text: Bishop of Winchester

text: Anglo-Saxon England

text: Viking

text: secular clergy

text: Alfred the Great

text: Benedictine

text: monastic reform movement

text: Saint Dunstan

text: Oswald of Worcester

text: Ethelred the Unready

text: Edward the Martyr

text: Winchester

text: King Athelstan

text: Wulfstan

text: Ælfheah the Bald

text: Dunstan

text: Glastonbury Abbey

text: dean

text: King Eadred

text: Abingdon, Oxfordshire

text: Benedictine Rule

text: Eadwig

text: King Edgar

text: Saint Benedict

text: Ælfthryth

text: Regularis Concordia

text: Spearhafoc

text: Wulfstan

text: manuscript illumination

text: Benedictional of Saint Æthelwold

text: British Library

text: Old Minster at Winchester

text: Æthelred

text: Edward the Martyr

text: Abingdon Abbey

text: Beddington

text: Surrey

text: Abingdon Abbey

text: Ælfric

text: Anglo-Saxons.net Charter S567

text: Foot, Sarah

categories: 909 births,10th-century bishops,Abbots of Abingdon,10th-century Latin writers,People from Winchester,Bishops of Winchester,10th-century Christian saints,984 deaths,Anglo-Saxon saints

paragraph: Æthelwold of Winchester

paragraph: Æthelwold of Winchester (904/9 – 984) was Bishop of Winchester from 963 to 984 and one of the leaders of the tenth-century monastic reform movement in Anglo-Saxon England.

paragraph: Monastic life had declined to a low ebb in England in the ninth century, partly due to the ravages caused by Viking attacks, and partly because of a preference for secular clergy, who were cheaper and were thought to better serve the spiritual needs of the laity. Kings from Alfred the Great onwards took an interest in the Benedictine rule, but it was only in the middle of the tenth century that kings became ready to commit substantial funds to its support. Æthelwold became the leading propagandist for the monastic reform movement, although he made enemies by his ruthless methods, and he was more extreme in his opposition to secular clergy than his fellow reformers, Saint Dunstan and Oswald of Worcester. He is nevertheless recognised as a key figure in the reform movement, who also made a major contribution to the revival of learning and the arts. He was an important political figure, backing Ethelred the Unready against Edward the Martyr, and playing a major advisory role during Ethelred's minority.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Æthelwold was born to noble parents in Winchester. From the late 920s he served in a secular capacity at the court of King Athelstan, and according to Æthelwold's biographer, Wulfstan, "he spent a long time in the royal burh there as the king's inseparable companion, learning much from the king's witan that was useful and profitable to him". The king arranged for him to be ordained a priest by Ælfheah the Bald, Bishop of Winchester, on the same day as Saint Dunstan. After a period in the late 930s studying under Ælfheah at Winchester, Æthelwold moved to Glastonbury Abbey, where Dunstan had been made abbot. Here Æthelwold studied grammar, metrics and patristics, subsequently being made dean. During the reign of King Eadred (946–955), Æthelwold wished to travel to Europe to learn more about the monastic life, but Eadred refused permission, and instead appointed him abbot of the former monastic site of Abingdon, Oxfordshire, which was then served by secular priests. The years he spent in Abingdon were extremely productive, and he undertook the building of a church, the rebuilding of the cloister and the establishment at Abingdon of the Benedictine Rule.

paragraph: When Eadred died, he was succeeded by his nephew, Eadwig, who drove Eadred's chief advisor, Dunstan, into exile. However, Æthelwold attended Eadwig's court in at least some of the years of his reign, 955–59. The future King Edgar had been taught from boyhood by Æthelwold, who evidently inspired his pupil to take an interest in the rule of Saint Benedict. When Eadwig died, Æthelwold naturally backed Edgar's succession. He seems to have been in the personal service of King Edgar in 960–963, as he wrote many of the charters of this period.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop of Winchester.

paragraph: On 29 November 963, Æthelwold was consecrated Bishop of Winchester, and the following year, with the connivance of King Edgar and the support of an armed force led by a royal official, he had the clerics of the Winchester Old and New Minsters expelled and replaced by monks from Abingdon. The king had sought the permission of the pope for the expulsion the previous autumn. Between 964 and 971, Æthelwold refounded monasteries at Chertsey, Milton Abbas, Peterborough, Ely and Thorney, and the Nunnaminster nunnery in Winchester. He was also zealous in recovering land which he believed had once belonged to religious communities and subsequently been alienated, and if necessary charters were forged to prove claims to title.

paragraph: Æthelwold was the principal advocate for the Benedictines during Edgar's reign, the author of all the major works of propaganda produced in England. He had the strong support of Edgar and his wife, Ælfthryth, and his works emphasise the role of Edgar, who he saw as Christ's representative, in restoring the monasteries. He envisaged a major role for Edgar in supervising monasteries, and for Queen Ælthryth supervising Benedictine nunneries. However, he was more extreme in his espousal of monasticism than Dunstan and Oswald, the other great leaders of monasticism in the reign of King Edgar. They followed continental practice in maintaining both monks and secular priests in their households, and did not follow Æthelwold in his dramatic expulsions of secular clerks and replacement by monks. Æthelwold links the terms 'filth' and 'clergy' several times in his writings, regarding them (like other Benedictines) as impure and unfit to serve altars or engage in any form of divine service, because many of them were married and they did not follow a monastic rule.

paragraph: To Æthelwold's admirers, the epithets "father of monks" and "benevolent bishop" summarize his character as reformer and friend of Christ's poor; though he suffered much from ill-health, his life as scholar, teacher, prelate and Royal counsellor was ever austere, and he was said to be "terrible as a lion" to the rebellious, yet "gentler than a dove" to the meek. He is said to have written a treatise on the circle and to have compiled the "Regularis Concordia".

paragraph: The Benedictines were greatly superior to the secular clergy in their learning and their schools. Æthelwold personally taught the older pupils at Winchester, and their works show that they regarded him with great respect and affection. His surviving works in both Latin and Old English show that he was a great scholar, and his vernacular writings are believed to have played an important role in the development of Standard Old English. Some of the wealth he accumulated was used to rebuild churches, and he was also a major patron of ecclesiastical art, although unfortunately none of his works survive, and only written accounts remain. The artistic workshops he established continued to be influential after his death, both at home and abroad.

paragraph: A century later Æthelwold had acquired a great reputation as a goldsmith, and was credited with the production of a range of metal objects at Abingdon, including many figures and objects in precious metal, bells and even a pipe organ. While his later, disreputable successor at Abingdon Spearhafoc clearly was, like Dunstan, a significant artist, that Wulfstan's contemporary "Life of Æthelwold" mentions him undertaking other forms of manual work, in the gardens and in building, but nothing about metalwork, suggests this legend was a later elaboration, though one that shows the high status of goldsmithing at the time. Æthelwold was certainly bishop during the period when the Winchester school of manuscript illumination reached its peak, and the most important surviving manuscript of the school, the Benedictional of Saint Æthelwold (British Library), was commissioned by him. He also rebuilt the Old Minster at Winchester, completed in 980.

paragraph: Section::::Political role.

paragraph: Æthelwold also played an important political role. When the succession became an issue late in Edgar's reign, Æthelwold supported the claim of Æthelred, the son of his major patron, Ælfthryth, whereas Dunstan and Oswald appear to have supported Edgar's son by an earlier wife, Edward the Martyr, who succeeded to the throne. After Edward was murdered in 978, Æthelwold seems to have played a major advisory role in Æthelred's minority. It is significant that it was only after Æthelwold's death in 984 that Æthelred started acting against the interests of some of the reformed monastic houses. One victim was Abingdon Abbey, and in a charter restoring its privileges in 993 the king acknowledged that Æthelwold's passing had deprived the country "of one whose industry and pastoral care ministered not only to my interest but also to that of all the inhabitants of the country."

paragraph: Section::::Death and reputation.

paragraph: Æthelwold died on 1 August 984 at Beddington in Surrey. He was buried in the crypt of the Old Minster at Winchester, but twelve years later Ælfhelm, a citizen of Wallingford, claimed to have been cured of blindness by visiting Æthelwold's tomb. This was taken as the necessary sign for his formal recognition as a saint, and his body was translated from the crypt to the choir. By the 12th century, Abingdon Abbey had acquired an arm and a leg.

paragraph: One of Æthelwold's pupils, Wulfstan of Winchester, wrote a biography which seems to have played a major role in promoting his cult, and in about 1004 Ælfric, another disciple and abbot of Eynsham, abridged Wulfstan's work in Latin and Old English. However, the Æthelwold of Wulfstan's life inspired respect rather than devotion, and his cult never seems to have achieved great popularity. Wulfstan's saint is a formidable authoritarian, who, for instance, commands a monk to show his devotion by plunging his hand into a pot of boiling stew. He has a reputation for ruthless insensitivity which is not shared by the other tenth-century monastic reformers. His importance to the reform movement has always been appreciated, but the range of his contributions to scholarship has only been recognised in recent years.

paragraph: Æthelwold's liturgical feast is kept on 1 August., but he was never formally canonized.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anglo-Saxons.net Charter S567 accessed on 5 September 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Barrow, Julia, "The Ideology of the Tenth-Century English Benedictine 'Reform"', in Patricia Skinner (ed.), "Challenging the Boundaries of Medieval History: The Legacy of Timothy Reuter", 2009, Brepols,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909: St. Ethelwold

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Online Saints and Angels: St. Ethelwold accessed on 5 September 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Foot, Sarah (2011) "Æthelstan: The First King of England", Yale University Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lambertson, Reader Isaac. Commemoration of Our Father among the Saints Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walsh, Michael "A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West" London: Burns & Oates 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wulfstan of Winchester, "Life of St. Æthelwold", Lapidge, M. & Winterbottom, M. (eds.), OUP, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yorke, Barbara, Æthelwold, Online Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Æthelwold of Winchester, The Old English Rule of St. Benedict with Related Old English Texts, translated by Jacob Riyeff (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2017)

description: Bishop of Winchester; Abbot of Abingdon

wikidata_label: Æthelwold of Winchester

wikipedia_title: Æthelwold of Winchester


text:
graphic designer
architecture
design
history of art
Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich
graphic design
photography
Tonhalle
New Graphic Design
IBM
Akzidenz-Grotesk
Purcell, Kerry William
"Blanka"

categories: Swiss graphic designers,1914 births,People from Rapperswil-Jona,1996 deaths

paragraph: Josef Müller-Brockmann

paragraph: Josef Müller-Brockmann (May 9, 1914 – August 30, 1996) was a Swiss graphic designer and teacher. He studied architecture, design and history of art at both the University and Kunstgewerbeschule Zürich. In 1936 he opened his Zurich studio specialising in graphic design, exhibition design and photography. From 1951 he produced concert posters for the Tonhalle in Zurich. In 1958 he became a founding editor of "New Graphic Design" along with R.P. Lohse, C. Vivarelli, and H. Neuburg. In 1966 he was appointed European design consultant to IBM.

paragraph: Brockmann is recognised for his simple designs and his clean use of typography (notably Akzidenz-Grotesk), shapes and colours which inspire many graphic designers in the 21st century.

paragraph: Müller-Brockman was author of several books on design and visual communication.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Graphic Artist and his Design Problems (Gestaltungsprobleme des Grafikers)", Teufen, 1961

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A History of Visual Communication (Geschichte der visuellen Kommunikation)", Niederteufen, 1971

paragraph: BULLET::::- "History of the Poster (Geschichte des Plakates)", co-author Shizuko Yoshikawa, Zurich, 1971

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Grid Systems in Graphic Design (Rastersysteme für die visuelle Gestaltung)", Niederteufen, 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Graphic Design in IBM: Typography, Photography, Illustration", Paris, 1988

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fotoplakate: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart", co-author Karl Wobmann, Aarau, 1989

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mein Leben: Spielerischer Ernst und ernsthaftes Spiel" (autobiography), Baden, 1994

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Friedl, Friederich, Nicholas Ott and Bernard Stein. "Typography: An encyclopedic survey of type design and techniques through history". Black Dog & Leventhal, 1998. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Purcell, Kerry William. "Josef Müller-Brockmann". Phaidon Press, 2006. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Many of Müller-Brockmann's works can be found in the online gallery "Blanka".

alias:
Josef Muller-Brockmann
Josef Mueller-Brockmann

description: Swiss graphic designer

wikidata_label: Josef Müller-Brockmann

wikipedia_title: Josef Müller-Brockmann


text: Welsh

text: Llanfairpwll

text: Anglesey

text: Llangefni

text: Anglesey

text: Moreton Hall School

text: Shrewsbury School

text: epilepsy

text: Royal Welch Fusiliers

text: lieutenant

text: British Army

text: medical examination

text: Slade School of Fine Art

text: Highgate School

text: Martin Gilbert

text: Royal Academicians

text: Anthony Green

text: Patrick Procktor

text: composer

text: John Tavener

text: John Rutter

text: Albert Knight

text: Winston Churchill

text: Y Wladfa

text: Patagonia

text: Anglesey

text: lung cancer

text: lead-based paints

text: St Mary's Church, Llanfair-yng-Nghornwy

text: Bryn Terfel

text: Manic Street Preachers

text: James Dean Bradfield

text: The Great Western

text: Oriel Ynys Môn

text: Llangefni

text: Royal Cambrian Academy

text: Royal Academy

text: Glyndŵr Award

text: Machynlleth Festival

text: OBE

text: KBE

text: Patagonia

text: Oriel Ynys Môn

text: National Library of Wales

text: Government Art Collection

text: Arts Council Collection

text: National Museum of Wales

text: Josie D'arby

text: Meic Stephens

text: Short biography of Kyffin Williams

text: Oriel Kyffin Williams Gallery - Prints

text: Land Against the Light: Kyffin Williams

text: BBC

text: Obituary: Sir Kyffin Williams

text: On-line book of condolence

categories: People educated at Shrewsbury School,Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire,20th-century Welsh painters,People from Anglesey,2006 deaths,21st-century Welsh painters,1918 births,Royal Academicians,British landscape painters,Deaths from cancer in Wales,People with epilepsy,Deaths from lung cancer,Alumni of the Slade School of Art

paragraph: Kyffin Williams

paragraph: Sir John "Kyffin" Williams, (9 May 1918 – 1 September 2006) was a Welsh landscape painter who lived at Pwllfanogl, Llanfairpwll, on the Island of Anglesey. Williams is widely regarded as the defining artist of Wales during the 20th century.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Williams was born in Llangefni, Anglesey, one of two sons into an old landed Anglesey family. His father was a bank manager. Williams wrote that his mother was an emotionally repressed woman who had a virulent dislike of the Welsh and the Welsh language. Kyffin Williams was educated at Moreton Hall School then Shrewsbury School where he contracted polio encephalitis which lead him to develop epilepsy, a misfortune he later described as "my greatest fortune". He joined the 6th Battalion Royal Welch Fusiliers as a lieutenant in 1937. After he failed a British Army medical examination in 1941 (because of epilepsy), his doctor advised him to take up art for the sake of his health. He developed a passion for art when he discovered the works of Piero Della Francesca.

paragraph: Despite academic difficulties—he was told initially by his tutor that he couldn't draw—Williams enrolled at London's Slade School of Fine Art in 1941 (then relocated in Oxford). When he finished his 3 years there he left with the Slade Portrait Prize. He then achieved his ambition to teach art by accepting a position at Highgate School, London, where he was senior art master from 1944 until 1973. His pupils included the historian Sir Martin Gilbert, Royal Academicians Anthony Green and Patrick Procktor and composers John Tavener and John Rutter. He painted a portrait of the school's cricket coach, former test player Albert Knight. In 1968 he won a scholarship (Winston Churchill Fellowship) to study and paint in Y Wladfa, the Welsh settlement in Patagonia. However Wales never left his consciousness or imagination, as he would return home in holidays, take his study sketches back to London and complete his canvasses. Williams' particular technique was applying thick oil paint with a palette knife. Williams was predominately a landscape painter but he also was an accomplished portraitist and something of a cartoonist. His paintings basically divide into three subjects: Venice, Patagonia and by far the largest section, Wales.

paragraph: In 1968 he won a scholarship that took him to the Welsh community in Patagonia, South America. This added a significant body of work to his oeuvre (nearly 50 Patagonia paintings) and the light in Patagonia radically changed his palette.

paragraph: On retiring from Highgate school Williams returned to Anglesey and spent the next 30 years painting, and promoting Welsh schools of Art and Welsh art in general.

paragraph: Never having married, Williams died, without heirs, on 1 September 2006, aged 88, at a nursing home in Anglesey. He had been suffering from lung cancer, believed to be a result of working with lead-based paints. Williams was buried at St Mary's Church, Llanfair-yng-Nghornwy. Paying tribute to Williams after his death, bass-baritone singer and Williams collector Bryn Terfel said, "I'm deeply saddened by the passing of Wales's foremost ambassador in the visual arts. Long may his memory live on in the legacy of his numerous, wonderful paintings."

paragraph: In 1949 Williams had his first one-man-show at a private gallery in London. His first Patagonia exhibition took place in 1971. Later in 2006, the Welsh singer and Manic Street Preachers frontman James Dean Bradfield included a track called "Which Way to Kyffin", dedicated to Williams, on his album "The Great Western".

paragraph: Section::::As an artist.

paragraph: His works typically drew inspiration from the Welsh landscape and farmlands. His works may be seen in a permanent exhibition in the "Oriel Kyffin Williams Gallery" which opened in 2008 at Oriel Ynys Môn in Llangefni, Anglesey, as well as at many other galleries elsewhere in Britain. He was president of the Royal Cambrian Academy and was appointed a member of the Royal Academy in 1974.

paragraph: In 1995 Williams received the Glyndŵr Award for an Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in Wales during the Machynlleth Festival. He was awarded the OBE for his services to the arts in 1982 and a KBE in 1999.

paragraph: The Kyffin Williams Drawing Prize was established in 2009. The winning works from the 2018 prize are due to be exhibited at the "Oriel Kyffin Williams Gallery".

paragraph: In February 2011 it was announced that Williams' paintings of Patagonia would be shown for the first time. His last passport, on show in the Oriel Ynys Môn gallery at Llangefni, 2004–2014, has the name Sir John Williams. Kyffin was his grandmother's maiden name.

paragraph: Williams was a great raconteur and also a fine writer, publishing his autobiography in "Across the Straits" and "A wider sky".

paragraph: The National Library of Wales was one of the first national institutions to purchase one of his works in the late forties and continue to support his work throughout his life. In acknowledgement of his gratitude for their support he bequeath them his papers and a significant body of his works to the National library. They now hold probably the largest single body of his works.

paragraph: Williams' works are held in many public collections, including the Government Art Collection, the Arts Council Collection and the National Museum of Wales.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Williams' work is in the collections of a number of Welsh museums and galleries.

paragraph: In June 2018, he was the subject of a 50-minute BBC Television documentary, "Kyffin Williams: The Man Who Painted Wales", presented by Josie D'arby.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meic Stephens (Editor): "The New Companion to the Literature of Wales" (University of Wales Press, Cardiff, 1998)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Short biography of Kyffin Williams

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oriel Kyffin Williams Gallery - Prints

paragraph: BULLET::::- Calls for home for Sir Kyffin's paintings to be on Anglesey

paragraph: BULLET::::- The works of Kyffin Williams from Gathering the Jewels

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Land Against the Light: Kyffin Williams" BBC programme page

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obituary: Sir Kyffin Williams

paragraph: BULLET::::- On-line book of condolence

paragraph: BULLET::::- BBC announcement of the death of Sir Kyffin Williams - 01 Sept 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tributes to Sir Kyffin Williams left on the BBC website - Sept 2006

alias:
John Kyffin Williams
Sir John Kyffin Williams

description: Welsh landscape painter

wikidata_label: Kyffin Williams

wikipedia_title: Kyffin Williams


text:
House of Gorizia
County of Gorizia
County of Tyrol
Albert
Duchy of Carinthia
March of Carniola
Meinhard III of Gorizia
Albert IV of Tyrol
Bernhard von Spanheim
Greifenburg
Philip of Salzburg
Salzburg
Hohenwerfen Castle
Elisabeth of Wittelsbach
Hohenstaufen
Conrad IV of Germany
Stams
Prince-Bishop
Trento
Brixen
Adige
Salorno
Inn
salt mines
Hall
Imperial State
silver
Groschen
Conradin of Swabia
Italy
Battle of Tagliacozzo
Rudolf of Habsburg
King of the Romans
Ottokar II of Bohemia
interregnum
Elisabeth
Albert
Battle on the Marchfeld
Prince of the Holy Roman Empire
Imperial Diet
Augsburg
Duke's Chair
Tyrolean Landrecht
Meranian
Istria
House of Habsburg
Henry
Margaret
King of Bohemia
German queen
Elisabeth of Wittelsbach
Otto II of Bavaria
Conrad IV of Germany
Conradin of Hohenstaufen
Duke of Swabia
Kingdom of Sicily
Elisabeth
Albert of Habsburg
Duke of Austria
Styria
King of Germany
Otto III
Piast
Henry V of Legnica
Hohenzollern
Görz-Tyrol
Frederick IV of Nuremberg
Burgrave
Nuremberg
Henry
Anne Přemyslovna
Wenceslaus II of Bohemia
King of Bohemia
Margaret of Tyrol
Wettin
Frederick of Meissen
Emperor Frederick II

categories: Dukes of Carinthia,1295 deaths,1230s births,Counts of Tyrol

paragraph: Meinhard, Duke of Carinthia

paragraph: Meinhard II (c. 1238 – 1 November 1295), a member of the House of Gorizia ("Meinhardiner"), ruled the County of Gorizia (as Meinhard IV) and the County of Tyrol together with his younger brother Albert from 1258, until in 1271 they divided their heritage and Meinhard became sole ruler of Tyrol. In 1286 he was enfeoffed with the Duchy of Carinthia and the adjacent March of Carniola.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Meinhard II was the son of Count Meinhard III of Gorizia and his wife Adelheid (died 1275–79), daughter and heiress of Count Albert IV of Tyrol. His father had acquired the County of Tyrol (as Meinhard I) upon the death of his father-in-law in 1253 and already had attempted to gain control over neighbouring Carinthian lands against the forces of Duke Bernhard von Spanheim. However, he was defeated near Greifenburg and had to leave his minor sons Meinhard II and Albert held in hostage by Duke Bernhard's son, Archbishop-elect Philip of Salzburg. After their father's death in 1258, Meinhard II and his brother emerged from the Salzburg custody at Hohenwerfen Castle to secure their Gorizia-Tyrol heritage. In 1259 Meinhard married Elisabeth of Wittelsbach, the widow of the Hohenstaufen king Conrad IV of Germany, about ten years his senior.

paragraph: The joint rule with Albert came to an end, when the inheritance rights to Gorizia and Tyrol were divided in 1271. Meinhard received the County of Tyrol, becoming the progenitor of the Gorizia-Tyrol line of the "Meinhardiner" dynasty. He and his wife Elisabeth founded Stams Abbey as a proprietary monastery in 1273. The count struggled to acquire the lordship over the Prince-Bishoprics of Trento and Brixen, extended his Tyrolean lands down the Adige River to Salorno, and also acquired several territories in the Inn valley including the important salt mines around Hall. He turned out to be a capable ruler, and therefore is known as the creator of Tyrol as an autonomous Imperial State. Meinhard also had roads built and coins minted, especially the silver coin "Zwainziger" ("twenty"). The type was copied elsewhere in Europe and became widely known as Groschen.

paragraph: Already in 1267 Count Meinhard had once again tried to strengthen the ties with the Hohenstaufen dynasty by accompanying his stepson Conradin of Swabia on his campaign to Italy. However, after Conradin's defeat at the Battle of Tagliacozzo and his execution in 1268, he had to seek new allies. He became a close associate of Count Rudolf of Habsburg, who was elected King of the Romans in 1273 and stuck in a fierce conflict with the mighty king Ottokar II of Bohemia around several "alienated" Imperial territories, which Ottokar had acquired during the preceding "interregnum". In 1276 Meinhard married his daughter Elisabeth off to Rudolf's eldest son Albert.

paragraph: Meinhard backed Rudolf's campaign against Ottokar and in turn received Carinthia with the Carniolan march as a pledge in 1276. After Ottokar's defeat in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, King Rudolf formally elevated Meinhard to a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire and finally vested him with the Duchy of Carinthia as a fief at the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1286. On September 1, Meinhard was enthroned at the Duke's Chair and thus became the first Carinthian duke of the Gorizia-Tyrol dynasty. In 1286–9 Meinhard issued a vernacular Tyrolean Landrecht, albeit only fragmentarily transmitted upon today. As far as can be ascertained, he had no ancestry in earlier Carinthian ducal families, whereas he was a distant descendant of some early Meranian lords of Istria and Carniola. His investiture of the duchy included a provision that in extinction of his male line, the House of Habsburg would be its heir. This materialized in 1335 upon the death of his son Henry. The Habsburgs also acquired the County of Tyrol from Henry's daughter Margaret in 1363.

paragraph: Meinhard died in 1295 at Greifenburg in Carinthia. His younger son Henry succeeded him as Carinthian duke and in 1307 was even elected King of Bohemia; his eldest daughter Elisabeth by her marriage with Albert of Habsburg became German queen in 1298.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and children.

paragraph: Meinhard's wife from 1258 was Elisabeth of Wittelsbach (c. 1227–73), the daughter of Duke Otto II of Bavaria and widow of King Conrad IV of Germany. Thus he was the stepfather of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, Duke of Swabia and claimant of the Kingdom of Sicily, who was executed in 1268.

paragraph: With Elisabeth he had the following children:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Elisabeth (1262–1312), married Albert of Habsburg, Duke of Austria and Styria from 1282, King of Germany from 1298

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Otto III (c. 1265–1310), Duke of Carinthia and Count of Tyrol, married Euphemia (c. 1278–1347), daughter of the Piast duke Henry V of Legnica

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Albert II, Count of Tyrol, died 1292, married Agnes of Hohenberg in 1281, daughter of Albert II of Hohenberg-Rotenburg (c. 1235–98), Count of Hohenberg and Haigerloch, who belonged to a cadet branch of the Hohenzollern dynasty. Their daughter, Margaret of Görz-Tyrol (died after 1348), married Frederick IV of Nuremberg, Burgrave of Nuremberg, (1287–1332).

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Louis, Duke of Carinthia and Count of Tyrol, died 1305

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Henry (c. 1270–1335), Duke of Carinthia and Count of Tyrol, married Anne Přemyslovna, daughter of the King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia; King of Bohemia in 1306 and 1307–10, father of Countess Margaret of Tyrol

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Agnes (died 1293), married the Wettin margrave Frederick of Meissen, a grandson of Emperor Frederick II; her only son Frederick the Lame predeceased his father.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hermann Wiesflecker, "Meinhard der Zweite. Tirol, Kärnten und ihre Nachbarländer am Ende des 13. Jhs." (Schlern-Schriften 124). Innsbruck: Wagner 1955, Reprint 1995.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Eines Fürsten Traum. Meinhard II.—Das Werden Tirols". Catalogue, Dorf Tirol—Innsbruck 1995.

description: Count of Gorizia and Tyrol, Duke of Carinthia and Margrave of Carniola

wikidata_label: Meinhard

wikipedia_title: Meinhard, Duke of Carinthia


text:
Greek
Indo-Greek
Punjab
Taxila
Scythian
Menander I
Athena
Greek
Greek
Amyntas
Epander
Maues
Gandhara
Taxila
Taxila
Maues
Azes I
Artemidorus
Telephus
Menander II
Greek
Athena
Alexander the Great
Bucephalus
Apollo
tripod
Apollodotus I
Maues
Zoilos II
Azes I
Coins of Apollodotus II
More coins of Apollodotus II

paragraph: Apollodotus II

paragraph: Apollodotus II (Greek: ) was an Indo-Greek king who ruled in the western and eastern parts of Punjab. Bopearachchi dates him to c. 80–65 BCE, and R. C. Senior to c. 85–65 BCE. Apollodotos II was an important ruler who seems to have re-established the Indo-Greek kingdom to some extent of its former glory. Taxila in western Punjab was reconquered from nomad Scythian rule.

paragraph: Section::::Rule.

paragraph: Apollodotus II seems to have been a member of the dynasty of Menander I, since he used their typical deity Athena Alkidemos on most of his silver, and also Menander's title "Soter" (Greek: , "the Saviour"), on all his coins. On some coins, he also calls himself "Philopator" (Greek: , "the father-loving"), which proves that his father had been king before him. R C Senior guesses that Amyntas or Epander could have been his father.

paragraph: Apollodotus' reign possibly began in the Punjab, when the Scythian king Maues ruled in Gandhara and its capital Taxila. What probably happened is that Apollodotus II took over Taxila after the death of Maues, though it is uncertain whether he defeated Maues or his descendants, or was allied or related to the dynasty of Maues. The late Indo-Greeks may have been rather mixed with both Indians and Scythians. R C Senior suggests that Apollodotus had struck an alliance with another Scythian king, Azes I.

paragraph: The Scythian hold on Gandhara loosened after the death of Maues, and petty kings of mixed or uncertain origin, like Artemidorus the son of Maues, Telephus and perhaps Menander II emerged in the area. These kings posed no threat to Apollodotus II, who on some of his coins assumed the title "Basileus Megas" (Greek: , "Great King"), in echo of Maues' boastful title "Great King of Kings".

paragraph: After the death of Apollodotus II, the Indo-Greek kingdom fragmented once more.

paragraph: Section::::Coins of Apollodotus II.

paragraph: Apollodotus II issued a large number of coins. He struck silver with a diademed portrait on the obverse and a reverse of Athena Alkidemos, and also a unique coin with the reverse of a king, possibly Alexander the Great, sitting on a horned horse similar to Alexander's Bucephalus and holding his hand in a benediction gesture.

paragraph: He struck bronzes with Apollo/tripod, a type introduced by his namesake Apollodotus I.

paragraph: The coins of Apollodotus II are of different qualities. Some still have the realistic portraits characteristic of the earlier Indo-Greek coins, and Bopearachchi attributes these series to the western part of his kingdom. Others are badly struck and/or have clumsy and distorted portraits, and these Bopearachchi interprets as belonging to newly opened mints in eastern Punjab, presumably struck by Indian celators with little knowledge of Greek engraving skills.

paragraph: On some of his coins there are both extra monograms in shape of Kharosthi letters. These monograms are interpreted, which was suggested already by W.W. Tarn, to have belonged to officials with Indian names. The coins therefore indicate that Apollodotus II relied more on his Indian subjects than earlier kings, and also opened new mints in eastern Punjab where Greek presence was scarce.

paragraph: Section::::Overstrikes.

paragraph: Apollodotus II overstruck a bronze of Maues. Zoilos II overstruck some of the coins of Apollodotus II, as did Azes I.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies" by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Greeks in Bactria and India", W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coins of Apollodotus II

paragraph: BULLET::::- More coins of Apollodotus II

wikidata_label: Apollodotus II

wikipedia_title: Apollodotus II


text:
House of Gorizia
Count of Gorizia
Count of Tyrol
Engelbert III of Gorizia
Matilda
Andechs
Berthold IV of Merania
Lienz
Gorizia
Meinhard the Elder
Albert IV of Tyrol
Hohenstaufen
Frederick II
Pope Innocent IV
Duchy of Styria
March of Carniola
Babenberg
Frederick the Warlike
Duchy of Austria
Carinthian
House of Sponheim
Bohemian
Ottokar II Přemysl
Bernhard von Spanheim
Philip
Archbishop of Salzburg
Greifenburg
Lieserhofen
Meinhard IV
Albert
Hohenwerfen Castle
Mittersill
Virgen
Matrei
Oberdrauburg
Hirschberg
Meran
Trento bishops
Habsburg
Rudolf I of Germany
Tirol Castle
Albert IV, Count of Tyrol
Ortenburg
Meinhard II
Count of Gorizia
Tyrol
Duke of Carinthia
Albert I
Wullenstetten
Medieval genealogy

categories: 1200s births,Counts of Tyrol,1258 deaths

paragraph: Meinhard I, Count of Gorizia-Tyrol

paragraph: Meinhard I ( – 22 July 1258), a member of the House of Gorizia ("Meinhardiner"), was Count of Gorizia (as Meinhard III) from 1231 and Count of Tyrol from 1253 until his death.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was the son of Count Engelbert III of Gorizia and his wife Matilda, a sister of the Andechs duke Berthold IV of Merania. His father died in 1220, nevertheless he did not come in control over all his family's possessions around Lienz and Gorizia upon the death of his uncle Count Meinhard the Elder. About 1237 he married Adelaide ("Adelheid"), one of the two daughters of Count Albert IV of Tyrol, attended with reasonable succession prospects in the Tyrolean lands.

paragraph: Meinhard strongly supported the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II in his fierce conflict with Pope Innocent IV and in return was appointed Imperial governor of the Duchy of Styria and the March of Carniola after the last Babenberg duke Frederick the Warlike had died without heirs in 1246. From 1250 onwards also governor in the princeless Duchy of Austria, Meinhard facing the fall of the Hohenstaufen dynasty did not prevail: his rule in Carniola was challenged by the Carinthian ducal House of Sponheim, and in Austria and Styria he was expelled by the Bohemian prince Ottokar II Přemysl in 1251.

paragraph: During the turmoil after the death of Emperor Frederick II, Count Meinhard, backed by his father-in-law Albert IV of Tyrol, tried to gain control over the Duchy of Carinthia but failed in an unsuccessful campaign against Duke Bernhard von Spanheim and his son Philip, the elected Archbishop of Salzburg. On 8 September 1252, he was finally defeated and arrested at Greifenburg. According to the Peace of Lieserhofen, concluded on 27 December 1252, he had to give his sons Meinhard IV and Albert to Archbishop Philip as hostages. Both were imprisoned at Hohenwerfen Castle in Salzburg and not released until 1258. Meinhard and Albert IV of Tyrol also had to pay a compensation and to renounce certain possessions including Mittersill, Virgen, Matrei and Oberdrauburg.

paragraph: Upon the death of Count Albert IV of Tyrol in 1253, Meinhard and his brother-in-law, Count Gebhard of Hirschberg, split Tyrol, of which Meinhard took the southern part with Meran, in constant quarrels with the Trento bishops. His son Meinhard II later also acquired the Hirschberg lands from Gebhard's heirs in 1284 and two years later even received Carinthia from the hands of the Habsburg king Rudolf I of Germany.

paragraph: Meinhard I died in 1258 and is buried at Tirol Castle.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and children.

paragraph: About 1237, Meinhhard married Adelaide, daughter of Albert IV, Count of Tyrol. They had four known children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adelheid († 1291), married Count Frederick I of Ortenburg

paragraph: BULLET::::- Meinhard II (1238–1295), Count of Gorizia and Tyrol, Duke of Carinthia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Albert I († 1304), Count of Gorizia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bertha († 1267), married Conrad, Count of Wullenstetten

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Medieval genealogy

description: Count of Gorizia

wikidata_label: Meinhard I, Count of Gorizia-Tyrol

wikipedia_title: Meinhard I, Count of Gorizia-Tyrol


text:
King
Edmund Ironside
Ealdgyth
Kingdom of Hungary
Cnut the Great
Danish conquest of England
Canute
Edmund
Olof Skötkonung
Kiev
Ingigerd
Bolesław I Chrobry
Hungary
András
Edward the Confessor
heir
Saxon royal house
Godwin, Earl of Wessex
William, Duke of Normandy
Witan
Godwinsons
Ealdred
Bishop of Worcester
Harold Godwinson
Old St Paul's Cathedral
Agatha
Edgar Ætheling
King of England
Battle of Hastings
William the Conqueror
Saint Margaret of Scotland
Malcolm III of Scotland
Cristina
Romsey Abbey
Edith of Scotland
King Henry I of England
post-Conquest
English monarchy
Wessex kings
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles
Cerdic of Wessex
Western Roman Empire
Hadrian's Wall
Alfred the Great
English monarchs family tree
Cnut the Great
Canute
House of Wessex family tree
Castle Réka
Edward Atheling of Wessex

categories: Anglo-Saxon royalty,1016 births,11th-century English monarchs,House of Wessex,1057 deaths,Heirs to the English throne

paragraph: Edward the Exile

paragraph: Edward the Exile (1016 – 19 April 1057), also called "Edward Ætheling", was the son of King Edmund Ironside and of Ealdgyth. He spent most of his life in exile in the Kingdom of Hungary following the defeat of his father by Cnut the Great.

paragraph: Section::::Exile.

paragraph: After the Danish conquest of England in 1016, Canute had Edward, said to be only a few months old, and his brother Edmund, sent to the Swedish court of Olof Skötkonung (who was either Canute's half-brother or his stepbrother), supposedly with instructions to have the children murdered. Instead, the two boys were secretly sent either to Kiev, where Olof's daughter Ingigerd was the queen, or to Poland, where Canute's uncle Bolesław I Chrobry was duke. Later Edward made his way to Hungary, probably in the retinue of Ingigerd's son-in-law András, in 1046.

paragraph: Section::::Return.

paragraph: On hearing that Edward was alive, Edward the Confessor recalled him to England in 1056 and made him his heir. Edward the Ætheling offered the last chance of an undisputed succession within the Saxon royal house. News of Edward's existence came at a time when the old Anglo-Saxon monarchy, restored after a long period of Danish domination, was heading for catastrophe. The Confessor, personally devout but politically weak and childless, was unable to make an effective stand against the steady advance of the powerful and ambitious sons of Godwin, Earl of Wessex. From across the Channel William, Duke of Normandy also had an eye on the succession. Edward the Exile appeared at just the right time. Approved both by the king and by the Witan, the Council of the Realm, he offered a way out of the impasse, a counter both to the Godwinsons and to William, and one with a legitimacy that could not be readily challenged.

paragraph: In 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred, Bishop of Worcester, to the court of the German emperor to set in train negotiations with the king of Hungary for the return of Edward the Exile. Ealdred was not at first successful, and Earl Harold Godwinson's journey to Flanders, and possibly on to Germany and Hungary, in 1056 was probably undertaken to further negotiations. The Exile finally arrived in England in 1057 with his wife and children, but died within a few days, on 19 April, without meeting the King. He was buried in Old St Paul's Cathedral.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Edward's wife was named Agatha; her origins are disputed. Their children were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edgar Ætheling (c. 1051 - c. 1126) - Elected King of England after the Battle of Hastings but submitted to William the Conqueror.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saint Margaret of Scotland (c. 1045 - 16 November 1093) - Married King Malcolm III of Scotland.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cristina (c. 1057 - c. 1093) - Abbess at Romsey Abbey.

paragraph: Edward's grandchild Edith of Scotland, also called Matilda, married King Henry I of England, continuing the Anglo-Saxon line into the post-Conquest English monarchy.

paragraph: Section::::Ancestors.

paragraph: Edward the Exile was a direct descendant of a line of Wessex kings dating back, at least on the pages of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, to the arrival of Cerdic of Wessex in AD 495, nearly a century after the withdrawal of the Western Roman Empire army legions from Hadrian's Wall, and including Alfred the Great in the English monarchs family tree. Of his more immediate ancestors, all four of Edward's male-line ancestors shown in the diagram below were Kings of England before Cnut the Great (Canute) took the crown and sent Edward into exile.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- House of Wessex family tree

paragraph: BULLET::::- Castle Réka

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Edward Atheling of Wessex

wikidata_label: Edward the Exile

wikipedia_title: Edward the Exile


text: Chieti

text: Kingdom of Naples

text: Italian

text: economist

text: Enlightenment

text: Friedrich Nietzsche

text: Chieti

text: Naples

text: Rome

text: wit

text: Della Moneta

text: mercantilism

text: parodied

text: King Charles of Naples and Sicily

text: Bernardo Tanucci

text: French language

text: Paris

text: Voltaire

text: Plato

text: Molière

text: Giuseppe Pecchio

text: Fontenelle

text: Descartes

text: Algarotti

text: Newtonian system of the world

text: Pietro Verri

text: Louise d'Épinay

text: Alberto Marghieri

text: Giampietro Vieusseux

text: physiocrats

categories: People from Chieti,1787 deaths,Italian scientists,Mercantilists,Italian writers in French,Italian economists,1728 births,Honorary Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences

paragraph: Ferdinando Galiani

paragraph: Ferdinando Galiani (2 December 1728, Chieti, Kingdom of Naples – 30 October 1787, Naples, Kingdom of Naples) was an Italian economist, a leading Italian figure of the Enlightenment. Friedrich Nietzsche referred to him as "a most fastidious and refined intelligence" as well as "... the most profound, sharp-sighted and perhaps also the foulest man of his century."

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born at Chieti, he was carefully educated by his uncle, Monsignor Celestino Galiani, at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the church. Galiani showed early promise as an economist, and even more as a wit. By the age of twenty-two, after he took orders, he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his "Della Moneta", a disquisition on coinage in which he shows himself a strong supporter of mercantilism, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government.

paragraph: The other, "Raccolta in Morte del Boia", established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In this volume Galiani parodied, in a series of discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani's political knowledge and social qualities brought him to the attention of King Charles of Naples and Sicily (afterwards Charles III of Spain) and his liberal minister Bernardo Tanucci, and in 1759 Galiani was appointed secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777 administrator of the royal domains.

paragraph: Galiani's published works focus on the area of humanities as well as social sciences. He left a large number of priceless letters which are not only of biographical interest but are also important for the light they cast on the social, economic, and political characteristics of eighteenth-century Europe. His economic reputation was made by a book written in the French language and published 1769 in Paris, namely, his "Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds", "Dialogues on the commerce in wheat". This work, by its light and pleasing style, and its vivacious wit, delighted Voltaire, who described it as a cross between Plato and Molière. The author, says Giuseppe Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to this trade is to have no system — countries of different circumstances requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment. He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the mercantilists — holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Pietro Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples, Galiani kept up a correspondence with his old Parisian friends, notably Louise d'Épinay; this was published in 1818.

paragraph: See "L'abate Galiani", by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his correspondence with Tanucci in Giampietro Vieusseux's "L'Archivio storico" (Florence, 1878).

paragraph: Section::::Published works.

paragraph: Section::::Published works.:"Della moneta".

paragraph: In 1751, while still a student, Galiani written a book entitled "Della moneta" which intervened in the Neapolitan debate on economic reform. In this book, he discussed financial politics and gave opinions on how to develop the Neapolitan economy. At the same time, he proposed a theory of value based on utility and scarcity; this depth of thinking on economic value would not be seen again until discussions of marginal utility developed in the 1870s. In addition, Galiani's tract exhibited conventional Mercantilist ideas and some of his recommendations were adopted by the Neapolitan government.

paragraph: The Chapter 1 of Book I introduces the history of money as well as the rise and fall of states in antiquity and modern times. By using historical examples, Galiani pointed out his idea that commerce was neglected by political rulers throughout the whole history of humankind. States could become rich and grew through the conquest, however they still could not enhance their power, territory and wealth without commerce.

paragraph: In the core chapter of the book, Galiani explained that the value of money at any point in time derived from principles that were part of human nature itself; money was definitely not a human invention by which people deliberately changed the societies they lived in. Money generated naturally from the gradual modification of people's loves into social ideas of value that inspired commercial interaction. Money exists without relying on promises, trust, or another moral capacity of self-restraint and money is not created by agreement. If this situation is changed, commerce could not be the central of modern societies

paragraph: In Della moneta, Galiani constantly described the effects of human actions in terms of providential rewards and punishments. He used the term providence to reconcile the historical dynamic of commercial progress with a set of fixed moral rules that lay at the core of successful human interaction. Galiani presented any moralistic dismissals of natural price formation and self-interested profit-seeking as reproaches to the way God intended human societies to function. Providential mechanisms were also involved in the history of money, the rise and fall of states in both antiquity and modernity and regulated the development of cultural characteristics of the dominant societies in the course of time. Throughout history man constantly reshaped the fictional moral beliefs, thereby creating the mental preconditions for commercial society.

paragraph: Section::::Published works.:"Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds".

paragraph: During the period of being a diplomat in Paris, Galiani wrote "Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds", which emphasized the importance for the regulation of commerce—an argument that opposed the physiocrats, who advocated complete freedom. This book was published in 1770 and Galiani indicated in this book that there are increasing returns to manufacturing, and diminishing returns to agriculture, and the wealth of a nation depends on manufacturing and trade. Although approving of the edict of 1764 liberalizing the grain trade, Galiani rejected much of the physiocratic analysis, notably its "land theory of value". His 1770 piece also provided a quite modern analysis of balance of payments.

paragraph: In the Dialogues, Galiani described that wheat can be seen at two different aspects. The distinctions between two different aspects is important, as a product of the earth, wheat can be considered both commerce and economic legislation. As a product of first necessity, wheat is a symbol of social order and belongs to administration. As Galiani put it in an illuminating way, ‘As soon as supplying [wheat] is the concern of administration, it is no longer an object of commerce’. Correspondingly, ‘It is certain that what is sensible and useful from one standpoint, becomes absurd and harmful from another’.

paragraph: Galiani believed that there are many shocks to economy, which can cause disequilibrium and it takes long tome for the restoration of equilibrium. He thanked that something instead of the nature law needed to face the challenge and shocks. Administration dealt with the ‘sudden movements’ of the economy, such as shortages in the wheat supply. In other words, the legislator could not but consider the down-to-earth constraints of subsistence. In this respect, the physiocratic enlightened despot consistently and independently ruling economic matters according to natural laws was not enough to maintain social order.

paragraph: Section::::Attitude to physiocrats.

paragraph: Galiani not only has theoretical brilliance with his idea of “natural” laws in economics, but also was a practical man, skeptical about the reach of abstract theory, particularly when action was necessary and urgent. He was repelled by the wide-eyed policies called for by the physiocrats, which he believed were, unrealistic, impractical and, in times of crisis, downright dangerous.

paragraph: Galiani disagreed the physiocratic argument which is said that in order to provide a sufficient supply of grain, it suffices to establish a completely free trade. In fact, the foreign trade agreed with the physiocrats that internal free trade can benefit the economy. However, Galiani used the case of exportation to challenge the physiocrats. At one point in the Dialogues, he even stated: ‘Here I am not talking about the internal liberty of trade… Let us talk foreign trade’ (Galiani 1770, 224-5). Whereas the physiocrats advocated total liberty both domestically and internationally, Galiani believed internal liberty was the first priority. Even though he was not totally opposed to grain exportation, Galiani often condemned the physiocratic liberty to export grain. Precisely, he argued that the foreign trade can threaten domestic liberty, for the frontier provinces of the kingdom may find foreign markets more attractive than domestic ones. Therefore, as long as there is no certainty as to the existence of a permanent surplus, Galiani claimed, the nation must concentrate its efforts on the internal circulation of grain.

paragraph: For him, the physiocrats were a dangerous group of impractical men with wrong ideas. In 1768, as France collapsed in a near-famine, the physiocrats still called for "non-action", muttering on their ordre naturel and the glorious wisdom of Quesnay, which galvanized of making their own remarkable contributions in opposition.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Della moneta", 1750

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dialogues sur le commerce des bleds", 1770

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Doveri dei prìncipi neutrali", 1782

description: Italian economist

wikidata_label: Ferdinando Galiani

wikipedia_title: Ferdinando Galiani


text:
French
Ligny-en-Brionnais
Charolles
département
Saône-et-Loire
convent
Paris
Jean Baptiste Massillon
Horace Walpole
Thomas Gray
regent, the duke of Orléans
Voltaire
duchesse du Maine
Hénault
Club de l'Entresol
Mme Geoffrin
Montesquieu
Fontenelle
Madame de Staal-Delaunay
D'Alembert
Mademoiselle de Lespinasse
Sainte-Beuve
cardinal de Polignac's
St Denis's
Miss Mary Berry
Strawberry Hill
Mrs Paget Toynbee
Sainte-Beuve

categories: French salon-holders,Blind royalty and nobility,French marchionesses,Women letter writers,1697 births,1780 deaths,People from Saône-et-Loire,French letter writers

paragraph: Marie Anne de Vichy-Chamrond, marquise du Deffand (1697 – 23 September 1780) was a French hostess and patron of the arts.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: She was born at the Château de Chamrond, in Ligny-en-Brionnais, a village near Charolles ("département" of Saône-et-Loire) of a noble family. Educated at a Benedictine convent in Paris, she showed great intelligence and a sceptical, cynical turn of mind. The abbess of the convent, alarmed at the freedom of her views, arranged for Jean Baptiste Massillon to visit and reason with her, but he accomplished nothing. At twenty-one years of age and without consulting her inclination, her parents married her to her kinsman, Jean Baptiste de la Lande, marquis du Deffand. The marriage was an unhappy one and the couple separated in 1722.

paragraph: Madame du Deffand is said by Horace Walpole (in a letter to Thomas Gray) to have been for a short time the mistress of the regent, the duke of Orléans. She appeared in her earlier days to be incapable of any strong attachment, but her intelligence, her cynicism, and her esprit made her the centre of attraction of a brilliant circle. In 1721 she began a friendship with Voltaire, but their regular correspondence dates only from 1736. She spent much time at Sceaux, at the court of the duchesse du Maine, where she contracted a close friendship with the president, Hénault. In Paris she joined the Club de l'Entresol and was the rival of Mme Geoffrin, but the members of her salon were drawn from aristocratic society more than from literary circles. There were exceptions: Voltaire, Montesquieu, Fontenelle, and Madame de Staal-Delaunay were among the habitués. When Hénault introduced D'Alembert, Madame du Deffand was captivated by him. She tolerated the encyclopaedists only for his sake.

paragraph: In 1752 she retired from Paris, intending to remain in the country, but she was persuaded by her friends to return. She had taken up residence in 1747 in apartments in the Convent of Saint-Joseph in the rue Saint-Dominique, which had a separate entrance from the street. When she lost her sight in 1754, she engaged Mademoiselle de Lespinasse to help her in entertaining. This lady's wit made some of the guests, including D'Alembert, prefer her society to that of Madame du Deffand, and Mademoiselle de Lespinasse received visitors for an hour before her patron appeared. When this was discovered, Mademoiselle de Lespinasse was dismissed (1764), and the salon broke up, for she took with her D'Alembert, Turgot, and the literary clique. From this time Madame du Deffand very rarely received any literary visitors. The principal friendships of her later years were with the duchesse de Choiseul and with Horace Walpole, the latter becoming the strongest and longest-lasting of all her attachments. In this period, she developed qualities of style and eloquence of which her earlier writings had given little promise. In the opinion of Sainte-Beuve the prose of her letters ranks with that of Voltaire as the best of that classical epoch, without excepting any even of the great writers.

paragraph: Walpole refused at first to acknowledge the closeness of their intimacy from an exaggerated fear of the ridicule attaching to her age, but he paid several visits to Paris expressly for the purpose of enjoying her society, and maintained a close and most interesting correspondence with her for fifteen years. On her death, she left her dog, Tonton, to the care of Walpole, who also was entrusted with her papers. Of her innumerable witty sayings the best known is her remark on the cardinal de Polignac's account of St Denis's miraculous walk of two miles with his head in his hands--"Il n'y a que le premier pas qui coûte" "(The distance doesn't matter; it is only the first step that is the most difficult.)".

paragraph: Section::::Correspondence.

paragraph: The "" of Madame du Deffand with D'Alembert, Hénault, Montesquieu, and others was published in Paris (2 vols.) in 1809. Letters of the marquise du Deffand to the Hon. Horace Walpole, afterwards earl of Orford, from the year 1766 to the year 1780 (4vols.), edited, with a biographical sketch, by Miss Mary Berry, were published in London from the originals at Strawberry Hill in 1810.

paragraph: The standard edition of her letters is in the "Yale Edition of Horace Walpole's Correspondence", vols. 9-10, edited by Wilmarth S. Lewis. Other papers of Mme du Deffand obtained at the breaking up of Walpole's collection are in private hands. Mme du Deffand returned many of Walpole's letters at his request, and subsequently destroyed those she received from him. Those in his possession appear to have been destroyed after his death by Miss Berry, who printed fragments from them as footnotes to the edition of 1810. The correspondence between Walpole and Madame du Deffand thus remains one-sided, but seven of Walpole's letters to her were printed for the first time in the edition (1903) of his correspondence by Mrs Paget Toynbee, who discovered a quantity of her unedited letters. See Sainte-Beuve, "Causeries du lundi", vols. i. and xiv.; and the notice by Lescure in his edition of the correspondence.

alias:
Madame du Deffand
Marquise du Deffand

description: French salon-holder


text: Esperanto

text: McCall's

text: Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came

text: Quaker

text: Jewish

text: Ralph Keyes

text: Is There Life After High School?

text: Canada

text: Supreme Court of Canada

text: Berwick, Nova Scotia

text: Bernard J. S. Cahill

text: Esperanto

text: Harvard

text: Greensboro sit-ins

text: Polaris Action

text: New London, Connecticut

text: Pendle Hill

text: Champaign-Urbana

text: 1970 anti-war movie

text: Buckminster Fuller

text: Dymaxion Map

text: conflict between Russia and China

text: York University

text: Bernard J.S. Cahill

text: Wired Magazine

text: Cahill-Keyes projection

text: Esperanto

text: shared parenting

wikipedia_title: Pendle Hill Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation

categories: 1941 births,Canadian cartographers,Canadian Esperantists,Living people

paragraph: Gene Keyes

paragraph: Gene Scott Keyes (born October 24, 1941) is a former Assistant Professor of World Politics, a sometime peace activist, noted cartographer, and promoter of the international second language Esperanto. He achieved considerable attention for his peace activism when his mother, Charlotte E. Keyes wrote an article for McCall's, "Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came" (October 1966). The title phrase, based on a quote from a Carl Sandburg poem, became part of the anti-Vietnam-War lexicon. The slogan also went on to become the basis of the film Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came. His cartography work has won two awards.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Personal life.

paragraph: Gene was born October 24, 1941 to Charlotte Keyes (née Shachmann) and Scott Keyes. His father was a Quaker and his mother was Jewish. Both were pacifists. They had been anti-militarists in the 1930s though they both supported American involvement in World War II as they believed Hitler had to be stopped by force if necessary. After the war they became more involved with the Quaker movement. Young Gene absorbed his parents' pacifism even to the point of worrying about the insects his mother killed as she cleaned house.

paragraph: Keyes has two brothers and one sister. His brother Ralph Keyes is the author of the best-seller "Is There Life After High School?" which became a Broadway musical.

paragraph: In 1968, Keyes married his girlfriend Jane Gordon. They moved to Canada in 1973 when Jane found employment there. They have two children, Jeremy David, born in 1976 and Rachel Elizabeth, born in 1979. In 1980 Jane filed for divorce demanding sole custody of the children. Without a lawyer, Keyes fought for equal-shared-parenting all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada but was only given limited "visitation" rights when the divorce was finalized in 1984. He has lived in Canada since 1973 but retained his American citizenship.

paragraph: He has lived with his partner Mary Jo Graça since 1989. Currently Dr. Keyes is retired and living in Berwick, Nova Scotia, where he continues to manage his website, uploading material about Bernard J. S. Cahilll, the Cahill-Keyes projection, Esperanto, and strategic nonviolent defense.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Polaris Action.

paragraph: After graduating high school, Keyes was accepted at Harvard, class of 1963, and during his time there joined demonstrations at Woolworth's in support of desegregating their stores in the American South (inspired by the Feb. 1960 Greensboro sit-ins), taught Spanish at the local jail, leafleted about nuclear weapons, and joined a variety of liberal groups. His activism led to a deterioration of his grades.

paragraph: Then in February 1961, he left university to join Polaris Action, an activist group bent on civil disobedience to protest against nuclear weapons. Polaris submarines were nuclear-ballistic-missile firing boats now supplanted by the Trident fleet. He wrote his parents that "the business of Polaris Action is mostly leafleting, speaking, clerical, canvassing, with infrequent melodramatic and physically dangerous moments of submarine boarding. It's the Gandhian idea of lying across the railroad tracks, except we're lying across the Polaris submarines." He moved to New London, Connecticut to live on a farm with other members of the Polaris Action group. While his parents tried to dissuade him from actual civil disobedience, by August he was in jail for trying to board the submarine Ethan Allen. He served seventeen days.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Draft Card Burning.

paragraph: When he had turned 18 during university Keyes was required to register for the draft. He requested conscientious objector status from the Selective Service Commission. But he felt uneasy about it, thinking this was still part of the war system. "All the hospital work a conscientious objector could do in two years would not make up for a single day of napalm and pellet bombs," he wrote.

paragraph: In 1962-63 he enrolled at Pendle Hill, a Quaker study center near Philadelphia, to research ideas for unarmed military forces.

paragraph: In March 1963, he went to Washington to testify before a Senate subcommittee against the bill to extend the induction provisions of the Universal Military Training and Service Act and urged "establishing an integral strategic nonviolent national defense system...What is suggested is a basic reorientation of the defense posture of this nation".

paragraph: "My purpose," he went on, "is not to secure a special berth in the ship of state while others man its artillery." He was quite willing "to participate in the national defense" if the defense establishment changed its "violent premises" to peaceful ones.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Keyes had decided on a course of action to dramatize his position. On October 3 he cancelled his application for conscientious objector status. In December that year he wrote to two local newspapers in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois to announce that he would celebrate Christmas, the time to think about peace on earth, by burning his draft card. He wrote, "As a prayer for peace on earth, I will be holding a vigil on Christmas Eve in front of the local draft board." He proposed to stand there for twelve hours starting at noon. "At midnight Christmas Eve I will be using my draft card to light a candle."

paragraph: On December 24, 1963 he stood outside the draft board wearing a sign that read, "To Light This Candle with a Draft Card - A Prayer for Peace on Earth." He spoke to people throughout his twelve-hour vigil and at midnight, with about twenty-five people present, his girl friend Jane held the candle while he held the draft card with a pair of tongs and lit it with a lighter, then lit the candle.

paragraph: On May 15, 1964 he was drafted, but declined in a telegram to the President, Attorney General, and the local Draft Board: "There is no moral validity to any part of any law whose purpose is to train people to kill one another. I hereby reject the order to report for induction."

paragraph: On May 18, 1964, he and two friends signed a "Pact" to insist upon joint arrest if any one of them was individually picked up for draft resistance. One was convicted in St. Louis in July 1964 and Keyes and the third man stood up in court and got six months each for contempt.

paragraph: By 1965, draft card burning had become so popular that the U.S. government passed a law making it an offense to knowingly destroy or mutilate a draft card. There had been a draft-card burning event in 1947 when conscription was re-established after World War II, but Keyes was one of the earliest draft card burners of the Vietnam War era.

paragraph: After finishing the contempt sentence, Keyes was sentenced to three years in prison in 1965 for failing to report for military service. He served one year of the sentence. In all, Keyes served four prison sentences for civil disobedience from 1961 - 65 including a 27-day hunger strike in the Albany, Georgia, city jail, Feb. 1964, when an integrated peace march was forbidden to march through the middle of town.

paragraph: In 1966, his mother, Charlotte Keyes wrote about Gene's pacifism and activism culminating in his draft card burning in an article for McCall's Magazine called Suppose They Gave War and Nobody Came. That article gained wide attention and made the title a slogan of the anti-Vietnam war movement. It became a popular bumper sticker. A 1970 anti-war movie adopted the same title and the rock group, The Monkees recorded a song called "Zor and Zam" based on the idea.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Education and Career.

paragraph: In 1969, Keyes returned to university, completing a Bachelor of Arts, 1971, with a Special Major in Government (War-Peace Studies) at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. He wrote the first senior thesis of the President's Scholar Program (on unarmed military forces). He stayed at SIU-C for an MA in Government, 1973.

paragraph: Keyes had been a fan of legendary architect, futurist, philosopher and designer of the geodesic dome, Buckminster Fuller, since 1961 and he chose Southern Illinois University at Carbondale largely because Fuller was affiliated with its design department.

paragraph: One of his interests was Fuller's Dymaxion Map, an attempt to show in a flat projection "all continents uninterrupted and with minimal distortion". Keyes viewed geography as a way of illuminating war and his 1973 Master's thesis looked at a conflict between Russia and China over a tiny island on their river border, a conflict that almost led to a nuclear war. He called the thesis "Six Principles for a Unified Map System (Applied to the China-Russia Situation)". In it Keyes used Fuller's map as the basis of the new system he proposed.

paragraph: In 1978 he got his Ph.D. in International Relations from York University, Toronto.

paragraph: Upon graduation, Keyes remained in Canada as an Assistant Professor of Political Science at Brandon University, Manitoba from 1979-1980 and from 1990-1991. He taught at St. Thomas University, New Brunswick from 1982-1983. He also free lanced. Keyes kept his US citizenship.

paragraph: As a political science professor, Keyes continued to promote the idea of an unarmed military and wrote extensively on the subject. He also pursued an interest in the international second language Esperanto and in world map design.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The Cahill-Keyes Projection.

paragraph: Following his M.A. thesis, Keyes had concluded there were inadequacies with Fuller's map. Further studies later in 1973 led him to discover Bernard J.S. Cahill's Octahedral Butterfly World Map. Created in 1909, Cahill's map had been largely forgotten, but Keyes judged it to be a better map than Fuller's, and he spent much of the next forty years tweaking and improving upon it.

paragraph: Cahill's map looked like a butterfly, but it had some anomalies Keyes did not like. In a eureka moment he realized he wasn't confined to Cahill's butterfly shape. So he redesigned it into an M shape. He also coined the term "geocell" to define an area bounded by one degree of latitude and longitude, because he felt that world maps should have a resolution of at least five degrees and preferably one degree; whereas most world maps and globes do not.

paragraph: While working on his doctorate in Toronto, he also continued to work on his map. "I was unable to locate large-scale reproductions, drawings, or computations," he wrote, "so I set about drawing my own Cahill from scratch".

paragraph: "On November 4th, 1975, after 40-days and nights," notes an article in Wired Magazine on Keyes' forty year quest, "he emerged with a six-and-a-half square foot, hand-drawn, featureless graticule". A graticule is a network of lines or a grid (latitudes and longitudes) on which a map can be projected. He sketched in North America and eventually the whole world.

paragraph: That 1975 map, the first Cahill-Keyes projection, launched a decades long quest to perfect it. One of his goals is a map with a 1:1 million scale, about half the size of a football field. Each one degree geocell would be large enough to stand in. While the physical Master Map as he calls it, remains a dream, in 2010, his partner Mary Jo Graça, using Keyes's extensive calculations, plotted the entire projection and in 2011 digitized the entire map. Absent the physical version, a 9,000 square foot pdf of that full size map can be easily navigated on a home computer. It is the first contiguous world map at a resolution showing all one-degree geocells (except five degrees at the poles). Keyes likewise commissioned the first-ever one-degree globe from Joe Roubal in 2013.

paragraph: Ironically, Keyes ever only took one course in cartography (auditing), with most of his studies being in political science.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Cartography Awards.

paragraph: Keyes and Roubal's one-degree globe won Honorable Mention at the 41st Annual CaGIS Map Design Competition (Cartography and Geographic Information Society).

paragraph: In 2014, Duncan Webb published a five-foot wall poster Cahill-Keyes map, which won Best Map, Other Category, in the 42nd Annual CaGIS Competition.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Esperanto.

paragraph: In 1980, Keyes learned Esperanto. The international second language created by Ludovik Zamenhof was originally published as a pamphlet in several languages in 1887, and for the first time since then, Keyes re-published the English version both on paper and online. Keyes also wrote and uploaded a free HTML edition of a romantic comedy s-f novel ("La Mi-Klono", "The Me Clone"), with English and Esperanto in side-by-side columns. He has also translated eleven Christmas Carols into Esperanto, including a new English version of "O Holy Night", and an unabridged one of "Riu Riu Chiu"; all of them with a simple melody score and the original language plus English. As well, Keyes catalogued the nearly 2,000 item Esperanto library of the late Dr. Stevens Norvell, now housed in Alberta.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Strategic Nonviolent Defense and Unarmed Military Forces.

paragraph: Keyes's 1978 Ph.D. thesis was Strategic Nonviolent Defense in Theory; Denmark in Practice. A condensed version appeared in The Journal of Strategic Studies as Strategic Nonviolent Defense: the Construct of an Option. In this work, he identifies morale as the center of gravity for a country non-violently resisting an invasion by an enemy.

paragraph: The latest version of Keyes's long-term interest in a nonviolent military was published as a chapter in the book Nonkilling Security and the State, Joám Evans Pim, ed., 2013 and as an illustrated stand-alone pdf, To Give Life: A Nonkilling Military: Precedents and Possibilities. In it, he elaborates ten kinds of missions for unarmed forces, including such obvious ones as Humanitarian Assistance / Disaster Relief (HA/DR), and hypothetical ones such as Defense in the spirit of Brazil's great national hero, Major-General Cândido Mariano da Silva Rondon (1865-1958), who fostered the motto "Die if you must, but never kill."

paragraph: An earlier edition appeared in 1982 in Co-Evolution Quarterly (later Whole Earth Review), as Force Without Firepower.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Shared Parenting Advocate.

paragraph: After Keyes lost his battle for shared-custody of his children in 1984, he led a shared parenting advocacy group in Nova Scotia. In 1998 he testified on shared parenting before Special Joint Committee on Child Custody and Access of the Government of Canada. "I think that situation, where 60,000 children a year are forcibly denied any kind of equal parenting time with their fathers, is one of the worst state-enforced abuses of human rights in Canada today," he told the committee. "The court ordeals we go through are sickening and unbelievable. Abusive lawyers are rewarded by adversarial, winner-take-all courts. We have debtors' prison for fathers only. We have children moved away at the mother's whim. We have shattered families, devastated fathers, and scarred children. These are the dark ages of family law in Canada." Keyes submitted a 17-page brief called Family Rights for Children of Divorce, a document his Nova Scotia advocacy had created.

paragraph: Section::::Books.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "We Won't Go: Personal Accounts of War Objectors", Alice Lynd, ed., 1968 (contributor)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nonkilling Security and the State", Joám Evans Pim, ed., 2013 (contributor)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Me Clone, La Mi-Klono" - self-published novel in English and Esperanto side by side, 220 pages, 1988

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gene Keyes Website

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cahill-Keyes World Map and B.J.S. Cahill Resource: articles and resources compiled by Gene Keyes

paragraph: BULLET::::- World Politics and Strategic Nonviolence: Articles and Papers by Gene Keyes

paragraph: BULLET::::- World Second Language, Esperanto: Resources compiled by Gene Keyes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came, Charlotte Keyes, McCall's Magazine October 1966

paragraph: BULLET::::- Polaris Action - eleven minute documentary film

wikidata_label: Gene Keyes

wikipedia_title: Gene Keyes


text: American-Israeli

text: Tel Aviv University

text: Biological Computer Laboratory

text: cybernetics

text: biomathematics

text: neural networks

text: parallel coordinates

wikipedia_title: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

categories: Living people,Cyberneticists,American mathematicians,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: Alfred Inselberg

paragraph: Alfred Inselberg is an American-Israeli mathematician and computer scientist based at Tel Aviv University.

paragraph: Inselberg started his career at the Biological Computer Laboratory based at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. There he was part of a cybernetics group working on biomathematics developing mathematical models of the ear, neural networks, and computer models for Vision and Non-linear Analysis, gaining a PhD in Mathematics and Physics. During this period he participated in the Symposium on Principles of Self-Organization. He is particularly noted for his work on parallel coordinates

paragraph: proposed in 1959, for the visualization of multidimensional geometries (as in Linear Algebra) and multivariate problems.

paragraph: Alfred was born in 1936 in Athens, Greece. Later he attended a great school, Whittingehame College in Brighton England, where he fell in love with "Geometry" and especially the ability to gain insight about geometrical problems by visually interacting with drawings depicting them. He attended the University of Illinois in Champaign-Urbana (UICU) receiving a B.Sc. in Aeronautical Engineering. Together with Gary van Sant, and two other students under the guidance of Professor Paul Torda, they founded the University of Illinois Rocket Society in 1953; four years prior to Sputnik. Continuing his studies at UICU he obtained in 1965 a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics and Physics under the joint guidance of Professors Ray Langebartel and Heinz von Foerster.

paragraph: He then held senior research positions at IBM where he developed a Mathematical Model of the Ear(Cochlea) (TIME Nov. 74) and later Collision-Avoidance Algorithms for Air Traffic Control (3 USA patents). Concurrently he had joint appointments at UCLA, USC, Technion and Ben Gurion University. Since 1995 he is Professor at the School of Mathematical Sciences of Tel Aviv University. He was elected Senior Fellow at the San Diego Supercomputing Center in 1996.

paragraph: He is a sought after speaker presenting keynotes at major conferences and events. His textbook on "Parallel Coordinates: VISUAL Multidimensional Geometry", was published by Springer and was praised by Stephen Hawking among many others.

wikidata_label: Alfred Inselberg

wikipedia_title: Alfred Inselberg


text:
Toulouse
École des Beaux-Arts
André Arbus
Marc Saint-Saëns
French Resistance
Sainte-Radegonde, Aveyron
Musée Denys-Puech
Rodez
Conques-en-Rouergue

categories: French sculptors,1970 deaths,1879 births

paragraph: Henry Parayre

paragraph: Henry Parayre (1879-1970) was a French sculptor.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Henry Parayre was born on 9 July 1879 in Toulouse, France.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Parayre served as the director of the École des Beaux-Arts in Toulouse. Some of his students included André Arbus and Marc Saint-Saëns.

paragraph: Parayre designed the monument in honor of the French Resistance in Sainte-Radegonde, Aveyron. He also designed sculptures with his former students, Arbus and Saint-Saëns.

paragraph: His work is in the permanent collection of the Musée Denys-Puech in Rodez. It can also be found at the Musée du Vieux Toulouse.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life and death.

paragraph: Parayre resided in Conques-en-Rouergue, where he died on 3 December 1970.

description: French sculptor

wikidata_label: Henry Parayre

wikipedia_title: Henry Parayre


text:
Saka
Khotan
era name
Guiyi Circuit
Old History of the Five Dynasties

wikipedia_title:
Saka language
Kingdom of Khotan
Chinese era name
Guiyi Circuit
Old History of the Five Dynasties

paragraph: Li Shengtian

paragraph: Li Shengtian (; Saka: Viśa' Saṃbhava) (died 966) was the king of Khotan from 912 to 966. His era name was Tongqing (, "to celebrate together").

paragraph: He married the second daughter of Cao Yijin (曹議金), the first governor of the Guiyi Circuit. In another act of marital diplomacy, Cao Yijin's grandson, Cao Yanlu (曹延祿), married Li Shengtian's third daughter.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Old History of the Five Dynasties"

description: king of Khotan during 912 to 966

wikidata_label: Li Shengtian

wikipedia_title: Li Shengtian


text: Lower Canada

text: Quebec City

text: Petit Séminaire de Québec

text: Joseph Morrin

text: Harvard University

text: Lower Canada Rebellion

text: Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste

text: Claude Dénéchau

text: Banque Nationale

text: Catholic

text: Le Courrier du Canada

text: Pope Pius IX

text: Toponymie, Ville de Québec (french)

categories: 1896 deaths,1811 births,Harvard Medical School alumni,Mayors of Quebec City

paragraph: Olivier Robitaille

paragraph: Olivier Robitaille (December 3, 1811 – November 3, 1896) was a physician and businessman in Lower Canada. He was the 8th mayor of Quebec City from January 22, 1856 to January 19, 1857.

paragraph: He was born in Quebec City in 1811, the son of carpenter Étienne Robitaille and his wife Marie Moisan. He studied at the Petit Séminaire de Québec and later trained in medicine with Joseph Morrin, working as an intern at the Marine and Emigrant Hospital. He received his doctorate degree in medicine (MD) from Harvard University in 1838, was qualified to practice in Lower Canada later that year and set up practice in Quebec City. He also served as visiting physician for the Marine and Emigrant Hospital, serving on its board, and was physician for the Quebec jail.

paragraph: Although sympathetic to the Patriote cause, he did not take part in the Lower Canada Rebellion. Robitaille helped found the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste at Quebec in 1842. On June 04, 1844, he married Zoé-Louise, the daughter of Claude Dénéchau. He was elected to city council in 1851, serving until 1856. Robitaille was selected as mayor by the members of city council in 1856; during his term in office, a bill was passed in the legislative assembly allowing citizens to elect their mayor. He helped found the Caisse d’Épargnes de Notre-Dame-de-Québec and served as its first president. Robitaille also helped found the Banque Nationale. After the death of his first wife, he married Charlotte-Adélaïde Boucher dit Verchères de Boucherville, the widow of lawyer Pierre-Adolphe-Auguste Quesnel, on October 26, 1859.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- By his first wife Zoé-Louise Dénéchau (Dénéchaud), he had a son: Amédée (December 31, 1852 - March 28, 1930) who married Josephine Peachy;

paragraph: BULLET::::- By his second wife, Charlotte-Adélaïde Boucher dit Verchères de Boucherville, he had a daughter: Albertine (September 07, 1860 - January 08, 1930) who married Albert Marois.

paragraph: He helped establish the Catholic newspaper "Le Courrier du Canada" in 1857. In 1878, he was named a knight of the Order of Saint Silvester by Pope Pius IX. He retired from his medical practice in 1883.

paragraph: He died at Quebec in 1896.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography at the "Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Toponymie, Ville de Québec (french)

description: Canadian mayor

wikidata_label: Olivier Robitaille

wikipedia_title: Olivier Robitaille


text:
football
midfielder
Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor
Süper Lig
South Africa national football team
National First Division
South African National Team
African Cup of Nations
2010 FIFA World Cup
FIFA Puskás Award
England
Soweto
chartered accountant
Kaizer Chiefs
Alexandra United
Free State Stars
National First Division
Bidvest Wits
Telkom Knockout
Mamelodi Sundowns
Golden Arrows
Kaizer Chiefs
Nissan
Free State Stars F.C.
FNB Stadium
Johannesburg
Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor
National First Division
Egypt
South African
2006 African Nations Cup
2008 African Nations Cup
2013 African Nations Cup
2009 FIFA Confederations Cup
2010 FIFA World Cup
Mexico
FIFA
World Cup qualifying matches
Arsenal
Cesc Fàbregas
Nike
bridal shower
Soweto
Pitso Mosimane
Jimmy Tau
Morgan Gould
Joyous Celebration
Limpopo
Atlético Madrid
Robin Ngalande
Bokang Montjane
Baymed Cup
MTN 8
Vodacom Challenge
Telkom Charity Cup
Telkom Knockout
Absa Premiership
Nedbank Cup
SAFA Awards
SAFA

categories: 2006 Africa Cup of Nations players,Kaizer Chiefs F.C. players,Sportspeople from Soweto,2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players,1984 births,Association football wingers,Free State Stars F.C. players,South African soccer players,South Africa international soccer players,2010 FIFA World Cup players,Association football midfielders,Living people,2008 Africa Cup of Nations players

paragraph: Siphiwe Tshabalala

paragraph: Lawrence Siphiwe Tshabalala (born 25 September 1984) is a South African professional football midfielder who plays for Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor in the Turkish Süper Lig, and the South Africa national football team.

paragraph: Tshabalala being one of the most well known and most decorated South African footballers of his generation, was the first player to make his international debut while still playing in the National First Division. At 90 caps, he is the second most capped player of the South African National Team and played at three African Cup of Nations editions and the 2010 FIFA World Cup, at which he scored the first goal on 11 June 2010 which was nominated for the FIFA Puskás Award. In August 2015, Tshabalala's 40-yard volley received Internet recognition and received 70,000 hits in its first 60 minutes of being uploaded in England. Tshabalala is a winger but has played other midfielder roles.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Tshabalala was born on 29 September 1984 in Phiri as the first born of two children of Isaac Tshabalala (1964–) and Hadifele Rebecca (née Makhubu) (1965–2010). He has a younger sister, Mpumi. Tshabalala grew up and lived in a face brick house until he was 19, owned by his grandparents around his cousins and siblings all in one house and his father was the breadwinner and worked as a taxi driver. He attended secondary school at Seanamarena Secondary School in Phiri, Soweto. Tshabalala aspired to be a chartered accountant as a child.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.:Kaizer Chiefs.

paragraph: Tshabalala played at the Kaizer Chiefs academy but only broke through to the senior team after spells with Alexandra United and Free State Stars. In January 2007 Chiefs brought back their own product after Ea Lla Koto was relegated to the National First Division at the end of the 2005/06 campaign. At the time, Tshabalala was then sidelined for six months due to a serious knee injury.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.:Kaizer Chiefs.:2007–08 season.

paragraph: Tshabalala eventually made his debut in a 1–0 loss to Bidvest Wits on 31 August 2007. Tshabalala made his Soweto derby debut on 24 November 2007 in a 2–2 draw. Tshabalala played his first ever cup final on 1 December 2007 in the Telkom Knockout winning after a penalty shootout against Mamelodi Sundowns and played the full 120 minutes. He scored his first Chiefs goal on 12 December 2007 in a 4–2 win over Golden Arrows.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.:Kaizer Chiefs.:2008–09 season.

paragraph: Tshabalala continued to consistently deliver great goals, winning him the Player and Players’ Player of the Year at the Kaizer Chiefs Awards Ceremony. He also picked up the Website Player of the Year, Goal of the Season and Readers’ Choice awards.

paragraph: All-and-all Tshabalala left the awards with R170 000 in prize-money, as well as a Nissan X-Trail.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.:Kaizer Chiefs.:2015–16 season.

paragraph: On 25 August 2015, Tshabalala gained attention for a volleyed goal from well outside the area which was nominated as one of the goals of the South African season. The goal, which came in a 4–0 win over Free State Stars F.C. coincidentally took place at the FNB Stadium in Johannesburg, the same venue where Tshabalala had scored a similar goal against Mexico in the world cup five years earlier.

paragraph: He made a total of 372 appearances scoring 58 goals.

paragraph: Section::::Club career.:Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor.

paragraph: On 28 August 2018, Kaizer Chiefs announced that Siphiwe Tshabalala would be leaving for Turkish side Büyükşehir Belediye Erzurumspor.

paragraph: Section::::International career.

paragraph: Tshabalala was one of the first players to be called up to the national team while still playing in the National First Division.Tshabalala made his national team debut in a friendly against Egypt on 14 January 2006. He was part of the South African squad at 2006 African Nations Cup, 2008 African Nations Cup, 2013 African Nations Cup and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup. On 11 June 2010, gaining his 50th cap for the nation of South Africa, he scored the first goal of the 2010 FIFA World Cup against Mexico in the 55th minute. The game went on to finish at a 1–1 draw. The goal later received a nomination for goal of the year by FIFA.

paragraph: In October 2017, Tshabalala was called up to two of South Africa's World Cup qualifying matches against Senegal – for the first time since 2014.

paragraph: Section::::Style of play.

paragraph: Goal.com described Tshabalala as "a tricky winger with pace and can deliver fantastic crosses. His left boot can pack a powerful shot and he is a great option for set pieces as he has the ability to bend the ball".

paragraph: Section::::Endorsements.

paragraph: In October 2009, Tshabalala and Arsenal's Cesc Fàbregas were the first two players to launch the new Nike CTR360 Maestri boots.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Tshabalala's mother Rebecca Hadifele "Hadi" Makhubu (1965–2010) died on Sunday, 5 December 2010 after a head injury after falling at a bridal shower which she was attending with Tshabalala's father Isaac. She was buried at the Avalon Cemetery on 11 December 2010 in Soweto. The funeral was attended by notable figures such as Pitso Mosimane, Jimmy Tau, Morgan Gould as well as a performance by Joyous Celebration. A Limpopo man named Samson Nangani claimed that Tshabalala was his child and lost contact with his mother while she was still pregnant. Tshabalala denied being his son. Tshabalala was in a love scandal with Zanele Khanye Skhosana and former Atlético Madrid academy player Robin Ngalande where one of them allegedly impregnated her. Tshabalala's first child, Owami, a boy, was born on 6 February 2015 by former Miss SA, Bokang Montjane whom he had been dating since 2012. The pair married in 2016.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.:Club.

paragraph: Free State Stars

paragraph: BULLET::::- Baymed Cup: 2006

paragraph: Kaizer Chiefs

paragraph: BULLET::::- MTN 8: 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vodacom Challenge: 2009

paragraph: BULLET::::- Telkom Charity Cup: 2010

paragraph: BULLET::::- Telkom Knockout: 2007, 2010, 2011

paragraph: BULLET::::- Absa Premiership: 2012–2013, 2014–2015

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nedbank Cup: 2013

paragraph: Section::::Honours.:Individual.

paragraph: BULLET::::- SAFA Awards SAFA Footballer of the Year: 2010

description: South African footballer

wikidata_label: Siphiwe Tshabalala

wikipedia_title: Siphiwe Tshabalala


text:
underwater photography
Silver Springs, Florida
Newark, Ohio
Scranton, Pennsylvania
New York City
Zoë Mozert
Johnny Weissmuller
Ginger Stanley
Creature from the Black Lagoon
Ocala, Florida
Huffington Post
National Geographic
Life
Look
Smithsonian Magazine
Bruce Mozert studio website

categories: 2015 deaths,American photographers,People from Ocala, Florida,People from Scranton, Pennsylvania,1916 births,People from Newark, Ohio

paragraph: Bruce Mozert

paragraph: Robert Bruce Moser (November 24, 1916 – October 14, 2015), known as Bruce Mozert, was an American photographer. He was considered to be a pioneer of underwater photography and his images of Silver Springs, Florida, were widely circulated during the early and mid 20th century.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Mozert was born in Newark, Ohio, to Fred and Jessie Moser. He was the youngest of three children and the only son. The family moved to a farm in Scranton, Pennsylvania, while he was still young, where his father became the superintendent of the Scranton Stove Works. He graduated high school and took a job as a truck driver that brought coal to New Jersey, but quickly decided he was "too sensitive to be a truck driver" and moved to New York City to live with his sister, the well-known model and pin-up artist Zoë Mozert. Through Zoë, Bruce met Victor de Palma, a lead photographer for "Life" magazine, who hired him as a film developer and helped him into the field. He joined the Freelance Photographers Guild and worked for "Pic".

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: In 1938, while he was on an assignment to photograph women's shoes in Miami, Florida, Mozert heard about the filming of one of Johnny Weissmuller's Tarzan movies in Silver Springs. He traveled to meet the cast and ended up staying in Ocala, becoming the official photographer of Silver Springs for the next 45 years. He served in the U.S. Army Air Forces during part of World War II and there learned aerial photography.

paragraph: Mozert took advantage of the extremely clear water of Silver Springs by taking underwater photographs with specially constructed waterproof camera housings. He built his first such housing in the early 1940s. The novelty and clarity of his underwater photographs were major advertisements for Silver Springs and the distribution of the photos over wire services helped the attraction bring in visitors from 1940 to 1970.

paragraph: Most of his photographs feature submerged women doing ordinary tasks that would be done on land, such as cooking, reading newspapers and mowing lawns. Most of the women were actually employees of Silver Springs and one of his most frequently shot models, Ginger Stanley, was an underwater stunt double for Creature from the Black Lagoon. Physical tricks were often used to make the underwater scenes appear more realistic. He also took underwater movie stills for the many productions filmed in Silver Springs. Above the water, he took pictures of visitors going on glass bottom boat tours, developed the film while they were on the tour, and then had the photos ready to sell to visitors when they returned.

paragraph: Mozert spent his last years working out of his studio in Ocala, Florida, where he digitized film. His pictures have been featured in publications such as "Huffington Post", "National Geographic", "Life", "Look", "Pic" and "Smithsonian Magazine".

paragraph: Mozert died at his home in Ocala on October 14, 2015 at the age of 98.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bruce Mozert studio website

description: American photographer

wikidata_label: Bruce Mozert

wikipedia_title: Bruce Mozert