text: Old Norse

text: Norwegian

text: King of Norway

text: British Isles

text: Kingdom of the Isles

text: Dublin

text: Olaf Kyrre

text: proclaimed king

text: Haakon Magnusson

text: Magnus Haraldsson

text: Irish Sea

text: Orkney

text: Hebrides

text: Mann

text: Northern

text: Galloway

text: Wales

text: Anglesey

text: Gwynedd

text: invading Norman forces

text: Dalsland

text: Västergötland

text: Sweden

text: Danish

text: Eric Evergood

text: Margaret

text: Inge Stenkilsson

text: Ireland

text: Muirchertach Ua Briain

text: Munster

text: Ulaid

text: Scotland

text: Viking

text: saga

text: Theodoric the Monk

text: Ágrip af Noregskonungasögum

text: Iceland

text: Heimskringla

text: Snorri Sturluson

text: Morkinskinna

text: Fagrskinna

text: Olaf Kyrre

text: Hrokkinskinna

text: Hryggjarstykki

text: Godøy

text: Sunnmøre

text: P. A. Munch

text: Claus Krag

text: Rognvald Brusason

text: Earl of Orkney

text: hird

text: Nidaros

text: Trondheim

text: Harald Hardrada

text: byname

text: Gaelic

text: Saxo Grammaticus

text: Rånrike

text: Båhuslen

text: proclaimed king

text: Borgarting

text: thing

text: Viken

text: Thorfinn the Mighty

text: Scottish

text: Donald Bane

text: Edinburgh

text: Scottish throne

text: Haakon Magnusson

text: Magnus Haraldsson

text: Uplands

text: Øyrating

text: Trøndelag

text: Frostating

text: Hålogaland

text: northern Norway

text: Gulating

text: western Norway

text: Sweyn Knutsson

text: longships

text: Dovrefjell

text: Tore Tordsson

text: pretender

text: Hamnøy

text: Lofoten

text: Halland

text: skaldic verses

text: Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen

text: Archdiocese of Lund

text: England

text: Germany

text: numismatics

text: Irish Sea

text: Ingemund

text: William of Malmesbury

text: William II of England

text: Orkneyinga saga

text: Haakon Paulsson

text: Sigurd

text: Orkney

text: Orderic Vitalis

text: leidang

text: Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson

text: Magnus Erlendsson

text: Lewis

text: Uist

text: Skye

text: Tiree

text: Mull

text: Islay

text: Kintyre

text: Iona

text: Ulster

text: Mann

text: Óttar

text: Lagman Godredsson

text: King of the Isles

text: Galloway

text: Gruffudd ap Cynan

text: King of Gwynedd

text: Norman

text: Hugh of Montgomery

text: Hugh d'Avranches

text: Anglesey

text: Gwynedd

text: Wales

text: Puffin Island

text: Norman victory celebration

text: Battle of Anglesey Sound

text: the invasion

text: Sweyn Estridson

text: Cnut IV

text: Edgar

text: isthmus

text: Tarbert

text: Richard Oram

text: Haakon IV Haakonsson

text: Matilda

text: Malcolm Canmore

text: Dalsland

text: Västergötland

text: Göta älv

text: Vänern

text: Värmland

text: Inge Stenkilsson

text: Lilla Edet

text: skald

text: hundreds

text: Geats

text: Kållandsö

text: Eric Evergood

text: Margaret

text: Munster

text: High King of Ireland

text: Muirchertach Ua Briain

text: Domnall Ua Lochlainn

text: Scattery Island

text: Bjaðmunjo

text: Dublin

text: Fingal

text: Arnulf of Montgomery

text: Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham

text: Henry I of England

text: Lincoln

text: Connacht

text: Kincora

text: Cenél nEógain

text: Annals of Ulster

text: Annals of the Four Masters

text: Battle of Mag Coba

text: St. Bartholomew's Day

text: Eystein

text: Sigurd

text: Olaf

text: Strinda

text: Trøndelag

text: Harald Kesja

text: Tora

text: Loftur Sæmundsson

text: Harald Gille

text: Sigurd Slembe

text: River Quoile

text: Horse Island

text: Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae

text: halt

text: barrow

text: Downpatrick and County Down Railway

text: Sigurd

text: Eystein

text: Olaf

text: Harald Gille

text: trial by ordeal

text: Magnus Sigurdsson

text: Sigurd Slembe

text: Battle of Holmengrå

text: Norwegian civil-war era

text: Ulster

text: Sturluson, Snorri

text: Magnus Barefoot's saga

text: Theodoric the Monk

text: Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum

text: Fagrskinna

text: Morkinskinna

text: Orkneyinga saga

categories: Norwegian monarchs,Monarchs of the Isle of Man,Monarchs of Dublin,11th-century Norwegian people,11th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles,House of Hardrada,1103 deaths,1073 births,12th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles,Monarchs killed in action

paragraph: Magnus Barefoot

paragraph: Magnus Olafsson (Old Norse: "Magnús Óláfsson", Norwegian: "Magnus Olavsson"; 1073 – 24 August 1103), better known as Magnus Barefoot (Old Norse: "Magnús berfœttr", Norwegian: "Magnus Berrføtt"), was King of Norway (as Magnus III) from 1093 until his death in 1103. His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest, particularly in the Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles, where he extended his rule to the Kingdom of the Isles and Dublin.

paragraph: As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin, Haakon Magnusson (son of King Magnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided through Orkney, the Hebrides and Mann (the Northern and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, winning control of Anglesey (and possibly Gwynedd's submission) after repelling the invading Norman forces from the island.

paragraph: Following his return to Norway Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret, daughter of the Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster, who recognised Magnus' control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death.

paragraph: Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a Viking warrior rather than a medieval monarch, Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad, and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles "Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium" by Theodoric the Monk and the anonymous "Ágrip af Noregskonungasögum" (or simply "Ágrip") from the 1180s and the Icelandic sagas "Heimskringla" (by Snorri Sturluson), "Morkinskinna" and "Fagrskinna", which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts.

paragraph: Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King Olaf Kyrre. His mother's identity is uncertain; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter (daughter of otherwise-unknown Arne Låge) in "Morkinskinna" and "Fagrskinna", as Tora Joansdatter in "Heimskringla", "Hrokkinskinna" and "Hryggjarstykki" and an unnamed daughter of "Ragnvald jarl" from Godøy, Sunnmøre in the genealogical text "Af en gl. ætleg" (commonly known as "Sunnmørsættleggen"). The historical consensus (including P. A. Munch and Claus Krag) has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the other claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl (who has been identified as Rognvald Brusason, Earl of Orkney by Ola Kvalsund), while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely.

paragraph: Magnus grew up among the "hird" (royal retinue) of his father in Nidaros (modern Trondheim), "de facto" capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King Harald Hardrada, than to his father (who bore the byname "Kyrre": "the Peaceful"). According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall". Magnus' more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare. Another version (by Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet, while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish). Due to Magnus' aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nickname "styrjaldar-Magnús" ("Warrior Magnus" or "Magnus the Strife-lover").

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Establishing authority.

paragraph: Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus' father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died in Rånrike, Båhuslen (southeastern Norway) in September 1093 and was probably proclaimed king at the Borgarting, the thing (assembly) of the adjacent region of Viken later that month. When Magnus became king, he already had a network of support among the Norwegian aristocracy. Although sources are unclear about the first year of his reign, it is apparent that Magnus' focus was on the west (towards the British Isles). Since conditions were chaotic in Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles since the death of Thorfinn the Mighty, this provided Magnus an opportunity to intervene in local power struggles. According to some accounts, he made his first expedition west in 1093–94 (or 1091–92), helping Scottish king Donald Bane to conquer Edinburgh and the Scottish throne and possibly gaining control of the Southern Isles ("Suðreyjar") in return. It is unclear if this early expedition took place, since it is not directly referenced in early reliable sources or the sagas.

paragraph: Magnus was opposed by his cousin Haakon Magnusson, son of King Olaf's brother and short-lived co-ruler King Magnus Haraldsson, who claimed half the kingdom. Haakon was proclaimed king in the Uplands and at the Øyrating, the thing of Trøndelag (in central Norway). According to Førsund, Haakon took control of the entire portion of the kingdom once held by his father (also including the Frostating—the thing of Hålogaland in northern Norway—and the Gulating—the thing of western Norway). Haakon secured support by relieving farmers of taxes and duties (including taxes dating back to the Danish rule of Sweyn Knutsson during the early 1030s), while Magnus pursued costly policies and demanded lengthy military service. After Magnus settled at the new royal estate in Nidaros for the winter of 1094–95, Haakon also travelled to the city and took up residence at the old royal estate. Their relationship became increasingly tense, culminating when Haakon saw Magnus' longships fully rigged at sea. Haakon summoned the Øyrating in response, leading Magnus to sail southwards. Haakon attempted to intercept Magnus by travelling south to Viken by land (over the mountains of Dovrefjell), but he died unexpectedly while hunting in February 1095.

paragraph: The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-father Tore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as a pretender. Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada. The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country. After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outside Hamnøy, Lofoten, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen.

paragraph: Magnus' final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus' men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province of Halland to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Other developments.

paragraph: Since the Norse sources (including the skaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus' peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus'). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus' case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior).

paragraph: Magnus' rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed. The Nordic bishops belonged to the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen until a year after Magnus' death (when the Archdiocese of Lund was formed); priests and bishops were largely foreigners from England and Germany. In reality, however, Magnus ruled the church in Norway.

paragraph: Through numismatics, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus' reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform ("Haraldsslåtten") which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus' reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:First Irish Sea campaign.

paragraph: Magnus sought to re-establish Norwegian influence around the Irish Sea. He attempted to install vassal king Ingemund in the Southern Isles in 1097, but the latter was killed in a revolt. It is unclear what Magnus' ultimate ambitions were, and the significance of his campaign has been downplayed by modern English historians. English chronicler William of Malmesbury believed that Magnus sought to capture the throne from William II of England (in common with the ambitions of his grandfather, Harald Hardrada). Historians have speculated that he wanted to establish an empire which included Scotland and Ireland, although most modern Norwegian and Scottish historians believe his chief aim was simply to control the Norse communities around the Irish Sea. While he may have been influenced by Ingemund's murder, the "Orkneyinga saga" claims that Magnus was persuaded by a son of an Orkney earl, Haakon Paulsson, who wanted an earldom for himself. It is also possible that Magnus wished to provide a realm outside Norway for his eight-year-old son Sigurd, who accompanied him. Magnus sailed into the Western Sea in 1098, arriving in Orkney with a large fleet. The "Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles" claim that he had 160 ships, but English chronicler Orderic Vitalis states that his fleet consisted of 60 ships. Based on this, P. A. Munch suggests an initial fleet of 160 ships, of which 100 were from the "leidang" (public levy) and returned shortly after arrival; the fleet accompanying Magnus southward in the campaigns consisted of 60 royal and baronial ships. According to Førsund, the low estimate of 120 men per ship means 8,000 men in the royal and baronial ships and 12,000 from the "leidang" ships. However, many historians believe that ship numbers in old naval campaign accounts are exaggerated.

paragraph: After his arrival, Magnus began negotiations with Scottish and Irish kings about the "hird" and control of land in Scotland, Ireland and the surrounding islands. Upon arriving in Orkney, he sent the earls Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson away to Norway as prisoners on a "leidang" ship, took their sons Haakon Paulsson, Magnus Erlendsson and Erling Erlendsson as hostages and installed his own son Sigurd as earl. Magnus then raided Scotland, the Southern Isles and Lewis. Meeting no significant opposition, he continued pillaging the Hebridean islands of Uist, Skye, Tiree, Mull and Islay, and the peninsula of Kintyre; Iona was visited, but not pillaged. Magnus is also recorded as warring in Sanday, although the exact location is unclear (there are three islands with that name in the region). On entering the Irish Sea, he lost three "leidang" ships and 120 men in Ulster. Magnus then continued to Mann, where the earl Óttar fell in a violent battle; he also chased (or captured) Lagman Godredsson, King of the Isles. Mann came under Norwegian control, and Magnus and his men stayed on the island for a time. During his time there, he organised Norwegian immigration to the island and had several forts and houses built (or rebuilt) using timber from Galloway on the Scottish mainland. This implied he had subdued part of that region too, reducing its chieftains to tributaries.

paragraph: Magnus may have intended to invade Ireland next, only to find he had overextended himself. He may have been approached by Gruffudd ap Cynan, King of Gwynedd, who had been driven to Ireland by the Norman earls Hugh of Montgomery and Hugh d'Avranches. With six ships (according to Orderic Vitalis), Magnus steered towards Anglesey in Gwynedd, Wales. Appearing off the coast at Puffin Island, he interrupted a Norman victory celebration after their defeat of the Gwynedd king—for the Welsh, "so opportunely it was ascribed to divine providence" according to historian Rosemary Power (although Magnus had not necessarily intended to side with them). In the ensuing battle (known as the Battle of Anglesey Sound, according to Power "the most widely reported event in the history of Magnus"), Magnus shot Hugh of Montgomery dead with an arrow through his eye and defeated the Norman forces. The sources indicate that Magnus regretted killing Montgomery, suggesting that he may have been interested in an alliance with the Normans. He abruptly returned to Mann with his men, leaving the Norman army weak and demoralized. After this battle, Anglesey was considered the southern border of Norway. Gruffudd ap Cynan soon returned to the island, awarding Magnus gifts and honour (which may indicate that Gwynedd had capitulated). The extension of Magnus' kingdom probably began to concern the English, who remembered the invasion of Magnus' grandfather Harald Hardrada in 1066, war with Danish king Sweyn Estridson in 1069–70 and the threat of invasion by Cnut IV in 1085.

paragraph: In Scotland internal fighting continued between rival kings, although King Edgar had gained a slight advantage. Perhaps fearing to meet Magnus in battle after the internecine strife, according to the sagas Edgar—mistakenly called Malcolm—told Magnus he would renounce all Scottish claims to islands west of Scotland in exchange for peace. Magnus accepted the offer, which reportedly gave him every island a ship could reach with its rudder set. He gained recognition of his rule in the Southern Isles, including Kintyre after demonstrating that it should be included by sitting at the rudder of his ship as it was dragged across the narrow isthmus at Tarbert. Historian Richard Oram has claimed that references to a formal agreement with the Scottish king is a "post-Norwegian civil war confection" designed to legitimise the agenda of Haakon IV Haakonsson. Rosemary Power agrees with the Norse sources that a formal agreement with the Scots was probably concluded, and Seán Duffy notes that Edgar "happily ceded" the isles to Magnus since he had "little or no authority there in any case". Magnus spent the winter in the Hebrides (continuing to fortify the islands), while many of his men returned to Norway. There may have been talks at this time of Magnus marrying Matilda, daughter of late Scottish king Malcolm Canmore, but no marriage took place. Magnus returned to Norway a year later during the summer of 1099, although many of the islands he had conquered (such as Anglesey) were only nominally under Norwegian control.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Campaign in Sweden.

paragraph: After returning to Norway, Magnus turned east. By claiming an ancient border between Norway and Sweden, he set his course for the Swedish provinces of Dalsland and Västergötland in late 1099. In Magnus' view, the border with Sweden should be set further east: at the Göta älv river, through the Vänern lake and north to the province of Värmland. He claimed all land west of Vänern (chiefly Dalsland). Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson refuted the claim, and Magnus began a campaign in response. He raided his way through the forest villages, and Inge began amassing an army. When advised by his men to retreat, Magnus became more aggressive; he believed that once begun, a campaign should never be aborted. In a surprise nighttime attack, Magnus assaulted Swedish forces east of Göta älv at Fuxerna (near Lilla Edet). After defeating the Swedes at Fuxerna, he conquered part of Västergötland. According to a skald, Magnus conquered "fifteen hundreds from the Geats". He had a wooden fort, surrounded by a moat, built on the island of Kållandsö in the southern portion of Vänern. Before returning to Norway, Magnus left 300 men on the island for the winter (led by Finn Skofteson and Sigurd Ullstreng).

paragraph: According to Randi Helene Førsund, the Norwegians in Kållandsö appear to have been characterized by arrogance (perhaps due to their successes under Magnus) and taunted the Swedish king for taking so long to arrive. After newly formed ice connected the island to the mainland, Inge arrived with about 3,000 men. Although he offered several times to allow the Norwegians to return home in peace (with their plunder and possessions), Inge's offers were rejected. The Swedes finally attacked, burning the fort. The Norwegians were spared and allowed to return home, after being beaten with sticks and surrendering all their possessions. Angry at the humiliating defeat, Magnus planned revenge. He entered Sweden the following year, reconquering the same areas. During the hasty campaign Magnus and his men were ambushed by Swedish forces and forced to flee back to their ships, suffering heavy losses. The war continued until 1100 or 1101.

paragraph: Danish king Eric Evergood, concerned that the conflict would escalate, began peace talks between the two kings. Relations had been strained between Denmark and Norway after Magnus' 1096 raids into Halland, and Eric feared that the conflict might spill over into his own country. The three Scandinavian kings eventually agreed to negotiate peace in the border area near Göta älv. After a constructive meeting, they agreed to preserve ancestral borders; by marrying Inge's daughter Margaret (who acquired the byname "Fredkulla": "Colleen-of-Peace"), Magnus acquired the lands he claimed on behalf of his ancestors. Since the marriage was childless, Dalsland never became established as a Norwegian province and was returned to Sweden after his death.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Second Irish Sea campaign and death.

paragraph: Magnus again set his course for Ireland in 1101 or 1102, this time probably with a greater army than he had in his previous campaign. One of his biggest challenges was the number of petty kings and alliances on the island. Irish sources maintain that Magnus came to "take Ireland," "invade Ireland" or "besiege Ireland." He received reinforcements from Orkney on his way to Mann, where he set up a base to survey conditions. Tensions ran high between Magnus and the king of Munster and High King of Ireland, Muirchertach Ua Briain ("Mýrjartak"), who was struggling with his rival Domnall Ua Lochlainn. Magnus may have tested the situation in 1101, when unnamed sailors are said to have raided Scattery Island (near Muirchertach's base). After his arrival at Mann, Irish sources describe Magnus as agreeing to "a year's peace" with the Irish (suggesting enmity; such agreements were diplomatic devices, usually negotiated between two sides in war). The marriage agreement described in other sources was part of the treaty; Magnus' son, Sigurd, married Muirchertach's daughter Bjaðmunjo. On their wedding day, Magnus named Sigurd his co-king and put him in charge of the western lands. Muirchertach also recognised Magnus' control over Dublin and Fingal.

paragraph: Around the same time Muirchertach married a daughter of Arnulf of Montgomery, brother of Hugh (who was killed by Magnus in 1098). The account in "Morkinskinna" concerning a "foreign knight" named "Giffarðr", who appeared at the court of Magnus before his Swedish campaign, is suggested by Rosemary Power as evidence that Magnus may have conspired with the Norman Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham (or a family member) in the revolt against Henry I of England. According to Orderic Vitalis, Magnus left treasure with a wealthy citizen in Lincoln which was confiscated by King Henry after Magnus' death. This treasure could have been paid by Norman earls for Magnus' support, and possibly arranged by the Giffarðr who is said to have visited Magnus' court in the sagas. This could have provided Magnus with a lucrative return for his costly western campaigns, which were unpopular in Norway at the time.

paragraph: Muirchertach was skilled in diplomacy, and negotiation with the dowries of his daughters may have been part of a political game. While he may not have intended to honour his agreements with Magnus (or others), he needed the latter's assistance to crush Domnall. Magnus and Muirchertach went on joint raiding expeditions after the peace agreement, only interrupted by the winter of 1102–03. The sagas claim that Magnus wintered in Connacht, but since Connacht is incorrectly claimed to be Muirchertach's kingdom the location was corrected to Kincora, Munster by modern historians. Rosemary Power considered it more likely that Magnus would have kept his fleet near Dublin. Magnus was probably allied with Muirchertach during his campaigns against Domnall and the Cenél nEógain in 1103, but (in contrast to the Norse sources) Irish sources (the "Annals of Ulster" and "Annals of the Four Masters") do not describe their campaigns as successful. On 5 August 1103, Muirchertach unsuccessfully tried to subdue Domnall in the Battle of Mag Coba. Magnus did not take part, but his Dublin subjects fought with Muirchertach. Since Magnus was closing in on the Irish throne, Muirchertach may have wanted him out of the way. According to "Morkinskinna" and "Heimskringla", the two agreed that Muirchertach was to bring Magnus and his men cattle provisions for their return to Norway; as this dragged on past the agreed time, Magnus became suspicious that the Irish planned an attack. He gathered his men on St. Bartholomew's Day (or the day before, according to "Ágrip"), 24 August 1103, and ventured into the country. It is possible that Magnus and his men made an incautious landing to raid cattle, or the Ulaid mistook the Norwegians for cattle-raiding Hebrideans. Alternatively, Muirchertach may have ordered the Ulaid to bring provisions to Magnus, inciting the Ulaid to ambush the Norwegians.

paragraph: Norse sources describe a large force emerging from hiding places in an ambush. The Norwegian forces were taken by surprise, and were not in battle order. Magnus attempted to assert control over his disordered army, ordering part of his force to seize secure ground and use archery fire to slow the Irish. In the melee Magnus was pierced by a spear through both thighs above the knees but he fought on, attempting to get his men back to the level campsite. An axe-wielding Irishman charged him, striking a lethal blow to his neck. When his men said that he proceeded incautiously in his campaigns, Magnus is reported to have responded "Kings are made for honour, not for long life"; he was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad.

paragraph: Perhaps betrayed by Muirchertach, Magnus may also have been betrayed by his own men (in particular the contingent of nobleman Torgrim Skinnluve from the Uplands, who fled to the ships during the battle). It is possible that Torgrim and his men may have been directed by powerful men in Norway, who wanted Magnus removed from the Norwegian throne. More Irishmen than Norwegians fell in the battle, according to Snorri Sturluson, and Magnus' reign could have been different if Torgrim and his men had fought as directed. Magnus' son Sigurd returned to Norway without his child bride after his father's defeat, and direct Norwegian control in the region came to an end. Although Norwegian influence remained, no Norwegian king returned for more than 150 years.

paragraph: Section::::Descendants.

paragraph: Magnus married Margaret Fredkulla, daughter of Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson, as part of the peace agreement of 1101. Their marriage did not produce any children. His three sons (who succeeded him as king) were born to different women, and he had two known daughters by unidentified women:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eystein: Born 1089 to a mother "of low birth".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sigurd: Born 1090; his mother's name was Tora.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Olaf: Born c. 1099, his mother was Sigrid Saxesdatter from Vik in Strinda, Trøndelag.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ragnild: Married Harald Kesja, Danish pretender and son of Danish king Eric Evergood.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tora: Married Icelandic chieftain Loftur Sæmundsson.

paragraph: Years after Magnus' death, other men came forward claiming to be his sons; however, it is impossible to ascertain the veracity of these claims:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harald Gille: Born 1103 in Ireland, his claim was recognised by Magnus' son Sigurd.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sigurd Slembe: His mother was Tora Saxesdatter from Vik; his claim was not recognised (by Harald Gille).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnus Raude: Mentioned only in "Fagrskinna".

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.:Burial.

paragraph: Magnus probably died in the vicinity of the River Quoile. According to the "Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles", Magnus was "buried near the Church of St Patrick, in Down". About two miles (1.2 km) south of the cathedral on Horse Island is a mound which became known as Magnus' Grave after its identification on an 1859 map attributed to Danish archaeologist Jens Jacob Asmussen Worsaae. Snorri Sturluson's description of the marshy and difficult terrain where Magnus and his men were attacked fits the conditions in and around Horse Island, making it a strong candidate for the burial site. According to Finbar McCormick, the people who ambushed Magnus may not have wanted a Christian burial for him and his men, instead burying them near where they had been slain. The Downpatrick runestone monument marking the site was erected in March 2003 to mark the 900th anniversary of his death. The burial site is largely only accessible via the heritage railway in Downpatrick; a halt overlooking the barrow and runestone has been built by the Downpatrick and County Down Railway.

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.:Succession.

paragraph: Magnus was succeeded peacefully by his three sons: Sigurd, Eystein and Olaf. Near the end of Sigurd's reign (he having outlived his brothers) during the late 1120s, the previously unknown Harald Gille came to Norway from the west claiming to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and legitimate successor to the kingdom. Sigurd recognised Harald as his brother (and successor) after Harald walked uninjured over nine burning ploughshares in a trial by ordeal, and he was proclaimed king after Sigurd's death in 1130 with Sigurd's son Magnus Sigurdsson. Since Harald was accompanied by his mother to Norway, Sigurd may have recognised a former lover of his father.

paragraph: Relations between Harald and Magnus Sigurdsson soured, and several years later Harald had Magnus mutilated and deposed (hence his byname "the Blind"). Soon afterwards, Harald was murdered by another pretender: Sigurd Slembe, who also claimed to be a son of Magnus Barefoot and had been outlawed by Harald. After Harald's death Slembe allied himself with Magnus the Blind, but they were defeated by chieftains loyal to Harald Gille's family in the Battle of Holmengrå. Magnus was killed during the battle; Sigurd was captured, tortured and executed. This began what would become the century-long Norwegian civil-war era.

paragraph: Section::::Aftermath.:Legacy.

paragraph: The earliest-known native Irishman to have been named Magnus may have been the son of Muirchertach's greatest rival, Domnall Ua Lochlainn; Magnus became a name among the Ulaid during the 12th century. According to "Morkinskinna", tribute from Ireland was received in Norway as late as about twelve years after Magnus' death.

paragraph: Magnus became the subject of at least two Gaelic ballads as the character Manus Mór. In the best-known version, he returns to Norway after an expedition to the west; he is killed in the second version. The different versions are probably derived from Magnus' two expeditions. There are also traditions concerning Magnus in Scotland in legends, poems and local history.

paragraph: In modern times a "Magnus Barelegs festival" has been held in Ireland and a beer named after his sword, Legbiter. In Norway, according to Førsund, Magnus has "been reduced to a sigh" in history books; little remains to commemorate him. When King Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Men of Ulster, his sword was retrieved and sent home.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Primary sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sturluson, Snorri (c. 1230). "Magnus Barefoot's saga" (in "Heimskringla"). English translation: Samuel Laing (London, 1844).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodoric the Monk (c. 1180). "The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings". English translation: David and Ian McDougall (London, 1998).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum" (c. 1180s). English translation: M. J. Driscoll (London, 2008).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Chronicles of the Kings of Mann and the Isles" (c. 1262). English translation: Rev. Goss (Douglas, 1874).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Fagrskinna" (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1902).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Morkinskinna" (c. 1220s), in Old Norse. Edited by Finnur Jonsson (Copenhagen, 1932).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Orkneyinga saga" (c. 1230). English translation: George W. Dasent (London, 1894).

paragraph: Books

paragraph: Journals

description: King of Norway

wikidata_label: Magnus Barefoot

wikipedia_title: Magnus Barefoot


text: Wehrmacht

text: Panzer Division "Müncheberg"

text: prisoner of war camp

text: Saxony

text: Imperial Germany

text: Iron Cross

text: Prussian

text: Heer

text: Wehrmacht

text: Rittmeister

text: Aufklärungsabteilung

text: Clasp to the Iron Cross

text: German Cross

text: Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross

text: 14th Panzer Division

text: Battle of Stalingrad

text: Panzer Badge

text: Close Combat Clasp

text: Oberstleutnant

text: Oak Leaves

text: oberst

text: Swords

text: Panzer Division "Müncheberg"

text: generalmajor

text: brigadier general

text: United States Army

text: Eastern Front

text: Oder River

text: Battle of Seelow Heights

text: Berlin

text: Tiergarten

text: Brandenburg Gate

categories: 1897 births,German prisoners of war in World War II held by the Soviet Union,Major generals of the German Army (Wehrmacht),Recipients of the Gold German Cross,Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords,People from the Kingdom of Saxony,1950 deaths

paragraph: Werner Mummert

paragraph: Werner Mummert (31 March 1897 – 28 January 1950) was a general in the German Wehrmacht during World War II who commanded Panzer Division "Müncheberg". A veteran of World War I, he was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords. Mummert surrendered to the Soviets in May 1945 and died in a prisoner of war camp five years later.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born in Saxony, Mummert volunteered for the army of Imperial Germany in 1914, upon the outbreak of the First World War. He was commissioned a reserve "leutnant" (lieutenant) two years later and was awarded the Iron Cross, 2nd Class, a Prussian decoration. He left the army after the end of the war but in 1936 he joined the "Heer" (Army) branch of the Wehrmacht. Initially posted to the 11th Infantry Regiment as a "leutnant", Mummert transferred to 10th Cavalry Regiment in 1938 with the rank of "Rittmeister" (captain of cavalry). In 1939, he was appointed commander of AA.256, an "Aufklärungsabteilung" (reconnaissance unit) attached to an infantry division.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:World War II.

paragraph: Mummert participated in the Wehrmacht's early campaigns of World War II and by mid-1940, he had been awarded the Iron Cross as well as a Clasp to the Iron Cross, both awards instituted by Nazi Germany. In January 1942, having been promoted to major, he was awarded the German Cross in Gold. Later that year he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.

paragraph: Mummert later led the 14th Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion of the reformed 14th Panzer Division, the original having been destroyed in the Battle of Stalingrad. His leadership style often saw him on the frontlines with his infantry and engaged in close combat, and he received several badges in recognition of this; the Panzer Badge and Close Combat Clasp, both in bronze, as well as the Tank Destruction Badge for Individual Combatants. He was given command of the 14th Panzer Division's 103rd Panzer Grenadier Regiment in January 1944. Promoted to "Oberstleutnant" (lieutenant colonel), he was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight's Cross. Nine months later, and now an "oberst" (colonel), he briefly led the 14th Panzer Division as its temporary commander. In October 1944, he was awarded the Swords to the Knight's Cross, the 107th recipient of this award.

paragraph: In January 1945, Mummert took command of the newly formed Panzer Division "Müncheberg" and was promoted to "generalmajor" (equivalent to the rank of brigadier general in the United States Army) on 1 February. His new unit, which was beginning to assemble in the area west of Berlin, was a division in name only and had relatively few armoured vehicles. It was activated in March 1945 and dispatched to the Eastern Front and defended Soviet attempts to cross the Oder River. It later fought in the Battle of Seelow Heights and had to gradually withdraw into Berlin and was engaged in fighting around the Zoobunker and the Tiergarten. Following the destruction of the last of his division's tanks near the Brandenburg Gate, Mummert was wounded on 1 May. Despite this he remained in command until his surrender to the Soviets on 4 May. After the war, he was held in a prisoner of war camp in Russia where he died in 1950.

description: German general

wikidata_label: Werner Mummert

wikipedia_title: Werner Mummert


text:
American football
Centre College
Fort Smith, Arkansas
Frank Bridges
center
Centre Praying Colonels
All-America
Red Weaver
Harvard
6 to 0
Walter Camp
captain
All-Southern
National Football League
Brooklyn Tigers
Frank Bridges
Pete Cawthon

categories: 1899 births,Rhodes Lynx football coaches,TCU Horned Frogs football coaches,Centre Colonels football coaches,American football centers,Brooklyn Tigers coaches,Centre Colonels football players,1971 deaths,All-Southern college football players

paragraph: Ed Kubale

paragraph: Edwin C. Kubale (November 22, 1899 – February 4, 1971) was an American football player and coach.

paragraph: Section::::Centre College.

paragraph: Kubale came to Centre College from Fort Smith, Arkansas, where he played for coach Frank Bridges. Kubale played center for the Centre Praying Colonels. He replaced All-American Red Weaver at the center position in 1921, the same year that Centre upset Harvard 6 to 0. Walter Camp gave him honorable mention All-America in 1922. Kubale was captain of the 1923 team. He was twice selected All-Southern. Kubale wore number 8.

paragraph: Section::::Coaching.

paragraph: Kubale coached professionally in the National Football League during the 1944 season for the Brooklyn Tigers. During his time with the Tigers he was a co-coach with Frank Bridges and Pete Cawthon.

description: American football player and coach

wikidata_label: Ed Kubale

wikipedia_title: Ed Kubale


text:
German
banker
art
entomologist
Frankfurt
Museum Wiesbaden
Johann Isaak von Gerning
Maria Sibylla Merian
holotype
Johann Georg Hamann

categories: 1802 deaths,1745 births,German entomologists,German bankers

paragraph: Johann Christian Gerning

paragraph: Johann Christian Gerning (1745–1802) was a German banker, art collector, and entomologist.

paragraph: Gerning lived in Frankfurt. His insect collection was given to Museum Wiesbaden in 1829 by his son Johann Isaak von Gerning. It is beautifully conserved and contains insects given to the Gerning family by Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717). Many entomologists worked on the collection and it contains the specimens they based species descriptions on (holotypes).He was a correspondent of the philosopher Johann Georg Hamann.

description: German entomologist

wikidata_label: Johann Christian Gerning

wikipedia_title: Johann Christian Gerning


href: Christianity martyr saint crucifixion Ancyra Ankara Asia%20Minor Julian%20the%20Apostate Paphlagonia apostasy Edessa%2C%20Mesopotamia

text:
Christian
martyr
saint
crucifixion
Ancyra
Ankara
Asia Minor
Julian the Apostate
Paphlagonia
apostasy
Edessa

categories: 362 deaths,4th-century Christian martyrs,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Gemellus of Ancyra

paragraph: Saint Gemellus of Ancyra is venerated as a Christian martyr and saint. According to tradition, he was martyred by crucifixion at Ancyra (present-day Ankara), in Asia Minor, during the reign of Julian the Apostate.

paragraph: He was a native of Paphlagonia.

paragraph: He is said to be the last Christian martyr who was killed by crucifixion. Hearing that the Emperor Julian was at Ancyra, Gemellus had traveled there to criticize the emperor for his apostasy, and was tortured and killed at Ancyra (or, according to one source, at Edessa).

paragraph: A church dedicated to Saint Gemellus was located at Sykeon, a village on the Siberis River in Asia Minor.

description: Christian martyr and saint

wikidata_label: Gemellus of Ancyra

wikipedia_title: Gemellus of Ancyra


text: c

text: African American

text: spiritual

text: International Peace Mission movement

text: its doctrine

text: God

text: racial equality

text: Daddy Grace

text: Charles Harrison Mason

text: Noble Drew Ali

text: James F. Jones

text: biography

text: Library of Congress

text: Federal Bureau of Investigation

text: Hendersonville, North Carolina

text: Deep South

text: Georgia

text: sharecroppers

text: census

text: Rockville, Maryland

text: African-American

text: gardener

text: Baltimore, Maryland

text: California

text: Charles Fillmore

text: New Thought Movement

text: Johnny Mercer

text: Accentuate the Positive

text: Baptist Church

text: Allegheny County, Pennsylvania

text: pseudonym

text: Christ

text: God the Father

text: evangelist

text: divinity

text: New Thought

text: monopoly

text: godhood

text: 1 John

text: Georgia

text: chain gang

text: Valdosta, Georgia

text: celibacy

text: gender

text: lunacy

text: Mercer University

text: pro bono

text: Brooklyn, New York

text: Biblical

text: prophecy

text: commune

text: middle-class

text: apartment

text: sex

text: alcohol

text: tobacco

text: gambling

text: Reverend

text: Major

text: Jealous

text: Exodus

text: Lord

text: Macon, Georgia

text: physically consummated

text: Sayville, New York

text: Long Island

text: German American

text: German

text: integrated

text: Cadillac

text: harem

text: scandal

text: Suffolk County

text: district attorney

text: Depression

text: riot

text: $500 bill

text: sensationally

text: New York City

text: Harlem

text: Rockland Palace

text: New York

text: New Jersey

text: Washington state

text: California

text: New Thought

text: Seattle

text: Northeast

text: middle class

text: New York

text: New Jersey

text: International Peace Mission movement

text: US Attorney

text: Suffolk County

text: Nassau County

text: divine retribution

text: Scottsboro Nine

text: United States of America

text: Constitution

text: Declaration of Independence

text: patriotic

text: Harlem, New York

text: Father Divine's doctrine

text: Los Angeles, California

text: Seattle, Washington

text: France

text: Switzerland

text: Canada

text: Australia

text: Time Magazine

text: New York

text: John P. O'Brien

text: Fiorello H. LaGuardia

text: Communist Party of America

text: capitalist

text: civil rights

text: FBI

text: Harlem Riot of 1935

text: politics

text: Doctrine of Father Divine

text: segregation

text: Franklin Delano Roosevelt

text: millionaire

text: California

text: Denver, Colorado

text: immaculate conception

text: Hawaii

text: New York

text: brainwashed

text: Virgin Mary

text: William Randolph Hearst

text: New York Evening Journal

text: smite

text: Kingston, New York

text: Connecticut

text: Hearst

text: newsreel

text: lawsuit

text: zenith

text: contempt of court

text: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

text: New York

text: subpoena

text: Sabbath

text: Harlem

text: Kingston

text: Sayville

text: Philadelphia

text: his doctrine

text: in the flesh

text: Johnny Mercer

text: Harold Arlen

text: Over The Rainbow

text: Ac-cent-tchu-ate The Positive

text: Pied Pipers

text: Bing Crosby

text: Andrews Sisters

text: Canadian

text: Edna Rose Ritchings

text: Washington, D.C.

text: visa

text: sexual abstinence

text: reincarnation

text: Father Divine's doctrine

text: miracle

text: Philadelphia

text: hydrogen bomb

text: Woodmont

text: acre

text: Gladwyne, Pennsylvania

text: Gothic

text: reparations

text: American Civil Rights Movement

text: Edna Rose Ritchings

text: Jim Jones

text: International Peace Mission movement

text: African American

text: Sayville

text: New York

text: charisma

text: sermon

text: freely associated

text: divinity

text: Biblical

text: second coming

text: Jesus

text: Christ

text: capitalize

text: pronoun

text: LORD

text: tetragrammaton

text: English Bible

text: New Thought Movement

text: African American

text: equal rights

text: lynch mobs

text: ghetto

text: Americans

text: United States Declaration of Independence

text: Constitution

text: Bill of Rights

text: English

text: smoking

text: drinking

text: profanity

text: life insurance

text: welfare

text: social security

text: credit

text: Civil Rights Movement

text: segregated

text: Deep South

text: Baltimore, Maryland

text: Doctrine of Father Divine

text: lynching

text: bigotry

text: African Americans

text: Edna Rose Ritchings

text: Sayville, New York

text: Pennsylvania

text: Gastronomica

text: Divine Lorraine Hotel

text: Temple University

text: West Philadelphia

text: List of people who have been considered deities

text: God complex

text: PBS — This Far By Faith: Father Divine

text: The Father Divine Project — A Database Documentary

text: Ronald M. White

text: Abstract

text: International Peace Mission movement Homepage

text: Father Divine and the International Peace Mission Documentary website

categories: 1870s births,People from Lowndes County, Georgia,African-American religious leaders,International Peace Mission movement,1965 deaths,Deified people,American anti-lynching activists,Founders of new religious movements

paragraph: Father Divine

paragraph: Father Divine (c. 1876September 10, 1965), also known as Reverend M. J. Divine, was an African American spiritual leader from about 1907, until his death. His full self-given name was Reverend Major Jealous Divine, and he was also known as "the Messenger" early in his life. He founded the International Peace Mission movement, formulated its doctrine, and oversaw its growth from a small and predominantly black congregation into a multiracial and international church.

paragraph: Father Divine claimed to be God. He made numerous contributions toward his followers' economic independence and racial equality. He was a contemporary of other religious leaders such as Daddy Grace, Charles Harrison Mason, Noble Drew Ali and James F. Jones (also known as Prophet Jones).

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:Prior to 1912: Early life and original name.

paragraph: Little is known about Father Divine's early life, or even his real given name. Father Divine and the Peace Movement he started did not keep many records. Father Divine himself declined several offers to write his biography, saying that the history of God would not be useful in mortal terms. He also refused to acknowledge relationship to any family. Newspapers in the 1930s had to dig up his probable given name: George Baker. (This name is not recognized by the Library of Congress, and from 1979, there is no further use of that name as a heading for Father Divine in libraries' catalogs.) Federal Bureau of Investigation files record his name as George Baker alias "God".

paragraph: In 1936 Eliza Mayfield claimed to be Father Divine's mother. She stated that his real name was Frederick Edwards from Hendersonville, North Carolina, and had abandoned a wife and five children, although Mayfield offered no proof and claimed to not remember his father's name. (Father Divine replied that "God has no Mother.")

paragraph: Father Divine's childhood remains a contentious point. Some, especially earlier researchers, suppose that he was born in the Deep South, most likely in Georgia, as the son of sharecroppers. Newer research by Jill Watts, based on census data, finds evidence for a George Baker, Jr. of appropriate age born in an African-American enclave of Rockville, Maryland, called Monkey Run. If this theory is correct, his mother was a former slave named Nancy Baker, who died in May 1897. Most researchers agree that Father Divine's parents were freed African-American slaves. Notoriously poor records were kept about this generation of African Americans, so controversy about his upbringing is not likely to be resolved. On the other hand, he and his first wife, Peninniah (variant spellings: Penninah, Peninnah, Penniah) claimed that they were married on June 6, 1882.

paragraph: Father Divine was probably called George Baker around the turn of the century. He worked as a gardener in Baltimore, Maryland. In a 1906 sojourn in California, Father Divine became acquainted with the ideas of Charles Fillmore and the New Thought Movement, a philosophy of positive thinking that would inform his later doctrines. Among other things, this belief system asserted that negative thoughts led to poverty and unhappiness. Songwriter Johnny Mercer credited a Father Divine sermon for inspiring the title of his song "Accentuate the Positive".

paragraph: Father Divine attended a local Baptist Church, often preaching, until 1907, when a traveling preacher called Samuel Morris spoke and was expelled from the congregation. Morris, originally from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a soft-spoken and uncontroversial sermon until the end, when he raised his arms and shouted, "I am the Eternal Father!" This routine had him thrown out of many churches in Baltimore, and was apparently unsuccessful until Morris happened upon the receptive Father Divine.

paragraph: In his late 20s, Father Divine became Morris's first follower and adopted a pseudonym, "The Messenger". The Messenger was a Christ figure to Morris's God the Father. Father Divine preached with Morris in Baltimore out of the home of former evangelist Harriette Snowden, who came to accept their divinity. Morris began calling himself "Father Jehovia."

paragraph: Divine and Father Jehovia were later joined by John A. Hickerson, who called himself Reverend Bishop Saint John the Vine. John the Vine shared the Messenger's excellent speaking ability and his interest in New Thought.

paragraph: In 1912, the three-man ministry collapsed, as John the Vine denied Father Jehovia's monopoly on godhood, citing 1 John 4:15 to mean God was in everyone:

paragraph: Father Divine had finally parted ways with his former associates. Denying that Father Jehovia was God, and saying that everyone could not be God, he declared that he himself was God, and the only true expression of God's spirit.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1912–14: In the South.

paragraph: Father Divine traveled south, where he preached extensively in Georgia. In 1913, conflicts with local ministers led to him being sentenced to 60 days in a chain gang. While he was serving his sentence, several prison inspectors were injured in an auto accident, which he viewed as the direct result of their disbelief.

paragraph: Upon his release, he attracted a following of mostly black women in Valdosta, Georgia. He taught celibacy and the rejection of gender categorizations.

paragraph: On February 6, 1914, several followers' husbands and local preachers had Divine arrested for lunacy. This actually expanded his ministry, with reporters and worshippers deluging his prison cell. Some whites even began calling on him. Former Mercer University professor and lay preacher, J. R. Moseley of Macon, Georgia, befriended Divine and arranged for J. B. Copeland, a Mercer alum and respected Valdosta lawyer, to represent him "pro bono". Moseley was interested in what he termed "this unusual man" in his autobiography "Manifest Destiny." Decades later, in the 1930s, Moseley met Divine in New York City when he received word that the man going by that name might in fact be the same person he met in Georgia. Father Divine was found mentally sound in spite of "maniacal" beliefs. He had given no name when arrested and was tried as "John Doe (alias God)".

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1914–19: Brooklyn and marriage to Peninniah.

paragraph: In 1914, Father Divine traveled to Brooklyn, New York, with a small number of followers and an all-black congregation. Although he claimed to be God incarnate fulfilling Biblical prophecy, he lived relatively quietly.

paragraph: He and his disciples formed a commune in a black middle-class apartment building. He forbade sex, alcohol, tobacco and gambling among those who were living with him. By 1919, he had adopted the name Reverend Major Jealous Divine. "Reverend Major" was chosen as a title of respect and authority, while "Jealous" was a reference to Exodus 34:14, where the Lord says he is a "jealous god" and that God's name is Jealous. Exodus 34:14 His followers affectionately called him Father Divine.

paragraph: In this period, Father Divine was married to a follower, Peninniah (variant spellings: Penninah, Peninnah, Penniah), who was a few years older than him. Like Father Divine, her early life is obscure, but she is believed to be from Macon, Georgia. The date of the marriage is unknown but probably occurred between 1914 and 1917.

paragraph: In addition to lending her dignified look to Father Divine, Peninniah served to defuse rumors of impropriety between him and his many young female followers. Both Penninah, who was often called "Mother Divine", and Father Divine would assert that the marriage was never physically consummated.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1919–31: Sayville, New York.

paragraph: Father Divine and his disciples moved to Sayville, New York (on Long Island), in 1919. He and his followers were the first black homeowners in town. Father Divine purchased his 72 Macon Street house from a resident who wanted to spite the neighbor he was feuding with. The two neighbors, both German Americans, began fighting when one of them changed his name from Felgenhauer to Fellows in response to anti-German sentiment. His neighbor taunted him, and the feud escalated until Fellows decided to move. As a final insult, he specifically advertised his home for sale to a "colored" buyer to presumably lower his neighbors' property values.

paragraph: In this period, his movement underwent sustained growth. Father Divine held free weekly banquets and helped newcomers find jobs. He began attracting many white followers as well as black. The integrated environment of Father Divine's communal house and the apparently flaunted wealth of his Cadillac infuriated neighbors. Members of the overwhelmingly white community accused him of maintaining a large harem and engaging in scandalous sex, although the Suffolk County district attorney's office found the claims baseless. Nonetheless, the neighbors continued to complain.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1931–32: Sayville arrests, trial, notoriety, and prison.

paragraph: On May 8, 1931, a Sayville deputy arrested and charged Father Divine with disturbing the peace. Remarkable during the Depression, Father Divine submitted his $1000 bail in cash. The trial, not as speedy as the neighbors wanted, was scheduled for late fall, allowing Father Divine's popularity to snowball for the entire Sayville vacation season.

paragraph: Father Divine held banquets for as many as 3000 people that summer. Cars clogging the streets for these gatherings bolstered some neighbors' claims that Father Divine "was" a disturbance to the peace and furthermore was hurting their property values.

paragraph: On Sunday, November 15, at 12:15 am, a police officer was called to Father Divine's raucously loud property. By the time state troopers, deputies and prison buses were called in, a mob of neighbors had surrounded the compound. Fearing a riot, the police informed Father Divine and his followers that they had fifteen minutes to disperse. Father Divine had them wait in silence for ten minutes, and then they filed into police custody. Processed by the county jail at 3 AM, clerks were frustrated, because the followers often refused to give their usual names and stubbornly offered the "inspired" names they adopted in the movement. Seventy-eight people were arrested altogether, including fifteen whites. Forty-six pleaded guilty to disturbing the peace and incurred $5 fines, which Father Divine paid with a $500 bill, which the court was embarrassingly unable to make change from. Penninah, Father Divine, and thirty followers resisted the charges.

paragraph: Father Divine's arrest and heterodox doctrines were sensationally reported. The New York frenzy made this event and its repercussions the single most famous moment of Father Divine's life. Although mostly inaccurate, articles on Father Divine propelled his popularity. By December, his followers began renting buildings in New York City for Father Divine to speak in. Soon, he often had several engagements on a single night. On December 20, he spoke to an estimated 10,000 in Harlem's Rockland Palace, a spacious former basketball venue, Manhattan Casino.

paragraph: By May 1932, meetings were regularly held at the Rockland and throughout New York and New Jersey. Father Divine had supporters in Washington state, California and throughout the world thanks to New Thought devotees like Eugene Del Mar, an early convert and former Harlem journalist, and Henry Joerns, the publisher of a New Thought magazine in Seattle. Curiously, although the movement was predominantly black, followers outside the Northeast were mostly middle class whites.

paragraph: In this period of expansions, several branch communes were opened in New York and New Jersey. Father Divine's followers finally named the movement: the International Peace Mission movement.

paragraph: Father Divine's trial was finally held on May 24, 1932. His lawyer, Ellee J. Lovelace, a prominent Harlem African American and former US Attorney had requested the trial be moved outside of Suffolk County, due to potential jury bias. The court acquiesced, and the trial took place at the Nassau County Supreme Court before Justice Lewis J. Smith. The jury found him guilty on June 5 but asked for leniency on behalf of Father Divine. Ignoring this request, Justice Smith lectured on how Father Divine was a fraud and "menace to society" before issuing the maximum sentence for disturbing the peace, one year in prison and a $500 fine.

paragraph: Smith, 55, died of a heart attack days later on June 9, 1932. Father Divine was widely reported to have commented on the death, "I hated to do it." In fact, he wrote to his followers, "I did not desire Judge Smith to die.… I did desire that MY spirit would touch his heart and change his mind that he might repent and believe and be saved from the grave."

paragraph: The impression that Justice Smith's death was divine retribution was perpetuated by the press, which failed to report Smith's prior heart problems and implied the death to be more sudden and unexpected than it was.

paragraph: During his brief prison stay, Father Divine read prodigiously, notably on the Scottsboro Nine. After his attorneys secured release through an appeal on June 25, 1932, he declared that the foundational documents of the United States of America, such as the Constitution and Declaration of Independence, were inspired. Father Divine also taught that contemporary leaders strayed from these ideals, but he would become increasingly patriotic through his life.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1932–42: Harlem.

paragraph: Father Divine moved to Harlem, New York, where he had accumulated significant following in the black community. Members, rather than Father Divine himself, held most deeds for the movement, but they contributed toward Father Divine's comfortable lifestyle. Purchasing several hotels, which they called "Heavens", members could live and seek jobs inexpensively. The movement also opened several budget enterprises, including restaurants and clothing shops, that sold cheaply by cutting overhead. These proved very successful in the depression. Economical, cash-only businesses were actually part of Father Divine's doctrine.

paragraph: By 1934, branches had opened in Los Angeles, California, and Seattle, Washington, and gatherings occurred in France, Switzerland, Canada, and Australia, but the membership totals were drastically overstated in the press. "Time Magazine" estimated nearly two million followers, but the true figure of adherents was probably a few tens of thousands and a larger body of sympathizers who attended his gatherings. Nonetheless, Father Divine was increasingly called upon to offer political endorsements, which he initially did not. For example, New York mayoral candidates John P. O'Brien and Fiorello H. LaGuardia each sought his endorsement in 1933, but Father Divine was apparently uninterested.

paragraph: An odd alliance between Father Divine and the Communist Party of America began in early 1934. Although Father Divine was outspokenly capitalist, he was impressed with the party's commitment to civil rights. The party relished the endorsement, although contemporary FBI records indicate some critics of the perceived huckster were expelled from the party for protesting the alliance.

paragraph: In spite of this alliance, the movement was largely apolitical until the Harlem Riot of 1935. Based on a rumor of police killing a black teenager, it left four dead and caused over $1 million in property damage in Father Divine's neighborhood. Father Divine's outrage at this and other racial injustices fueled a keener interest in politics. In January 1939, the movement organized the first-ever "Divine Righteous Government Convention", which crafted political platforms incorporating the Doctrine of Father Divine. Among other things, the delegates opposed school segregation and many of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's social programs, which they interpreted as "handouts".

paragraph: At the zenith of Father Divine's influence, several misfortunes struck the movement.

paragraph: On December 16, John Hunt, a white millionaire and disciple from California calling himself John the Revelator, met the Jewett family of Denver, Colorado. He kidnapped their 17-year-old daughter Delight and took her back to California without her parents' consent. Renaming her "Virgin Mary", John the Revelator began sexual relations with her. He announced that she would give birth to a "New Redeemer" by "immaculate conception" in Hawaii. Father Divine summoned Hunt to New York, separated the couple and chastised his eccentric follower. The Jewetts, finding their daughter apparently brainwashed into believing she was literally the Virgin Mary, demanded compensation. After the movement's attorneys conducted an internal investigation, they refused. Outraged, the Jewetts offered their story to William Randolph Hearst's "New York Evening Journal", an established critic of the movement. After a manhunt and trial, John Hunt was sentenced to three years and adopted a new name, the "Prodigal Son". Father Divine publicly endorsed the conviction of John the Revelator, contrary to some expectations (some followers expected him to once again "smite" the judge). However, the scandal brought bad publicity to Father Divine. News coverage implied his followers were gullible and dangerous.

paragraph: In March 1937, Penninah fell ill in Kingston, New York. Father Divine rarely comforted her on what was widely believed to be her deathbed. He kept running the church, only visiting her once in Kingston, again causing bad publicity. Penninah, however, claimed that she was not seriously ill or in pain.

paragraph: On April 20, 1937, a violent outburst occurred in a meeting when two men tried to deliver Father Divine a summons. One of the men, Harry Green, was stabbed as Father Divine fled. Father Divine went into hiding to evade authorities.

paragraph: During this time, one of Father Divine's most prominent followers, called Faithful Mary, defected and took control of a large commune, which was technically in her name. Of the Father she said, "he's just a damned man." She furthermore alleged that he defrauded his followers to maintain a rich lifestyle for himself. Faithful Mary also made a number of sexual allegations, including a charge that Father Divine coerced women to have sex with key disciples.

paragraph: In early May, Father Divine was located and extradited from Connecticut and faced criminal charges in New York. That summer, Hearst's Metronone newsreel distributed mocking footage of Father Divine's followers singing outside police headquarters, "Glory, glory, hallelujah! Our God is in our land!"

paragraph: Later in May 1937, an ex-follower called Verinda Brown filed a lawsuit for $4,476 against Father Divine. The Browns had entrusted their savings with Father Divine in Sayville back in 1931. They left the movement in 1935 wishing to live as husband and wife again, but were unable to get their money back. In light of their evidence and testimony from Faithful Mary and others critical of the movement, the court ordered repayment of the money. However, this opened up an enormous potential liability from all ex-devotees, so Father Divine resisted and appealed the judgment.

paragraph: In 1938, Father Divine was cleared of criminal charges and Mother Divine recovered. Faithful Mary, impoverished and broken, returned to the movement. Father Divine made her grovel for forgiveness, which she did. By the late 1930s, the movement stabilized, although it had clearly passed its zenith.

paragraph: Father Divine's political focus on anti-lynching measures became more resolved. By 1940, his followers had gathered 250,000 signatures in favor of an anti-lynching bill he wrote. However, passage of such statutes came slowly in New York and elsewhere.

paragraph: The Verinda Brown lawsuit against Father dragged on and was sustained on appeal. In July, 1942, he was ordered to pay Brown or face contempt of court. Instead, Father Divine fled the state and re-established his headquarters in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He still visited New York, however. State law forbade serving subpoenas in New York on Sunday, so he often spoke on the Sabbath day in Harlem, the Promised Land (his Kingston commune), and Sayville.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:1942–65: Pennsylvania.

paragraph: After moving to Philadelphia, Father Divine's wife, Penninah, died. The exact date is not known, because Father Divine never talked about it or even acknowledged her death. However, it occurred sometime in 1943, and biographers believe Penninah's death rattled Father Divine, making him aware of his own mortality. It became obvious to Father Divine and his followers that his doctrine might not make one immortal as he asserted, at least not in the flesh.

paragraph: In 1944, singer/songwriter Johnny Mercer came to hear of one of Divine's sermons. The subject was "You got to accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative." Mercer said, "Wow, that's a colorful phrase!” He went back to Hollywood and got together with songwriter Harold Arlen ("Over The Rainbow"), and together they wrote "Ac-cent-tchu-ate The Positive", which was recorded by Mercer himself and the Pied Pipers in 1945. It was also recorded by Bing Crosby with the Andrews Sisters that same year.

paragraph: After his first wife died, Father Divine married a white Canadian woman called Edna Rose Ritchings in Washington, D.C., on April 29, 1946. The ceremony was kept secret even from most members until Ritching's visa expired. Critics of the movement believed that Father Divine's seemingly scandalous marriage to 21-year-old Ritchings would destroy the movement. Instead, most followers rejoiced, and the marriage date became a celebrated anniversary in the movement. To prove that he and Ritchings adhered to his doctrine on sexual abstinence, Father Divine assigned a black female follower to be her constant companion.

paragraph: He claimed that Ritchings, later called "Mother S. A. Divine", was the reincarnation of Penninah. Reincarnation was not previously part of Father Divine's doctrine and did not become a fixture of his theology. Followers believed that Penninah was an exceptional case and viewed her "return" as a miracle.

paragraph: Going into the 1950s, the press rarely covered Father Divine, and when it did, it was no longer as a menace, but as an amusing relic. For example, light-hearted stories ran when Father Divine announced Philadelphia was capital of the world and when he claimed to inspire invention of the hydrogen bomb. Father Divine's predominantly lower-class following ebbed as the economy swelled.

paragraph: In 1953, follower John Devoute gave Father Divine Woodmont, a 72-acre (0.3 km²) hilltop estate in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, outside of Philadelphia. This French Gothic manor served as his home and primary site of his increasingly infrequent banquets until his death in 1965.

paragraph: As his health declined, he continued to petition for civil rights. In 1951, he advocated reparations to be paid to the descendants of slaves. He also argued in favor of integrated neighborhoods. However, he did not participate in the burgeoning American Civil Rights Movement because of his poor health and especially his dislike of the use of racial labels, denying he was black.

paragraph: On September 10, 1965, Father Divine died of natural causes at his Woodmont estate. His widow and remaining followers insist his spirit is still alive and always refer to Father Divine in the present tense. Believers keep the furnishings of Father Divine's personal rooms at Woodmont just as they were as a shrine to his life.

paragraph: Edna Rose Ritchings became spiritual leader of the movement. In 1972, she fought an attempt by Jim Jones to take over the movement's dwindling devotees. Jones based some of his doctrines on the International Peace Mission movement and claimed to be the reincarnation of Father Divine. Although a few members of the Mission joined Peoples Temple after Jones made his play for leadership of the movement, the power push was, in terms of its ultimate objective, a complete failure. That Jones was 34 years old at the time of Father Divine's death made his claims of being a new incarnation rather hard to sustain - Jones claimed Divine's spirit had entered his body upon the passing of the elder man - and Ritchings was left unimpressed by Jones' impassioned rhetoric. Jones' custom of tape-recording all his sermons was copied from Divine, who "spoke" to his followers via archived sermon tapes once ill health forced him to cease speaking at meetings.

paragraph: Section::::Physical characteristics and preaching style.

paragraph: Father Divine was a slight, African American man at a diminutive . Through most of his life, he maintained a fastidious appearance and a neat moustache that he kept well groomed, his hair was invariably neatly combed, and since his days in Sayville, New York, he almost always wore a suit in public.

paragraph: Father Divine was said to be very charismatic. His sermons were emotionally moving and freely associated between topics. His speech was often peppered with words of his own invention like "physicalating" and "tangiblated". An attendee at a Harlem "kingdoms" meeting in the 1930s recalled that he rhythmically intoned "Tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions. Tens, hundreds, ... millions.' Although this seemed nonsense to the visitor, he reported that at the end the true believers chanted, "Yes, he's God. Yes he's God." Other eccentricities were drawn from his doctrine. For example, nearly every sermon began with the greeting and exhortation "Peace!" Father Divine believed that "peace" should replace "hello".

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.

paragraph: Father Divine preached of his divinity even before he was known as "Father Divine" in the late 1910s. His doctrine taught that his life fulfilled all Biblical prophecies about the second coming, regarding himself as Jesus Christ reborn. Father Divine also lectured that Christ existed in "every joint" of his follower's bodies, and that he was "God's light" incarnated in order to show people how to establish heaven on earth and to show them the way to eternal life. For example:

paragraph: Father Divine and his followers capitalized pronouns referring to him, much like "LORD" translated from the tetragrammaton is capitalized in the English Bible.

paragraph: Father Divine's definition of God became quite celebrated at the time because of its unusual use of language: "God is not only personified and materialized. He is repersonified and rematerialized. He rematerialized and He rematerialates. He rematerialates and He is rematerializatable. He repersonificates and He repersonifitizes."

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Positive thought.

paragraph: Father Divine can be considered part of the New Thought Movement; indeed, many of his white followers came from this tradition.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Welfare.

paragraph: Father Divine was particularly concerned with the downtrodden of society, including but not limited to Blacks. He was opposed to people accepting welfare.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Race.

paragraph: Scholars disagree about whether Father Divine, an African American, was a civil rights activist, but he certainly advocated some progressive changes to race relations. For example, because he believed that every human was accorded equal rights, he believed that all members of lynch mobs ought to be tried and convicted as murderers. Father Divine's anti-lynching campaigns resonated in the black ghettos where his congregations lived, and he got over a quarter million people to sign his anti-lynching proposals.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Patriotism.

paragraph: Father Divine advocated that followers think of themselves as simply Americans. He believed that America was the birthplace of the "Kingdom of God", which would ultimately encompass truths of all religious principles, promoting equality and brotherhood. The Movement was supportive of the United States Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and particularly the Bill of Rights as inspired documents, believing that they outlined a more ideal life.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Communal living.

paragraph: Toward this life, followers of Father Divine owned and managed property collectively. The movement strove to alleviate poverty by feeding the poor and through education in written English, which the Movement believed was the "universal language."

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Chastity.

paragraph: Father Divine established an "International Modesty Code" which forbids smoking, drinking, and profanity. Additionally, it forbade tips, bribes, receiving presents, and "undue mixing of the sexes," along with women wearing slacks or short skirts and men wearing short-sleeves.

paragraph: Although Father Divine himself was married, the movement discouraged marriage, along with any excessive mingling of the sexes. In the "Heavens" and other living spaces the Movement maintained, separate areas existed for men and women.

paragraph: Section::::Doctrine.:Thrift and Business Practices.

paragraph: Father Divine advocated a number of economic practices, which his followers abided by. He opposed life insurance (which converts were to cancel), welfare, social security, and credit. Thus, the Movement advocated economic self-sufficiency. His insistence that his followers refuse welfare not related to employment was estimated to have saved New York City $2 million during the Depression.

paragraph: Business owners in the Movement named their ventures to show affiliation with Father Divine, and obeyed all of these practices. They dealt only in cash, refusing credit in any of its forms. Each was to sell below competitor's prices while refusing any sorts of tips or gratuities. Finally, they refrained from trade in alcohol or tobacco.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Civil rights.

paragraph: Some biographers, such as Robert Weisbrot, speculate that Father Divine was a forerunner to the Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s, heavily influenced by his upbringing in the segregated South. Others, such as Jill Watts, reject not only this characterization, but also the theory that Father Divine grew up in the Deep South. Watts asserts that Rockville was less oppressive than the South or even Baltimore, Maryland, and believes his civil rights positions are unintelligible without evaluating them in the context of the Doctrine of Father Divine.

paragraph: Although Father Divine strove extensively against lynching and bigotry, he accepted many of the negative characteristics assigned African Americans. He concluded that those who identified themselves as "black" manifested these characteristics. In short, he believed blacks perpetuated their own oppression by thinking racially. He once said that he was not poor because he did not belong to a poor downtrodden race—that he was not black.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Religious.

paragraph: Edna Rose Ritchings (Mother Divine) conducted services for the old and dwindling congregation until her death. The movement owns several properties, such as Father Divine's Gladwyne estate Woodmont, his former home in Sayville, New York, and the Circle Mission Church on Broad Street in Philadelphia, which also houses the movement's library.

paragraph: Chapters exist in Pennsylvania and possibly elsewhere, but the movement is not centralized and exists through a number of interrelated groups.

paragraph: In 2004, "Gastronomica" magazine published an article about Mother S. A. Divine and the movement's feasts.

paragraph: In 2000, the Divine Lorraine Hotel near Temple University on North Broad Street was sold off by the international Peace Mission Movement. It was a budget hotel with separate floors for men and women in accord with Father Divine's teachings. The Divine Tracy Hotel in West Philadelphia was sold in 2006.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of people who have been considered deities

paragraph: BULLET::::- God complex

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "God Comes to America: Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement", Kenneth E. Burnham, Boston: Lambeth Press, 1979

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Father Divine and the Struggle for Racial Equality", Robert Weisbrot, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Father Divine, Holy Husband", Sara Harris, Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1953

paragraph: BULLET::::- "God, Harlem U.S.A: the Father Divine Story", Jill Watts, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Promised Land: Father Divine's Interracial Communities in Ulster County, New York", Carleton Mabee, Fleischmanns: Purple Mountain Press, 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Who Is This King of Glory?", St. Clair McKelway and A.J. Liebling, "New Yorker" magazine, June 1936, reprinted (pp. 80–122) in "Reporting at Wit's End: Tales from the New Yorker", St. Clair McKelway, Bloomsbury USA, 2010,

paragraph: BULLET::::- "God in a Rolls Royce: The Rise of Father Divine Madman, Menace, or Messiah", John Hoshor: Books for Libraries Press, 1971 , originally published 1936.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- www.peacemission.info website about Father Divine and his International Peace Mission movement

paragraph: BULLET::::- PBS — This Far By Faith: Father Divine

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Father Divine Project — A Database Documentary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ronald M. White, "New Thought Influences on Father Divine" (Masters Thesis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 1980). Abstract

paragraph: BULLET::::- International Peace Mission movement Homepage

paragraph: BULLET::::- Father Divine and the International Peace Mission Documentary website

alias:
George Baker
Major Jealous Father Divine

description: American religious leader

wikidata_label: Father Divine

wikipedia_title: Father Divine


text:
emperor
Xianbei
Northern Wei
Gao Zhao
Buddhist
sutra
Emperor Xiaowen
concubine
Tuoba Xun
crown prince
Luoyang
Datong
Shanxi
Empress Feng Run
Southern Qi
Yuan Xie
Pingdingshan
Henan
empress
Gao Zhao
Xiao Baojuan
Lu'an
Anhui
Xiao Yan
Yellow River
Consort Yu
Liang Dynasty
Jiangxi
Fujian
Xiao Baoyin
Hanzhong
Shaanxi
Chouchi
night terror
Bengbu
Anhui
Chuzhou
Anhui
Consort Gao
Hengshui
Hebei
Consort Hu
Yuan Xu
wet nurse
Yi Province
Sichuan
Chongqing
Yuan Yong
Yu Zhong
empress dowager
Luoyang Ancient Tombs Museum
Yuan Hong
Empress Shun
Empress
Xiao Baoyin
Empress Ling
Yuan Xu

categories: 515 deaths,483 births,Northern Wei Buddhists,Northern Wei emperors

paragraph: Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei

paragraph: Xuanwu (483 – February 9, 515) was an emperor of the Xianbei dynasty of Northern Wei (499-515). He is known within China as Beiwei Xuanwudi (). He was born Tuoba Ke, but later changed his surname so that he became Yuan Ke. During Xuanwu's reign, Northern Wei appeared, outwardly, to be at its prime, but there was much political infighting and corruption, particularly by Xuanwu's uncle Gao Zhao.

paragraph: Xuanwu was an avid Buddhist and often personally lectured on the Buddhist sutras. During his reign, Buddhism effectively became the state religion.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Tuoba Ke was born in 483, as the second son of Emperor Xiaowen. His mother was Xiaowen's concubine Consort, Gao Zhaorong. (As he was born the same year as his older brother Tuoba Xun, he was probably born just briefly after Tuoba Xun, whose mother was Consort Lin.) Little is known about his childhood, including whether he was raised by his mother Gao or not. In 496, Xiaowen changed the name of the imperial clan from Tuoba to Yuan, and thereafter he would be known as Yuan Ke.

paragraph: In fall 496, Yuan Xun, who was then crown prince, but who could not endure the hot weather of the capital Luoyang after Xiaowen moved the capital there from Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi) in 494, plotted to flee back to Pingcheng with his followers, but his plot was discovered. Xiaowen deposed him, and in 497 created Yuan Ke crown prince to replace Yuan Xun. (The creation was in Luoyang, but it is unclear whether prior to his creation, Yuan Xun was at Luoyang or Pingcheng.) Later that year, Gao, who was in Pingcheng, travelled south to rejoin her son in Luoyang, but she died on the way. Historians generally believe that she was murdered by Xiaowen's wife, Empress Feng Run, who wanted to raise Yuan Ke herself. Whether she was actually able to do so is unclear, but after she was discovered to have carried on an affair with her attendant Gao Pusa (高菩薩) in 499, she was put under house arrest, and Xiaowen ordered Yuan Ke to have no more contact with her.

paragraph: Later in 499, Xiaowen, while on a campaign against rival Southern Qi, grew ill and died. Xiaowen's brother Yuan Xie the Prince of Pengcheng was put into command of the withdrawing army on an emergency basis, and Yuan Xie kept Xiaowen's death a secret while summoning Yuan Ke to join the army. Yuan Ke's attendants largely suspected Yuan Xie of wanting to take the throne himself, but Yuan Xie, once he met Yuan Ke, showed great deference to Yuan Ke, convincing Yuan Ke of his loyalty. Yuan Ke, at age 16, then took the throne as Xuanwu at Luyang (魯陽, in modern Pingdingshan, Henan), before the army could return to Luoyang.

paragraph: Section::::Early reign.

paragraph: Xuanwu initially wanted to make Yuan Xie, who was popular and well-regarded, prime minister, but Yuan Xie refused, and was made a provincial governor instead. The governmental affairs were largely in the hands of six officials: Xiaowen's brothers Yuan Xi (元禧) the Prince of Xianyang and Yuan Xiang (元詳) the Prince of Beihai, Xiaowen's cousin Yuan Cheng (元澄) the Prince of Rencheng, Xiaowen's distant uncle Yuan Jia (元嘉) the Prince of Guangyang, and the officials Wang Su (王肅) and Song Bian (宋弁), although Yuan Cheng was soon stripped of his post because he falsely arrested Wang on suspicion of treason. By 500, Xuanwu recalled Yuan Xie to be prime minister.

paragraph: Xuanwu, once he returned to Luoyang, posthumously honored his mother Gao as an empress, and he created his maternal uncles Gao Zhao and Gao Xian (高顯), as well as his cousin Gao Meng (高猛), none of whom he had previously met, dukes. Gao Zhao, in particular, became increasingly powerful during Xuanwu's reign.

paragraph: In 500, with Southern Qi in disarray because of the tyrannical rule of its emperor Xiao Baojuan, Northern Wei annexed the important city of Shouyang (壽陽, in modern Lu'an, Anhui) when the Southern Qi general Pei Shuye (裴叔業) surrendered the city to Northern Wei in fear of adverse actions by Xiao Baojuan. However, Northern Wei did not take further actions when Southern Qi was subsequently thrown into civil war during the rebellions of the generals Cui Huijing (崔慧景) and Xiao Yan.

paragraph: In 501, the general Yu Lie (于烈) and Yuan Xiang warned Xuanwu that Yuan Xi was growing corrupt and Yuan Xie was growing too popular, and suggested that they be relieved of their posts. Xuanwu did so, and formally personally took over governmental matters, but at his age, he could not actually properly handle governmental affairs himself, so his trusted attendants and Gao Zhao began to become more powerful and corrupt. Traditional historians generally regard this as the starting point of Northern Wei's decline. Late in 501, Yuan Xi, displeased that his power wa being stripped and fearful that he would be killed, plotted a rebellion to secede with the provinces south of the Yellow River. His plot was discovered, however, and he was executed. From this point on, Xuanwu grew increasingly suspicious of members of the imperial clan.

paragraph: Later in 501, Xuanwu created Yu Lie's niece, Consort Yu, empress.

paragraph: Later that year, with Xiao Yan's forces crushing Xiao Baojuan's, Xuanwu's general Yuan Ying (元英) suggested that a major attack be launched against Southern Qi to take advantage of Southern Qi's civil war. However, Xuanwu only authorized small scale attacks, which were generally fruitless. Xiao Yan soon defeated Xiao Baojuan and by 502 had overthrown Southern Qi and established Liang Dynasty as its Emperor Wu. The Liang general Chen Bozhi (陳伯之) subsequently tried to surrender Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian) to Northern Wei, but Liang forces defeated both Chen and the Northern Wei forces sent to reinforce him, and Chen fled to Northern Wei. For the next few years, however, there would continually be war between the two rivals, particularly with Northern Wei creating Southern Qi's prince Xiao Baoyin, who fled Southern Qi as Xiao Yan was beginning to kill members of the Southern Qi imperial clan, as the Prince of Qi and announcing that it would help him reestablish Southern Qi.

paragraph: In 504, Xuan Xiang, who had taken over Yuan Xi's posts, was accused by Gao Zhao of corruption. He was demoted to commoner rank, and died soon thereafter. At Gao's suggestion and despite Yuan Xie's opposition, Xuanwu subsequently put the imperial princes under heavy guard, effectively putting them under house arrest.

paragraph: Meanwhile, the wars with Liang continued, and while both sides had gains and losses, Northern Wei made a substantial gain in 505 when the Liang general Xiaohou Daoqian (夏侯道遷) surrendered Nanzheng (南鄭, in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi), as well as the surrounding region, to Northern Wei, which further annexed the semi-independent state Chouchi in spring 506. In winter 505, Liang launched a major counterattack on the eastern part of the border, commanded by Emperor Wu's brother Xiao Hong (蕭宏) the Prince of Linchuan, but with Xiao Hong being an incompetent general, who mishandled a night terror situation in summer 506, while his army was at Luokou (洛口, in modern Bengbu, Anhui), the Liang forces collapsed by themselves without engaging Northern Wei forces. Yuan Ying and Xiao Baoyin followed up by attacking the Liang fortress Zhongli (鍾離, in modern Chuzhou, Anhui), but were dealt a crushing defeat by the Liang general Wei Rui (韋叡) in spring 507. The two states largely stopped their military activities against each other after that point.

paragraph: In winter 507, Empress Yu died suddenly, and in early 508, her young son Yuan Chang (元昌), Xuanwu's only son by that point, died suddenly as well. Because Gao Zhao was exceeding powerful by that point, and his niece Consort Gao was Xuanwu's favorite concubine, it was largely suspected that Gao Zhao and Gao murdered them, but there was no conclusive proof. In 508, Xuanwu created Gao as Empress to replace Yu, despite opposition by Yuan Xie, and from this point on Gao Zhao became resentful of Yuan Xie.

paragraph: Section::::Late reign.

paragraph: In fall 508, Xuanwu's younger brother Yuan Yu (元愉) the Prince of Jingzhao, who had just been demoted by Xuanwu for corruption, became angry at both his demotion and that his favorite consort Lady Li had been severely battered by Empress Yu briefly before Empress Yu's death (because Yuan Yu's wife was Empress Yu's sister but was unfavored by him), declared a rebellion at his provincial post of Xindu (信都, in modern Hengshui, Hebei) and proclaimed himself emperor. Gao Zhao used this opportunity to falsely accuse Yuan Xie of acting in concert with both Yuan Yu (because Yuan Yu had forced Yuan Xie's uncle Pan Senggu (潘僧固) into joining his rebellion) and Liang Dynasty. Xuanwu believed Gao, and forced Yuan Xie to commit suicide. The populace and the officials greatly mourned Yuan Xie's death, and grew increasingly resentful of Gao. Soon, Yuan Yu's rebellion was defeated, and while Xuanwu contemplated not putting Yuan Yu to death, Yuan Yu was killed on Gao's orders.

paragraph: In 510, Xuanwu's concubine Consort Hu gave birth to a son, Yuan Xu. Because Xuanwu had lost multiple sons in childhood by that point, he carefully selected several experienced mothers to serve as Yuan Xu's wet nurses, and disallowed both Gao and Hu from seeing him. In winter 512, Xuanwu created Yuan Xu crown prince, and, abolishing the Northern Wei custom that the crown prince's mother must be forced to commit suicide, he did not force Hu to commit suicide.

paragraph: During these years, Northern Wei and Liang continued to have relatively minor border battles, with each side having gains and losses. In 514, however, Xuanwu commissioned Gao Zhao to launch a major attack against Liang's Yi Province (modern Sichuan and Chongqing). Soon thereafter, however, in spring 515, he died suddenly, and Yuan Xu succeeded him (as Emperor Xiaoming). Yuan Cheng, Xuanwu's brother Yuan Yong the Prince of Gaoyang, and Yu Lie's son Yu Zhong seized power and, after recalling Gao, put him to death, and Gao was removed. Xiaoming's mother Hu became empress dowager and regent.

paragraph: Section::::Burial.

paragraph: Xuanwu was buried north of Luoyang. His tomb is now open to the public as part of the Luoyang Ancient Tombs Museum.

paragraph: Section::::Era names.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Jingming" (景明 Jǐngmíng) 500–503

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Zhengshi" (正始 Zhèngshǐ) 504–508

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yongping" (永平 Yǒngpíng) 508–512

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yanchang" (延昌 Yánchāng) 512–515

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Parents:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yuan Hong, Emperor Xiaowen (; 467–499)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress Wenzhao, of the Gao clan of Goguryeo (; 469–497), personal name Zhaorong ()

paragraph: BULLET::::- Consorts and Issue:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress Shun, of the Yu clan of Henan (; 488–507)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Yuan Chang" (; 506–508), first son

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress, of the Gao clan of Goguryeo (; d. 518), first cousin, personal name Ying ()

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Unnamed son"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Jiande ()

paragraph: BULLET::::- Married Xiao Lie of Lanling (; d. 530), a son of Xiao Baoyin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress Ling, of the Hu clan of Anding (; d. 528)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yuan Xu, Emperor Xiaoming (; 510–528), second son

alias:
Yuan Ke
Shi Zong
Xuanwu Di

description: Northern Wei emperor

wikidata_label: Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei

wikipedia_title: Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei