tamil people as "barbarians" and the Tamil language as the "language of barbarians". However, Anita Diehl explains that Periyar made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms.

paragraph: Periyar's ideas on Tamil alphabet reforms included those such as the reasons for the vowel 'ஈ' (i) having a cursive and looped representation of the short form 'இ' (I). In stone inscriptions from 400 or 500 years ago, many Tamil letters are found in other shapes. As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with printing technology, Periyar thought that it was sensible to change a few letters, reduce the number of letters, and alter a few signs. He further explained that the older and more divine a language and its letters were said to be, the more they needed reform. Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact, and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries, foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily. Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ', ' கே ' (kA:, kE:), Periyar questioned why other compound characters like ' கி ', ' கீ ', 'கு ', ' கூ ' (kI, ki:, kU, ku:) (indicated integrally as of now), shouldn't also have separate signs. Further, changing the shape of letters, creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly, dropping those that are redundant, were quite essential according to Periyar. Thus, the glory and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else"

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Thoughts on Thirukkural.

paragraph: Periyar hailed the "Thirukkural" as a valuable scripture which contained many scientific and philosophical truths. He also praised the secular nature of the work. Periyar praised Thiruvalluvar for his description of God as a formless entity with only positive attributes. He also suggested that one who reads the Thirukkural will become a Self-respecter, absorbing knowledge in politics, society, and economics. According to him, though certain items in this ancient book of ethics may not relate to today, it permitted such changes for modern society.

paragraph: On caste, he believed that the Kural illustrates how Vedic laws of Manu were against the Sudras and other communities of the Dravidian race. On the other hand, Periyar opined that the ethics from the Kural was comparable to the Christian Bible. The Dravidar Kazhagam adopted the Thirukkural and advocated that Thiruvalluvar's Kural alone was enough to educate the people of the country.

paragraph: One of Periyar's quotes on the Thirukkural from Veeramani's "Collected Works of Periyar" was "when Dravida Nadu (Dravidistan) was a victim to Indo-Aryan deceit, Thirukkural was written by a great Dravidian Thiruvalluvar to free the Dravidians".

paragraph: Periyar also asserted that due to the secular nature of Thirukkural, it has the capacity to be the common book of faith for all humanity and can be kept on par or above the holy books of all religions.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Self-determination of Dravida Nadu.

paragraph: The Dravidian-Aryan conflict was believed to be a continuous historical phenomenon that started when the Aryans first set their foot in the Dravidian lands. Even a decade before the idea of separation appeared, Periyar stated that, "as long as Aryan religion, Indo-Aryan domination, propagation of Aryan Vedas and Aryan "Varnashrama" existed, there was need for a "Dravidian Progressive Movement" and a "Self-Respect Movement". Periyar became very concerned about the growing North Indian domination over the south which appeared to him no different from foreign domination. He wanted to secure the fruits of labour of the Dravidians to the Dravidians, and lamented that fields such as political, economic, industrial, social, art, and spiritual were dominated by the north for the benefit of the North Indians. Thus, with the approach of independence from Britain, this fear that North India would take the place of Britain to dominate South India became more and more intense.

paragraph: Periyar was clear about the concept of a separate nation, comprising Tamil areas, that is part of the then existing Madras Presidency with adjoining areas into a federation guaranteeing protection of minorities, including religious, linguistic, and cultural freedom of the people. A separatist conference was held in June 1940 at Kanchipuram when Periyar released the map of the proposed "Dravida Nadu", but failed to get British approval. On the contrary, Periyar received sympathy and support from people such as Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah for his views on the Congress, and for his opposition to Hindi. They then decided to convene a movement to resist the Congress.

paragraph: The concept of "Dravida Nadu" was later modified down to Tamil Nadu. This led to a proposal for a union of the Tamil people of not only South India but including those of Ceylon as well. In 1953, Periyar helped to preserve Madras as the capital of Tamil Nadu, which later was the name he substituted for the more general Dravida Nadu. In 1955 Periyar threatened to burn the national flag, but on Chief Minister Kamaraj's pledge that Hindi should not be made compulsory, he postponed the action. In his speech of 1957 called "Suthantara Tamil Nadu En?" (Why an independent Tamil Nadu?), he criticised the Central Government of India, inducing thousands of Tamilians to burn the constitution of India. The reason for this action was that Periyar held the Government responsible for maintaining the caste system. After stating reasons for separation and turning down opinions against it, he closed his speech with a "war cry" to join and burn the map of India on 5 June. Periyar was sentenced to six months imprisonment for burning the Indian constitution.

paragraph: Advocacy of such a nation became illegal when separatist demands were banned by law in 1957. Regardless of these measures, a "Dravida Nadu Separation Day" was observed on 17 September 1960 resulting in numerous arrests. However, Periyar resumed his campaign in 1968. He wrote an editorial on 'Tamil Nadu for Tamilians' in which he stated, that by nationalism only Brahmins had prospered and nationalism had been developed to abolish the rights of Tamils. He advocated that there was need to establish a "Tamil Nadu Freedom Organization" and that it was necessary to work towards it.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Anti-Brahmanism vs. Anti-Brahmin.

paragraph: Periyar was a radical advocate of anti-Brahmanism. Periyar's ideology of anti-Brahmanism is quite often confused as being anti-Brahmin. Even a non-Brahmin who supports inequality based on caste was seen as a supporter of brahmanism. Periyar called on both Brahmins and non-Brahmins to shun brahmanism.

paragraph: In 1920, when the Justice Party came to power, Brahmins occupied about 70 percent of the high level posts in the government. After reservation was introduced by the Justice Party, it reversed this trend, allowing non-Brahmins to rise in the government of the Madras Presidency. Periyar, through the Justice Party, advocated against the imbalance of the domination of Brahmins who constituted only 3 percent of the population, over government jobs, judiciary and the Madras University. His Self-Respect Movement espoused rationalism and atheism and the movement had currents of anti-Brahminism. Furthermore, Periyar stated that:

paragraph: "Our Dravidian movement does not exist against the Brahmins or the Banias (a North Indian merchant caste). If anyone thinks so, I would only pity him. But we will not tolerate the ways in which Brahminism and the Bandiaism is degrading Dravidanadu. Whatever support they may have from the government, neither myself nor my movement will be of cowardice".

paragraph: Periyar also criticised Subramanya Bharathi in the journal "Ticutar" for portraying Mother Tamil as a sister of Sanskrit in his poems:

paragraph: "They say Bharati is an immortal poet.…Even if a rat dies in an akrakāram, they would declare it to be immortal. … of Tamilnadu praises him. Why should this be so? Supposedly because he sang fulsome praises of Tamil and Tamilnadu. What else could he sing? His own mother tongue, Sanskrit, has been dead for years. What other language did he know? He cannot sing in Sanskrit. … He says Tamilnadu is the land of Aryas."

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Comparisons with Gandhi.

paragraph: In the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924, Periyar and Gandhi ji both cooperated and confronted each other in socio-political action. Periyar and his followers emphasised the difference in point of view between Gandhi and himself on the social issues, such as fighting the Untouchability Laws and eradication of the caste system.

paragraph: According to the booklet "Gandhi and Periyar", Periyar wrote in his paper "Kudi Arasu" in 1925, reporting on the fact that Gandhi was ousted from the Mahasabha because he opposed resolutions for the maintaining of caste and Untouchability Laws which would spoil his efforts to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity. From this, Gandhi learned the need for pleasing the Brahmins if anything was to be achieved.

paragraph: Peiryar in his references to Gandhi used opportunities to present Gandhi as, on principle, serving the interests of the Brahmins. In 1927, Periyar and Gandhi met at Bangalore to discuss this matter. The main difference between them came out when Periyar stood for the total eradication of Hinduism to which Gandhi objected saying that Hinduism is not fixed in doctrines but can be changed. In the "Kudi Arasu", Periyar explained that:

paragraph: "With all his good qualities, Gandhi did not bring the people forward from foolish and evil ways. His murderer was an educated man. Therefore nobody can say this is a time of high culture. If you eat poison, you will die. If electricity hits the body, you will die. If you oppose the Brahmin, you will die. Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of Varnasrama "Dharma" structure, but sees in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure. The consequence of this would be continued high-caste leadership. Gandhi adapted Brahmins to social change without depriving them of their leadership".

paragraph: Gandhi accepted "karma" in the sense that "the "Untouchables" reap the reward of their "karma", but was against discrimination against them using the revaluing term "Harijans". As shown in the negotiations at Vaikom his methods for abolishing discrimination were: to stress on the orthodox, inhumane treatment of "Untouchables"; to secure voluntary lifting of the ban by changing the hearts of caste Hindus; and to work within a Hindu framework of ideas.

paragraph: On the Temple Entry issue, Gandhi never advocated the opening of "Garbha Griha" to "Harijans" in consequence of his Hindu belief. These sources which can be labelled "pro-Periyar" with the exception of M. Mahar and D.S. Sharma, clearly show that Periyar and his followers emphasised that Periyar was the real fighter for the removal of Untouchability and the true upliftment of Hairjans, whereas Gandhi was not. This did not prevent Periyar from having faith in Gandhi on certain matters.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Religion and atheism.

paragraph: Periyar was generally regarded as a pragmatic propagandist who attacked the evils of religious influence on society, mainly what he regarded as Brahmin domination. At a young age, he felt that some people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and regarded it as his life's mission to warn people against superstitions and priests. Anita Diehl explains that Periyar cannot be called an atheist philosopher. Periyar, however, qualified what the term "atheist" implies in his address on philosophy. He repudiated the term as without real sense: "…the talk of the atheist should be considered thoughtless and erroneous. The thing I call god... that makes all people equal and free, the god that does not stop free thinking and research, the god that does not ask for money, flattery and temples can certainly be an object of worship. For saying this much I have been called an atheist, a term that has no meaning". EVR Periyar, a born Hindu, vehemently opposed Hinduism and Christianity. He did not criticize Islam.

paragraph: Anita Diehl explains that Periyar saw faith as compatible with social equality and did not oppose religion itself. In a book on revolution published in 1961, Periyar stated: "be of help to people. Do not use treachery or deceit. Speak the truth and do not cheat. That indeed is service to God."

paragraph: On Hinduism, Periyar believed that it was a religion with no distinctive sacred book (bhagawad gita) or origins, but an imaginary faith preaching the "superiority" of the Brahmins, the inferiority of the Shudras, and the untouchability of the Dalits (Panchamas). Maria Misra, a lecturer at Oxford University, compares him to the philosophes, stating: "his contemptuous attitude to the baleful influence of Hinduism in Indian public life is strikingly akin to the anti-Catholic diatribes of the enlightenment philosophes". In 1955 Periyar was arrested for his public action of burning pictures of Rama in public places as a symbolic protest against the Indo-Aryan domination and degradation of the Dravidian leadership according to the Ramayana epic. Periyar also shoed images of Krishna and Rama, stating that they were Aryan gods that considered the Dravidian Shudras to be "sons of prostitutes".

paragraph: Periyar openly suggested to those who were marginalised within the Hindu communities to consider converting to other faiths such as Islam, Christianity, or Buddhism. On Islam, he stated how it was good for abolishing the disgrace in human relationship, based on one of his speeches to railway employees at Tiruchirapalli in 1947. Periyar also commended Islam for its belief in one invisible and formless God; for proclaiming equal rights for men and women; and for advocating social unity.

paragraph: At the rally in Tiruchi, Periyar said:

paragraph: "Muslims are following the ancient philosophies of the Dravidians. The Arabic word for Dravidian religion is Islam. When Brahmanism was imposed in this country, it was Mohammad Nabi who opposed it, by instilling the Dravidian religion's policies as Islam in the minds of the people"

paragraph: Periyar viewed Christianity as similar to the monotheistic faith of Islam. He explained that the Christian faith says that there can be only one God which has no name or shape. Periyar took an interest in Martin Luther - both he and his followers wanted to liken him and his role to that of the European reformer. Thus Christian views, as expressed for example in "The Precepts of Jesus" (1820) by Ram Mohan Roy, had at least an indirect influence on Periyar.

paragraph: Apart from Islam and Christianity, Periyar also found in Buddhism a basis for his philosophy, though he did not accept that religion. It was again an alternative in the search for self-respect and the object was to get liberation from the discrimination of Hinduism.

paragraph: Through Periyar's movement, "Temple Entry Acts" of 1924, 1931, and up to 1950 were created for non-Brahmins. Another accomplishment took place during the 1970s when Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the temple language in Tamil Nadu, while Dalits finally became eligible for priesthood.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Controversies.

paragraph: Section::::Principles and legacy.:Controversies.:Factionism in the Justice Party.

paragraph: When B. Munuswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1930, he endorsed the inclusion of Brahmins in the Justice Party, saying:

paragraph: So long as we exclude one community, we cannot as a political speak on behalf of, or claim to represent all the people of our presidency. If, as we hope, provincial autonomy is given to the provinces as a result of the reforms that may be granted, it should be essential that our Federation should be in a position to claim to be a truly representative body of all communities. What objection can there be to admit such Brahmins as are willing to subscribe to the aims and objects of our Federation? It may be that the Brahmins may not join even if the ban is removed. But surely our Federation will not thereafter be open to objection on the ground that it is an exclusive organisation.

paragraph: Though certain members supported the resolution, a faction in the Justice Party known as the "Ginger Group" opposed the resolution and eventually voted it down. Periyar, who was then an observer in the Justice Party, criticised Munuswamy Naidu, saying:

paragraph: At a time when non-Brahmins in other parties were gradually coming over to the Justice Party, being fed up with the Brahmin's methods and ways of dealing with political questions, it was nothing short of folly to think of admitting him into the ranks of the Justice Party.

paragraph: This factionism continued until 1932 when Munuswamy Naidu stepped down as the Chief Minister of Madras and the Raja of Bobbili became the chief minister.

paragraph: Section::::Followers and influence.

paragraph: After the death of Periyar in 1973, conferences were held throughout Tamil Nadu for a week in January 1974. The same year Periyar's wife, Maniyammai, the new head of the "Dravidar Kazhagam", set fire to the effigies of 'Rama', 'Sita' and 'Lakshmana' at Periyar Thidal, Madras. This was in retaliation to the "Ramaleela" celebrations where effigies of 'Ravana', 'Kumbakarna' and 'Indrajit' were burnt in New Delhi. For this act she was imprisoned. During the 1974 May Day meetings held at different places in Tamil Nadu, a resolution urging the Government to preserve 80 percent of jobs for Tamils was passed. Soon after this, a camp was held at Periyar Mansion in Tiruchirapalli to train young men and women to spread the ideals of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" in rural areas.

paragraph: On Periyar's birthday on 17 September 1974, Periyar's "Rationalist Library" and "Research Library" and "Research Institute" was opened by the then Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi. This library contained Periyar's rationalist works, the manuscripts of Periyar and his recorded speeches. Also during the same year Periyar's ancestral home in Erode, was dedicated as a commemoration building. On 20 February 1977, the opening function of "Periyar Building" in Madras was held. At the meeting which the Managing Committee of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" held, there on that day, it was decided to support the candidates belonging to the "Janata Party", the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" (DMK), and the "Marxist Party" during the General Elections.

paragraph: On 16 March 1978, Maniyammai died. The "Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam" elected K. Veeramani as General Secretary of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" on 17 March 1978. From then on, the "Periyar-Maniyammai Educational and Charitable Society" started the "Periyar Centenary Women's Polytechnic" at Thanjavur on 21 September 1980. On 8 May 1982, the "College for Correspondence Education" was started under the auspices of the "Periyar Rationalist Propaganda Organization".

paragraph: Over the years, Periyar influenced Tamil Nadu's political party heads such as C.N. Annadurai and M. Karunanidhi of the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam"' (DMK), V. Gopalswamy founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), S. Ramadoss founder of the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), Thol. Thirumavalavan, founder of the Dalit Panthers of India (DPI), and "Dravidar Kazhagam's" K. Veeramani. Nationally, Periyar is main ideological icon for India's third largest voted party, Bahujan Samaj Party and its founder Kanshi Ram. Other political figures influenced by Periyar were former Congress minister K. Kamaraj, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati. Periyar's life and teachings have also influenced writers and poets such as Kavignar Inkulab, and Bharathidasan including actors such as Kamal Haasan and Sathyaraj. Noted Tamil Comedian N. S. Krishnan was a close friend and follower of Periyar.W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar was a close confidant of Periyar and encouraged Nadars to be a part of the Self-Respect Movement. A writer from Uttar Pradesh, Lalai Singh Yadav translated Periyar's notable works into Hindi.

paragraph: Section::::In popular culture.

paragraph: Sathyaraj and Khushboo Sundar starred in a government-sponsored film "Periyar" released in 2007. Directed by Gnana Rajasekaran, the film was screened in Malaysia on 1 May 2007 and was screened at the Goa International Film Festival in November that year. Sathyaraj reprised his role as Periyar in the film "Kalavadiya Pozhudugal" directed by Thangar Bachan which released in late 2010.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bandistse, D.D., (2008). "Humanist Thought in Contemporary India". B.R. Pub: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bandyopadhyaya, Sekhara, (2004). From Plassey to Partition: A history of modern India. Orient Longman: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biswas, S.K., (1996). "Pathos of Marxism in India". Orion Books: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chand, Mool, (1992). "Bahujan and their Movement". Bahujan Publication Trust: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dirks, Nicholas B., (2001). "Castes of mind : colonialism and the making of modern India". Princeton University Press: Princeton, New Jersey.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kothandaraman, Ponnusamy, (1995). "Tamil Varalarril Tantai Periyar (Tamil)". Pumpolil Veliyitu: Chennai.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mani, Braj Ranjan, (2005). "Debrahmanising History: Dominance and Resistance in Indian Society". Manohar: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mission Prakashan, (2003). "Second Freedom Struggle: Chandapuri’s Call to Overthrow Brahmin Rule". Mission Prakashan Patna: Bihar.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Omvedt, Gail, (2006). "Dalit Visions". Oscar Publications: New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ram, Dadasaheb Kanshi, (2001). "How to Revive the Phule-Ambedkar-Periyar Movement in South India". Bahujan Samaj Publications: Bangalore.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramasami, Periyar, [3rd edition] (1998). "Declaration of War on Brahminism". Chennai.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramasami, Periyar E.V., [ new ed] (1994). "Periyana". Chintakara Chavadi: Bangalore.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ramasami, Periyar, [new ed] (1994). "Religion and Society:: Selections from Periyar’s Speeches and Writings". Emerald Publishers: Madras.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richman, Paula, (1991). "Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia". University of California Press: Berkeley. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sen, Amiya P., (2003). "Social and Religious Reform: The Hindus of British India". Oxford University Press: New Delhi; New York.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Srilata, K., (2006). "Other Half of the Coconut: Women Writing Self-Respect History – an anthology of self-respect literature, 1928–1936". Oscar Publications: Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thirumavalavan, Thol; Meena Kandasamy (2003). "Talisman, Extreme Emotions of Dalit Liberation: Extreme emotions of Dalit Liberation." Popular Prakashan: Mumbai.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thirumavalavan, Thol; Meena Kandasamy (2004). Uproot Hindutva: The Fiery Voice of the Liberation Panthers. Popular Prakashan.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Venugopal, P., (1990). "Social Justice and Reservation". Emerald Publishers: Madras.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yadav, Bibhuti, (2002). "Dalits in India (A set of 2 Volumes)". Anmol Publications. New Delhi.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gawthaman.Pasu, (2009). "E.V.Ramasamy enginra naan". Bhaathi Puthakalayam. Chennai.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Periyar (official website)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thanthai Periyar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Periyar Kural (online radio in Tamil)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rationalist/Social Reformer (article)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Revolutionary Sayings of Periyar

paragraph: BULLET::::- `The economic interest... that was the contradiction' (article)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thanthai Periyar

description: Tamil politician and social reformer

enwikiquote_title: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy

wikidata_label: Periyar E. V. Ramasami

wikipedia_title: Periyar E. V. Ramasamy


text:
anaesthesia
chloroform
Napoleon III
Alexandra of Denmark
Edward VII
Robert Peel
Florence Nightingale
John Snow
Royal College of Anaesthetists
Aylsham
University College Hospital
Joseph Lister
James Syme
Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons
urology
bladder stone
general practitioner
Westminster Hospital
John Snow
Robert Liston
ether
anaesthetic
British Medical Journal
chloroform
Napoleon III of France
Chislehurst
bladder stone
autopsy
Alexandra of Denmark
Princess of Wales
Edward VII
Robert Peel
Florence Nightingale
Erasmus Wilson
anaesthetist
goldbeater's skin
bellows
vaporiser
minims
lithotomy position
uraemia
Brompton Cemetery
John Snow
Royal College of Anaesthetists
Royal College of Surgeons
Marylebone

categories: 1882 deaths,1825 births,Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons,English anaesthetists,Burials at Brompton Cemetery,People from Aylsham

paragraph: Joseph Thomas Clover

paragraph: Joseph Thomas Clover (28 February 1825; baptised 7 May 1825 – 27 September 1882) was an English doctor and pioneer of anaesthesia. He invented a variety of pieces of apparatus to deliver anaesthetics including ether and chloroform safely and controllably. By 1871 he had administered anaesthetics 13,000 times without a fatality.

paragraph: Clover assisted at surgery of public figures including Napoleon III, Princess Alexandra of Denmark and her husband King Edward VII (then Prince of Wales), Sir Robert Peel, and Florence Nightingale.

paragraph: His inventions included the bulky 'Clover's chloroform apparatus' (1862), with which he was often photographed; and the compact 'Clover's portable regulating ether inhaler' (1877), which remained in used well into the 20th century.

paragraph: With fellow pioneer John Snow, Clover is one of the supporters on the crest of the Royal College of Anaesthetists.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Clover was born in the town of Aylsham, Norfolk to John Wright Clover, a draper and shopkeeper, and Elizabeth Mary Ann Clover (née Peterson) John Wright Clover's second wife (married at Aylsham on 11 June 1821). He was educated at the Gray Friars' Priory School, Norwich. When he was 16, Clover was apprenticed as a surgical dresser to a local surgeon, Charles Gibson.

paragraph: Clover enrolled to study medicine at University College Hospital in 1844, where Joseph Lister (the pioneer of antisepsis) was a fellow student.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Clover became house surgeon to James Syme upon graduation in 1846. He became Resident Medical Officer at University College Hospital in 1848, and was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1850. Originally Clover developed an interest in the field of urology. He practised as a surgeon, inventing two instruments for the crushing and removal of bladder stones. Ill health caused him to give up in 1853 and he turned to general practice.

paragraph: He then worked as a general practitioner in 1853. He set up his practice at 3 Cavendish Place, London, which became his home until his death in 1882.

paragraph: After several years in general practice he devoted his practice to anaesthetics, and became "chloroformist" to the University College Hospital, the Westminster Hospital and the London Dental Hospital. Clover's choice of speciality helped to fill the vacancy created by the death of John Snow in 1858.

paragraph: Clover was probably present at Robert Liston's first operation under ether anaesthesia at University College Hospital in December 1846.

paragraph: Clover wrote in 1871 that he had given chloroform more than 7000 times, in addition to other anaesthetics in another 4000 cases, without a fatality. However, he lost a patient to chloroform under his hands in 1874, in a case which he described in the British Medical Journal.

paragraph: Section::::Important cases.

paragraph: Because of his expertise in anaesthesia, Clover was often sought out when important figures required surgery. He gave chloroform to Napoleon III of France on 2 January 1873, at Chislehurst, Kent, and again on 6 January, for a procedure to break up a bladder stone. The Emperor died on 9 January. Clover was a signatory to his autopsy report, together with five other physicians.

paragraph: Clover gave chloroform to Alexandra of Denmark, who was then the Princess of Wales, in 1867, for the removal of a splint from a rheumatic knee, and later anaesthetised her husband Edward VII (who was then Prince of Wales) in 1877, for an operation to drain an abscess which was attributed to a hunting injury.

paragraph: Clover also administered general anaesthesia to Sir Robert Peel, Florence Nightingale and Sir Erasmus Wilson.

paragraph: Section::::Apparatus.

paragraph: During his lifetime, Clover invented and improved a variety of pieces of medical apparatus, especially those for easier and safer anaesthesia. Some of these inventions bore his name, including:

paragraph: Section::::Apparatus.:Clover's chloroform apparatus.

paragraph: Clover's chloroform apparatus was invented in 1862. Chloroform, being much more potent than ether, was much easier to give in overdose. At a time when the anaesthetist was often an untrained assistant, many deaths occurred through accidental overdose. Clover's solution was a large reservoir bag of known capacity, lined with goldbeater's skin to make it airtight, into which a measured volume of chloroform liquid was placed. Inflating the bag to its capacity with a bellows provided a known, accurate and constant concentration of chloroform vapour in air, making delivery safer and more controllable. A vaporiser was no longer necessary, but the bag was large and cumbersome.

paragraph: A dose of 20 minims (1.18 millilitres) of chloroform per 1000 cubic inches (16.38 litres) of air would provide a concentration of chloroform vapour of 2.25%. 30 minims (1.77ml) would give 3.37%, and 40 minims (2.36ml) would give 4.5%, which Clover believed was the maximum safe concentration.

paragraph: Many photographs of Clover, heavily bearded, depict his chloroform apparatus slung over his shoulder.

paragraph: Section::::Apparatus.:Clover's ether inhaler.

paragraph: Clover invented his portable ether inhaler in 1877. Judging by the illustration on the right, it was much admired at the time. It remained in use, modified in various ways, well into the 20th century.

paragraph: Section::::Apparatus.:Clover's crutch.

paragraph: Clover's crutch was a device for maintaining the patient in the lithotomy position.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Clover's health was fragile throughout his life. He died of uraemia aged 57. He is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. His grave is only 200 yards away from that of fellow anaesthetics pioneer, John Snow.

paragraph: Section::::Posthumous recognition.

paragraph: Together with John Snow, Clover is one of the supporters on the crest of the Royal College of Anaesthetists. In 1949, the Royal College of Surgeons established the annual Joseph Clover Lecture in recognition of his contribution to anaesthesia. It was given annually until 1958 and every two years thereafter.

paragraph: A memorial plaque on the site of his clinic at 3 Cavendish Place, Marylebone, was unveiled on 2 March 1994.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Duncum, Barbara M., "The Development of Inhalation Anaesthesia with Special Reference to the Years 1846–1900", Oxford University Press, 1947.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maltby, J.R. "Notable Names in Anaesthesia". The Royal Society of Medicine Press, London, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rushman, G.B., Davies N.J.H., Atkinson, R.S. "A Short History of Anaesthesia: the First 150 Years". Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1996.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sykes, W.S. "Essays on the First Hundred Years of Anaesthesia", Volume 2. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1960.

wikidata_label: Joseph Thomas Clover

wikipedia_title: Joseph Thomas Clover


text: QC

text: barrister

text: Labour Party

text: Harlesden

text: Middlesex

text: Winchester College

text: University of London

text: Soviet Union

text: G. D. H. Cole

text: Margaret Cole

text: Soviet invasion of Finland

text: George Orwell

text: Winchester College

text: Geneva

text: French

text: Switzerland

text: A Coruña

text: Spain

text: Spanish

text: Middle Temple

text: Called to the Bar

text: University of London

text: workmen's compensation

text: World War I

text: commercial law

text: Conservative

text: Liberal Party

text: Labour Party

text: Sunderland

text: Member of Parliament

text: Hammersmith North

text: Moscow Show Trial

text: Joseph Stalin

text: purge of the Communist Party

text: Soviet invasion of Finland

text: 1945 General Election

text: Labour Independent Group

text: fellow traveller

text: John Platts-Mills

text: Konni Zilliacus

text: General Election of 1950

text: Cold War

text: NATO

text: International Stalin Peace Prize

text: Leipzig

text: East Germany

text: Star of People's Friendship

text: Ho Chi Minh

text: Hong Kong

text: Gordon Cummins

text: Royal Air Force

text: Kapenguria Six

text: Mau Mau

text: Jomo Kenyatta

text: Bildad Kaggia

text: Paul Ngei

text: Achieng Oneko

text: Dudley Thompson

text: Q.C.

text: F. R. S. De Souza

text: University Socialist Club

text: University of Ghana

text: Pamber Heath

text: Hampshire

text: Nairobi

text: Orwell's list

text: George Orwell

text: Information Research Department

text: Cold War

text: Light on Moscow

text: Must the War Spread?

text: Star-Spangled Shadow

text: The State Department and the Cold War

categories: Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies,UK MPs 1935–1945,People educated at Winchester College,UK MPs 1945–1950,Members of the Fabian Society Executive Committee,English barristers,1887 births,1972 deaths,People from Harlesden,Conservative Party (UK) politicians,Stalin Peace Prize recipients,Liberal Party (UK) politicians

paragraph: Denis Pritt

paragraph: Denis Nowell Pritt, QC (22 September 1887 – 23 May 1972) was a British barrister and Labour Party politician. Born in Harlesden, Middlesex, he was educated at Winchester College and University of London.

paragraph: A member of the Labour Party from 1918, he was a defender of the Soviet Union. In 1932, as part of G. D. H. Cole's New Fabian Research Bureau's 'expert commission of enquiry', he visited the Soviet Union, and, according to Margaret Cole, "the eminent KC swallowed it "all"". Pritt was expelled from the Labour Party in 1940 following his support of the Soviet invasion of Finland.

paragraph: Pritt was characterised by George Orwell as "perhaps the most effective pro-Soviet publicist in this country".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Pritt was born 22 September 1887 in London, the son of a metal merchant.

paragraph: Pritt was educated at Winchester College, which he left after four years so as to relocate to Geneva in order to learn French, with a view to joining his father's company. Following his time in Switzerland, Pritt moved again to expand his linguistic knowledge, working in a bank in A Coruña, Spain, and mastering his knowledge of Spanish. Pritt also added German to his repertoire of languages in subsequent years.

paragraph: Pritt was admitted to the Middle Temple on 1 May 1906 and was Called to the Bar on 17 November 1909. He continued to study law in 1909, obtaining a law degree from University of London in 1910. He began his legal practice as a specialist in workmen's compensation cases.

paragraph: He married in July 1914, on the eve of World War I. During the war he joined the postal censorship department in the British War Office.

paragraph: Following the war, Pritt returned to legal practice as a successful lawyer working in the field of commercial law.

paragraph: Section::::Political career.

paragraph: A Conservative in his earliest years, Pritt moved steadily leftward politically, joining the Liberal Party in 1914 and the Labour Party in 1918. Following a failed 1931 campaign for Parliament as a Labour candidate in Sunderland, Pritt was elected as a Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Hammersmith North in 1935. Pritt was made a member of the Labour Party's Executive Committee in 1936, remaining in that role for over a year.

paragraph: In 1936, he attended the first Moscow Show Trial, known as the Trial of the Sixteen. He wrote an account of this, "The Zinoviev Trial", which largely supported Joseph Stalin and his first purge of the Communist Party.

paragraph: In 1940 he was expelled from the Labour Party for defending the Soviet invasion of Finland. His book "Must the War Spread?" sympathized with the Soviets and led him to be greatly disliked by the Labour Party elite during and after the war. After 1940 he sat as an Independent Labour member, and at the 1945 General Election was re-elected in Hammersmith North under that label gaining a 63% share of the vote against official Labour and Conservative candidates. In 1949 he formed the Labour Independent Group with four other fellow travellers, including John Platts-Mills and Konni Zilliacus, who had also been expelled from the Labour Party for pro-Soviet sympathies. At the General Election of 1950, all the members of the Labour Independent Group lost their seats. By this time, Pritt's opposition to the Cold War and NATO had made him an "unpopular figure" in Britain.

paragraph: Pritt was awarded the 1954 International Stalin Peace Prize and in 1957 became an honorary citizen of Leipzig, which was then in East Germany. East Germany also awarded him the Gold "Stern der Völkerfreundschaft" (Star of People's Friendship) in October 1965.

paragraph: Section::::Legal career.

paragraph: As a lawyer, Pritt successfully defended Ho Chi Minh in 1931–32 against a French request for his extradition from Hong Kong. In 1942, he initially defended Gordon Cummins. But due to a technicality, the trial was abandoned and restarted with a new jury and Pritt was replaced by another lawyer. Cummins, a member of the Royal Air Force was known in the press as the "Blackout Ripper" and was accused of murdering four women, mutilating their bodies and attempting to murder two others. The defence was unsuccessful, a subsequent appeal was dismissed and Cummins was hanged in June 1942.

paragraph: Pritt's most high-profile case, which he lost, was defending the Kapenguria Six, a group of Kenyan political figures accused in 1952 of Mau Mau links (Jomo Kenyatta, Bildad Kaggia, Kung’u Karumba, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei and Achieng Oneko). In this case, Pritt worked with a team of Kenyan and other African, Indian and West Indian lawyers including Achhroo Kapila, Dudley Thompson Q.C. and F. R. S. De Souza.

paragraph: Pritt played a significant role in the Fajar trial in May 1954 in Singapore. He was the lead counsel of the University Socialist Club with the assistance of Lee Kuan Yew as the junior counsel and helped the Club to win the case eventually. From 1965 to 1966, he was Professor of Law at the University of Ghana.

paragraph: Section::::Death and legacy.

paragraph: Pritt died in 1972 at his home in Pamber Heath, Hampshire. Dennis Pritt Road in Nairobi, Kenya is named after him.

paragraph: Pritt is one of those on Orwell's list, a list prepared by George Orwell for the Information Research Department in 1949, after the start of the Cold War. The list was officially published in 2003, but had circulated before then. It listed notable writers and others whom Orwell considered to be sympathetic to the Soviet Union. In the document, Orwell noted that Pritt was "almost certainly underground Communist", but also a "Good MP (i.e. locally). Very able and courageous".

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Light on Moscow" (1939)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Must the War Spread?" (1940)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Federal Illusion" (1940)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Choose your Future" (1940)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Fall of the French Republic" (1940)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "USSR Our Ally" (1941)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "India Our Ally?" (1946)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Revolt in Europe" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A New World Grows" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Star-Spangled Shadow" (1947)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The State Department and the Cold War" (1948)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Spies and Informers in the Witness-box" (1958)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Liberty in Chains" (1962)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Labour Government, 1945–1951" (1963)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Neo-Nazis, the Danger of War" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Autobiography

paragraph: BULLET::::- "From Right to Left" (1965)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Brasshats and Bureaucrats" (1966)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Defence Accuses" (1966)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catalogue of the Pritt papers held at LSE Archives

description: British politician

wikidata_label: Denis Nowell Pritt

wikipedia_title: Denis Pritt


text:
SS
concentration camps
Second World War
Berlin
war crime
SS Women's Auxiliary
Ravensbrück
Hermine Braunsteiner
Majdanek
Lublin
Aufseherin
Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp
Kraków
death march
Auschwitz-Birkenau
Neuengamme
Hamburg, Germany
Oberaufseherin
Neuengamme
Lagerbordell
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp
British

categories: Female guards in Nazi concentration camps,Possibly living people,Majdanek concentration camp personnel,Nazi war criminals released early from prison,1921 births

paragraph: Gertrud Heise

paragraph: Gertrud Heise (born 23 July 1921) was a female guard and later, SS overseer at several concentration camps during the Second World War. Heise was born in Berlin, Germany. She was tried for war crimes in 1946.

paragraph: Section::::World War II.

paragraph: In 1941, Heise joined the SS Women's Auxiliary and, on 21 November 1941, arrived at Ravensbrück for training. In October 1942, she was one of several women, including Hermine Braunsteiner, to be sent to KZ Majdanek camp near Lublin as an "Aufseherin". The gas chambers began operation there in September 1942, with more than 79,000 people exterminated during its 34 months of operation.

paragraph: Heise worked at the camp until January 1944 when she accompanied a transport of women to Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp on the outskirts of Kraków. She remained there until she was assigned to guard the death march to KZ Auschwitz-Birkenau west, ahead of the Soviet offensive. From there she guarded a prisoner evacuation train in October 1944 to the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, Germany.

paragraph: In November 1944, Heise was promoted to "Oberaufseherin" and sent to Obernheide, the subcamp of KZ Neuengamme ("Lagerbordell" operated there since spring of 1944 with full staff).

paragraph: At "Bremen-Obernheide", she and SS-Hauptscharführer Johann Hille, commanded 500 Hungarian and 300 Polish women prisoners with a very high rate of deaths, regular beatings and denial of rations. Heise fled "Obernheide" in April 1945 with the evacuation of surviving women prisoners to Bergen-Belsen concentration camp.

paragraph: Heise was later captured by British soldiers and interrogated. She was placed on trial for war crimes. On 22 May 1946 a British court handed her a sentence of 15 years imprisonment for her already confirmed war crimes. She was released after 10 years by West German judiciary. Gertrud Heise was last reported alive in Hamburg in 1970.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Camp Women: The Female Auxiliaries Who Assisted the SS in Running the Concentration Camp System", by Daniel Patrick Brown.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profit für den Bremer Senat — Hunger für die Frauen

description: German Nazi war criminal

wikidata_label: Gertrud Heise

wikipedia_title: Gertrud Heise


text: physician

text: botanist

text: physiologist

text: Néons

text: French Revolution

text: Rochefort

text: Vendean

text: Touraine

text: embryological

text: French Academy

text: osmosis

text: respiration

text: cell biology

text: vocal cord

text: Mauritian

text: Trochetia

text: Osteogenesis

text: Endosmosis

text: Exosmosis

text: Cell theory

text: BibNum

categories: French biologists,1847 deaths,19th-century French physicians,1776 births,Members of the French Academy of Sciences,18th-century French physicians

paragraph: Henri Dutrochet

paragraph: René Joachim Henri Dutrochet (14 November 1776 – 4 February 1847) was a French physician, botanist and physiologist. He is best known for his investigation into osmosis.

paragraph: Section::::Early career.

paragraph: Dutrochet was born on Néons to a noble family, soon ruined in the French Revolution. In 1799 he entered the military marine at Rochefort, but soon left it to join the Vendean army. He then left it to tend to his family's manor in Touraine. There, he was a keen addition to the scientific nation.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions.

paragraph: His scientific publications were numerous, and covered a wide field, but his most noteworthy work was embryological. His "Recherches sur l'accroissement et la reproduction des végétaux", published in the "Mémoires du museum d'histoire naturelle" for 1821, procured him in that year the French Academy's prize for experimental physiology. In 1837 appeared his "Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire anatomique et physiologique des végétaux et des animaux", a collection of all his more important biological papers.

paragraph: He investigated and described osmosis, respiration, embryology, and the effect of light on plants. He has been given credit for discovering cell biology and cells in plants and the actual discovery of the process of osmosis. His early researches into the voice introduced the first modern concept of vocal cord movement.

paragraph: The Mauritian plant genus "Trochetia" was named in his honour.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- New Theory of the Voice (1800)

paragraph: BULLET::::- New Theory of Harmony (1810)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Researches in the growth and reproduction of plants (1821)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in Osteogenesis (bone production) (1822)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in the anatomy of animals and plants (1824)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in an agent's immediate vital movement (1826)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in Endosmosis and Exosmosis (1828)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in the development of the egg and the fetus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in Radial development in plants and the ascent of Sap.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Contributions to understanding anatomy and physiology of plants and animals (1837)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Research in the elliptical force (1842–43)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Contributions to the modern cell theory

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cell theory

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henri Dutrochet (1776-1847): an unheralded discoverer of the cell

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nouvelles observations sur l'endosmose et l'exosmose" (1827), online and analyzed on BibNum

alias:
René Joachim Henri Dutrochet
Dutr.
Rene Joachim Henri Dutrochet

description: French physician

wikidata_label: Henri Dutrochet

wikipedia_title: Henri Dutrochet


text:
Dracula
Charleston, South Carolina
New York City
Broadway
Arthur Hopkins
Richard III
John Barrymore
Macbeth
Lionel Barrymore
Henrik Ibsen
The Wild Duck
Ophelia
Hamlet
Basil Sydney
The Music Master
Leslie Howard
Douglas Fairbanks Jr.
Beryl Mercer
Outward Bound
Mina
Dracula
Alice in Wonderland
David Manners
Bela Lugosi
Lost Generation
Paris
The Last Flight
Richard Barthelmess
John Mack Brown
Christopher Strong
Will Hay
Radio Parade of 1935
Joe E. Brown
Pride and Prejudice
Bramwell Fletcher
Outward Bound
Noël Coward
Tonight at 8.30
Bramwell Fletcher
Riverside Church
alcoholism
cardiac arrest
stomach ulcer
Hollywood, California
cremated
Chapel of the Pines Crematory
The Music Master
The Joy Girl
Mother's Boy
Salute
The Sky Hawk
Rough Romance
Outward Bound
Mothers Cry
Dracula
Mina Seward
Daybreak
Salvation Nell
The Last Flight
Fanny Foley Herself
A House Divided
Vanity Street
Behind Jury Doors
Christopher Strong
Alimony Madness
Dance Hall Hostess
Goodbye Again
The Worst Woman in Paris?
Long Lost Father
Midnight Alibi
Unfinished Symphony
Radio Parade of 1935
It's a Bet
Mr. Boggs Steps Out
Helen Chandler Fansite
Toronto Star review of the novel

categories: 20th-century American actresses,American film actresses,Actors from Charleston, South Carolina,1906 births,1965 deaths,American stage actresses,American silent film actresses,Burials at Chapel of the Pines Crematory

paragraph: Helen Chandler

paragraph: Helen Chandler (February 1, 1906 – April 30, 1965) was an American film and theater actress, best known for playing Mina Seward in the 1931 horror film "Dracula".

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Born in Charleston, South Carolina, Chandler began her acting career in New York City at the age of eight and was on Broadway two years later in 1917. Her early performances include Arthur Hopkins' 1920 production of "Richard III", which starred John Barrymore, "Macbeth" in 1921 with Lionel Barrymore; Hedvig in Henrik Ibsen's "The Wild Duck" in 1925 and Ophelia in the 1925 modern dress version of "Hamlet" starring Basil Sydney. By the time of her first film she had been in over twenty Broadway productions.

paragraph: She made her film debut in 1927 in the silent film "The Music Master" and in 1930 joined Leslie Howard, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Beryl Mercer for "Outward Bound", the film version of the stage success. The unusual story told of a group of passengers on an ocean liner who gradually realize that they are all dead and will soon face the Last Judgment. Chandler, with her blonde hair and ethereal quality, was considered to be perfectly cast, and she received critical praise for her performance.

paragraph: Chandler did not want to play the role for which she is probably best remembered, Mina in "Dracula" (1931); she wanted to play Alice in "Alice in Wonderland". Nevertheless, Chandler joined David Manners and Bela Lugosi in what became one of the most successful movies made at that time. Chandler appeared with Manners that same year in the Lost Generation celebration of alcohol in Paris, "The Last Flight", also starring Richard Barthelmess and John Mack Brown. She achieved more successes in "A House Divided" (1931) and "Christopher Strong" (1933), all the while dividing her time among films, radio work, and theater roles in Los Angeles, New York and London.

paragraph: She starred in British actor Will Hay's 1934 movie, "Radio Parade of 1935" and played a role on Lux Radio in "Alibi Ike" with Joe E. Brown (1937). Among her later stage successes were "Within The Gates" in 1934, "Pride and Prejudice" in 1935, "Lady Precious Stream" in 1936 with then-husband Bramwell Fletcher, a reprise of her film role in "Outward Bound" in 1938 and various productions of "Boy Meets Girl" and Noël Coward's "Tonight at 8.30"

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: On February 14, 1935, Chandler married actor Bramwell Fletcher in Riverside Church in New York. She had previously been married to Cyril Hume, whom she divorced in 1934.

paragraph: By the late 1930s she was battling alcoholism and her acting career declined. She was hospitalized several times but was unable to gain control over her life. In 1950, Chandler was severely burned in an apartment fire, caused by her falling asleep while smoking. She survived but her body was badly disfigured. Her alcoholism continued unabated after the accident.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Helen Chandler died on April 30, 1965, from cardiac arrest during surgery for a stomach ulcer in Hollywood, California. Her remains were cremated in accordance with her wishes, and are interred at Chapel of the Pines Crematory in Los Angeles.

paragraph: Section::::In other media.

paragraph: Helen Chandler figures prominently as a character in the 2014 time travel novel "Hypocritic Days".

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Music Master" (1927) as Jenny

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Joy Girl" (1927) as Flora

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mother's Boy" (1929) as Rose Lyndon

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Salute" (1929) as Nancy Wayne

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Sky Hawk" (1929) as Joan Allan

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rough Romance" (1930) as Marna Reynolds

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Outward Bound" (1930) as Ann

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mothers Cry" (1930) as Beattie Williams

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dracula" (1931) as Mina Seward

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Daybreak" (1931) as Laura Taub

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Salvation Nell" (1931) as Nell Saunders

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Last Flight" (1931) as Nikki

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fanny Foley Herself" (1931) as Lenore

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A House Divided" (1931) as Ruth Evans

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vanity Street" (1932) as Jeanie Gregg

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Behind Jury Doors" (1932) as Elsa Lanfield

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Christopher Strong" (1933) as Monica Strong

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Alimony Madness" (1933) as Joan Armstrong

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dance Hall Hostess" (1933) as Nora Marsh

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Goodbye Again" (1933) as Elizabeth Clochessy

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Worst Woman in Paris?" (1933) as Mary Dunbar

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Long Lost Father" (1934) as Lindsey Lane

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Midnight Alibi" (1934) as Abigail 'Abbie' Ardsley as a Girl

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Unfinished Symphony" (1934) as Emmie Passeuter

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Radio Parade of 1935" (1934) as Joan Garland

paragraph: BULLET::::- "It's a Bet" (1935) as Clare

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mr. Boggs Steps Out" (1938) as Oleander Tubbs (final film role)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helen Chandler Fansite

paragraph: BULLET::::- Van Neste, Dan. ""Helen Chandler: Vision of Beauty"" Films of the Golden Age, Spring, 1998 .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fiore, David. "Hypocritic Days" Insomniac Press, 2014. Toronto Star review of the novel

description: American actress

wikidata_label: Helen Chandler

wikipedia_title: Helen Chandler