text: squire

text: admiral

text: Norway

text: Denmark

text: privateer

text: pirate

text: Olav Engelbrektsson

text: Kalmar Union

text: Reformation

text: Vincent Lunge

text: Christian III

text: Norway

text: Trondheim

text: Royal Danish Consul

text: Anna Throndsen

text: James Hepburn, Lord Bothwell

text: Kvinnherad

text: Western Norway

text: Trondheim

text: Olav Engelbrektsson

text: catholic

text: Mary of Austria, Queen of Hungary

text: pirate

text: Vincens Lunge

text: Akershus

text: James V of Scotland

text: Inger, Lady of Austraat

text: Frederick I

text: Christian II

text: Steinvikholm Castle

text: Trondheim

text: Bergen

text: Bergenhus Fortress

text: Burgundy

text: Netherlands

text: letter of marque

text: Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Mary of Burgundy

text: Veere

text: Zeeland

text: Emden

text: Enno II of East Frisia

text: Utstein Abbey

text: Christian III of Denmark

text: Denmark-Norway

text: admiral

text: Iceland

text: Northern Seven Years' War

text: Kvinnherad

text: archdeacon

text: Trondheim

text: Enno

text: highwayman

text: Danzig

text: Anna

text: James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell

text: squire

text: Lauritz Galtung

text: Alexander Pushkin

text: Lord Lyon King of Arms

text: Anders Mowatt of Hugoland

text: Ølen

text: patronym

text: Netherlands

text: seal

text: coat of arms

text: heraldic

categories: Norwegian pirates,Year of birth uncertain,1565 deaths,People of the Protestant Reformation,Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy personnel,Danish admirals,Norwegian admirals,Norwegian nobility

paragraph: Kristoffer Throndsen

paragraph: Kristoffer Throndsen (c. 1500–1565), posthumously also with the family name Rustung, was a squire, admiral, feudal overlord in Norway and Denmark, privateer captain and pirate. Kristoffer served Archbishop Olav Engelbrektsson, the interregnum leader of Norway, in the last years of the Kalmar Union.

paragraph: Kristoffer is famous for playing a role in the last years before the Reformation in Norway, first as the head of the national fleet, defending Norway from attacking Danish ships; and also as the murderer of Vincent Lunge, a Danish nobleman sent to Bergen in 1536 to enforce the choice the King of Denmark Christian III as king of Norway. This dramatic moment in Norwegian history is memorialized today in an annual "midnight opera" sponsored by the Norwegian Ministry of Culture. Titled "Olav Engelbrektsson", it takes place on the premises of the castle, outside Trondheim.

paragraph: Kristoffer appealed for pardon from Christian III, probably for the murder but also for his piracy of the Norwegian coast under foreign flags, under which he attacked Danish ships and installations in Norway after 1536/1537. He was granted a post under the Danish crown, which badly needed a naval leader. He served for several years as an admiral in the Danish-Norwegian Navy, and later in Copenhagen as a Royal Danish Consul to the King.

paragraph: His most famous child was Anna Throndsen, known in Norway as "the Scottish Lady" ("Skottefruen"). Anna is famous in modern-day Norway, for her days in the court of Mary Queen of Scots, during her marriage to James Hepburn, Lord Bothwell.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Kristoffer was probably born sometime around the year 1500 in Seim, Kvinnherad, a village in Western Norway. His ancestry or even who his parents were has not been widely established, although many theories have been suggested. The closest to contemporary sources primarily consist of two 17th century ancestry charts which says his parents were Trond Sigurdsson Rustung of Seim and Karen Koll of Nessa. Another source suggests that his father was Trond Engelbrekston and Karen Koll of Nessa. Which makes sense as during his adolescence Kristoffer was the graduate of the arch-Catholic University of Cologne with his cousins Gaute Taraldsson. Around the year 1526 to 1527, he moved to Trondheim, where he took service with the Archbishop Olav Engelbrektsson, who was his uncle. A diploma from this time diploma. Norw.7.789 and diplom.Norw.8.589-97, writes that Olav was the uncle of Christopher. Olav was the son of Engelbregt Gunnarsen and Jorunn Ivarsdatter Aspa. Engelbregt Gunnarsen was married twice, his second wife was Cecilie Mortensdatter Randa who was the mother of Trond Engelbrekston who was said to have been married to Karen Koll and the father of Kristoffer by some accounts. This connection does indicate that Olav was indeed Kristoffer's uncle.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The Reformation and turmoil.

paragraph: After moving to Trondheim around 1527 he became something of a right hand for archbishop Olav Engelbrektsson, the last catholic archbishop in Norway, and was a loyal support of his until 1537. Some have speculated that Kristoffer possibly was the nephew of Olav Engelbrektsson, primarily supported by a somewhat ambiguous source in which Mary of Austria, Queen of Hungary call Kristoffer his "blutverwonter frundt" ("relative by blood"), although the theory have been assisted by further circumstances.

paragraph: In the same year, a pirate, Klement, came to Bergen where he captured the clergy as hostages. Vincens Lunge, the feudal overlord of Bergenhus at the time then formed a fleet, and also received aid from the archbishop who sent Kristoffer with a few ships. Lunge was however soon startled by rumours of the Danish king deposing the feudal lord of Akershus, and wanted Kristoffer to stay for his defence for a while. Kristoffer however became impatient, and eventually got himself accused of piracy after boarding Dutch, Scottish and English tradingships. James V of Scotland demanded the release of the ships "Bonaventura" and "Pheyther" from Vincens Lunge. Lunge then demanded that the stolen goods should be replaced or the guilty being executed, with Olaf Lang and Kristoffer being most to blame. When Kristoffer arrived in Bergen, he and his men was soon arrested, only to find himself and most of his men escaping from prison one early morning.

paragraph: The relationship between Vincens Lunge and the Catholic archbishop gradually worsened during the 1530s, resulting in numerous conflicts between them, as well as Inger, Lady of Austraat. Before this happened, Kristoffer had been in the top reach of Dano-Norwegian politics. In 1531, Kristoffer and the archbishop changed their loyalty from Frederick I to Christian II, resulting in conflicts which led to Kristoffer being forced to withdraw to Steinvikholm Castle, of which he likely was the lord for a few years. Lunge in 1535 traveled to Trondheim to negotiate peace in the conflict. With increasing tensions, it was soon however declared that Lunge and three other members were to be executed, and Kristoffer and his men soon went on and killed Lunge.

paragraph: Kristoffer was then sent to capture Lunge's estate in Bergen, but was betrayed and imprisoned in Bergenhus Fortress. Not long after however, Kristoffer was exchanged for the diplomat Eske Bille who had been captured earlier by the archbishop. In 1536 Kristoffer arrived in Burgundy to help them against the Danes, and returned to Trondheim with a few ships. He could not help the luck of the archbishop however, and in 1537 they fled Trondheim for the Netherlands, barely managing to escape.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Later years.

paragraph: The next years, Kristoffer operated as a privateer, with a letter of marque titled "Christoph von Trundheim, Marskalk in Norweger" from Frederick II, Count Palatine of the Rhine. Under protection from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Mary of Burgundy, he got involved in Charles V's war against France. One time he left from Veere in Zeeland with three ships, and ended up taking nine ships from the French.

paragraph: He settled in Emden and became good friends with Count Enno II of East Frisia. Under his protection, he raided the Norwegian coast many times, including Utstein Abbey and Stavanger bispegård in 1539. During this time he boarded many tradingships, and though the Danish king sent scouts after him he was never caught.

paragraph: Around 1542-43 he got pardoned by Christian III of Denmark after he had applied for it, and was engaged as a naval officer, which Denmark-Norway had a desperate need for. As Kristoffer had risen to fame, the kings advisors had advised the king to pardon him if he was to join them. At first he only had charge of a small ship with a crew of 20 people, however after only three months, he advanced to admiral, titled Admiral of the Kingdoms ("Rigernes Admiral"). When he was admiral he was in charge of 40 ships with a crew of 5000 people. At the time he was the only Norwegian with a leader position in the navy. His missions included sailing to Iceland to calm down a small rebellion, and later fighting with his fleet in the Northern Seven Years' War against the Swedish admiral Jacob Bagge.

paragraph: Kristoffer died in 1565 at around the age of 65, and is probably buried in the Church of Kvinnherad.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Kristoffer was married to Karen Knutsdatter, whose full name is revealed from a 1569 court case. The same ancestry charts which makes the claim for Kristoffer's parents, also hold Karen with the family name Schanke, and her father as Knut Pedersen, archdeacon of Trondheim – also attributed with the Schanke name (which he is not contemporaneously known by, and which his own seal seem to contradict).

paragraph: Kristoffer had eight known children together with Karen:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Enno; the only son, made a living as a highwayman before being executed. Married a trader's daughter from Danzig, but left no descendants.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anna (nicknamed "Skottefruen"); married the Scottish admiral James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. (Noting that Scots history records her inaccurately as a mistress; Norwegian history otherwise.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kristine; married Torbjørn Olavsen Nes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magdalene; married the "væpner" (squire) Erik Eriksen Orm of Vatne and Valvatne, and left many descendants. Their granddaughter was the mother of admiral Lauritz Galtung. He was third great grandfather of the Russian national poet Alexander Pushkin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dorthea (in Scottish sources called "Dorthie Trunsie"); married Sir William Stewart of Lutherie, Lord Lyon King of Arms.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Else; first married to Jon Haard (the Elder) of Gjersvik, secondly to Axel Frederiksen Fridag, senior judge in Bergen, and finally to Anders Mowatt of Hugoland.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maren; married Olav Jonson Theiste of Bjelland (in Kvinnherad). One notable descendant was the lawman Nicolas Bergh.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margrethe; first married to Danish nobleman Jørgen Pedersen Staur of Hervik (in Ølen) and secondly to Amund Lauritzen/Lassesen Dal of Sandvik and Malkenes. Left many descendants.

paragraph: Section::::Rustung name.

paragraph: Kristoffer never used the family name "Rustung" himself (a name he has later been popularized by), as it is rather a late 17th-century Danish invention of currently unknown origins. Contemporary naming of him, by others and himself, consist of various spelling variations of "Christoffer Trondsson". He is known to have written his signature "Christoffer Trundsß", suggesting that he himself was the origin of the family name "Tronds" which many of his daughters is known to have used. Such a creation of family names, by shortening the patronym, was common in the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th century, suggesting that Kristoffer changed his name according to this Dutch trend.

paragraph: His name is denoted with the letters K and T in his seal. In his seal there is a coat of arms, and it is uncertain if he created this coat of arms himself or if it was inherited from his ancestors. The coat of arms is repeated in several heraldic books, such as that of his descendant Nicolas Bergh.

description: Danish-Norwegian admiral

wikidata_label: Kristoffer Throndsen

wikipedia_title: Kristoffer Throndsen


text: noble

text: commander

text: Kalmar

text: Denmark

text: councillor of state

text: Erik Turesson (Bielke)

text: Gunilla Johansdotter Bese

text: riksråd

text: riksråd

text: Barbro Eriksdotter (Bielke)

text: riksråd

text: governor

text: Vyborg Castle

text: Gustav Vasa

text: Søren Norby

text: Henrik von Melen

text: Berend von Melen

text: Margareta von Melen

text: King Gustav

text: opera

text: Gustav III of Sweden

text: Royal Swedish Opera

text: Lovisa Augusti

categories: 15th-century Swedish women,16th-century Swedish women,Swedish rebels,People of the Swedish War of Liberation,Swedish nobility,16th-century Swedish people,1525 deaths,Women in war in Sweden,1490 births,Women in 16th-century warfare

paragraph: Anna Bielke

paragraph: Anna Eriksdotter Bielke (1490–1525) was a Swedish noble, commander of the city and castle of Kalmar during the Swedish rebellion against Denmark.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Anna was born to the noble councillor of state Erik Turesson (Bielke) and Gunilla Johansdotter Bese; among her siblings were riksråd and governor Axel Eriksson (Bielke), riksråd Ture Eriksson (Bielke) and the infamous Barbro Eriksdotter (Bielke). In 1514 she married the noble and riksråd Johan Månsson (Natt och Dag) (1470–1520), commander and governor of Kalmar 1510–1520.

paragraph: At the death of her spouse in the middle of the rebellion against Denmark in 1520, she took control of his fiefs and defended Kalmar against Denmark. This was a similar experience as that of her mother, who as a widow defended Vyborg Castle against the Russians.

paragraph: When her relative Gustav Vasa was released from Danish captivity and returned to Sweden to take part in resistance against Danish rule, he turned to her first for assistance in the struggle. She received him kindly but did not think it possible to give him any help, as the fleet of Søren Norby was threatening the city, and the attitude in the city was pro-Danish. After Vasa's attempts to persuade the people to arm themselves against the Danish were met first by indifference and then by hostility he was forced to leave the city. Shortly thereafter, Anna was obliged to turn over the city to Denmark. The exact date of her surrender is not known, but it was between August and 6 September 1520.

paragraph: Anna later became engaged to Henrik von Melen, brother of Berend von Melen, the commander of Kalmar in 1523-24 and related to the king by marriage to his cousin Margareta von Melen. Suspected by King Gustav of a conspiracy, he was deprived of his governorship of a military expedition by Anna's brother Nils Eriksson on the order of the king. She discontinued her engagement on the request of King Gustav in 1524 or 1525.

paragraph: Section::::In fiction.

paragraph: Anna Eriksdotter (Bielke) was portrayed in the opera "Gustav Vasa" by Gustav III of Sweden, which was performed by the Royal Swedish Opera in 1786, with Lovisa Augusti playing Anna.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gustaf Elgenstierna (in Swedish): Den introducerade adelns ättartavlor (Tables of the introduced nobility)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Svensk uppslagsbok. Malmö 1939

paragraph: BULLET::::- Erik Turesson (Bielke), urn:sbl:18162, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av G. Carlsson.), hämtad 2014-07-14

description: Swedish commander

wikidata_label: Anna Eriksdotter

wikipedia_title: Anna Bielke


text:
New Guatemala de la Asunción
Supreme Court

categories: 1791 births,Justices of the Supreme Court of Justice of Guatemala,Presidents of the Congress of Guatemala,Presidents of Guatemala,1863 deaths

paragraph: José Venancio López

paragraph: José Venancio López (New Guatemala de la Asunción, General Captaincy of Guatemala, May 13, 1791 - Ibid, Guatemala, September 26, 1863) was a prominent Guatemalan jurist and politician, First President of the Supreme Court, president of the Chamber of Representatives and became 2nd President of the State of Guatemala (25 February 1842 to 14 May 1842). After retiring to private life, he was regent of the chair of law at the National and Pontifical University of San Carlos Borromeo.

description: Guatemalan politician

wikidata_label: José Venancio López

wikipedia_title: José Venancio López


text:
Gaulish
Cativolcus
Eburones
Belgic
Gaul
Gallia Belgica
Belgium
Belgian
national hero
resistance
Julius Caesar
Commentarii de Bello Gallico
Gaul
Belgica
Rhine
Eburones
Catuvolcus
harvest
starving
camps
centurion
Roman
soldiers
Julius Caesar
Atuatuci
Catuvolcus
Roman
Q. Titurius Sabinus
L. Aurunculeius Cotta
Q. Tullius Cicero
Marcus
Roman senate
legion
cohorts
Nervii
Florus
Rhine
De Bello Gallico
national heroes
lyric
epic
Tongeren
Atuatuca
Belgian
friterie
comics
Suske en Wiske
Jommeke
Asterix
Asterix in Belgium
Asterix
Obelix
Dogmatix
Vitalstatistix
De Bello Gallico
Ambiorix

categories: Gaulish rulers,Germanic warriors,Barbarian people of the Gallic Wars,Celtic warriors,Belgae,Germanic rulers

paragraph: Ambiorix

paragraph: Ambiorix (Gaulish "king in all directions") was, together with Cativolcus, prince of the Eburones, leader of a Belgic tribe of north-eastern Gaul (Gallia Belgica), where modern Belgium is located. In the nineteenth century Ambiorix became a Belgian national hero because of his resistance against Julius Caesar, as written in Caesar's "Commentarii de Bello Gallico".

paragraph: Section::::Early history.

paragraph: In 57 BC Julius Caesar conquered parts of Gaul and also Belgica (Belgium, modern-day Northern France, Luxembourg, part of present-day Netherlands below the Rhine River; and the north-western portion of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). There were several tribes in the country who fought against each other frequently. The Eburones were ruled by Ambiorix and Catuvolcus. In 54 BC Caesar's troops urgently needed more food, and so the local tribes were forced to give up part of their harvest, which had not been good that year. Understandably the starving Eburones were reluctant to do so and Caesar ordered that camps be built near the Eburones' villages. Each centurion was ordered to make sure the food supplies were delivered to the Roman soldiers. This created resentment among the Eburones.

paragraph: Although Julius Caesar had freed him from paying tribute to the Atuatuci, Ambiorix joined Catuvolcus in the winter of 54 BC in an uprising against the Roman forces under Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta.

paragraph: Section::::Resisting the Romans.

paragraph: Because a drought had disrupted his grain supply, Caesar was forced to winter his legions among the rebellious Belgic tribes. Roman troops led by Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta were wintering among the Eburones when they were attacked by them, led by Ambiorix and Cativolcus. Ambiorix deceived the Romans, telling them the attack was made without his consent, and further advised them to flee as a large Germanic force was preparing to cross the Rhine. Trusting Ambiorix, Sabinus and Cotta's troops left the next morning. A short distance from their camp, the Roman troops were ambushed by the Eburones and massacred.

paragraph: Elsewhere, another Roman force under Q. Tullius Cicero, brother of the orator Marcus, were wintering amongst the Nervii. Leading a coalition of rebellious Belgic tribes, Ambiorix surrounded Cicero's camp. After a long while, a Roman messenger was finally able to slip through the Belgic lines and get word of the uprising to Caesar. Mobilizing his legions, Caesar immediately marched to Cicero's aid. As they approached the besieged Roman camp, the Belgae moved to engage Caesar's troops. Vastly outnumbered, Caesar ordered his troops to appear confused and frightened, and they successfully lured the Belgae to attack them on ground favourable to the Romans. Caesar's forces launched a fierce counterattack, and soon put the Belgae to flight. Later, Caesar's troops entered Cicero's camp to find most of the men wounded.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Indutiomarus, a leader of the Treveri, began to harass Labienus's camp daily, eventually provoking Labienus to send out his cavalry with specific orders to kill Indutiomarus. They did so, and routed the remnants of Indutiomarus's army. Caesar personally remained in Gaul for the remainder of winter due to the renewed Gallic threat.

paragraph: Section::::Caesar's revenge.

paragraph: When the Roman senate heard what had happened, Caesar swore to put down all the Belgic tribes. Ambiorix had killed a whole Roman legion and five cohorts. A Belgic attack on Q. Tullius Cicero, then stationed with a legion in the territory of the Nervii, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar. The Roman campaigns against the Belgae took a few years, but eventually the tribes were slaughtered or driven out and their fields burned. The Eburones disappeared from history after this genocidal event. According to the writer Florus, Ambiorix and his men succeeded in crossing the Rhine and disappeared without a trace.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Caesar wrote about Ambiorix in his commentary about his battles against the Gauls, "De Bello Gallico". In this text he also wrote the famous line: "Of these [three regions], the Belgae are the bravest." ("... "Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae" ...").

paragraph: Ambiorix remained a relatively obscure figure until the nineteenth century. When Belgium became independent in 1830 the national government started searching through their historical archives for people who could serve as national heroes. In Caesar's "De Bello Gallico", Ambiorix and his deeds were rediscovered. In 1841 the Belgian poet Joannes Nolet de Brauwere Van Steeland wrote a lyrical epic about Ambiorix and on September 5, 1866 a statue of Ambiorix was erected on the main market square in Tongeren, Belgium, referred to by Caesar as Atuatuca, i.e. Atuatuca Tungrorum.

paragraph: Today, Ambiorix is one of the most famous characters in Belgian history. Many companies, bars and friteries have named themselves after him, and in many Belgian comics such as Suske en Wiske and Jommeke he plays a guest role. There was also a short-lived comic called "Ambionix", which featured a scientist teleporting a Belgic chief, loosely based on Ambiorix, to modern-day Belgium.

paragraph: In the French comic Asterix, in the album "Asterix in Belgium", Asterix, Obelix, Dogmatix and Vitalstatistix go to Belgium because they are angry with Caesar about his remark that the Belgians are the bravest of all the Gauls.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Other sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Caesar, "De Bello Gallico" v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ambiorix

description: leader of a Belgic tribe

wikidata_label: Ambiorix

wikipedia_title: Ambiorix


text: O.S.B. Cam.

text: Italian

text: monk

text: theologian

text: papal

text: Camaldolese

text: Traversari

text: Forlì

text: Portico di Romagna

text: St. Mary of the Angels

text: Florence

text: Hellenist

text: Greek literature

text: Emmanuel Chrysoloras

text: prior

text: papal primacy

text: Council of Basel

text: Pope Eugene IV

text: Christ's

text: pope

text: Sigismund

text: Basel

text: Ferrara

text: Babylon

text: feastday

text: Cosimo de' Medici

text: Eucharist

text: Procession of the Holy Spirit

text: Greek

text: Latin

text: John Chrysostom

text: Venice

text: John Moschus

text: The Ladder of Divine Ascent

text: John Climacus

text: Diogenes Laërtius

text: Manuel Kalekas

text: Patriarch of Constantinople

text: Dominican

text: friar

text: Ingolstadt

text: Saint Basil's

text: virginity

text: Ephrem the Syrian

text: Fathers

text: Greek Church

text: Dom Mabillon's

text: Palladius

text: Saint Basil

text: Traversari

text: Letters

text: Contains short biography

categories: Greek–Latin translators,Italian Benedictines,Medieval Italian saints,Benedictine saints,15th-century Italian writers,14th-century Christian saints,Benedictine scholars,Benedictine theologians,Camaldolese saints,People from Portico e San Benedetto,15th-century Roman Catholic priests,1439 deaths,1386 births,Medieval Italian theologians,Italian Roman Catholic theologians,15th-century Christian saints

paragraph: Ambrose Traversari

paragraph: Ambrogio Traversari, O.S.B. Cam., also referred to as Ambrose of Camaldoli (138620 October 1439), was an Italian monk and theologian who was a prime supporter of the papal cause in the 15th century. He is honored as a saint by the Camaldolese Order.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Traversari was born near Forlì, in the village of Portico di Romagna in 1386. At the age of 14 he entered the Camaldolese Order in the Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In his study of Greek literature his master was Emmanuel Chrysoloras. He worked primarily as a scholar until he became prior general of the Order in 1431.

paragraph: Ambrose emerged as a leading advocate of papal primacy. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the Council of Basel as legate of Pope Eugene IV and defended the primacy of the pope, adjuring the council not to "rend asunder Christ's seamless robe". He was next sent by the pope to the Emperor Sigismund to ask his aid in the pope's efforts to end this council, which for five years had been encroaching on papal prerogatives. The pope transferred the council from Basel to Ferrara on 18 September 1437.

paragraph: So strong was Ambrose's hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. But in this council, and later, in that of Florence, Ambrose, by his efforts and charity toward some poor Greek bishops, greatly helped to bring about a union of the two Churches, the decree for which, 6 July 1439, he was called on to draw up.

paragraph: He died soon after. His feastday is celebrated by the Camaldolese Order on 20 November.

paragraph: Section::::Character.

paragraph: According to the author of his biography in the eleventh edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica": "Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de' Medici, he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors".

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: His works include a treatise on the Holy Eucharist, one on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, many lives of saints, as well as a history of his term as prior general of the Camaldolese. He also translated from Greek into Latin a life of Saint John Chrysostom (Venice, 1533); the "Spiritual Wisdom" of John Moschus; "The Ladder of Divine Ascent" of Saint John Climacus (Venice, 1531), P.G., LXXXVIII. Between 1424 and 1433 he worked on the translation of the "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers" by Diogenes Laërtius, which came to be widely circulated in manuscript form. He also translated four books against the errors of the Greeks, by Manuel Kalekas, Patriarch of Constantinople, a Dominican friar (Ingolstadt, 1608), P.G., CLII, col. 13-661, a work known only through Ambrose's translation.

paragraph: He also translated many homilies of Saint John Chrysostom; the writings of Dionysius Areopagita (1436); Saint Basil's treatise on virginity; thirty-nine discourses of Saint Ephrem the Syrian, and many other works of the Fathers and writers of the Greek Church. Dom Mabillon's "Letters and Orations of St. Ambrose of Camaldoli" was published in Florence in 1759.

paragraph: Selected works:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hodoeporicon", diary of a journey visiting the monasteries of Italy

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Epistolarium", correspondence

paragraph: BULLET::::- translations of

paragraph: BULLET::::- Palladius, "Life of Chrysostom"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ephraem Syrus, "Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Saint Basil, "On Virginity"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diogenes Laërtius, "Vitae philosophorum" ("Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers")

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (1436)

paragraph: A number of his manuscripts remain in the library of Saint Mark in Venice.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Traversari

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Baptism of Christ" (Piero della Francesca)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Attribution

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Letters – a few letters in the original Latin and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Contains short biography

alias:
Ambrose of Camaldoli
Ambrogio Traversari
Ambrogio Camaldolese
Ambroise Traversari
Ambrogio di Camaldoli
Ambrose
Ambroise le Camaldule
Ambrosius Traversari
Ambrosius Traversarius
Frater Ambrosius
Ambrosius
Ambrosius Camaldulensis
Ambrosios Trabersares
Ambrosius Camaldulensis Traversarius
Ambrogio
Ambroise
Ambrosio
Traversarius
Ambrosius Florentinus

description: Italian monk and theologian

wikidata_label: Ambrose Traversari

wikipedia_title: Ambrose Traversari


text:
Crimean Khanate
Saadet I Girai
Sahib I Giray
Mehmed I Giray
Ğazı I Giray
Saadet I Girai
Kyrkor
Shahib I Giray

paragraph: İslâm I Giray

paragraph: İslâm I Giray (reigned 1532, lived ?-1537) was for five months Khan of the Crimean Khanate. He was preceded and followed his uncles Saadet I Girai (1524-32) and Sahib I Giray (1532-51). His father was Mehmed I Giray (1515-23). Islam spent most of his life (1524-37) trying to take the throne from his uncles. He was once Khan and twice Kalga or designated heir and co-ruler. He revolted three times, twice almost captured the khanship and once partitioned the Khanate between himself and his uncle. When not in Crimea he lived with the Nogai nomads.

paragraph: In 1523 his over-ambitious father, Mehmed I Girai was killed by the Nogais at Astrakhan. The Nogais then invaded Crimea and withdrew with their loot. During the raid Islam was captured. The khanship passed to Mehmed’s oldest surviving son Ğazı I Giray (1523-24), but the nobles and Turks soon replaced him with Mehmed’s brother Saadet I Girai. Islam was released from captivity and in 1524 he and three other Gerais raided Lithuania. In October, while returning with their loot, they were defeated by a Cossack flotilla while crossing the Dnieper.

paragraph: First revolt 1524-26: In 1524 Islam revolted against his uncle. Either before or after declaring himself, Saadat ordered him killed. Warned by friends he fled to the Nogais. Many Mirzas took his side. Near Perekop he captured Saadat’s mother Mahmut-Sultan and her servants. He entered the Peninsula with a large army, took the capital of Kyrkor and declared himself khan. Saadet fled to the Turkish garrison at Perekop, which Islam besieged in November. Many Mirzas changed sides and in January 1525 Islam fled to the steppes. In the spring of 1525 he returned with a new army and drove Saadet from the capital. He also defeated a Turkish force from Kaffa. In autumn several great nobles changed sides and Islam fled to the steppes. In early 1526 he again appeared before Perekop. This time the factions compromised. Islam recognized Saadet as khan while he became Kalga. He was given Ochakov and the surrounding area.

paragraph: In 1527, as kalga, he raided Russia but was blocked at the Oka River and was defeated near Zaraysk and on the Osyotr River.

paragraph: Second revolt: In 1528 he revolted again and was defeated by Saadat with the support of Turkish troops. Many of his noble supporters were killed. In the spring of 1528 he arrived at Cherkassy seeking Lithuanian support.

paragraph: He wandered with the Nogais and in 1531 occupied the throne of Astrakhan for a few months. (?) At the end of 1531 he appeared before Perekop and gained the support of some of the Shirins. In February 1532 he was driven back to Cherkassy and Kanev.

paragraph: In the spring of 1532 he was wandering beyond the Don, while Saadet unsuccessfully besieged Cherkassy.

paragraph: Khanship 1532: In May 1532 Saadet renounced the throne and left for Istanbul. Islam came to Crimea and held the khanship for five months. The Turks made his uncle Shahib I Giray khan and Islam became Kalga, holding Perekop and Ochakov. In August 1533 the new Kalga led 40000 men against Russia but was driven back near Ryazan.

paragraph: Third revolt 1534-37: In the summer of 1534 Islam revolted for a third time. He was defeated and sought refuge in Perekop. The effect was to partition the khanate, with Islam controlling the steppes north of Perekop and Sahib holding the peninsula. Islam delt with the Russians and Lithuanians and Sahib with the Turks. The struggle between the two Girais continued with varying success until 1537. Many mirzas went over to Sahib, especially Baki-Beg. In 1537 Sahib captured Islam’s camp near Perekop. Islam fled to the Nogais and was killed during a sudden attack by Baki-Beg. Hammar-Purgstall says that he was frozen to death in a barrel of water.

paragraph: Section::::Sources and notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Henry Hoyle Howorth, History of the Mongols, 1880, part 2, p 479

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oleksa Gaivoronsky «Повелители двух материков», Kiev-Bakhchisarai, 2007, , volume 1, pages 169-199

wikidata_label: İslâm I Giray

wikipedia_title: İslâm I Giray


text: companion

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text: List of Sahaba

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text: Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1

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text: Abu Bakr

categories: Abu Bakr family,Sahabah participated in battle of Uhud,Male Sahabah,Rashidun caliphs,634 deaths,573 births,Abu Bakr,7th-century caliphs,Sahabah participated in battle of Badr,Converts to Islam,People from Mecca

paragraph: Abu Bakr

paragraph: Abdallah ibn Abi Quhafah (; 573 CE23 August 634 CE), popularly known as Abu Bakr (), was a companion and—through his daughter Aisha—a father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

paragraph: Abu Bakr was born in Mecca in 573 CE to Uthman Abu Quhafa and Salma Umm al-Khair. He is commonly regarded as the fourth person to have accepted Islam, after Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Ali ibn Abi Talib, and Zayd ibn Harith. Abu Bakr was present at a number of battles of Islam, such as the Battle of Badr and the Battle of Uhud; his role in the early battles of Islam has been the subject of extensive analysis by historians.

paragraph: Abu Bakr was present at the Farewell Pilgrimage, as well as the event of Ghadir Khumm, in 632 CE. However, shortly after Muhammad died, Abu Bakr and some others left the still-unburied body of Muhammad and gathered at a place known as Saqifa. After lengthy debates that included violence, Umar ibn Al-Khattab pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifa; he was followed in this by two others at Saqifa, as well as a group of Bedouin tribesmen who had arrived at the scene. Saqifa was later described by the famous Sunni historian Al-Tabari as "a scene from the period of Jahiliya (the pre-Islamic era)".

paragraph: Abu Bakr thus assumed power, ruling over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 634 CE. Once in power, Abu Bakr launched the Ridda Wars to quell an outbreak of "apostasy" in various lands outside Medina. The Ridda Wars, however, were expanded to include the use of force against Muslims who did not recognize Abu Bakr's government, instead of solely focusing on those who had left Islam. After the conclusion of the Ridda Wars, Abu Bakr launched campaigns into Syria and Persia, but died before their conclusion. Another significant event during Abu Bakr's reign was the seizure of the land of Fadak from Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter.

paragraph: In 634 CE, Abu Bakr fell ill from a sickness and died shortly thereafter. He was succeeded by Umar.

paragraph: Section::::Lineage and title.

paragraph: Abu Bakr's full name was Abdullah ibn Uthman ibn Aamir ibn Amr ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'ab ibn Lu'ai ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr al-Quraishi.

paragraph: In Arabic, the name "Abd Allah" means "servant of Allah". One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, was "Ateeq", meaning "saved one". Muhammad later restated this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the "Ateeq". He was called "Al-Siddiq" (the truthful) by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Mi'raj when other people didn't, and Ali confirmed that title several times.

paragraph: There is a dispute over his name being Abdullah. Ibn Hajar in "Al-Isaabah", as well as many other sources, narrates from Qasim Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abu Bakr, "I asked Aisha the name of Abu Bakr. She said Abdullah. I said people are saying Ateeq. She said Abu Quhafa had three children, one was Ateeq, second Mu’taq and third, Utaiq. "All three names are similar and derived from the same root.

paragraph: He was reportedly referred to in the Quran as the "second of the two in the cave" in reference to the event of hijra, where with Muhammad he hid in the cave in Jabal Thawr from the Meccan party that was sent after them.

paragraph: Many Sunni hadiths available about Muhammad comes through Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha. After the death of Abu Bakr, her brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was emancipated by Ali. After Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was killed by the Umayyads, Aisha raised and taught her nephew, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr and her nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr. He then taught his son, Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas, whose views many Sunni follow.

paragraph: Qasim's mother was of Ali's family and his daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim, who married Muhammad al-Baqir, was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore, al-Qasim was the grandson of the first caliph Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq.

paragraph: Another of Abu Bakr's grandsons, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, was very close to Husayn bin Ali. After Hussein ibn Ali was betrayed by the people of Kufa and killed by the army of Yazid I, the Umayyad ruler, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr confronted Yazid and expelled him from Iraq, southern Arabia and the greater part of Syria, and parts of Egypt. Following a lengthy campaign, on his last hour Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr asked his mother Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, for advice. Asma' bint Abu Bakr replied to her son: "You know better in your own self, that if you are upon the truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you have been killed and if you are not upon the truth, then what an evil son you are and you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If you say, that if you are upon the truth and you will be killed at the hands of others, then you will not truly be free". Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr left and was later also killed and crucified by the Syrian Army, then under the control of the Umayyads.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Abu Bakr was born in Mecca some time in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy. Abu Bakr's father's name was Uthman and given the laqab "Abu Quhafa", and his mother was Salma bint Sakhar who was given the laqab of "Umm ul-Khair".

paragraph: He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among the Bedouins who called themselves "Ahl-i-Ba'eer"- the people of the camel, and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname ""Abu Bakr"", the father of the camel's calf.

paragraph: Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and had a good knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories and their politics.

paragraph: A story is preserved that once when he was a child, his father took him to the Kaaba, and asked him to pray before the idols. His father went away to attend to some other business, and Abu Bakr was left alone with the idols. Addressing an idol, Abu Bakr said "O my God, I am in need of beautiful clothes; bestow them on me". The idol remained indifferent. Then he addressed another idol, saying, "O God, give me some delicious food. See that I am so hungry". The idol remained cold. That exhausted the patience of young Abu Bakr. He lifted a stone, and, addressing an idol, said, "Here I am aiming a stone; if you are a god protect yourself". Abu Bakr hurled the stone at the idol and left the Kaaba. Thereafter, he never went to the Kaaba to pray to the idols.

paragraph: Abu Bakr was a thin man with white skin. Tabari relates (Suyuti also relates the same through Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's report) from Aisha her description of Abu Bakr:

paragraph: He was a man with fair skin, thin, emaciated, with a sparse beard, a slightly hunched frame, sunken eyes and protruding forehead, and the bases of his fingers were hairless.He remained a "hanif" until converting to Islam and never worshipped idols.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Acceptance of Islam.

paragraph: On his return from a business trip from Yemen, friends informed him that in his absence Muhammad had declared himself the Messenger of God and proclaimed a new religion. Tabari, the most famous Muslim historian, in his Ta'rikh, quotes from Muhammad Bin Sa'ad Bin Abi Waqqas, who said:

paragraph: Other Sunni and all Shi'a Muslims maintain that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija.

paragraph: Ibn Kathir, in his Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah, disregards the above. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zaid bin Haarithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Life after accepting Islam.

paragraph: His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children except Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr separated himself from Abdu'l-Rahman.

paragraph: His conversion brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert, and presented Islam to other friends in such a way that many of them also accepted Islam.

paragraph: Those who converted to Islam at the insistence of Abu Bakr were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Uthman Ibn Affan (who would become the 3rd Caliph)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Zubayr (who played a part in the Muslim conquest of Egypt)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Talha Ibn Ubayd-Allah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abdur Rahman bin Awf (who would remain an important part of the Rashidun Caliphate)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (who played a part in the Islamic conquest of Persia)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who remained commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Syria )

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Salama (Abdullah bin Abdul Asad)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Khalid ibn Sa`id

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah

paragraph: Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves, however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight (four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom.

paragraph: The men were

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bilal ibn Ribah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Fakih

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ammar ibn Yasir

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Fuhayra

paragraph: The women were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lubaynah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Al-Nahdiah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Umm Ubays

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harithah bint al-Muammil

paragraph: Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. When the father of Abu Bakr asked him why he didn't liberate strong and young slaves, who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of Allah, and not for his own sake.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Persecution by the Quraysh, 613.

paragraph: For three years after the birth of Islam, Muslims kept their faith and prayers secret. In 613 Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr, and beat him mercilessly till he lost consciousness. Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Abu Bakr's beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, but not by the entire Quraysh tribe.

paragraph: Section::::Last years in Mecca.

paragraph: In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr.

paragraph: In 620, Muhammad's uncle and protector, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, and Muhammad's wife Khadija died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was engaged to Muhammad, however it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey).

paragraph: Section::::Migration to Medina.

paragraph: In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led by Ikrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr, some five miles south of Mecca. `Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to see them. Due to this, Qur'an verse was revealed. Aisha, Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri and Abdullah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that Abu Bakr was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave.

paragraph: After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina.

paragraph: Section::::Migration to Medina.:Life in Medina.

paragraph: In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. The Muslims, including Abu Bakr, constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with Khaarijah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah.

paragraph: Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina, he bought another house near Muhammad's.

paragraph: The climate of Mecca was dry, but the climate of Medina was damp and, because of this, most of them fell sick on arrival. Abu Bakr contracted a fever for several days, during which time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. In Mecca, Abu Bakr was a wholesale trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He opened his new store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already engaged to Muhammad, was handed over to Muhammad in a simple marriage ceremony, further strengthening relations between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Battle of Badr.

paragraph: In 624 Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as the Battle of Badr, but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Battle of Uhud.

paragraph: In 625, Abu Bakr participated in the Battle of Uhud. After the fighting began, the tide of the battle turned at first in the Muslims' favor, in large part due to the actions of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hamza ibn Abdul Muttalib, and Abu Dujana. However, two events led to the Muslims losing the battle: the death of Hamza and many of the rank-and-file members of the Muslim army abandoning their positions. Many of those Muslims assumed that they had already won the battle, so in an attempt to collect booty from their attackers, they left their positions, against the orders of Muhammad. The Muslims' opponents, the army of Abu Sufyan, took advantage of this to attack the Muslims' army. In the ensuing confusion, in which many Muslim lives were lost, a man named Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair was killed. When he died (although some reports say that it was instead when Husayl ibn Jabir died), a call was raised that Muhammad had died (which he had not), and this also led to many of the Muslims fleeing the battlefield; only a small number of Muslims, such as Ali and Abu Dujana, stayed to protect Muhammad. It has been mentioned in multiple reports that Abu Bakr and Umar were among the Muslims who fled when they were not supposed to.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Battle of the Trench.

paragraph: In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza. In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of these contingents was under the command of Abu Bakr. The enemy made frequent assaults in an attempt to cross the ditch, all of which were repulsed. Abu Bakr showed great courage in guarding the belt of the trench in his sector. To commemorate this event a mosque, later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq', was constructed at the site where Abu Bakr had heroically repulsed the charges of the enemy. In 628 he witnessed the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Battle of Khaybar.

paragraph: Abu Bakr took part in the Battle of Khaybar. Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent Abu Bakr with a group of warriors to attempt to take it, but they were unable to do so. Muhammad also sent Umar with a group of warriors, but Umar could not conquer Al-Qamus either. Some other Muslims also attempted to capture the fort, but they were unsuccessful as well. Finally, Muhammad sent Ali, who defeated the enemy leader, Marhab.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad.

paragraph: In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. Abu Bakr and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah, and they attacked and defeated the enemy.

paragraph: In 630, when the Muslims conquered Mecca, Abu Bakr was part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Uthman Abu Quhafa converted to Islam.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad.:Battles of Hunayn and Ta'if.

paragraph: In 630, the Muslim army was ambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley of Hunayn, some eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Taken unaware, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including Abu Bakr. Under Muhammad's instruction, Abbas shouted at the top of his voice, "O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas.

paragraph: Muhammad posted a contingent to guard the Hunayn pass and led the main army to Autas. In the confrontation at Autas the tribes could not withstand the Muslim onslaught. Believing continued resistance useless, the tribes broke camp and retired to Ta'if.

paragraph: Abu Bakr was commissioned by Muhammad to lead the attack against Ta'if. The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslims employed catapults, but without tangible result. The Muslims attempted to use a testudo formation, in which a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. However, the enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo, rendering it ineffective.

paragraph: The siege dragged on for two weeks, and still there was no sign of weakness in the fort. Muhammad held a council of war. Abu Bakr advised that the siege might be raised and that God would Himself make arrangements for the fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in February 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned to Mecca. A few days later Malik bin Auf, the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim. Thus the prediction of Abu Bakr was fulfilled, and God Himself arranged for the surrender of Ta'if.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj.

paragraph: In 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way. Abu Bakr was appointed as the leader of the delegation. The day after Abu Bakr and his party had left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: Surah Tawbah, the ninth chapter of the Qur'an. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim the revelation.

paragraph: Muhammad summoned Ali, and asked him to proclaim a portion of Surah Tawbah to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled at Mina. Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel, and overtook Abu Bakr. When Ali joined the party, Abu Bakr wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj, and that his only mission was to convey a special message to the people on behalf of Muhammad.

paragraph: At Mecca, Abu Bakr presided at the Hajj ceremony, and Ali read the proclamation on behalf of Muhammad. The main points of the proclamation were:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Henceforward the non-Muslims were not to be allowed to visit the Kaaba or perform the pilgrimage.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. No one should circumambulate the Kaaba naked.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Polytheism was not to be tolerated. Where the Muslims had any agreement with the polytheists such agreements would be honoured for the stipulated periods. Where there were no agreements a grace period of four months was provided and thereafter no quarter was to be given to the polytheists.

paragraph: From the day this proclamation was made a new era dawned, and Islam alone was to be supreme in Arabia.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns under Muhammad.:Military campaigns as commander.

paragraph: Abu Bakr also led one military campaign as commander, known as the Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, which took place in Nejd, in July 628 (3rd Month 7AH in the Islamic calendar). Abu Bakr led a large platoon in Nejd on the order of Muhammad. Many were killed and taken prisoner. The Sunni Hadith collection "Sunan Abu Dawud" mentions the event.

paragraph: Section::::Death of Muhammad.

paragraph: Abu Bakr attended the event of Ghadir Khumm, which took place a few months before Muhammad passed away. According to both Shia and Sunni sources, he was among the many who pledged allegiance to Ali at the event.

paragraph: In Medina, after the Farewell Pilgrimage and the event of Ghadir Khumm and shortly before his death, Muhammad granted command of an army to Usama bin Zayd. He commanded all the companions, except for his family, to go with Usama to Syria to avenge the Muslims’ defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah. Muhammad gave Usama the banner of Islam on the 18th day of the Islamic month of Safar in the year 11 A.H. Abu Bakr and Umar were among those that Muhammad commanded to join Usama's army.

paragraph: However, Abu Bakr and Umar protested because they thought that Usama, who was 18 or 20 at the time, was too young to lead an army, despite Muhammad's teachings that age and standing in society did not necessarily correspond to being a good general.

paragraph: In response to these worries, the Prophet said: "O Arabs! You are miserable because I have appointed Usama as your general, and you are raising questions if he is qualified to lead you in war. I know you are the same people who had raised the same question about his father. By God, Usama is qualified to be your general just as his father was qualified to be a general. Now obey his orders and go." Whenever Muhammad felt any relief from his fatal sickness, he would inquire as to whether Usama's army had left for Syria yet, and would continue urging his companions to leave for Syria. Muhammad even reportedly said, "Usama's army must leave at once. May Allah curse those men who do not go with him." However, while a few companions were ready to join Usama's army, many other companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, disobeyed Muhammad's orders. It is also noted that this was the only military expedition where Muhammad urged his companions to go into battle no matter what; for other battles, if someone was unable to go, Muhammad would let them stay at home.

paragraph: Section::::Saqifa.

paragraph: During Muhammad's lifetime, the Muslims in Medina were divided into two groups: the Ansar, who were originally from Medina, and the Muhajirun, who had converted to Islam in Mecca and migrated to Medina with Muhammad. During Muhammad's rule in Medina, they were satisfied, and they were glad when Muhammad announced that Ali would be his successor at the event of Ghadir Khumm, as they knew that Ali would continue Muhammad's fair policies towards them.

paragraph: However, when some of the Muhajirun refused to obey Muhammad's orders to follow Usama bin Zayd to Syria or to give him pen and paper to make a will, the Ansar knew that some of the Muhajirun were trying to take power upon Muhammad's death. They were worried that the rule of a Muhajirun (a foreigner, in their eyes), other than Muhammad or Ali, ruling over them would lead to their eventual oppression. Thus, when they saw some of the Muhajirun planning to take power upon Muhammad's death, they thought they would be just as good candidates for power as the Muhajirun. Thus, when Muhammad died, some of the Ansar went to a place known as Saqifa, where they nominated Sa'd ibn Ubadah to be the leader.

paragraph: Some spies among the Ansar informed Umar, who had been in Medina at the time, about what was happening in Saqifa. Umar looked for Abu Bakr, but he was not in Medina at the time; he was in Suk with his new wife. Umar, desperate to prevent the Ansar declaring Saad ibn Ubada caliph, offered to pledge allegiance to Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (despite the previous pledges of allegiance of the Muslims, including Umar, to Ali). Abu Ubaidah refused, however, as he believed that Abu Bakr was more worthy than he was for leadership. Desperate to buy time, Umar proclaimed that Muhammad was not actually dead; he threatened to kill anyone who said otherwise. Abu Bakr then arrived in Medina and calmed Umar down, giving a convincing argument that Muhammad was dead. Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah, leaving the still-unburied body of Muhammad, then went to Saqifa. The meeting in Saqifa, which is said to have been attended by fourteen people, took place while Ali was performing Muhammad's funeral rites.

paragraph: The Ansar and the three Muhajirun at Saqifa (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah) entered into a lengthy debate about who was more qualified to have leadership. The Ansar suggested having two leaders, one from the Muhajirun and one from the Ansar, while Abu Bakr proposed that the Muhajirun should be the leaders and the Ansar their ministers, which did not come to fruition. Debate continued until it reached a point when Bashir ibn Sa'ad, an Ansar who was jealous of Saad ibn Ubada, gave a speech supporting Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah. Abu Bakr then told the Ansar to pledge allegiance to either Umar or Abu Ubaidah. Umar refused and instead pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr; Abu Ubaidah and Bashir followed Umar in doing so.

paragraph: Hubab ibn al-Mandhir then gave a short speech in which he called Bashir "a traitor to [his] own people." After that, a group of Bedouin tribesmen arrived. They were opponents of the Ansar, and when they saw the three pledges of allegiance to Abu Bakr, they pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr as well. The debates between the Ansar and the three Muhajirun at Saqifa was not peaceful, but rather was marked by violence and even bloodshed; Al-Tabari reported that it was "truly a scene from the period of Jahiliya (the pre-Islamic era)."

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: After assuming the office of Caliph, Abu Bakr's first address was as follows:

paragraph: Abu Bakr's reign lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout the Arabian Peninsula in the successful Ridda Wars. In the last months of his rule, he sent Khalid ibn al-Walid on conquests against the Sassanid Empire in Mesopotamia and against the Byzantine Empire in Syria. This would set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later on by Umar and Uthman ibn Affan) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, he agreed to draw a salary from the state treasury and discontinue his cloth trade.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Ridda wars.

paragraph: After Muhammad's death, apostasy arose in many areas outside Medina through the rise of several false prophets. Abu Bakr sent troops against the claimants and their forces and successfully defeated them. However, the wars against apostasy were expanded to include the use of force against tribes who opposed the rule of Abu Bakr. One such infamous incident was the massacre of the tribe of Banu Yerbo. During Muhammad's life, Malik ibn Nuweira was the revenue officer for Banu Yerbo; he collected tax money from Banu Yerbo and sent it to Medina. Upon Muhammad's death, however, he stopped collecting taxes and waited to hear how the new government had formed before sending any more money to Medina. Abu Bakr sent a force led by Khalid ibn al-Walid to Banu Yerbo. Khalid killed Malik, despite the fact that Malik still followed Islam and not the false prophets. Khalid then "married" Malik's widow, less than 24 hours after Malik's death, a practice unacceptable in Islam. Khalid also killed and captured many, if not all, the other members of Banu Yerbo. Umar demanded that Abu Bakr dismiss Khalid and put him on trial for murder and adultery, but Abu Bakr reportedly said that Khalid had made "an error of judgement" and let him go. Another version of the response to Khalid's actions claims that Khalid did not order Malik's execution but that his orders to the guards had been misunderstood, and that Abu Bakr accepted Khalid's excuse.

paragraph: The Ridda wars were over in approximately one year.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Expeditions into Persia and Syria.

paragraph: After the conclusion of the Ridda wars, Abu Bakr did not want the troops to remain idle, so he launched expeditions into Persia and Syria. He reportedly assigned Amr ibn al-Aas to Palestine and Shurahbil ibn Hasana and Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan to Damascus. Abu Bakr, however, died before the expeditions into Persia and Syria were concluded.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and did not recover. He developed high fever and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realizing this, he sent for Ali and requested him to perform his ghusl since Ali had also done it for Muhammad.

paragraph: Abu Bakr felt that he should nominate his successor so that the issue should not be a cause of dissension among the Muslims after his death, though there was already controversy over Ali not having been appointed.

paragraph: He appointed Umar as his successor after discussing the matter with some companions. Some of them favored the nomination and others disliked it, due to the tough nature of Umar.

paragraph: Abu Bakr thus dictated his last testament to Uthman ibn Affan as follows:

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Though the period of his caliphate covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire.

paragraph: Abu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate.

paragraph: He has the distinction of purchasing the land for Al-Masjid al-Nabawi.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Sunni view.

paragraph: Sunni Muslims believe that Abu Bakr is the best man of all the human beings after the prophets. They also consider Abu Bakr as one of The Ten Promised Paradise ("al-‘Ashara al-Mubashshara") whom Muhammad had testified were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as the "Successor of Allah's Messenger" ("Khalifa Rasulullah"), and first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs – i.e. Rashidun—and as the rightful successor to Muhammad. Abu Bakr had always been the closest friend and confidant of Muhammad throughout his life, being beside Muhammad at every major event. It was Abu Bakr's wisdom that Muhammad always honored. Abu Bakr is regarded among the best of Muhammad's followers; as Umar ibn Khattab stated, "If the faith of Abu Bakr was weighed against the faith of the people of the earth, the faith of Abu Bakr would outweigh the others."

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Shia view.

paragraph: The Twelver Shia (as the main branch of Shia Islam, with 85% of all Shias) believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was supposed to assume the Caliphate, and that he had been publicly and unambiguously appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. It is also believed that Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death, in a coup d'état against Ali. The Twelver Shi'a do not believe that Abu Bakr's being with Muhammad in the cave when the two fled Mecca was a meritorious act, and, indeed, find significant criticism of Abu Bakr in the Qur'anic verse of the cave.

paragraph: Most Twelver Shia criticize Abu Bakr because, after Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr refused to grant Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, the lands of the village of Fadak which she claimed her father had given to her as a gift before his death. He refused to accept the testimony of her witnesses, so she claimed the land would still belong to her as inheritance from her deceased father. However, Abu Bakr replied by saying that Muhammad had told him that the prophets of God do not leave as inheritance any worldly possessions and on this basis he refused to give her the lands of Fadak. However, as Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy notes in his book "A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims", Muhammad inherited a maid servant, five camels, and ten sheep. This proves that prophets can receive inheritance, and can pass on inheritance to others as well. In addition, Shias claim that Muhammad had given Fadak to Fatimah during his lifetime, and Fadak was therefore a gift to Fatimah, not inheritance. This view has also been supported some Sunnis, such as the Abbasid ruler Al-Ma'mun.

paragraph: The Twelver Shia accuse him of participating in the burning of the house of Ali and Fatima.

paragraph: The Twelver Shia believe that Abu Bakr sent Khalid ibn Walid to crush those who were in favour of Ali's caliphate ("see Ridda Wars"). The Twelver Shia strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the "Qur'an", claiming that they should have accepted the copy of the book in the possession of Ali.

paragraph: After the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. The Twelver Shia view Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as one of the companions of Ali. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads, Aisha, the wife of Muhammad and also a renowned scholar of her time, raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr's mother was from Ali's family and Qasim's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grandson of Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Jafar al-Sadiq. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty and currently the second-largest group (although its population is only about 5% of all Shia Muslims), believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Jafar al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: "May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bodla

paragraph: BULLET::::- Laqit bin Malik Al-Azdi, opponent

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Sahaba

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sunni view of the Sahaba

paragraph: BULLET::::- Muadh ibn Jabal

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sermon of Fadak

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Walker, Adam, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, in "Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God" (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Muslim:

paragraph: BULLET::::- QuilliamPress.com: Abu Bakr

paragraph: BULLET::::- AbuBakr.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Virtues of Hazrat Abu Bakr

paragraph: BULLET::::- Detailed Life of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr's life

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order biography of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq

paragraph: BULLET::::- Greatness of Abu Bakr

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biography of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq by Adam Walker

paragraph: Urdu Audio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Virtues of Abu Bakr Urdu Audio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr appearing in Narrations/Hadith recorded by Imam Bukhari – www.SearchTruth.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu bakr's appointment as Khalifah

paragraph: BULLET::::- Searchable Family tree of Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq by Happy Books

paragraph: BULLET::::- Non-Muslim:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr

paragraph: BULLET::::- Unclassified:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr from Islamonline

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1 by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shia:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Incident of the cave

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abu Bakr

alias:
Abdallāh bin Abī Quḥāfah
As-Siddiq (The Truthful)

description: First Muslim Caliph and a companion of Muhammad

enwikiquote_title: Abu Bakr

wikidata_label: Abu Bakr siddiq

wikipedia_title: Abu Bakr


text:
Greek
Macedon
vassal
Darius I
Achaemenid Macedonia
Alcetas I of Macedon
Alexander
vassal
Darius I
Achaemenid Empire
Earth and Water
Megabazus
Gygaea
Bubares
Hippias
Athens
Anthemus
Thermaic Gulf
Iolcos
Herodotus
Justin
Thucydides
Pausanias

categories: 5th-century BC Macedonian monarchs,5th-century BC Macedonians,Argead kings of Macedonia,6th-century BC Macedonian monarchs,498 BC deaths,5th-century BC rulers,Achaemenid Macedon,6th-century BC rulers,6th-century BC births,6th-century BC Macedonians

paragraph: Amyntas I of Macedon

paragraph: Amyntas I (Greek: Ἀμύντας Aʹ; 498 BC) was king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon (540 – 512 / 511 BC) and then a vassal of Darius I from 512/511 to his death 498 BC, at the time of Achaemenid Macedonia. He was a son of Alcetas I of Macedon. He married Eurydice and they had a son Alexander.

paragraph: Amyntas was a vassal of Darius I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, since 512/511 BC. Amyntas gave the present of "Earth and Water" to Megabazus, which symbolized submission to the Achaemenid Emperor. One of the daughters of Amyntas, named Gygaea, was married to the Persian General, called Bubares, possibly as a way of reinforcing the alliance.

paragraph: The history of Macedonia may be said to begin with Amyntas' reign. He was the first of its rulers to have diplomatic relations with other states.

paragraph: In particular, he entered into an alliance with Hippias of Athens, and when Hippias was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermaic Gulf with the object of taking advantage of the feuds between the Greeks.

paragraph: Hippias refused the offer and also rejected the offer of Iolcos, as Amyntas probably did not control Anthemous at that time, but was merely suggesting a plan of joint occupation to Hippias.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Attribution

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Herodotus v. 17, 94

paragraph: BULLET::::- Justin vii. 2

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thucydides ii. 100

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pausanias ix. 40

description: King of Macedon

wikidata_label: Amyntas I of Macedon

wikipedia_title: Amyntas I of Macedon


text: ancient Greek

text: Macedon

text: Alexander I

text: Philip II

text: Alexander the Great

text: Archelaus I

text: Illyria

text: Thessalia

text: Aleuadae

text: Larissa

text: Argeadae

text: Chalkidian League

text: Olynthus

text: money

text: Kotys

text: Odrysians

text: Iphicrates

text: Sparta

text: Bardylis

text: Illyrians

text: Epirus

text: Dionysius I of Syracuse

text: Molossian

text: Alcetas I of Epirus

text: Olynthus

text: Jason of Pherae

text: Athens

text: Lacedaemonian

text: Athenians

text: Amphipolis

text: Timotheus

text: Piraeus

text: Eurydice

text: Sirras of Lynkestis

text: Alexander II

text: Perdiccas III

text: Philip II

text: Alexander the Great

text: Justin

text: Ptolemy of Aloros

text: Menelaus

text: Coins of Amyntas III

text: Atheno-Macedonian Alliance

text: Translation of Epigraphy

categories: 4th-century BC Macedonian monarchs,Argead kings of Macedonia,4th-century BC rulers,4th-century BC Macedonians,Year of birth missing,370 BC deaths

paragraph: Amyntas III of Macedon

paragraph: Amyntas III (died 370 BC) was king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 370 BC. He was the son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas, one of the sons of Alexander I. His most famous son is Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. He is historically considered the founder of the unified Macedonian state.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus I. But he had many enemies at home; in 393 he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. Medius, head of the house of the Aleuadae of Larissa, is believed to have provided aid to Amyntas in recovering his throne. The mutual relationship between the Argeadae and the Aleuadae dates to the time of Archelaus.

paragraph: To shore up his country against the threat of the Illyrians, Amyntas established an alliance with the Chalkidian League led by Olynthus. In exchange for this support, Amyntas granted them rights to Macedonian timber, which was sent back to Athens to help fortify their fleet. With money flowing into Olynthus from these exports, their power grew. In response, Amyntas sought additional allies. He established connections with Kotys, chief of the Odrysians. Kotys had already married his daughter to the Athenian general Iphicrates. Prevented from marrying into Kotys' family, Amyntas soon adopted Iphicrates as his son.

paragraph: After the King's Peace of 387 BC, Sparta was anxious to re-establish its presence in northern Greece. In 385 BC, Bardylis and his Illyrians attacked Epirus instigated and aided by Dionysius I of Syracuse, in an attempt to restore the Molossian king Alcetas I of Epirus to the throne. When Amyntas sought Spartan aid against the growing threat of Olynthus, the Spartans eagerly responded. That Olynthus was backed by Athens and Thebes, rivals to Sparta for the control of Greece, provided them with an additional incentive to break up this growing power in the north. Amyntas thus concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the friendship of Athens. In 371 BC at a Panhellenic congress of the Lacedaemonian allies, he voted in support of the Athenians' claim and joined other Greeks in voting to help Athens to recover possession of Amphipolis.

paragraph: With Olynthus defeated, Amyntas was now able to conclude a treaty with Athens and keep the timber revenues for himself. Amyntas shipped the timber to the house of the Athenian Timotheus, in Piraeus.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Amyntas married Eurydice, daughter of Sirras of Lynkestis, circa 390. By her, Amyntas had three sons, all of whom became kings of Macedonia one after the other, and a daughter:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander II

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perdiccas III

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philip II, father of Alexander the Great.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eurynoe: According to Roman historian Justin, Eurynoe prevented Amyntas' assassination by her mother and her husband (thought to be Ptolemy of Aloros), who was also her mother's lover, by revealing the plan to her father. She is not referred again by any other source.

paragraph: Justin also mentions that Amyntas had three sons by another wife, Gygaea (probably an Argead): Archelaus, Arrhidaeus and Menelaus. The fact that they did not try to take the throne before the 350s suggests that they were younger than Amyntas' children by Eurydice. They were ultimately eliminated by their half-brother Philip II because they had a claim to the throne.

paragraph: Amyntas died at an advanced age, leaving his throne to his eldest son, Alexander II.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Treaties between Amyntas III and the Chalcidians

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Duane A. March, "The Kings of Makedon: 399-369 BC," Historia (Franz Steiner Verlag) vol. 44, No. 3 (1995), 257-282

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Coins of Amyntas III"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Atheno-Macedonian Alliance-"Translation of Epigraphy"

description: King of Macedonia

wikidata_label: Amyntas III of Macedon

wikipedia_title: Amyntas III of Macedon


text: Scythian

text: Black Sea

text: Athens

text: barbarian

text: Cynics

text: Cimmerian Bosporus

text: Solon

text: his legislative measures

text: Hermippus

text: metic

text: Seven Sages of Greece

text: Eleusinian Mysteries

text: Greek

text: Herodotus

text: Cybele

text: ancient times

text: emblem

text: Cicero

text: Cynic epistles

text: Diogenes Laërtius

text: Croesus

text: Lydia

text: Strabo

text: anchor

text: potter's wheel

text: Solon

text: Athenians

text: Jean Jacques Barthelemy

text: Scythia

text: travel journal

text: historical novel

text: philhellenism

text: Greek struggle for independence

text: Diogenes Laërtius

text: Diogenes Laërtius

categories: Presocratic philosophers,Seven Sages of Greece,Scythian people,6th-century BC philosophers,Ancient Greeks who were murdered,Immigrants to Archaic Athens,6th-century BC Iranian people

paragraph: Anacharsis

paragraph: Anacharsis (; ) was a Scythian philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the Black Sea to Athens in the early 6th century BC and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken "barbarian". Reputedly a forerunner of the Cynics, none of his works has survived.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Anacharsis the son of Gnurus, a Scythian chief, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenic culture, apparently in the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his native country to travel in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens about 589 BC, at a time when Solon was occupied with his legislative measures.

paragraph: According to the story recounted by Hermippus, Anacharsis arrived at the house of Solon and said, "I have traveled here from afar to make you my friend." Solon replied, "It's better to make friends at home." Thereupon the Scythian replied, "Then it is necessary for you, being at home, to make friends with me." Solon laughed and accepted him as his friend.

paragraph: Anacharsis cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. For example, Plutarch remarks that he "expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided." His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a sage and philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'.

paragraph: Anacharsis was the first foreigner (metic) who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned by some ancient authors as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek.

paragraph: According to Herodotus, when Anacharsis returned to the Scythians he was killed by his own brother for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess Cybele, whose cult was unwelcome among the Scythians.

paragraph: Section::::Ideas.

paragraph: None of the works ascribed to him in ancient times, if indeed they were written by him, have survived. He was said to have written a book comparing the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks, as well as work on the art of war. All that remains of his thought is what later tradition ascribes to him. He became famous for the simplicity of his way of living and his acute observations on the institutions and customs of the Greeks. He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness; the third, disgust. So he became a kind of emblem to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.'

paragraph: There are ten extant letters ascribed to him, one of which is also quoted by Cicero:

paragraph: Greetings from Anacharsis to Hanno: My clothing is a Scythian cloak, my shoes are the hard soles of my feet, my bed is the earth, my food is only seasoned by hunger - and I eat nothing but milk and cheese and meat. Come and visit me, and you will find me at peace. You want to give me something. But give it to your fellow-citizens instead, or let the immortal gods have it.

paragraph: All of the letters are spurious. The first nine probably date from the 3rd century BC, they are usually included among the "Cynic epistles", and reflect how the Cynic philosophers viewed him as prefiguring many of their ideas; the tenth letter is quoted by Diogenes Laërtius, it is addressed to Croesus, the proverbially rich king of Lydia, it too is fictitious:

paragraph: Anacharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours.

paragraph: Strabo makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the anchor with two flukes, and others made him the inventor of the potter's wheel.

paragraph: Having been informed that Solon was employed to draw up a code of laws for the Athenians, Anacharsis described his occupation, saying:

paragraph: "Solon showed Anacharsis some laws that he was drafting for the Athenians. Anacharsis laughed at Solon for imagining that the dishonesty and greed of the Athenians could be restrained by written laws. Such laws, said Anacharsis, are like spiderwebs: they catch the weak and poor, but the rich can rip right through them." (Plutarch, Solon, https://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/solon.htm)

paragraph: Section::::Revival in the 18th century.

paragraph: In 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published "The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece," about a young Scythian descended from Anacharsis. The 4-volume work was an imaginary travel journal, one of the first historical novels, which Klemperer called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th century. It affected the growth of philhellenism in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek struggle for independence and spawned sequels and imitations through the 19th century.

paragraph: Section::::Quotes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ""A vine bears three grapes, the first of pleasure, the second of drunkenness, and the third of repentance"" —Diogenes Laërtius, of Anacharsis.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ""He also said that he marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skilful in a thing contend together; but those who have no such skill act as judges of the contest."" —Diogenes Laërtius, of Anacharsis.

paragraph: Section::::Classical references.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Herodotus iv. 46, 76-7; Lucian, "Scytha"; Cicero, "Tusc. Disp." v. 32; Diogenes Laërtius i. 101-5; Athenaeus, iv. 159, x. 428, 437, xiv. 613; Aelian, "Varia Historia", v. 7.

paragraph: Section::::Modern studies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charlotte Schubert, "Anacharsis der Weise" (Narr Verlag, Tübingen, 2010).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jean Jacques Barthelemy's The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece (French)

description: Scythian philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Anacharsis

wikidata_label: Anacharsis

wikipedia_title: Anacharsis