text:
archaeologist
Lübeck
C. A. Brandis
Greece
University of Berlin
Emperor Frederick III
Göttingen
Athens
Olympia
American Antiquarian Society
Georg Curtius

wikipedia_title:
Archaeology
Lübeck
Christian August Brandis
Greece
Humboldt University of Berlin
Frederick III, German Emperor
University of Göttingen
Athens
Olympia, Greece
American Antiquarian Society
Georg Curtius

categories: 19th-century German male writers,Ancient Olympia,19th-century historians,German archaeologists,Members of the American Antiquarian Society,Members of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art,1814 births,1896 deaths,German historians,Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class),People from Lübeck,19th-century German writers

paragraph: Ernst Curtius

paragraph: Ernst Curtius (; 2 September 1814 – 11 July 1896) was a German archaeologist and historian.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He was born in Lübeck. On completing his university studies he was chosen by C. A. Brandis to accompany him on a journey to Greece for the prosecution of archaeological researches. Curtius then became Otfried Müller's companion in his exploration of the Peloponnese, and on Müller's death in 1840 he returned to Germany. In 1844 he became an extraordinary professor at the University of Berlin, and in the same year he was appointed tutor to Prince Frederick William (afterwards the Emperor Frederick III), a post which he held till 1850.

paragraph: After holding a professorship at Göttingen and undertaking a further journey to Greece in 1862, Curtius was appointed (in 1863) ordinary professor at Berlin. In 1874 he was sent to Athens by the German government and there concluded an agreement by which the excavations at Olympia were entrusted exclusively to Germany. In 1891 Curtius was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Curtius died in Berlin on 11 July 1896.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: His best-known work is his "History of Greece" (1857-1867). It presented in an attractive style what were then the latest results of scholarly research, but it was criticized as wanting in erudition. It is now superseded. His other writings are chiefly archaeological. The most important are:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Akropolis von Athen" (1844)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Naxos" (1846)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Peloponnesos, eine historisch-geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel" (1851)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Olympia" (1852)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Ionier vor der ionischen Wanderung" (1855)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Attische Studien" (1862-1865)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ephesos" (1874)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia" (1877, etc.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Olympia und Umgegend" (edited by Curtius and F Adler, 1882)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgrabung" (with F Adler, 1890-1898)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Stadtgeschichte von Athen" (1891)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gesammelte Abhandlungen" (1894)

paragraph: His collected speeches and lectures were published under the title of "Altertum und Gegenwart" (5th ed., 1903 foll.), to which a third volume was added under the title of "Unter drei Kaisern" (2nd ed., 1895).

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: His brother, Georg Curtius, was a noted philologist.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- This work in turn cites:

paragraph: BULLET::::- L. Gurlitt, "Erinnerungen an Ernst Curtius" (Berlin, 1902) This work has a full list of his writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- F. Curtius, "Ernst Curtius. Ein Lebensbild in Briefen" (1903)

paragraph: BULLET::::- T. Hodgkin, "Ernest Curtius" (1905)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- An Olympic Excavation, a description of Curtius' excavations at Olympia.

description: German classical archaeologist and historian of classical antiquity

wikidata_label: Ernst Curtius

wikipedia_title: Ernst Curtius


text: physician

text: pathologists

text: preventive medicine

text: Hodgkin's disease

text: lymphoma

text: blood disease

text: Thomas Addison

text: Richard Bright

text: Guy's Hospital

text: Quaker

text: Pentonville

text: St. James Parish, Middlesex

text: John Hodgkin

text: John Hodgkin

text: William Allen

text: apothecary

text: Brighton

text: St. Thomas's and Guy's Medical School

text: Astley Cooper

text: University of Edinburgh

text: Andrew Duncan, the younger

text: Robert Jameson

text: spleen

text: Bracy Clark

text: Royal Medical Society

text: stethoscope

text: René Laennec

text: Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis

text: Robert Knox

text: Helen Maria Williams

text: University of Edinburgh Medical School

text: Benjamin Thorpe

text: tuberculosis

text: Mayer Amschel Rothschild

text: Moses Montefiore

text: William-Frédéric Edwards

text: Henri Milne Edwards

text: Achille-Louis Foville

text: York Retreat

text: anatomical pathology

text: Benjamin Harrison

text: University College, London

text: Benjamin Guy Babington

text: World Anti-Slavery Convention

text: Aborigines Protection Society

text: St. Thomas's Hospital

text: Marshall Hall

text: George Gregory

text: skin diseases

text: Moses Montefiore

text: dysentery

text: Jaffa

text: abolition of slavery

text: Anti-Slavery Society

text: physical anthropology

text: ethnology

text: Hannah Kilham

text: civilisation

text: Aborigines Protection Society

text: Philological Society

text: racial trait

text: Société Ethnologique de Paris

text: Ethnological Society of London

text: Liberia

text: Sierra Leone

text: Elliott Cresson

text: American Colonization Society

text: abolitionist

text: William Lloyd Garrison

text: British African Colonization Society

text: Boothia Peninsula

text: Hudson's Bay Company

text: Richard King

text: George Back

text: John Henry Pelly

text: Sir George Simpson

text: Joseph Jackson Lister

text: achromatic

text: Ernst Heinrich Weber

text: histology

text: Hodgkin's lymphoma

text: eponym

text: Samuel Wilks

text: lymphoid tissue

text: spleen

text: liver

text: Hodgkin's paragranuloma

text: Hodgkin's sarcoma

text: appendicitis

text: red blood cells

text: muscle

text: vitalist

text: James Cowles Prichard

text: blue plaque

text: Bedford Square

text: The Friends' School, Hobart

text: King's College London

text: School of Medicine's

text: WhoNamedIt – Thomas Hodgkin

categories: Alumni of King's College London,1866 deaths,People from Islington (district),19th-century English medical doctors,Deaths from dysentery,1798 births,English Quakers,Hodgkin's lymphoma,Hematology,Hodgkin family,English pathologists,Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

paragraph: Thomas Hodgkin

paragraph: Thomas Hodgkin (17 August 1798 – 5 April 1866) was a British physician, considered one of the most prominent pathologists of his time and a pioneer in preventive medicine. He is now best known for the first account of Hodgkin's disease, a form of lymphoma and blood disease, in 1832. Hodgkin's work marked the beginning of times when a pathologist was actively involved in the clinical process. He was a contemporary of Thomas Addison and Richard Bright at Guy's Hospital.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Thomas Hodgkin was born to a Quaker family in Pentonville, St. James Parish, Middlesex, the son of John Hodgkin. He received private education with his brother John Hodgkin, and in 1816 took a position as private secretary to William Allen. His aim was to learn the trade of apothecary, one of the routes into medicine, and Allen, despite prominence in that business, did not make it possible. They parted, and Hodgkin went to an apothecary cousin, John Glaisyer, in Brighton instead. He inherited property from his great-uncle of the same name, meaning that from age 21 he had a degree of financial independence.

paragraph: Section::::Medical training and travel.

paragraph: In September 1819 Hodgkin was admitted to St. Thomas's and Guy's Medical School. He "walked the wards" for a year on the rounds of physicians and surgeons, and attended lectures, in particular those by Astley Cooper. He then studied at the University of Edinburgh, where the lecturers who impressed him included Andrew Duncan, the younger, and Robert Jameson in natural history. His first published paper, on the spleen, came from Duncan's course, and drew on the veterinary writings of his friend Bracy Clark. During his time as a student, he became a member of the Royal Medical Society.

paragraph: In 1821, Hodgkin went to France, where he learned to work with the stethoscope, a recent invention of René Laennec. He also took account of the exacting statistical and clinical approach of Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis. He associated there with British expatriates including Robert Knox and Helen Maria Williams. In 1823, he qualified for his M.D. at the University of Edinburgh Medical School with a thesis on the physiological mechanisms of absorption in animals.

paragraph: In Paris Hodgkin met Benjamin Thorpe, a banker for Rothschild's at the time, who was suffering from tuberculosis. Hodgkin became his physician for a while, and Thorpe was cured. This contact led to another appointment as physician to Abraham Montefiore, married to Henriette, daughter of Mayer Amschel Rothschild. Once graduated at Edinburgh, Hodgkin joined the couple for travel in Italy. Abraham was seriously ill with tuberculosis (he died in 1824) and the position proved unsatisfactory for both sides, with Hodgkin dismissed. But the relationship he built up with Moses Montefiore, Abraham's brother, proved a lifelong friendship.

paragraph: Staying in Paris for an extended period from September 1824 to June 1825, Hodgkin made significant medical contacts. The Edwards brothers, William-Frédéric Edwards and Henri Milne Edwards, were both physiologists with distinctive theories, and Hodgkin looked over their work in the next few years. Achille-Louis Foville was a neurologist, around whom Hodgkin tried unsuccessfully, from 1838, to set up a southern version of the York Retreat.

paragraph: Section::::Career at Guy's.

paragraph: Hodgkin found a position at Guy's, first as a volunteer clerk in 1825, and then in 1826 as the curator of the museum there, also carrying out autopsies. He built up his reputation on the work his posts brought him in morbid anatomy (anatomical pathology as it is now called).

paragraph: Hodgkin's hospital career came to an end, however, in 1837, when he clashed with the autocratic Benjamin Harrison. Harrison disliked Hodgkin's progressive views, and support for the new University College, London, and had been personally offended by them in one instance (see below). There were two confrontational interviews in which Harrison went over pretexts for not giving Hodgkin a promotion (to Assistant Physician); Hodgkin had also been ill not long before. His friends pushed the issue to an acrimonious vote of the governors, which was in fact hopeless. The position went to the rival candidate Benjamin Guy Babington, and Hodgkin moved reluctantly into private practice, after a period of convalescence. In 1840 he attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London representing the Aborigines Protection Society.

paragraph: Section::::Lecturer at St. Thomas's.

paragraph: Hodgkin had a further period of involvement with hospital medicine, when in 1842 he was asked to take charge of teaching at St. Thomas's Hospital. After joint management of Guy's and St. Thomas's had ended in 1825, St. Thomas's had found itself eclipsed as a medical school by its former partner. Hodgkin was brought in, and found new lecturers in Marshall Hall and George Gregory; he lectured himself, and with Charles Barker the four embarked on a lecture series. He also drew on his experience at Guy's to improve the museum and start a Clinical Society for reporting of cases. The outcome, however, was unsatisfactory for him. Hall was much preferred as lecturer, and Gregory, lecturing on skin diseases, gained a reputation for clarity, and wrote a textbook. But Hodgkin was not asked to continue lecturing for another year, ending the relationship.

paragraph: Section::::Last years.

paragraph: Hodgkin married in 1850 Sarah Frances Scaife, a widow; they had no children. When Lady Montefiore died in 1862, Hodgkin promised her to travel with her husband on future journeys. He accompanied Moses Montefiore to Palestine in 1866. There he contracted dysentery and died on 4 April 1866. He was buried in Jaffa.

paragraph: Section::::Interests.

paragraph: Hodgkin like many other Quakers was concerned both with the abolition of slavery and the reduction of the impact of western colonization on indigenous peoples around the world. He stood aside from the Anti-Slavery Society of the 1820s and 1830s, however; the society took a different line on emancipation and colonization in Africa. It refused in the early 1830s to publish his views. Hodgkin began to take multiple initiatives of his own.

paragraph: Section::::Interests.:Ethnology.

paragraph: Hodgkin had an interest in both the physical anthropology and the cultural aspects of what would now be ethnology, before the academic disciplines existed. In his role as keeper of the Museum at Guy's, he collected specimens from peoples from around the world. In 1827, in a letter supporting the missionary Hannah Kilham who was working with West African languages, he published for the first time long-held ideas on "civilisation"; a Civilization Society in London had been a Hodgkin family initiative some years earlier. In helping to found the Aborigines Protection Society, he argued that languages constituted philological evidence of man's origins, and should therefore be preserved where threatened; he had written a paper on the topic, and proposed a questionnaire, for the Philological Society in 1835.

paragraph: For Hodgkin, language was a racial trait. In Paris around the end of 1838, he prevailed upon W. F. Edwards to form a French society with the same aims as the Aborigines Protection Society; and in 1839 the Société Ethnologique de Paris was set up in accordance with Edwards's own ideas. This development was reflected in 1843 when the Ethnological Society of London was set up, diverging from the Aborigines Protection Society by its scientific and linguistic interests, and disconnecting from missionary work.

paragraph: Section::::Interests.:Colonization in Africa.

paragraph: Hodgkin was a supporter of Liberia in the early days of its foundation; and he compared it favourably to Sierra Leone. In supporting Elliott Cresson and the American Colonization Society, he put himself outside the mainstream of Quaker and abolitionist thinking. When the American abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison, toured in England in 1833, Hodgkin tried at first to mediate between Garrison and Cresson. The formation, however, of the British African Colonization Society by Cresson had Hodgkin's support, and he found himself isolated from natural allies who were Quakers or physicians. There were personal attacks on Hodgkin from the Garrison camp.

paragraph: Section::::Interests.:Hudson's Bay Company.

paragraph: Hodgkin became involved in campaigning concerning the Boothia Peninsula and the Hudson's Bay Company around 1836–7, through his friend Richard King. King had been on the expedition of Captain George Back in the north of Canada of 1833–5, and had written an 1836 book, his "Narrative", on it; he advocated a further expedition in the same area in 1836–7, a cause Hodgkin took up. Sensitive commercial interests were involved, as the Hudson's Bay Company's license was due for renewal in 1841. The "Narrative" contained a piece Hodgkin had written on the indifference of the Company to the indigenous peoples of western Canada. Hodgkin then took up the behaviour of the Company with Benjamin Harrison, Treasurer of Guy's, disastrously mixing his professional life with his activism: Harrison was concerned in the management of the Company as Deputy Chairman, and was related by marriage to John Henry Pelly, the Chairman, who had crossed swords with King at parliamentary hearings.

paragraph: Hodgkin's concerns over the indigenous peoples in the Hudson's Bay Company territory in western Canada continued. They were pursued both by correspondence with Sir George Simpson, and in the pages of the "Intelligencer" of the Aborigines Protection Society.

paragraph: Section::::Work in medicine.

paragraph: Hodgkin collaborated with Joseph Jackson Lister, who in 1830 enunciated design principles for the achromatic microscope. By that time Hodgkin and Lister had already published research on tissue samples, based on observations made with Lister's innovative microscope, in particular on the "globule hypothesis" of the time which was held in particular by Henri Milne Edwards. They denied the existence of globules in tissue; Ernst Heinrich Weber in 1830 contradicted them, and the debate continued for a decade. For a while microscopy suffered in its reputation, but by 1840 histology was a recognised discipline, and in time the view of Hodgkin and Lister that "globules" were optical artefacts became accepted. The 1827 paper they published has been called "the foundation of modern histology".

paragraph: Hodgkin described the disease that bears his name (Hodgkin's lymphoma) in 1832, in a paper titled "On Some Morbid Appearances of the Absorbent Glands and Spleen". He received 33 years later the eponym through the recognition of British physician Samuel Wilks, who rediscovered the disease. It is a malignancy that produces enlargement of lymphoid tissue, spleen, and liver, with invasion of other tissues. A more benign form is called Hodgkin's paragranuloma, while a more invasive form is called Hodgkin's sarcoma.

paragraph: Hodgkin published as a book his "Lectures on Morbid Anatomy" in 1836 and 1840. His major contribution to the teaching of pathology, however, was made in 1829, with his two volumed work entitled "The Morbid Anatomy of Serous and Mucous Membranes", which became a classic in modern pathology.

paragraph: Hodgkin was one of the earliest defenders of preventive medicine, having published "On the Means of Promoting and Preserving Health" in book form in 1841. Among other early observations were the first description of acute appendicitis, of the biconcave format of red blood cells and the striation of muscle fibers.

paragraph: Hodgkin also translated with Thomas Fisher, from the French of William-Frédéric Edwards, "On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life" (London, 1832; Philadelphia 1838). Edwards was a vitalist in physiology, who studied the effect of physical forces on processes in living organisms. The work as it appeared in English was much more than a translation, since it contained an appendix of over 200 pages containing two dozen papers, a compendium of medicine and science tangentially related to themes in Edwards, but related to his general approach. It included early work by Hodgkin and collaboration with Lister, as well as something on electricity and meteorology. He also published "The Means of Promoting and Preserving Health" (London, 1840), of which a second edition appeared in 1841, and an "Address on Medical Reform" (1847).

paragraph: Section::::Other works.

paragraph: Other works by Hodgkin were "Biographical Sketches": of James Cowles Prichard (1849); and of William Stroud (1789–1858), a medical collaborator. He also wrote abolitionist pamphlets and on the British African Colonization Societies (1833–1834).

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: There is a blue plaque on his house in Bedford Square, London. The Friends' School, Hobart named one of the four school houses after him.

paragraph: The King's College London School of Medicine's Hodgkin Building is named in honour of Hodgkin.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kass, Amalie M. and Kass, Edward H. (1988) "Perfecting the World: The life and times of Dr. Thomas Hodgkin, 1798–1866", Boston, Harcourt Brace Jovanovic.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- WhoNamedIt – Thomas Hodgkin

paragraph: BULLET::::- History and Timeline of Hodgkin's Disease

description: British pathologist

wikidata_label: Thomas Hodgkin

wikipedia_title: Thomas Hodgkin


text:
Nayanar
Hindu
Shaivism
Dalit
untouchable
Shiva
Tamil society
Periya Puranam
Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Gopalakrishna Bharati
caste
Tamil Nadu
Sundarar
Chidambaram
Nambiyandar Nambi
Pulayar
Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram
Shiva
Brahmin
Tamil
Periya Puranam
Sekkizhar
hagiography
Gopalakrishna Bharati
Chola
Thanjavur district
Tamil Nadu
caste
Dalits
Paraiyar
drums
Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur
Nandi
mount
garbhagriha
sanctum sanctorum
circumambulated
Nataraja
fire sacrifices
Vedic
Brahmin
matted hair
the sacred thread
sacred ash
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
bonded labour
gana
Ganesha
tirtha
Ramanuja
Vivekananda
Pudhumaipithan
Mahatma Gandhi
Periyar E. V. Ramasamy
Self-Respect Movement
Indira Parthasarathy
Devadasi
Bharatnatyam
Tamil month
Purattasi
Rohini
nakshatra
Anjali mudra
kamandalu
Airavatesvara Temple
Darasuram
Tyagaraja
Umapathi Sivacharya
Sanskrit
Sthala Purana
Dvarapala
bhakti
jnana
Adi Dravida
B. R. Ambedkar
Satyagraha
Nonviolent resistance
Villu Paatu
Tamil films
Nandanar
P. K. Raja Sandow
1935 film
K. B. Sundarambal
Dandapani Desikar
Kolar Gold Fields
Sundaram Balachander
N. S. Krishnan
A. Padmanabhan

paragraph: Nandanar

paragraph: Nandanar (also spelt as Nantanar), also known as Tirunalaippovar (Thirunaallaippovaar) and Tiru Nalai Povar Nayanar, was a Nayanar saint, who is venerated in the Hindu sect of Shaivism. He is the only Dalit ("untouchable") saint in the Nayanars. He is generally counted as the eighteenth in the list of 63 Nayanars. Like the other Nayanars, he was a devout devotee of the god Shiva.

paragraph: The tale of Nandanar is retold numerous times in folk tales, folk music, plays, films and literature in Tamil society. While Nandanar is included in Nayanar list since the 8th century CE, the 12th century CE "Periya Puranam" gives a full hagiographical account of his life. The tale focuses on two miracles attributed to him. In Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur; his prayers are said to have moved a giant stone bull, which still appears in the moved position in the temple. Nandanar is said to have ritually purified himself by fire at Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. Nandar's tale features in temple lore and religious literature related to both these temples. Gopalakrishna Bharati's 19th century retelling of the saint's life remains the basis of many later retellings. It expands the original narrative adding elements of oppression of the Dalit saint by higher castes. While higher caste retellings of the tale focus on the saint's observance of caste norms, Dalits emphasize his exploitation and superior religiosity.

paragraph: Apart from collective worship Nandanar enjoys being part of the Nayanars in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu, shrines depicted to Nandanar exist in both the sites of his miracles. The saint also became an icon of protest in Dalit rights movements.

paragraph: Section::::Accounts of life.

paragraph: One of the most prominent Nayanars, Sundarar (8th century) is the first to name Nandanar (called Tirunalaipovar) in literature, however Tirunalaipovar ('he who will go tomorrow') relates to the tale of Nandanar longing to visit Chidambaram; no details of his life are revealed. In the eleventh century, Nambiyandar Nambi devotes a stanza to Nandanar in his "Tiruttondar Tiruvandhadhi" while recalling the lives of the Nayanars. Tirunalaipovar is described as a Pulayar (Pulaiya, Pulai) who lived in Adanur. He is said to have visited Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram of his patron god Shiva "by God's grace" and "three thousand Brahmins (priests) of Chidambaram saluted him."

paragraph: The earliest full (and primary religious) account of Nandanar's life is found in the Tamil "Periya Puranam" by Sekkizhar (12th century), which is a hagiography of the 63 Nayanars, but it was the "Nandanar Charitram" by the Tamil poet Gopalakrishna Bharati (1810–1896) brought Nandanar's tale to public attention. The "Nandanar Charitam" (printed in 1861), the magnum opus of Bharati, added new elements to Sekkizhar's tale. Though it is unknown when he lived exactly, generally he is dated to 7th or 8th century CE.

paragraph: Section::::Accounts of life.:The "Periya Puranam".

paragraph: The "Periya Puranam" narrates that Nandanar belonged to Adanur (Adanoor) in the Chola kingdom. Presently, Adanur is located in Thanjavur district, in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. He was born in the Pulaiya caste, who were regarded "untouchables" (see Dalits). They were agricultural labourers and singers. Another description considers Nandanar from the Dalit caste of Paraiyar, who served as labourers and were drummers as per the caste code.

paragraph: Nandanar was born in poverty, in Pulaippadi, the Pulai slums of Adanur. He was a staunch devotee of the god Shiva, the patron god of Shaivism. He was a leather maker, who crafted drums and other musical instruments. He also served as a village servant, a watchman, a labourer as well as the "town crier", who used to beat the drums. In Nandanar's times, Dalits were not allowed to enter Hindu temples. So, Nandanar would stand outside a Shiva temple and sing the praises of Shiva and dance. However, he harboured a strong urge to pay his respects to the icon of Shiva at Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur. He stood outside the temple, but a huge stone Nandi (the bull mount of Shiva, whose sculpture is generally seen in Shiva temples, facing Shiva in the garbhagriha - "sanctum sanctorum") blocked his path of vision. The compassionate Shiva ordered Nandi to move a little to side and the bull complied, allowing the Nayanar to see the central icon of Shiva, unobstructed. Nandanar cleaned up the surroundings of the temple and dug a pond (which serves as the temple tank) in honour of Shiva. He circumambulated the shrine and returned to Adanur.

paragraph: Nandanar visited many temples of Shiva and served the god. Once, he longed to visit the Thillai Nataraja Temple of Chidambaram, which enshrines Shiva as Nataraja, the Lord of Dance. He used to say everyday that he will go the next day to Chidambaram, but never actually dared to step in the holy town, where he was prohibited entry. Thus, he came to be known as "Tiru-Nalai-povar", 'he who will go tomorrow'. Finally, Nandanar reached the boundary of Chidambaram, but feared to set foot in the town. He saw the smoke of fire sacrifices and heard the chants of the Vedic scriptures. Thinking about how he can see Nataraja's dancing icon, the Nayanar circumambulated the town numerous times and finally succumbed to fatigue and slept. Shiva appeared in his dream and told Nandanar to enter the temple through a holy fire. The god also informed the Brahmin priests of Chidambaram to prepare a pyre. Next day, the Brahmins approached Nandanar as per the divine order.

paragraph: Nandanar entered the holy fire chanting the name of Shiva and reappeared in a new purified form. He looked like a Brahmin sage, wearing matted hair (characteristic of a Shaiva) and the sacred thread worn by Brahmins across his chest. His body was smeared with sacred ash. The gods showered flowers on the Nayanar from heaven and the Brahmins cheered. With the Brahmins, Nandanar went in the garbhagriha and saw Nataraja. The Nayanar disappeared in the image of Nataraja and became one with Shiva.

paragraph: The "Periya Puranam" version is interpreted as a Brahmanical narrative, where a particular Dalit is granted salvation by transforming into a Brahmin; the superiority of the Brahmins is reinforced and the legitimacy of the ban of Dalits is not challenged.

paragraph: P.Sampath, president of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front (TNUEF) and an office-bearer politician from the Tamil Nadu unit of Communist Party of India (Marxist) (known as CPI (M)), calls the Chidambaram fire-trail as Brahmin propaganda to conceal the truth that Nandanar was burnt at the stake.

paragraph: Section::::Accounts of life.:The "Nandanar Charitam".

paragraph: Bharati was an ardent devotee of Shiva and wrote three operas in honour of various Nayanar saints. Though Bharati was himself an upper caste Brahmin, he was a crusader for the rights of the Dalits. While Sekkizhar exalts Nandanar's devotion to Shiva, Bharati presents the grim reality of ostracization that the Nayanar suffered. Bharati's Nandanar is "not a rebel, but only a protester". The "Nandanar Charitam" focuses on the atrocities that Nandanar and Dalits as a whole had to suffer at the hands of upper castes. The opera "Nandanar Charitam" was embedded with the social message that Shiva grants emancipation irrespective of caste.

paragraph: The play starts with the term "May I come", a warning to higher-caste people that Dalits had to cry out before entering any street, so as to not pollute the higher caste members. The Nayanar first clashes with his own Dalit brethren. They oppose his devotion for the Lord of Chidambaram, whom they call a Brahmin god. The Dalit elders — headed by Pariyakilavan — define his duties as a pariah and advise him to not confront caste rules. They tell him to worship the folk deities of the pariah, instead of Shiva, the god of Brahmanical Hinduism. The Dalits also feel that Nandanar needs to abide by the social norms and give up his taboo idea of entering a temple.

paragraph: A villainous Brahmin landlord Vetiyar (Vediyar) appears in Bharati's tale. He torments his bonded labourer Nandanar and chastises him repeatedly for trying to go beyond caste norms. Vetiyar sees Nandanar's bhakti and desire to enter a temple "not only as undesirable and irreligious, but also as a serious threat to his social status." Vetiyar refuses to grant him permission to Chidambaram and even resorts to violence. After much persuasion, the Brahmin relents on the condition that the saint do an impossible task of cultivating and harvesting the field in one night. Aided by Shiva's attendant ganas, the saint completes the task. The Brahmin realizes the piety of the Nayanar, apologizes to him and lets him go.

paragraph: Bharati retained the final confrontation with the Brahmins of Chidambaram and his ritual purification by fire. Bharati concludes in a poem saying that "it is said in the epics that the Lord worshipped by Gopalakrishna granted salvation even to Untouchables!"

paragraph: Section::::Accounts of life.:Variants.

paragraph: In stories of higher caste Hindus (especially Brahmins), Nandanar is a Brahmin or God himself somehow trapped in the body of an untouchable and whose true form is revealed by the fire trial. Other tales focus on his strict adherence to caste norms, his obedience of his Brahmin master and his refusal to enter the holy temple as an untouchable.

paragraph: The Dalits strongly believe in his piety and portray Brahmins as the root cause of all the misery of the Nayanar. Nandanar fits in the Dalit narrative that proves that their religiosity is on par or superior to the higher castes. They say that Nandanar was 'swallowed by God'. The sashes round Nataraja's waist are interpreted as the legs of the saint, who merged into the god.

paragraph: The temple lore of Tirupunkur narrates that Shiva instructed his son Ganesha to aid Nandanar in digging the temple tank named "Nandanar tirtha", after the saint. Another variant tells that Ganesha dug up the tank in the night so that Nandanar can bathe in its sacred waters before seeing Shiva in the temple.

paragraph: In the early half of the 20th century, the novel "Nandan", by A. Gopalasami Iyengar and G. Aravamudha Iyengar, includes reformist Brahmin characters that argue Nandan's case against their peers. "Nandan" also echoes the reformist ideas of Hindu spiritual leaders like Ramanuja and Vivekananda, and progressive upper-caste leaders.

paragraph: The short story "Puthiya Nandan" by Pudhumaipithan (1906-1948) places the classical tale of the Nayanar in a contemporary setting. While retelling Nandan's ancient tale, it also alludes to the Dalit rights movements of Mahatma Gandhi and Periyar E. V. Ramasamy (see Self-Respect Movement).

paragraph: Indira Parthasarathy's "Nandan Kathai" (1978) builds the tale of Nandanar (referred in the work as Nandan) further, introducing two non-Brahmin upper caste landholders, who are as ruthless as Bharati's Vediyar. Nandanar is portrayed as a lover of art, rather than God. He wants to see the cosmic dance of Nataraja. A Devadasi called Abhirami also appears; no significant female characters are found in earlier narratives. Indira is blunt in reprimanding the Dalits for not understanding Nandanar. "Nandan Kathai" is a quest for liberation of Dalits and women alike. Unlike earlier narratives, Indira's tale is devoid of miracles and is a story of how Nandanar falls prey to a conspiracy. The Vediyar-priest, the Vediyar-landlord and the two non-Brahmin upper caste landholders, hatch a plot to end Nandan. They make Nandanar believe that God harvested crop from the field, an allusion to the miracle of Vediyar's impossible task in Bharati's work. Then, they persuade him to organize a dance contest between Bharatnatyam, the high-caste elites' dance and the folk dance of the Dalits. Finally, in the climax, Nandanar agrees to undergo a fire-trial, reassured by the earlier miracle, but he and Abhirami burn in the flames. The upper castes succeed in sending a warning to Dalits how trespassers of the caste code, longing for salvation, would be punished.

paragraph: Section::::Celebration in Hindu religion.

paragraph: Nandanar is specially worshipped in the Tamil month of Purattasi, when the moon enters the Rohini nakshatra (lunar mansion). He is depicted with a shaved head, folded hands (see Anjali mudra) with a kamandalu and a "danda" (staff), like a seer. He receives collective worship as part of the 63 Nayanars. Their icons and brief accounts of his deeds are found in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu. Their images are taken out in procession in festivals.

paragraph: A water tank in Chidambaram is considered sacred as it is believed to be the site of Nandanar's fire-purification. A "recently built" (as mentioned in the 1992 book) small shrine dedicated to the Nayanar, exists in south-west part of the town, whose name means 'Nandanar has become the temple'. A sculpture of Nandanar as a singer is found in the Chidambaram temple, besides another in Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram (12th century) depicting him in the trail by fire.

paragraph: Sundarar venerates Nandanar in the "Tiruthonda Thogai", a hymn to Nayanar saints, calling him "Nalaippovan", the "holy pilgrim" who will go tomorrow. An earlier hymn to Shiva praises the god who is served by Nalaippovan. The devotional poet Tyagaraja (1767–1847) also narrates the tale of Nandanar in his poems.

paragraph: Devotional works dedicated to Nataraja of the Chidambaram temple narrate Nandanar's tale. Umapathi Sivacharya's "Kunchitangristava" (early fourteenth century) mentions Nandan's legend. While another Sanskrit work "Hemasabhanatha Mahatmya" devotes its ninth chapter to the Nayanar. The "Sthala Purana" of the Nataraja temple called "Chidambara Mahatmya" praises the god as served by Nandan.

paragraph: The Nandi in Sivalokanathar Temple, Tirupunkur is seen placed off centre as a testimony of Nandanar's devotion and the miracle. A stone image of the saint is worshipped in the temple. The Dvarapalas (gate-keeper sculptures) are depicted with his heads leaning downwards, said to be in honour of Nandanar. In 1959, a shrine was created outside the Shiva temple, from where the stone image of Nandanar looks eternally at Shiva. Nandanar is depicted with his hands joined above his head, praying to Shiva. Scenes of Bharati's opera and the local legend of Nandanar and Ganesha digging the temple tank are seen on the shrine.

paragraph: Section::::Remembrance in society.

paragraph: Nandanar's influence was and remains limited primarily to the Tamil-speaking areas. The Christian missionary Rev. A. C. Clayton—who was "sympathetic" to the Dalit cause—used Nandanar's narrative (retold as "The Legend of Nandan") to suggest that bhakti (devotion)—which saw no distinction of class or caste—was the superior means to salvation than the "jnana-marga" (salvation by knowledge) propagated by the Brahmins and also challenged the authority of the Brahmin orthodoxy.

paragraph: Nandanar became "the hero of tales of caste protest". The "Adi Dravida" (Dalit) leaders of the Self-Respect Movement used Nandanar as an exemplar to prove that social superiority originates not from birth, but the qualities and deeds of people. In 2010, Cadres of the Tamil Nadu Untouchability Eradication Front (TNUEF) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) under the leadership of P. Samath, protested to bring down the wall on the South Gate of the Chimdabaram temple, which was—as per a tale—built as Nandanar entered from the gate. The walled gate was the symbol of the oppression of the Dalit caste and caste discrimination, as per the protesters who demanded its demolition. The state government — which governs the temple currently — contented that the veracity of Nandanar's tale and its connection to the walled Gate, can not be ascertained and thus, refused the protesters' demands. Nandanar "continues to inspire them (Dalits) as a symbol of resistance and a hope of a better future". However, young Dalits identify with recent Dalit leaders like B. R. Ambedkar and are unaware or uninterested in the "obedient Nandanar". Ambedkar, himself had dedicated his book "The Untouchables", to three Dalit saints, including Nandanar.

paragraph: In speech in Chidambaram, Mahatma Gandhi called Nandanar, a true practitioner of Satyagraha, a means of Nonviolent resistance. Gandhi said: "Nanda broke every barrier and won his way to freedom, not by brag, not by bluster, but by the purest form of self-suffering... he shamed them [his persecutors] into doing justice by his lofty prayer, by the purity of his character, ... he compelled God Himself to descend and made Him open the eyes of his persecutors".

paragraph: Nandanar's tale is retold numerous times through folk tales, plays, literature and art forms like Villu Paatu and "musical discourses". A number of Tamil films, all titled "Nandanar", recall Nandanar's tale following Bharati's version. Besides a silent film in 1923, another silent film "Nandanar", subtitled "The Elevation of the Downtrodden", directed by P. K. Raja Sandow, in 1930. The first talkie film on Nandanar was made in 1931. The 1935 film featured K. B. Sundarambal, who also performed on stage as the Nayanar numerous times. The 1942 film, starring Dandapani Desikar in the lead, courted controversy for its overly Brahmin overtones and was banned in Kolar Gold Fields after protests by Dalits, however the ban was lifted after Desikar met and personally apologized to the Dalits for being part of the climax, which featured the fire-purification. Another film on Nandanar was released in 1943. Sundaram Balachander acted in the 1948 film. N. S. Krishnan presented the story as a "narrative art form", while A. Padmanabhan released a small booklet on the saint's life for children. C. T. Indra says that Nandanar was made immortal in legend and remembered over the years "as a strategy of public management of anxiety. ... In the Essentialist way, Nandan's devotion was cited down the ages to play down the social inequities and play up his spiritual qualifications."

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sources

description: Nayanar saint

wikidata_label: Nandanar

wikipedia_title: Nandanar


text: Lamoni, Iowa

text: Major League Baseball

text: relief pitcher

text: Baltimore Orioles

text: Philadelphia Phillies

text: Chicago Cubs

text: rookie

text: saves

text: 1966 World Series

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text: Wally Bunker

text: Dave McNally

text: Moe Drabowsky

text: American League

text: World Series

text: New York Mets

text: earned run average

text: Cincinnati Reds

text: 1970 World Series

text: Jim Palmer

text: walk

text: Tony Pérez

text: single

text: Johnny Bench

text: inning

text: run

text: homer

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text: Wichita Aeros

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text: games pitched

text: games started

text: complete game

text: games finished

text: home runs

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categories: 1941 births,Hawaii Islanders players,Minor league baseball managers,Appleton Foxes players,Rochester Red Wings players,Philadelphia Phillies players,Tiburones de La Guaira players,Aberdeen Pheasants players,Northern Iowa Panthers baseball players,People from Lamoni, Iowa,Elmira Pioneers players,Navegantes del Magallanes players,Chicago Cubs players,Reno Silver Sox players,Major League Baseball pitchers,Living people,Tigres de Aragua players,Baltimore Orioles players,Baseball players from Iowa,People from Dodge County, Nebraska

paragraph: Eddie Watt

paragraph: Eddie Dean Watt (born April 4, 1941 in Lamoni, Iowa) is a former Major League Baseball relief pitcher. The , right-hander was signed by the Baltimore Orioles as an amateur free agent on September 5, 1961. He played for the Orioles (1966–1973), Philadelphia Phillies (1974), and Chicago Cubs (1975).

paragraph: Watt started just 13 out of the 411 games he appeared in, all during his rookie season. He was 2–5 as a starter and 7–2 with 4 saves as a reliever for the 1966 World Series Champion Orioles. He did not appear in any of the four World Series games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Jim Palmer, Wally Bunker, and Dave McNally all pitched complete games, and the team needed only one relief appearance, provided in record fashion by Moe Drabowsky.

paragraph: In 1969 the Orioles won the American League pennant and were upset in the World Series by the New York Mets. Watt contributed to Baltimore's 109–53 regular season record with a career-high 16 saves and a career-low 1.65 earned run average in 71 innings.

paragraph: Watt was an important part of Baltimore's 1970 Championship season though it was not one of his best seasons statistically. He won 7 games and saved 12 with a 3.25 ERA in 53 appearances. He was the losing pitcher in the Orioles' 6–5 defeat to the Cincinnati Reds in Game 4 of the 1970 World Series. With the Orioles leading 5–3, he entered the contest in relief of Jim Palmer, who had allowed a walk to Tony Pérez and a single to Johnny Bench to open the top of the eighth inning. Watt surrendered a three-run homer to Lee May, the first batter he faced. The Orioles eventually won the Series, but the loss prevented them from sweeping the Reds in four straight games.

paragraph: He was consistently effective during seven seasons of pitching exclusively in relief for Baltimore. From 1967 to 1973 he averaged 46 appearances, 67 innings, and 10 saves with an ERA of 2.40.

paragraph: On December 7, 1973 Watt was purchased by the Philadelphia Phillies for an estimated $70,000. In 1974 he appeared in 42 games for the Phils, going 1–1 with 6 saves and a 3.99 ERA. He was released by Philadelphia just before Opening Day in 1975, and he hooked on briefly with the Chicago Cubs, making his last major league appearance on June 14, 1975. He spent most of the season with the Wichita Aeros of the American Association.

paragraph: Career totals include a record of 38–36 in 411 games pitched, 13 games started, 1 complete game, 240 games finished, 80 saves, and an ERA of 2.91. In 659.2 innings he gave up just 37 home runs, an average of about one per 18 innings, and had a very low WHIP of 1.188. He had a batting average of .190 in 100 at bats with 3 home runs, hit against Johnny Podres, Frank Kreutzer, and Sam McDowell.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball all-time saves leaders

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Retrosheet

paragraph: BULLET::::- SABR Biography Project

paragraph: BULLET::::- Baseball Library

paragraph: BULLET::::- Venezuelan Winter League

paragraph: BULLET::::- Klingaman, Mike. "Catching up with...former Oriole Eddie Watt," "The Toy Department" ("The Baltimore Sun" sports blog), Monday, May 2, 2011.

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: Eddie Watt

wikipedia_title: Eddie Watt


text: soldier of fortune

text: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

text: Unitarian

text: auctioneer

text: commission merchant

text: First Lieutenant

text: War of 1812

text: Whig Party

text: Hibernian Society of Philadelphia

text: University of Pennsylvania

text: Master of Arts

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text: Georges Darboy

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text: Kaymakam

text: staff officer

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text: György Kmety

text: Battle of Kurekdere

text: Siege of Kars

text: Order of the Medjidie

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text: Crimea Medal

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text: Freeman's Journal

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text: Camille Cremer

text: Armée de l'Est

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text: Battle of the Lisaine

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text: Legion of Honor

text: Khedive

text: Isma'il Pasha

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text: Ulysses S. Grant

text: Charles Pomeroy Stone

text: Chief of Staff

text: Philadelphia Times

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text: Romanian War of Independence

text: Siege of Plevna

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text: plots

text: Maharaja

text: Duleep Singh

text: Sikh

text: Montparnasse Cemetery

text: The Black Prince

text: George Augustus Henry Sala

text: Charles Dickens

categories: Recipients of the Order of the Medjidie,People of the Fenian Raids,United States Army officers,American mercenaries,1828 births,19th-century spies,People from Philadelphia,American people in the khedivial Egyptian Army,United States Military Academy alumni,Knights Commander of the Royal Order of Francis I,Ottoman military personnel of the Crimean War,Union Army colonels,Grand Officers of the Order of Glory (Ottoman Empire),Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur,American expatriates in France,French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War,Papal chamberlains,American war correspondents,American Roman Catholics,Military personnel from Philadelphia,1900 deaths

paragraph: Washington Carroll Tevis

paragraph: Washington Carroll Tevis (February 22, 1829 – September 29, 1900), also known as Charles Carroll Tevis, Nassim Bey and Charles Carroll de Taillevis, was an American-born soldier of fortune who served in a variety of armies and conflicts during the 19th century.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Washington C. Tevis was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on February 22, 1829. His parents were Benjamin Tevis (1789–1845), a Unitarian and an auctioneer and commission merchant and Mary Hunter. Born in Maryland, Benjamin served as a First Lieutenant with the 39th Regiment of Maryland Militia during the War of 1812. Benjamin was involved with the Whig Party and the Hibernian Society of Philadelphia. In addition to Washington, the Tevis family had a daughter Martha Heloise Tevis who was born on August 7, 1826 but died on August 8, 1827.

paragraph: Washington entered the University of Pennsylvania in 1842 and graduated in 1845 with a Master of Arts degree.

paragraph: Section::::United States Army.

paragraph: With an ongoing situation of war with Mexico brewing, Tevis was appointed at large to the United States Military Academy at West Point on June 30, 1845. He graduated 24th in his class of 43 on the 1st of July, 1849, He was commissioned a Brevet Second Lieutenant with the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen. Tevis trained at the School of Cavalry Practice but resigned his commission on May 12, 1850. From May 1850 to November 1851 Tevis was a member of the prestigious First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry.

paragraph: Section::::France, the Near East and the Crimean War.

paragraph: Financed by the inheritance from his late father Tevis traveled to Paris. There he began using the name "Charles Carroll Tevis". He converted to Roman Catholicism in 1853 where he received Baptism in the Chapel of the Archbishop of Paris, from the hands of then Monsignor Georges Darboy who was charged with Tevis's instruction and preparation in the faith.

paragraph: On February 4, 1854 he was commissioned a Major or Binbashi in the army of the Ottoman Empire and soon advanced to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel or Kaymakam. He adopted the name of "Nessim Bey". Initially a staff officer Tevis led a force of Bashi-bazouks under General György Kmety in the Battle of Kurekdere, Battle of Indjédéré and the Siege of Kars. He was made an Officer in the Order of the Medjidie, a Grand Officer in the Order of Glory of the Ottoman Empire and was awarded the Medal for the Defence of Kars and the British Crimea Medal.

paragraph: Tevis left the army in 1855 to return to Paris. There he published a book of warfare "La Petite guerre et le service des avant-postes" published by Guiraudet et Jouaust in 1855 and patented a revolver.

paragraph: Section::::Return to the United States.

paragraph: Tevis returned to Philadelphia in approximately 1859 and applied to have his name changed to Charles Carroll de Taillevis; believing it to be his original family name from a Huguenot who came to America in 1702.

paragraph: Tevis eloped with Blanche Florance, the daughter of a wealthy Philadelphia family in November 1860, against her father's wishes. As a result, she was disinherited, though her father left her an inheritance after his death in 1867.

paragraph: Section::::The American Civil War.

paragraph: Though an experienced cavalryman, Tevis was commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry in the United States Volunteers; the second in command of the 4th Delaware Volunteer Infantry Regiment on August 18, 1862. In addition to organising the regiment and serving with them at the defence of Baltimore he was involved in operations around Gloucester Point, Virginia. In June 1863 Lt. Col Tevis led a combined infantry force of 400 men, from several regiments in addition to his 4th Delaware, in an amphibious operation in the vicinity of Walkerton, Virginia where his men successfully destroyed a large amount of Confederate supplies.

paragraph: In September 1863 Lt. Col Tevis was selected by Brigadier General Robert C. Schenck to organise and lead an unusual cavalry regiment, the 3rd Maryland Volunteer Cavalry composed of hundreds of Confederate prisoners of war who agreed to serve the Union; many were captured at the Battle of Gettysburg.

paragraph: The state of Maryland in the American Civil War contained large amounts of citizens loyal to both the Federal and Confederate governments. In addition to normal wartime military operations Tevis's regiment patrolled the areas of elections and made arrests. Tevis entered the forbidden zone of politics when on November 2, 1863 he issued a proclamation not only declaring that all qualified voters should engage in their right to vote, but to vote for the platform of the Unconditional Union Party as "recognized by the Federal authorities as loyal or worthy of the support of any one who desires the peace and restoration of the Union". Tevis's soldiers also arrested several candidates in the election. As a result, Brigadier Schenck ordered the withdrawal of the proclamation and the arrest of Tevis. After further investigation Schenck ordered Tevis released believing that Tevis acted in good faith, though he was quite wrong to sign the proclamation that was actually written by provost marshal and a candidate in the election, Captain John Frazier, however Tevis was honorably discharged July 20, 1864.

paragraph: Prior to the ending of hostilities, Tevis's friend and fellow Philadelphian Charles Godfrey Leland used his influence with John Weiss Forney to obtain a Brevet commission as a Brigadier General for Tevis.

paragraph: Section::::Adjutant General of the Fenian Army.

paragraph: With the Civil War only recently ending, Tevis found himself in a new war at a much higher level of command. The Fenian Brotherhood Congress appointed Tevis a committeeman from the state of Pennsylvania.

paragraph: Brigadier General Thomas William Sweeny was made Secretary of War in late 1865 by the Fenian Brotherhood who had a scheme to gain the independence of Ireland through military attacks on Canada. In November 1865 Tevis was appointed Adjutant General of the organisation, with the rank of Brigadier General one of nine men in Sweeny's Fenian General Staff.

paragraph: Tevis and Major William O'Reilly purchased 4,220 Pennsylvania militia muskets from the Bridesburg, Philadelphia arsenal, however plans to purchase cannon did not come to fruition.

paragraph: With the plans for Fenian Raids being devised, Tevis would lead the left wing of the assault on Canada in May 1866. He organised and would transport 3,000 Fenian raiders leaving from Chicago, then linking up with Fenians in Milwaukee to steam up Lake Michigan to land for operations in Goderich, Ontario. The Western invasion did not come to pass because Tevis was unable to organise the invader's transportation. Major General Sweeny dismissed Brig. Gen. C. C. Tevis, Adjutant General, for disobedience of orders.

paragraph: Though there are theories that the United States Government did not want the Fenian plans to actually succeed, Tevis was in the pay of the British Crown as a secret agent for £100 each month. He would remain providing information to Her Majesty's Secret Service for years to come. The British Ambassador to the United States Frederick Wright-Bruce reported that Tevis "quarreled with the Fenian leaders and is now ready to do them as much harm as possible".

paragraph: Section::::The Army of the Pope.

paragraph: Though the 1853 announcement of Tevis's conversion to Roman Catholicism mentioned that he would join the Army of the Papal States as an officer, it was not until after his Fenian adventures that Tevis enlisted as a private soldier in the Papal Zouaves an international legion of soldiers. With the Papal States facing continued opposition from those Italians desiring Rome be incorporated into a united Italy, Tevis proposed he recruit a separate battalion of battle experienced American soldiers to fight for the Pope with Tevis being commissioned a Lieutenant Colonel. Tevis fired off a barrage of letters to the Freeman's Journal, an American Roman Catholic newspaper including a statement that if all the Roman Catholic parishes in the United States provided $100 in gold a year a battalion of 1,000 fighters could be equipped and sent to Rome. Four American bishops opposed the scheme. Tevis was to be sent to the United States to drum up volunteers, but upon his arrival in Paris he heard of the opposition of the American bishops. Tevis resigned his commission.

paragraph: For his efforts the Pope knighted Tevis Chamberlain of the Sword and Cape on February 22, 1868 and ennobled him with the title of Count. On March 10, 1869, Tevis he was appointed a Commander of the Royal Order of Francis I by order of the exiled Francis II of the Two Sicilies.

paragraph: Section::::Franco Prussian War.

paragraph: On the 14th of December 14, 1870, Tevis was granted the provisional rank of Brigade General and placed in command of General Camille Cremer's division's 2nd Brigade attached to the Armée de l'Est. Tevis's command included Francs-tireurs and Garde Mobile. Tevis's brigade fought in several battles of the war where he was wounded at the Battle of the Lisaine concluding with the Battle of Chenebier in January 1871 where the French troops under their General Charles-Denis Bourbaki marched into Switzerland and were interned. General Tevis became a French citizen in January 1871 and was made a Chevalier in the Legion of Honor

paragraph: Section::::The Army of Egypt.

paragraph: In 1870 Khedive Isma'il Pasha of Egypt sought to modernise his army through recruiting generals who had just come out of modern wars. American General William Tecumseh Sherman then President Ulysses S. Grant's Commanding General of the United States Army recommended former American General Charles Pomeroy Stone for the job. General Stone was commissioned an Egyptian Lieutenant General and Chief of Staff of the Egyptian Army. General Stone, or "Ferik Pasha" recruited several American former Generals who served with both the Federal Government and the Confederacy including the highly experienced Tevis. Tevis was commissioned in 1872 as a Brigadier-General and commanded the Military Engineering School at Abbaziek. Tevis left the service of Egypt in 1873

paragraph: Section::::War Correspondent and journalist.

paragraph: His military leadership days behind him, Tevis acted as a journalist for both the "Philadelphia Times" and the "New York Times". For the latter he resided in Bucharest during the Romanian War of Independence from April to November 1877 where he wrote an account of the Siege of Plevna. He covered the war until being expelled by the Russians.

paragraph: In 1878 he was one of the United States Commissioners at the Exposition Universelle.

paragraph: Section::::On Her Majesty's Secret Service.

paragraph: Whilst residing in Paris Tevis provided information to Great Britain on plots by both Fenians and Maharaja Duleep Singh the self-proclaimed "the Sovereign of the Sikh nation and Implacable Foe of the British Government" scheme for a Sikh Uprising in India using Russian assistance

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Tevis had a wife prior to Blanche Florance, but nothing is known about her. Tevis and Blanche Florance had one child, Marie-Adele Florance Tevis (August 11, 1865- 1936) who married Henri Etienne Esperance Gouget de Landres (14 February 1852 – 15 June 1937) later a General in the French cavalry on 1 April 1888 in Paris.

paragraph: Tevis and Blanche divorced on January 12, 1885. Blanche died 28 June 1924 at her home in Paris, France.

paragraph: Washington/Charles Carroll Tevis died in Paris on September 29, 1900; and was buried there at Montparnasse Cemetery.

paragraph: Section::::Tevis in popular culture.

paragraph: James Weber Brown played the role of General Tevis in "The Black Prince" (2017).

paragraph: George Augustus Henry Sala's 1856 short stories "The Dalgetty Race" published in "Household Words" edited by Charles Dickens and "A Journey Due North : Being Notes of a Residence in Russia" feature an American soldier of fortune "Nessim Bey" under the name "Washington Lafayette Bowie".

description: American-born soldier of fortune

wikidata_label: Washington Carroll Tevis

wikipedia_title: Washington Carroll Tevis


text:
Kamehameha I
governor of Kauai

paragraph: Kaikioewa

paragraph: Kaikioʻewa ( - April 10, 1839) was a cousin of Kamehameha I and the first governor of Kauai. He was born in Waimea in 1765. He moved to Hilo as a young man where he initially opposed his cousin until after the Battle of Hilo when he and other aliʻi joined Kamehameha. Kamehameha I saved Kaikioʻewa life when he was about to be killed by another chief for stealing his wife. As Governor he was known as an easy target from merchants as he was known for spending a great deal for merchandise. He was married to Keaweamahi (w). Kaikioʻewa served as the first governor of Kauai from 1825 until his death, when his wife Keaweamahi would serve temporarily.

wikidata_label: Kaikioewa

wikipedia_title: Kaikioewa


text:
Montenegrin
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categories: 1871 births,Yugoslav generals,Montenegrin military personnel of World War I,1938 deaths,Montenegrin generals

paragraph: Radomir Vešović

paragraph: Radomir Vešović (1871–1938) was Montenegrin and Yugoslav military officer and politician. Vešović was born in village of Lopate in Montenegrin county of Lijeva Rijeka, in a family whose male members were traditionally military officers. He completed military education in Italy in 1890 as the first member of Vasojevići tribe who received formal military education. In 1911 he was appointed as commander of Vasojević brigade, with rank of brigadier.

paragraph: At the beginning of the First Balkan War he was commander of the group of Montenegrin brigades that captured Plav, Gusinje, Dečani and Đakovica from the Ottomans, which brought him the rank of General. He continued his war engagement by participating in the Montenegrin siege of Scutari where he was wounded twice. He showed an exceptional courage which earned him a golden Obilić Medal.

paragraph: At the end of 1913 Vešović was appointed as the governor of Metohija (the supreme commander of the military and civil administration of "Đakovica Divisional Area") where he became also known as the "firm hand". In 1913 he was promoted to a commander of the Old-Serbian Detachment until he became the Montenegrin War minister in period 1913—1915.

paragraph: After the beginning of the First World War and against the order of Montenegrin King Nikola, Vešović captured Scutari on 27 June 1915, despite opposition of Entante and behind the back of Serbian supreme command. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Montenegro, Vešović was the main organizer of the planned general uprising against the occupying forces planned for Vidovdan 1916 or for Saint Peter's feast day. The plans were discovered and occupation government sent patrol to arrest Vešović. Vešović escaped after killing one Austro-Hungarian officer and joined Chetnik guerrilla rebel forces in the region of Northern Montenegro and Metohija. He did not participate in their actions and in January 1918 surrendered after receiving guarantees that his life would be spared if he would participate in the Austro-Hungarian campaign to convince "comitadji" irregulars to stop their actions. Vešović accepted to do so and lost of what remained of his prestige, before he was interned to Austria.

paragraph: After the World War I and unification of Montenegro and Serbia, Vešović was one of four generals of former Montenegrin army who was accepted as general of new Army of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, receiving the rank General of Division. Being strong supporter of the Montenegrin Petrović dynasty, he refused to pledge his loyalty to Karađorđević dynasty, which together with some speech he held in Andrijevica, resulted with his arrest in 1919 and trial in Zemun in 1921

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Vešović was born in a family whose male members, including his father Luka, had traditionally been military officers. He completed primary school in Lijeva Rijeka and attended secondary school in Cetinje for five years. In 1887 he was selected to attend further military education in Italy which he completed with excellent success. Vešović was the first member of Vasojevići who completed formal military education of an officer in 1890.

paragraph: Section::::Early military career.

paragraph: In 1908 Vešović reported to his supreme command about great frustration of Albanian population because of the increase of taxes. In the same year Vešović was officially accused for undertaking actions toward Berane nahiyah which could provoke war with the Ottoman Empire. He was allegedly responsible for cutting the telegraph wires and distribution of hand grenades among population of Berane. The official investigation concluded that he was not guilty. According to some sources, the false accusations were result of the animosity between Vešović and voivode Lakić Vojvodić who competed with Vešović for prestige in Vasojevići. In 1910 he was awarded with the rank of brigadier. Since 1911, Vešović was a commander of the Vasojević brigade.

paragraph: Section::::First Balkan War.

paragraph: In October 1912, at the beginning of the First Balkan War he was commander of the group of Montenegrin brigades that captured Plav and Gusinje from the Ottomans. After the battle, which was among population of Trijebač interpreted as revenge for the Battle of Novšiće, Vešović captured Greben and Lipovica above Gusinje and created position to attack Ottoman flanks in Metohija.

paragraph: Most of the garrison of Đakovica fled to Krasnići. According to some sources, the army commanded by Vešović plundered population of Đakovica. On 24 October Vešović reported that he took half of his army and went to disarm Krasnići tribe who began to organize together with retreating forces from Đakovica. Since he was unable to disarm Krasnići tribesmen who lived in about 800 houses, each with at least two Mauser guns, he did not dare to proceed further with advance leaving such potential great threat behind his flanks.

paragraph: On 1 November 1912 Vešović was promoted to rank of General. Vešović participated in Montenegrin siege of Scutari where he was wounded twice, showing an exceptional courage which earned him a golden Obilić Medal and nickname "the knight of Brdanjolt" ().

paragraph: At the end of 1913 Vešović appointed as governor of Metohija (supreme commander of military and civil administration of "Đakovica Divisional Area") known as "firm hand". Since the Catholic schools in the newly captured territories were perceived as centres of Austro-Hungarian propaganda, Vešović closed them and ordered that all children are to attend public government schools.

paragraph: Vešović was commander of the Old-Serbian Detachment until 1913 when he was appointed as Minister of War.

paragraph: Section::::During the World War I.

paragraph: Section::::During the World War I.:Capture of Scutari.

paragraph: Against the order of Montenegrin King Nikola, Vešović captured Scutari on 27 June 1915, despite opposition of Entante and behind the back of Serbian supreme command and even his own chief of General Staff, Božidar Janković.

paragraph: According to some sources, Vešović unsuccessfully tried to retreat over Albania before the forces of Austria-Hungary occupied the whole Montenegro, staying with his staff in Vraka.

paragraph: Section::::During the World War I.:Plans for uprising.

paragraph: At the beginning of the occupation of Montenegro by Austria-Hungary in early 1916, Vešović was the main organizer of the planned general uprising against the occupying forces. According to reports of occupying sources, the uprising was planned for Vidovdan or for Saint Peter's feast day. According to Rakočević, Vešović's plans for uprising were based on hopes that Allies would soon advance from Thesalloniki, otherwise he would himself give up any plans for rebellion.

paragraph: The plans were discovered and the main organizers, including Vešović, arrested. When the Austrian soldiers arrested Vešović and conducted him from his village of Bukova Poljana toward Kolašin, he seized the first opportunity to kill Austrian Lieutenant near Mateševo and escape into the woods together with his brothers Pavić and Novica. The occupying authorities undertook punitive and preventive measures after this event, and took as hostages all male members of Vešovićs family and many of his notable friends, including Janko Vukotić. They began with mass interning of Montenegrin population. Eventually they killed his brother Vlajko after this event, and interned his two daughters, Desanka and Zorka, who were first of many Montenegrin females interned during WWI.

paragraph: Vešović joined irregular units ("comitadji") who struggled against occupying forces and hid in their ranks, without actually participating in their actions. Austro-Hungarian authorities kept up to 45,000 soldiers in Montenegro and used additional forces composed of Muslims and Albanians to struggle against the chetas of comitiadji. They urged Vešović to surrender and guaranteed that they would spare his life. Vešović became tired from hiding within different guerrilla groups and decided to surrender on 1 January 1918. After he surrendered, Vešović followed the wishes of the governor of Montenegro and began a campaign to convince "comitadji" irregulars to stop their actions, which resulted in loss of what remained of his prestige. When authorities realized that they can not use him for their aims, they interned Vešović near Graz.

paragraph: Section::::After World War I.

paragraph: After the World War I and unification of Montenegro and Serbia, Vešović was one of four generals of former Montenegrin army who was accepted as general of new Army of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. At the beginning of 1919 he was sent to serve in the Command of III army in Skoplje, with rank General of Division .

paragraph: Being strong supporter of the Montenegrin Petrović dynasty, he refused to pledge his loyalty to Karađorđević dynasty, which together with some speech he held in Andrijevica, resulted with his arrest in 1919 and tryal in Zemun in 1921. According to some sources he planned an uprising which would rely on Italy against Karađorđević dynasty and in favor of former Montenegrin king Petrović.

paragraph: In early 1920's Yugoslav newspapers Vešović was considered as leader of Montenegrin federalists on elections for state parliament, until they submitted final lists of candidates in which Vešović was candidate for Andrijevica county while leader of list was Mihailo Ivanović. Vešović tried to appoint his list for Peć (Metohija County) and Berane County, but failed to gain enough support of local population. Among the supporters of Montenegrin Federalists, he was particularly popular among former military officers of Montenegrin Royal Army. Vešović was a personification of this part of the population, unsatisfied with their treatment in the newly formed army, who demanded their rights.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Vešović was one of the most important Serb villains of Albanian poetry, besides Marko Miljanov and Savo Lazarević.

paragraph: Vešović was one of the main characters in a silent movie titled "There Is No Resurrection Without Death" () which had its premiere on 14 April 1922 in Volturno, Rome.

paragraph: In July 1941, during the suppression of the Uprising in Montenegro, the leaders of Albanian irregulars inspired them to kill and plunder populated places in Vasojevići region, reminding them how Vešović plundered many Northern Albanian villages during his attack on Scutari in the First Balkan War.

paragraph: In 2001 RTCG produced a documentary drama "Sudjenje djeneralu Vesovicu" () directed by Gojko Kastratović.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Milutin J. Folić, "Neobični đeneral Radomir L.Vešović (1871-1938)", Eparhijska radionica, Zemun 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mitar Đurišić, "Đeneral Radomir Vešović u ratovima za slobodu", Andrijevica 2005, IK „Komovi“

wikidata_label: Radomir Vešović

wikipedia_title: Radomir Vešović


text:
Eric the Victorious
Sigrid the Haughty
Swedes
Geats
Sweyn Forkbeard
Olaf Tryggvasson
Olaf Haraldsson
Snorri Sturluson
Adam of Bremen
Olav Tryggvason
battle of Svolder
Wendland
Edla
Emund
Astrid
Olaf II of Norway
Estrid of the Obotrites
Anund Jacob
Ingegerd Olofsdotter
sport
Sweyn Forkbeard
Estonia
Latvia
Sweyn Forkbeard
Jarls
Eric
Sven
Olaf Tryggvason
Svithiod
Battle of Svolder
Öresund
Pomerania
Trøndelag
Bohuslän
Olaf II of Norway
Sweden
Norway
earl
Västergötland
Ragnvald Ulfsson
Björn Stallare
Hjalti Skeggiason
thing
Uppsala
Ingegerd Olofsdotter
Thorgny Lawspeaker
Erik Anundsson
Björn
Eric the Victorious
Mula thing
Ingegerd-Irene
Yaroslav I the Wise
Geatish
Ragnvald Ulfsson
Sigvat Thordarson
Astrid
lawspeaker
Västergötland
Gamla Uppsala
Anund Jacob
Olaf II of Norway
Kungahälla
Jämtland
Hälsingland
Hakon the Good
England
Æthelred the Unready
Cnut
Cnut the Great
King of England
Edmund Ironside
Kiev
Ingigerd
Bolesław I Chrobry
Westrogothic law
Husaby
Västergötland
Sigfrid
Bruno of Querfurt
Adam of Bremen
Uppsala temple
Västergötland
Skara
Sigfrid
Archbishop of York
Värend
Småland
Thing
Växjö Lake
Växjö
Sigtuna
Uppland
Uppland
Geats
Götar
Mälaren
Iceland
skald
Óttarr svarti
Óláfsdrápa sænska
Gunnlaugr ormstunga
Hrafn Önundarson
Gizurr svarti
Stockholm
Husaby
Eric the Victorious
Boleslaw I Chrobry
Poland
Sigrid the Haughty
Skoglar Toste
Emund the Old
Astrid
Olaf II of Norway
Sven Jarl
Estrid of the Obotrites
Anund Jacob
Ingegerd
Yaroslav I of Kiev

categories: Converts to Christianity from pagan religions,11th-century monarchs in Europe,10th-century births,11th-century Swedish monarchs,Swedish monarchs,10th-century Swedish monarchs,Viking Age monarchs,Christian royal saints,1022 deaths

paragraph: Olof Skötkonung

paragraph: Olof Skötkonung (c. 980–1022) was King of Sweden, son of Eric the Victorious and, according to Icelandic sources, Sigrid the Haughty. He succeeded his father in c. 995. He stands at the threshold of recorded history, since he is the first Swedish ruler about whom there is substantial knowledge. He is regarded as the first king known to have ruled both the Swedes and the Geats.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: One of many explanations to the name "Skötkonung" is that it is derived from the Swedish word "skatt", which can mean either "taxes" or "treasure". The latter meaning has given the interpretation "tributary king" and one English scholar speculates about a tributary relationship to the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, who was his stepfather. That explanation, however, is not supported by evidence or historical sources. Another possible explanation of the name refers to the fact that he was the first Swedish king to stamp coins. An ancient land ownership ceremony which placed a parcel of earth in someone's "lap" (Swedish: "sköte") was called "scotting" and may have been involved in this epithet.

paragraph: The Old Norse "Óláfr sœnski" means "Olaf the Swedish", an epithet used to distinguish him from the Norwegian kings Olaf Tryggvasson and Olaf Haraldsson.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Our knowledge of Olof is mostly based on Snorri Sturluson's and Adam of Bremen's accounts, which have been subject to criticism from source-critical scholars. The eldest account by the German ecclesiastic chronicler Adam of Bremen (c. 1075), relates that Sweyn Forkbeard was expelled from his Danish realm by the Swedish King Eric the Victorious in the late 10th century. When Eric died (c. 995), Sweyn returned and regained his kingdom, marrying Eric's widow. Meanwhile, however, Olof had succeeded his father Eric, gathered an army, and launched a surprise attack against Sweyn. The Danish king was once again expelled while Olof occupied his lands. After this, however, the conflict was resolved. Since Sweyn had married Olof's mother he was reinstated on the Danish throne and the two kings were thereafter allies. Snorri Sturluson (c. 1230) and the other Icelandic saga writers likewise say that Sweyn married Olof's mother after the death of Eric the Victorious, however without mentioning any conflict. Also, Snorri describes Sweyn and Olof as equal allies when they defeated the Norwegian king Olav Tryggvason in the battle of Svolder 1000, and thereafter divided Norway between themselves (see below). It is commonly believed that Adam's account about Sweyn's defeats at the hand of Eric and Olof is partial and might have been misinterpreted; the marriage to Olof's mother may in fact have sealed Sweyn's precedence position.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Viking expedition to Wendland.

paragraph: According to Snorri, Olof Skötkonung led a Viking expedition to Wendland early in his reign. He captured Edla, the daughter of a Wendish chieftain, and kept her as mistress. She gave him the son Emund (who was to become king of Sweden), and the daughters Astrid (later wife of Olaf II of Norway) and Holmfrid (married to Sven Jarl of Norway). He later married Estrid of the Obotrites, and she bore him the son Anund Jacob and the daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Alliance with Sweyn Forkbeard.

paragraph: While Adam of Bremen praises Olof as a good Christian, Icelandic authors paint an unfavourable picture of the king who was haughty and prickly. Olof is said to have preferred royal sports to war, which may explain the ease with which Sweyn Forkbeard retook the Danish lands his father Eric had conquered. Olof may also have lost the right to tribute which his predecessors had preserved in what is now Estonia and Latvia.

paragraph: In 1000, he joined forces with Sweyn Forkbeard and with the Norwegian Jarls Eric and Sven, against the Norwegian King Olaf Tryggvason. The circumstances have been much debated in modern historical research, but a contemporary poem confirms that Eric Jarl gathered auxiliaries in Sweden: "The belligent jarl / gathered much manpower / in Svithiod, the chief went / southward to the battle." Olaf Tryggvason was attacked by the allied fleets in the Battle of Svolder, the location of which is uncertain. It may have been either in Öresund or Pomerania. Olaf Tryggvason disappeared in the battle and Norway was appropriated by the allied lords. The bulk of the conquests went to Sweyn Forkbeark while Olof gained a part of Trøndelag as well as modern Bohuslän. These lands were placed under Sven Jarl, son-in-law of the king.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Norwegian-Swedish War.

paragraph: When the Norwegian kingdom was reestablished by Olaf II of Norway (Olaf the Saint) in 1015, a new war erupted between Norway and Sweden. There is a circumstantial account of this in Snorri Sturluson's work. As he writes, many men in both Sweden and Norway tried to reconcile the kings. In 1018, Olof's cousin, the earl of Västergötland, Ragnvald Ulfsson and the Norwegian king's emissaries Björn Stallare and Hjalti Skeggiason had arrived at the thing of Uppsala in an attempt to sway the Swedish king to accept peace and as a warrant marry his daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter to the king of Norway. The Swedish king was greatly angered and threatened to banish Ragnvald from his kingdom, but Ragnvald was supported by his foster-father Thorgny Lawspeaker.

paragraph: Thorgny delivered a powerful speech in which he reminded the king of the great Viking expeditions in the East that predecessors such as Erik Anundsson and Björn had undertaken, without having the hubris not to listen to their men's advice. Thorgny, himself, had taken part in many successful pillaging expeditions with Olof's father Eric the Victorious and even Eric had listened to his men. The present king wanted nothing but Norway, which no Swedish king before him had desired. This displeased the Swedish people, who were eager to follow the king on new ventures in the East to win back the kingdoms that paid tribute to his ancestors, but it was the wish of the people that the king make peace with the king of Norway and give him his daughter Ingegerd as queen.

paragraph: Thorgny finished his speech by saying: "if you do not desire to do so, we shall assault you and kill you and not brook any more of your warmongering and obstinacy. Our ancestors have done so, who at Mula thing threw five kings in a well, kings who were too arrogant as you are against us." Upon hearing this, King Olof complied with the demands of the peasantry for the time being.

paragraph: However, far from keeping his promise Olof married his daughter Ingegerd-Irene to Yaroslav I the Wise instead. When Olaf of Norway heard about the arrangement he was furious and intent on attacking Olof Skötkonung. However, the Geatish jarl Ragnvald Ulfsson, colluding with Olaf II's skald Sigvat Thordarson, managed to avert the impending war. Olof's other daughter Astrid stayed with Ragnvald at the time, and it was agreed that she would take Ingegerd's place. Unbeknownst to Olof, she traveled to Norway and married Olaf II. Olof Skötkonung was highly upset, but soon ran into trouble at home. Both the Swedes and Geats were displeased with the self-willed rule of the king. The lawspeaker of Västergötland, Emund, traveled to Gamla Uppsala and spoke to Olof's councilors, and a settlement was made. Olof agreed to share his power with his son Anund Jacob who was 10 or 12 years at the time. Olof was also forced to accept a settlement with Olaf II of Norway at Kungahälla. The veracity of Snorri Sturluson's account of Olof Skötkonung, written more than two centuries later, is difficult to assess; however, he quotes several probably genuine scaldic verses which allude to some of the related events.

paragraph: One result of the hostilities between Olof Skötkonung and Olaf of Norway was, according to Snorri Sturluson, that the people of Jämtland and Hälsingland came under the Swedish rather than Norwegian king. Previously the Jämtlanders and part of the Hälsinglanders had adhered to Norway since the days of Hakon the Good. The veracity of this is not known, but the medieval provincial laws of Jämtland show Swedish influences, and there are indications that Christianity arrived from Central Sweden in the 11th century. Jämtland reverted to the Norwegian king in 1111, while Hälsingland was henceforth under Sweden.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Diplomacy.

paragraph: Olof's ally Sweyn Forkbeard occupied England in 1013, but died shortly afterwards, and the Anglo-Saxon ruler Æthelred the Unready was able to return. According to Adam of Bremen, "the son of the king, Cnut, returned home with the army and prepared a new war against the English. Olav [II], whom the Norwegians had chosen as their commander, now separated from the Danish kingdom. Cnut, who felt threatened from two directions, then entered an alliance with his brother Olof Eriksson who ruled in Sweden, and planned to take power in England, and then in Norway, with his assistance. Equipped with a thousand large ships, Cnut thus traversed the British Sea". From Swedish rune stones it also appears that many people joined the Danish Viking expeditions of the early 11th century. After Cnut the Great became King of England in 1016, he sent the two sons of the deceased King Edmund Ironside to Olof (who was either Canute's half-brother or stepbrother), supposedly with instructions to have the children murdered. Instead of having them killed, the two boys were secretly sent either to Kiev, where Olof's daughter Ingigerd was the Queen, or to Poland, where Canute's uncle Bolesław I Chrobry was duke.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Christian King.

paragraph: Included in the Westrogothic law from c. 1240 is the first brief Swedish chronicle, which begins with Olof Skötkonung. It relates that Olof was baptized in Husaby in Västergötland by the missionary Sigfrid, and made generous donations on spot. At Husaby parish church, there is a sign commemorating his baptism; nearby is a well thought to be the same sacred spring where Olof was baptized.

paragraph: He was the first Swedish king to remain a Christian until his death. However, the circumstances about his baptism are not clear. A document from 1008 says that a certain bishop, dispatched by Archbishop Bruno of Querfurt, visited the Suigi tribe and managed to baptize the king, whose queen was already Christian. 1,000 people and seven communities followed his example. The Suigi have sometimes been identified as the Swedes, though this has been rejected by several other scholars. On the other hand, Olof's coinage (see below) indicates that he was a Christian already at the time of his accession in c. 995.

paragraph: According to Adam of Bremen, Olof planned to tear down the Uppsala temple, which was allegedly an important cult centre. The fact that a large part of the Swedes were still pagan forced him to abandon this aim. The pagans, weary of his plans, made an agreement with Olof to the effect that he, if he wished to be a Christian, must exercise his royal authority in a province of his choice. If he founded a church, he was not supposed to force anyone to convert. Olof was content with this and installed a bishopric in the province of Västergötland, closer to Denmark and Norway. On the wishes of Olof, the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen anointed Thurgot as the first Bishop in Skara. This Thurgot was successful in disseminating Christianity among the West Geats and east Geats.

paragraph: The legend of St. Sigfrid, known since the 13th century, relates that the still pagan Olof called in the English Archbishop of York, Sigfrid, to teach the new faith in his realm. On his way, Sigfrid and his three nephews came to Värend in southern Småland where the twelve local tribes endorsed Christianity at a Thing. Sigfrid left his nephews to tend matters in Värend and proceeded to Olof's court where the king and his family were baptised. In the meanwhile a heathen reaction in Värend cost the lives of the nephews, whose heads were sunk in the Växjö Lake. Hearing about this, Sigfrid returned to Värend where the heads were discovered through a miracle. King Olof then appeared in Värend with a force, punished the murderers, and forced the locals to yield properties to the Church. Whether the legend reflects the expansion of Olof's realm to the south is unsure. The account seems to incorporate various elements in order to legitimise the establishment of the Bishopric of Växjö in c. 1170. It is nevertheless known from Adam of Bremen that an English missionary called Sigfrid preached among the Swedes and Geats in the first half of the 11th century.

paragraph: Section::::Coinage and extent of the realm.

paragraph: When he stamped coins in Sigtuna in the province of Uppland Olof used the word "rex" for "king". "OLUF REX" as in the coin displayed above or "OLAF REX". The use of Latin seems to suggest that he was already baptised at this time but on the other hand the coins were imitating English pennies in type and style. Sigtuna is written "SITUN", "ZINT" (in the coin above), "ZTNETEI", or "SIDEI". The two last has been deciphered as "Si(gtuna) Dei" meaning "God's Sigtuna". The earliest Olof coins merely depict him as "King in Sigtuna", while the later ones have "King of the Swedes".

paragraph: It has been suggested that this change in nomenclature relates to a widening of Olof's base of power around 1000. Sigtuna may be understood as the area in Uppland ruled from the town of this name, while rulership over the Swedes may indicate a more extensive realm. Contemporary scaldic poetry indicates Olof as the ruler of the Swedes as well as the Geats (Götar), and the same goes for the account of Adam of Bremen. The exact nature of the relation between the Swedes and Geats, and the process by which a unified kingdom was created, has been intensively debated. While the unification has traditionally been thought to depart from the provinces around lake Mälaren some scholars hold that the Geatic provinces were leading the process, and that the construction of a Swedish kingdom was a long process that was only concluded in the 13th century.

paragraph: Section::::Óláfsdrápa sænska.

paragraph: The Icelandic skald Óttarr svarti spent some time at Olof's court and composed the poem "Óláfsdrápa sænska" describing Olof's war expeditions in the east. The poem has some interest since it belies the idea found in the sagas that Olof was a relatively passive ruler: "The warrior guards his land, few kings are as mighty as him; Olof pleases the eagle, the Swedish king is outstanding". Other skalds who served Olof were Gunnlaugr ormstunga, Hrafn Önundarson and Gizurr svarti.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Judging from Snorri Sturluson's chronology of events, Olof died a natural death in the winter of 1021–1022. Adam of Bremen asserts that he died at approximately the same time as Cnut the Great (1035), which is certainly too late.

paragraph: According to an obscure legend he was martyred at Stockholm after refusing to sacrifice to pagan gods. Since the 1740s, it has been claimed that he was buried in Husaby in the Christian part of his kingdom, but such identifications are controversial.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Olof was the son of Eric the Victorious (Erik Segersäll) and a woman whose identity is debated. According to Adam of Bremen she was the sister or daughter of Boleslaw I Chrobry of Poland, according to Icelandic sources she was Sigrid the Haughty (Sigrid Storråda), a daughter of the Viking chief Skoglar Toste. Certain sources say that Olof had a brother called Emunde.

paragraph: With his first spouse (a mistress), Edla, daughter of a Slavic chief, he had three children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emund the Old, King of Sweden in c. 1050-1060

paragraph: BULLET::::- Astrid, d. after 1035, married to Olaf II of Norway (Olaf the Saint)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Holmfrid (possibly sister of Olof), married to Sven Jarl of Norway

paragraph: With his second spouse, Queen Estrid of the Obotrites, he had two children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anund Jacob, King of Sweden in 1022-c. 1050

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ingegerd, d. 1050, married to Yaroslav I of Kiev

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00027060&tree=LEO

description: King of Sweden

wikidata_label: Olof Skötkonung

wikipedia_title: Olof Skötkonung


text:
Akkadian
Chaldea
Babylonia
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Ashurbanipal
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Cyaxares
Medes
Ashur
Assyria
Medes
Nineveh
Battle of Nineveh
Ashur-uballit II
tartan
Sin-shar-ishkun
Harran
Necho II
Via Maris
Jezreel Valley
Kingdom of Judah
Josiah
Battle of Megiddo
Euphrates
Battle of Carchemish
abdication
Nebuchadnezzar II
ziggurat
enceinte
Marduk
Babylonia
Kings of Babylonia
"ABC" 2
"ABC" 3
"ABC" 4
Nabopolassar Cylinder

categories: Babylonian kings,650s BC births,7th-century BC rulers in Asia,Chaldean kings,Year of birth unknown,7th-century BC Babylonian kings,600s BC deaths

paragraph: Nabopolassar

paragraph: Nabopolassar (; cuneiform: "Akkadian: Nabû-apla-uṣur"; 658 BC – 605 BC) was a Chaldean king of Babylonia and a central figure in the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The death of Assyrian king Ashurbanipal around 627 BC resulted in political instability. In 626 BC, a native dynasty arose under Nabopolassar. He made Babylon his capital and ruled over Babylonia for a period of about twenty years (626–605 BC). He is credited with founding the Neo-Babylonian Empire. By 616 BC, Nabopolassar had united the entire area under his rule.

paragraph: Nabopolassar formed an alliance with Cyaxares of the Medes to confront the Assyrians and their Egyptian allies. By 615 BC he had seized Nippur. He then led his forces to assist the Medes besieging the city of Ashur, but the Babylonian army did not reach the battlefield until after the city had fallen.

paragraph: Section::::Nineveh.

paragraph: Assyria, weakened by internal strife and ineffectual rule, was unable to resist the Babylonians and the Medes, who united to sack the Assyrian capital of Nineveh in 612 BC. Following a prolonged siege at the Battle of Nineveh, Nabopolassar took control of the city. Ashur-uballit II was a member of the Assyrian royal family and a tartan (general) in the army. He became king after Sin-shar-ishkun, who may have been his brother, and who probably died during the fall of Nineveh.

paragraph: Section::::Harran.

paragraph: Ashur-uballit II rallied his troops at the city of Harran in northern Syria. The following year the Babylonians plundered the region of Harran, and in 610 BC, Nabopolassar captured the city.

paragraph: In the spring of 609 BC, Necho II of Egypt led a sizable force to help the Assyrians. At the head of a large army, consisting mainly of mercenaries, Necho took the coastal Via Maris into Syria, supported by his Mediterranean fleet along the shore. He prepared to cross the ridge of hills which shuts in on the south the great Jezreel Valley, but he found his passage blocked by the army of the Kingdom of Judah. Their king, Josiah, sided with the Babylonians and attempted to block his advance at the Battle of Megiddo, where a fierce battle was fought and Josiah was killed. Necho continued on and joining forces with Ashur-uballit, they crossed the Euphrates and laid siege to Harran. Failing to capture Harran, they retreated to northern Syria.

paragraph: In 605 BC, Nabopolassar's son, crown prince Nebuchadnezzar fought Necho and the remnants of the Assyrian army at the Battle of Carchemish. Within months of his abdication in 605 BC, Nabopolassar died of natural causes at about 53 years of age, and Nebuchadnezzar II hurried to Babylon to secure the throne.

paragraph: During Nabopolassar's reign, there was a boom of Neo-Babylonian building projects that would continue through the reign of his son, Nebuchadnezzar II. Temples and ziggurats were repaired or rebuilt in almost all the old dynastic cities, while Babylon itself was enlarged and surrounded by a double enceinte, or line of fortification, consisting of towered and moated fortress walls. The first mention of Nebuchadnezzar II comes from the records of Nabopolassar, saying he was a laborer in the restoration of the temple of Marduk.

paragraph: A cylinder found in 1921 in Baghdad, Iraq is attributed to Nabopolassar. He is described therein as extremely pious, and that he "sought out the temples... and the complete performance of their rites." He attributes his success to Shazu (one of the names associated with Marduk). Throughout the inscription, Nabopolassar describes some of his greatest military conquests and submits himself to Marduk and other deities.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Babylonia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kings of Babylonia

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "ABC" 2: Chronicle Concerning the Early Years of Nabopolassar

paragraph: BULLET::::- "ABC" 3: Chronicle Concerning the Fall of Nineveh

paragraph: BULLET::::- "ABC" 4: Chronicle Concerning the Late Years of Nabopolassar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nabopolassar Cylinder

description: King of Babylon

wikidata_label: Nabopolassar

wikipedia_title: Nabopolassar