text:
Siberia
Ukok
Altai
Altaic epic
mummy
kurgan
Pazyryk culture
Republic of Altai
Russia
Russian archaeological findings
Gorno-Altaisk
Scytho
Eurasian Steppe
Natalia Polosmak
Ukok Plateau
Pazyryk culture
Autonomous Republic of Altai
Polosmak
kurgan
dendrochronologist
larch
Republican National Museum
Altai Republic
Dendrochronology
Eurasian Steppes
Kurgan
Mummy
Natalia Polosmak
Pazyryk burials
Scythians
Ukok Plateau
Anokhin Museum
Gorno-Altaysk

categories: 1993 archaeological discoveries,Archaeology of Siberia,Historical people who were forensically reconstructed,Mummies,Archaeology of Russia,Saka people

paragraph: Siberian Ice Maiden

paragraph: The Siberian Ice Maiden, also known as the Princess of Ukok (), the Altai Princess (), Devochka and Ochy-bala (, the heroine of the Altaic epic), is a mummy of a woman from the 5th century BC, found in 1993 in a kurgan of the Pazyryk culture in Republic of Altai, Russia. It was among the most significant Russian archaeological findings of the late 20th century. In 2012 she was moved to a special mausoleum at the Republican National Museum in Gorno-Altaisk.

paragraph: Section::::Introduction.

paragraph: The mummified remains of the “Ice Maiden,” a Scytho-Siberian woman who lived on the Eurasian Steppes in the 5th century BC, were found undisturbed in a subterranean burial chamber. Natalia Polosmak and her team discovered the Ice Maiden during the summer of 1993, when she was a senior research fellow at the Russian Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography in Novosibirsk. It was Polosmak’s fourth season working on the Ukok Plateau where the Institute was continuing its research into the early habitation of southern Siberia. Nearly two decades later, there are few English language sources available for the important discovery: Polosmak’s "National Geographic" article from October 1994, and a BBC documentary (1997) featuring Polosmak and members of her team are the most informative and accessible.

paragraph: The Ice Maiden was a representative of the Pazyryk culture that thrived between the 6th and 2nd centuries BC in the Siberian steppe.

paragraph: The Ice Maiden’s tomb was found on the Ukok Plateau near the border of China, in what is now the Autonomous Republic of Altai. The plateau, part of the Eurasian Steppes, is characterized by a harsh, arid climate. The area is known by the local people as the “second layer of heaven,” one step above ordinary people and events. Present day Altai herdsmen still bring their sheep and horses to the plateau during winter because the fierce wind blows the snow off the grass and provides grazing land for the animals despite the freezing temperatures.

paragraph: Section::::Discovery and excavation.

paragraph: Polosmak and her team were guided by a border guard, Lt. Mikhail Chepanov, to a group of kurgans located in a strip of territory disputed between Russia and China. A kurgan is a burial mound filled in with smaller sediment and covered with a pile of rocks; typically, the mound covered a tomb chamber, which contained a burial inside a log coffin, with accompanying grave goods. Such burial chambers were built from notched wood logs to form a small cabin, which may have resembled the semi-nomads’ winter shelters. The Ice Maiden's tomb chamber was constructed in this way, and the wood and other organic materials present have allowed her burial to be dated. A core sample from the logs of her chamber was analyzed by a dendrochronologist, and samples of organic matter from the horses’ stomachs were examined as well, indicating that the Ice Maiden was buried in the spring, at some point during the 5th century BC.

paragraph: Before Polosmak and her crew reached the Ice Maiden’s chamber, they hit upon a second later burial in the same kurgan positioned on top of the Maiden's wooden tomb chamber. The contents included a stone and wood coffin containing a skeleton, along with three horses. Polosmak believes that this secondary burial was that of an outside group, perhaps of subordinate peoples, who considered it honorable to bury their dead in Pazyryk kurgans. A shaft dug into the kurgan indicated that this later grave had been robbed, another means by which water and snow entered and seeped into the Ice Maiden’s hollow burial chamber. The water collected, froze, and formed an ice block within the chamber which never fully thawed because of the steppe climate, permafrost, and the rocks piled on top of the mound which deflected the sun’s rays. The contents of the burial remained frozen for 2400 years, until the time of Polosmak’s excavation.

paragraph: Section::::Tomb chamber.

paragraph: Inside the Maiden’s tomb chamber was her coffin, which was made of a solid larch wood tree trunk decorated with leather appliqués depicting deer figures. The chamber also contained two small wood tables with tray-shaped tops, which were used to serve food and drink. Horsemeat and mutton had been placed on the tables; the residue of a dairy product, perhaps yogurt, was found in a wooden vessel with a carved handle and stirrer; and some kind of beverage was served in a horn cup to sustain her on her journey.

paragraph: The Ice Maiden and her horses were oriented with their heads toward the east, as was the case in other Pazyryk burials. She was between 20 and 30 years old at the time of her death. The cause of the Ice Maiden's death was unknown until 2014, when new research suggested breast cancer, combined with injuries sustained in a fall, as likely culprits. The finding of cannabis in a container near the body led to the supposition that the drug was used to relieve the chronic pain that the woman would have suffered. She may have had the elevated status of a priestess in her community based upon the items found in her chamber. The Ice Maiden’s preserved skin has the mark of an animal-style deer tattoo on one of her shoulders, and another on her wrist and thumb. She was buried in a yellow silk tussah blouse, a crimson-and-white striped wool skirt with a tassel belt, thigh-high white felt leggings, with a marten fur, a small mirror made from polished metal and wood with carved deer figures, and a headdress that stood nearly three feet tall. The size of the headdress necessitated a coffin that was eight feet long. The headdress had a wooden substructure with a molded felt covering and eight carved feline figures covered in gold. There were remains of coriander seeds in a stone dish that may have been provided for the Maiden’s medicinal use.

paragraph: Section::::Controversy.

paragraph: The excavation of the Ice Maiden was carried out with great care, although in some ways it has been seen as problematic, due to the methods used to melt the ice and remove the artifacts and body from the coffin. The mummy also suffered deterioration during her transport from the site to the lab (even when she was in a refrigerated space) which resulted in her tattoos fading. Upon discovery of the tomb, the ice mummy was reported to have opium on her.

paragraph: A dispute developed between the Russian authorities and the local inhabitants, who lay claim to the Ice Maiden and other Pazyryk kurgans. For 19 years after her discovery, she was kept mainly at a scientific institute in Novosibirsk, but in 2012, the mummy was returned to the Altai, where she is to be kept in a special mausoleum at the Republican National Museum in the capital Gorno-Altaisk. Future excavations of the site have since been forbidden, even though it is suspected more artifacts are inside the tomb.

paragraph: A reconstruction of the Ice Maiden’s face was created using her skull, in conjunction with measurements taken from the skulls, facial features, and skin thickness of present-day Altai inhabitants. The artist who created the reconstruction, Tanya Balueva, was documented as saying that the Ice Maiden “is a clear-cut example of the Caucasian race with no typically Mongolian features.”

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Altai Republic

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dendrochronology

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eurasian Steppes

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kurgan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mummy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Natalia Polosmak

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pazyryk burials

paragraph: BULLET::::- Scythians

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ukok Plateau

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anokhin Museum in Gorno-Altaysk

wikidata_label: Siberian Ice Maiden

wikipedia_title: Siberian Ice Maiden


text: Italian Episcopal Conference

text: Cassano all'Jonio

text: Cerignola

text: Campania

text: Ascoli Satriano e Cerignola

text: Foggia, Italy

text: Catholic Action

text: Episcopal Vicar

text: Italian Episcopal Conference

text: Pope Benedict XVI

text: Cassano all'Jonio

text: Cerignola

text: Angelo Bagnasco

text: Pope Francis

text: John L. Allen

text: Synod on the Family

categories: 21st-century Roman Catholic bishops,People from Cerignola,1948 births,Living people

paragraph: Nunzio Galantino

paragraph: Nunzio Galantino (born 16 August 1948) is an Italian prelate of the Catholic Church. He was named President of the Administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See (APSA) on 26 June 2018. He was the Secretary-General of the Italian Episcopal Conference (CEI) from 30 December 2013 to 26 June 2018 and Bishop of Cassano all'Jonio from 2012 to 2015.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Galantino was born in Cerignola, Italy, in 1948. He received a theology degree after studying from 1968 to 1972 at the , Campania, and was ordained a priest of the Diocese of Ascoli Satriano e Cerignola on 23 December 1972. He earned a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Bari in 1974. From 1972 to 1977 he was Vice-Rector of the Seminary of Foggia, Italy, and Assistant of Catholic Action. In 1974 he became the Professor at the Pontifical Regional Seminary of Benevento, a post he held until 1972. From 1977 he was a priest at the parish of Saint Francis of Assisi in Cerignola. In that time he held the offices of Episcopal Vicar for Pastoral Care and for Culture and Continuing Education. From 1977 he was Professor of Anthropology at the Faculty of Theology for Southern Italy. In 2004 he became Head of National Service for the Higher Study of Theology and Religious Science at the Italian Episcopal Conference (CEI).

paragraph: On 9 December 2011, Pope Benedict XVI appointed him bishop of Cassano all'Jonio. He was consecrated on 25 February 2012 in the Cathedral of St. Peter the Apostle in Cerignola by Cardinal Angelo Bagnasco. He chose as his motto "Inclina cor meum in testimonia tua" (Bend my heart to your instructions; Psalms 119:36). On that occasion, he asked that money ordinarily spent on gifts for him should be spent on services for the poor. While bishop he lived at the seminary rather than in the bishop's palace and eschewed the services of a secretary and chauffeur. He asked to be called "Don Nunzio" instead of the customary title "Your Excellency."

paragraph: On 30 December 2013, Pope Francis named him interim Secretary General of the CEI, Pope Francis wrote to the people of Galantino's diocese to "ask permission" to give their bishop this assignment, saying: "I ask you to understand and to forgive me". Rather than leave his diocese, Gallantino asked to be allowed to divide his time between his new post and his duties as bishop. "Corriere della Sera" described Galantino's appointment as the selection of someone who had not sought the appointment and said it represented a break with recent popes' political approach to the CEI, reflected Francis' emphasis on pastoral activity, and signaled his expectations for the next president of the CEI. Longtime Vatican observer John L. Allen later described the appointment as indicative of Pope Francis' management style, putting his own person in place without removing the head of the CEI and "making it so clear that [Galantino] enjoys his favor that everyone understands he's the real papal point of reference in the Italian episcopacy". On 26 March 2014, Pope Francis appointed Galantino to a full term as secretary-general.

paragraph: In May 2014, in an interview about preparations for the Synod on the Family in October 2014, Bishop Galantino told the Florence-based "La Nazione" newspaper that he wanted church leaders to open their minds to different views: "My wish for the Italian Church is that it is able to listen without any taboo to the arguments in favour of married priests, the Eucharist for the divorced, and homosexuality." He said that "In the past we have concentrated too much on abortion and euthanasia. It mustn't be this way because in the middle there's real life which is constantly changing. I don't identify with the expressionless person who stands outside the abortion clinic reciting their rosary, but with young people, who are still against this practice, but are instead fighting for quality of life, their health, their right to work." In August 2014, he said the Church must make everyone feel at home, that "Couples in irregular matrimonial situations are also Christians, but they are sometimes looked upon with prejudice. The burden of exclusion from the sacraments is an unjustified price to pay, in addition to de facto discrimination". He did not advocate allowing divorced Catholics who remarried to receive Communion, but said that "pastoral charity which for people facing marriage and family difficulties means acceptance, understanding, accompanying and support".

paragraph: On 28 February 2015, Pope Francis accepted Galantino's resignation as bishop of Cassano all'Jonio. Francis named him President of the Administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See on 26 June 2018. He remains secretary general of the CEI until Francis names a successor.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Beati quelli che non si accontentano" (2016)

description: bishop from Italy

wikidata_label: Nunzio Galantino

wikipedia_title: Nunzio Galantino


text:
fl.
Monza
Italy
Ghibelline
Visconti
Venice
Theodelinda
Holy Spirit
fresco
Monza Cathedral
Zavattari
Gerardo dei Tintori
Saint John the Baptist

categories: Italian politicians,Italian historians,Year of birth unknown,Year of death unknown,Italian Roman Catholics,People from Monza

paragraph: Bonincontro Morigia

paragraph: Bonincontro Morigia (fl. 14th century) was an historical writer from Monza in northern Italy.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Born in Monza around 1295, he was a member of an important Ghibelline family of that city. He took an active part in the political struggles of his time, siding with the party of the Visconti, lords of Milan. He was also a member of the Council of the Twelve which administered the city, and on one occasion was ambassador to Venice.

paragraph: He is however noted as an historian.

paragraph: Section::::Main Works.

paragraph: The main work of Morigia is the "Chronicon Modoetiense", a history of Monza from its origins to his own day.

paragraph: Morigia is the first author known to report the legend that the Latin name of Monza ("Modoetia") derives from a vision in a dream by Queen Theodelinda: a dove (symbol of the Holy Spirit) is said to have told her to found her capital on the site, bearing in it a scroll inscribed with the word "Modo" ("Now"), to which she responded "Etiam" ("Yes"). This legend inspired some of the frescoes in Monza Cathedral by the Zavattari brothers.

paragraph: He was also the first biographer of Saint Gerardo dei Tintori, hospitaller and patron saint of Monza together with Saint John the Baptist. The life of Gerardo is included in the Chronicon Modoetiense, where Morigia also lists a number of miracles attributed to the saint, of one of which Morigia claims to have been an eyewitness.

description: writer

wikidata_label: Bonincontro Morigia

wikipedia_title: Bonincontro Morigia


text:
Hanau
Middle Ages
Ulrich IV of Hanau
Wertheim
primogeniture
University of Bologna
university of Heidelberg
Ulrich V
districts
Partenstein
Rieneck
John of Hanau
Ulrich V
feud
Hanau
Babenhausen
John II
Mainz
de facto
Imperial Count
Sigismund
Wenceslaus
Albert II
Frederick III
Council of Constance
Rupert
robber baron
Wetterau
Karben
Mainz
Eppstein
Isenburg-Büdingen
Rieneck
County of Rieneck
dowry
Middle Ages
Early Modern Period
Gelnhausen
Electorate of the Palatinate
Counts of Falkenstein
Hanau
Late Gothic
Archbishop
Main (river)
Arnsburg Abbey
Catherine of Nassau-Beilstein
Catherine
William II of Henneberg-Schleusingen
abbess
Patershausen
Margaret
Epstein
Reinhard III
County of Hanau
Elisabeth
Wild- and Rhinegrave
Philip I "the Elder"

categories: 14th-century births,1451 deaths,14th-century German people,Counts of Hanau,Year of birth uncertain,Lords of Hanau

paragraph: Reinhard II, Count of Hanau

paragraph: Reinhard II of Hanau ( – 26 June 1451 in Hanau) was Lord of Hanau and from 1429 Count of Hanau. He was one of the most important member of the House of Hanau.

paragraph: Section::::Youth.

paragraph: The exact date of his birth is not known, not even the exact year, because in the Middle Ages a person's death date was considered far more important than their birth date, since a memorial mass would be celebrated on the death date.

paragraph: He was the second son of Ulrich IV of Hanau (born: between 1330 and 1340; died: in September or October 1380) and Countess Elizabeth of Wertheim (1347–1378 ). In the ruling family of Hanau, an explicit primogeniture statue of 1375 stipulated that only the eldest son could inherit the Lordship and even that only he could marry. Reinhard II as second son of Ulrich IV as was destined for a clerical career. He received a suitable education for such a career; in 1387 he was studying at the University of Bologna. In 1390, one of the sons of Ulrich IV, possibly Reinhard II, was enrolled as a student at the university of Heidelberg. The entry in the register does not mention a name, it merely states . Reinhard abandoned his spiritual career in 1391, and closed a contract with his elder brother Ulrich V, which guaranteed him an annual income. The background was probably that Ulrich V's marriage was still childless and they wanted to preserve the possibility that Reinhard might succeed Ulrich V. The contract awarded Reinhard an annual sum of 400 florins and a share in the districts Partenstein, Rieneck, Bieber and Haßlau. This was the first generation in the history of the Hanau family where the younger sons did not join the clergy. In 1398, the contract was renewed, and Ulrich and Reinhard's younger brother John of Hanau was also awarded a pension, after a dispute with John had led to fighting.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Background.

paragraph: The heir apparent of Ulrich IV was Reinhard II's elder brother Ulrich V. Ulrich formally ruled Hanau from his father's death in 1380. However, as he was a minor at the time, a regency was set up, until he came of age in 1388. At that time, he was still without a male heir. Under the "primogeniture" statute, only the eldest son was allowed to marry; consequently, the continued existence of the dynasty was under threat. In 1391, a family contract was concluded, which allowed Reinhard II to marry if Ulrich still had no sons 10 years later. This 10-year period was due to end in 1401. Around 1395, a coalition between Reinhard and his younger brother John emerged. They acted independently from Ulrich and pursued policies directed against him. An open dispute arose, which was resolved by the settlement of 1398. Nevertheless, further disputes occurred, and even a feud.

paragraph: From 1394 onward, Ulrich V ran into economic difficulties. In 1396, the problem intensified. He had to pledge the two cities of Hanau and Babenhausen to his neighbour and political rival, the Archbishop John II of Mainz, who became "de facto" co-ruler of the Lordship of Hanau. On the other hand, Ulrich and his brothers were first cousins once removed of John II, so the ruling power remained in the family.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Coup of 1404.

paragraph: From 1400 onward, Reinhard and John of Hanau came to a political understanding with John II of Mainz. In 1402, their relationship became even closer and eventually, John II changed sides in the conflict the two younger brothers had with Ulrich. In 1404, power gradually shifted from Ulrich V to Reinhard II and on 26 November 1404, Ulrich was forced to abdicate.

paragraph: From 1404 to 1411, Reinhard and John ruled jointly. After John died in 1411, Reinhard II ruled alone.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Expansion of the County.

paragraph: The most important event of the dynastic reign of Reinhard II is his elevation to Imperial Count on 11 December 1429 by emperor Sigismund.

paragraph: From the year 1400, Reinhard II is active in imperial affairs. He co-signed the document, which deposes King Wenceslaus, and he was present at the election of King Sigismund in 1411. He appears as a witness at the elections of Emperor Albert II in 1438 and Frederick III in 1442. In 1401, Reinhard II and his brother John received and invitation to participate in an expedition to Rome. In 1414, he attended the Council of Constance.

paragraph: Reinhard II was often involved in feuds with neighbouring noblemen. In 1405, he fought in the side of Rupert against the robber barons in the Wetterau area. They dealt with the Water Castle at Rückingen, the castle at Höchst, Mömbris Castle, Wasserlos Castle, Hüttelngesäß Castle, Karben Castle and Hauenstein Castle. He also acted to maintain the regional peace, and to promote local agreements to resolve disputes and feuds peacefully and judicially. For example, in 1434, he mediated such an agreement between Mainz, Eppstein, Isenburg-Büdingen and Rieneck. He also served short term as regent in the County of Rieneck.

paragraph: His long reign was marked by an upswing in county government and later in many areas. This is for example reflected in the fact that during his reign, the dowry of his daughters got higher and higher. He reformed the administration and the judiciary. In 1434, the County of Hanau is released from all forms of foreign jurisdiction. He promoted churches and schools. His reign represent the beginning of the transition from the Middle Ages to the Early Modern Period and the transition to a modern territorial state.

paragraph: During his reign, the territory of the County was expanded. In 1434, he received the district of Bornheimerberg as a fief (it had been pledged to him earlier by the Empire); in 1435, he acquired half the mortgage stock on Gelnhausen (the Electorate of the Palatinate held the other half), and in 1446, he acquired a part of the inheritance of the Counts of Falkenstein.

paragraph: The focus in his county shifts to the city of Hanau. Some authors report that the capital was officially moved from Windecken Castle to Hanau in 1436, but no proof of this is available. The city of Hanau expanded during his reign, into the area of today's Hospital Street. Reinhard II expanded the Late Gothic collegiate Church of Mary Magdalene and increased the number of altar priests. During this period, the Church of Mary Magdalene became the parish church of Hanau, replacing the church at Kinzdorf.

paragraph: Section::::Reign.:Relation to the Archbishopric of Mainz.

paragraph: During the reign of Ulrich V, Hanau had fallen into ever greater dependence on the Archbishop in Mainz. For example, when the archbishop of Mainz spoke of "his" city of Hanau, he had obviously – possibly by a mortgage – gained control of the city. Reinhard II's attempts during the early years of his reign, to reverse this trend, were successful.

paragraph: The climax of this development was reached when, after the death of the archbishop in 1419, Reinhard II succeeded in recovering absolute title over the cities of Hanau and Babenhausen. For centuries, the counts of Hanau served Martini wine on certain occasions. There is a legend that this custom was introduced to celebrate Reinhard's recovery of control over Hanau. There is, however, no reliable evidence of this origin.

paragraph: Mainz was more successful in its attempts to expand on the other side of the Main (river): in 1425, the archbishop purchased the district of Steinheim from the Lords of Eppstein. Thus Mainz continued to present a threat to the County of Hanau.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Reinhard II died on 26 June 1451 and was buried in St. Mary's Church in Hanau. He was the first member of the House of Hanau to be buried there, as all his ancestors had been buried at Arnsburg Abbey.

paragraph: His grave stone has been preserved to this day.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and issue.

paragraph: The 1391 contract allowed Reinhard II to marry. He did so on 18 January 1407 with Catherine of Nassau-Beilstein (died: 6 September 1459). they had the following children:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Catherine (1408–1460), married:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. in 1421 with Count Thomas II of Rieneck (1408–1431)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. between 1432 and 1434 with Count William II of Henneberg-Schleusingen (1415–1444, died in a hunting accident)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Anna (born: 15 June 1409), after 1439 abbess of the Patershausen monastery

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Margaret (1411–1441)

paragraph: BULLET::::1. married in 1440 with Gottfried VIII of Epstein (d. 1466)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Reinhard III (1412–1452), succeeded his father in 1451 as ruler of the County of Hanau

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Elisabeth (1416–1446)

paragraph: BULLET::::1. married on 4 May 1432 with Wild- and Rhinegrave John IV of Dhaun (1422–1476)

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Philip I "the Elder" (1417–1480), founder of the Hanau-Lichtenberg line

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reinhard Dietrich: "Die Landesverfassung in dem Hanauischen" = "Hanauer Geschichtsblätter", vol. 34, Hanau, 1996,

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reinhard Dietrich: "Die Abdankung Ulrichs V. von Hanau – Ursachen und Folgen", in: "Hanauer Geschichtsblätter", vol. 31, Hanau, 1993

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reinhard Suchier: "Genealogie des Hanauer Grafenhauses", in: "Festschrift des Hanauer Geschichtsvereins zu seiner fünfzigjährigen Jubelfeier am 27. August 1894", Hanau, 1894

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ernst J. Zimmermann: "Hanau Stadt und Land", 3rd edition, Hanau, 1919, reprinted: 1978

wikidata_label: Reinhard II, Count of Hanau

wikipedia_title: Reinhard II, Count of Hanau


text:
Brussels
Daniel van Heil
Leo van Heil
Jan Baptist van Heil
Guild of St. Luke
Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium
Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium
Jan Baptist Bonnecroy

categories: 1691 deaths,People from Brussels,1635 births,Flemish Baroque painters,Flemish landscape painters

paragraph: Theodoor van Heil

paragraph: Theodoor van Heil (Brussels, 1635 – after 1691), was a Flemish landscape painter known for his winter landscapes, city views and scenes of burning cities.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Theodoor van Heil was the son of Daniel van Heil, a landscape painter. He came from an artistic family: his grandfather Leo was a painter as were two of his uncles: Leo van Heil was an architect and painter and Jan Baptist van Heil was a portrait and history painter.

paragraph: Theodoor is believed to have trained with his father. He became a master of the Brussels Guild of St. Luke in 1668.

paragraph: It is known that the artist was still alive in 1691. If he was the painter of the (Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium) he must still have been alive in 1695.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Theodoor van Heil is known for landscapes in the manner of his father. This included winter landscapes and scenes of fires in cities.

paragraph: Theodoor van Heil painted a number of topographic views of his home town Brussels. One (1692, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium) shows a bird's eye view of the city seen from the north. When compared with the painted by the Antwerp artist Jan Baptist Bonnecroy about 30 years earlier, van Heil's view shows the city from a greater distance and from a lower viewpoint. The consequence of this is that the buildings are shown in a more compact manner. Only the large monuments are recognisable. Van Heil depicted in the foreground scenes from country life such as horse riders, cowherds, shepherds and peasants.

paragraph: Of the five other views of Brussels by Theodoor van Heil in the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, two offer closer views of the city and three picture fires in Brussels. Particularly memorable is the , which shows the city in flames after the bombardment by the French troops.

alias:
Théodore van Heil
Theodore Van Heil
Theodore van Heil
Th. van Heil
Théodore Van Heil

description: Flemish Baroque painter

wikidata_label: Theodoor van Heil

wikipedia_title: Theodoor van Heil


text:
Franeker
Dutch
racing cyclist
List of Dutch Olympic cyclists

wikipedia_title:
Franeker
Netherlands
Cycle sport
List of Dutch Olympic cyclists

categories: Olympic cyclists of the Netherlands,Dutch male cyclists,People from Franekeradeel,Living people,1984 births,Cyclists at the 2012 Summer Olympics,Dutch cyclists at the UCI Track Cycling World Championships,Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics,Sportspeople from Friesland

paragraph: Jenning Huizenga

paragraph: Jenning Huizenga (born 29 March 1984 in Franeker) is a Dutch professional racing cyclist.

paragraph: In 2014, Huizenga will compete with the Parkhotel Valkenburg Continental Team.

paragraph: Section::::Career highlights.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2005

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2007

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2011

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2012

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2013

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Dutch Olympic cyclists

description: Dutch racing cyclist

wikidata_label: Jenning Huizenga

wikipedia_title: Jenning Huizenga


text:
Żyrardów
Polish
racing cyclist
doping
ephedrine

wikipedia_title:
Żyrardów
Poland
Cycle sport
Doping in sport
Ephedrine

categories: Olympic cyclists of Poland,Polish track cyclists,Doping cases in cycling,People from Żyrardów,Polish male cyclists,1983 births,Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics,Living people,Sportspeople from Masovian Voivodeship

paragraph: Rafał Ratajczyk

paragraph: Rafał Ratajczyk (born 5 April 1983, in Żyrardów) is a Polish professional racing cyclist.

paragraph: Section::::Doping.

paragraph: In December 2009, he was banned by the Polish Cycling Association for half a year for doping. He tested positive for ephedrine.

paragraph: Section::::Career highlights.

paragraph: BULLET::::1. 2002: 3rd in European Championship, Track, Scratch, U23, Buttgen (GER)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. 2004: 1st in European Championship, Track, Points race, U23, Valencia

paragraph: BULLET::::3. 2004: 2nd in European Championship, Track, Scratch, U23, Valencia

paragraph: BULLET::::4. 2005: 1st in National Championship, Road, ITT, U23, Poland, Sobótka (POL)

paragraph: BULLET::::5. 2006: 1st in Manchester, Scratch (GBR)

paragraph: BULLET::::6. 2006: 1st in Sydney, Scratch (AUS)

paragraph: BULLET::::7. 2006: 2nd in World Championship, Track, Points race, Elite, Bordeaux

paragraph: BULLET::::8. 2006: 2nd in European Championship, Track, Omnium, Elite, Ballerup (DEN)

paragraph: BULLET::::9. 2007: 1st in Manchester, Scratch (GBR)

paragraph: BULLET::::10. 2007: 3rd in World Championship, Track, Scratch, Elite, Palma de Mallorca (SPA)

paragraph: BULLET::::11. 2007: 2nd in Aigle, Points race (SUI)

paragraph: BULLET::::12. 2007: 2nd in European Championship, Track, Omnium, Elite, Alkmaar

paragraph: BULLET::::13. 2007: 3rd in UIV Cup Dortmund, U23 (GER)

paragraph: BULLET::::14. 2008: 2nd in Los Angeles, Points race (USA)

paragraph: BULLET::::15. 2011: 1st in European Track Championships, Points race, Elite, Apeldoorn (NL)

description: Racing cyclist

wikidata_label: Rafał Ratajczyk

wikipedia_title: Rafał Ratajczyk


text:
American
sculptor
Zbigniew Brzezinski
Geneva, Switzerland
Wellesley College
Massachusetts
United States
Washington, D.C.
cherry tree
bronze
Grounds for Sculpture
sculpture park
museum
New Jersey
Florence Biennale
Vancouver
Czechoslovakia
Edvard Beneš
Polish
Zbigniew Brzezinski
President Carter
Ian Brzezinski
Mark Brzezinski
President Clinton
President Obama
Mika Brzezinski
MSNBC
Václav Edvard Beneš
Museum Kampa
Prague
Vancouver Sculpture Biennale
Grounds for Sculpture: Collection
Official website

categories: 20th-century American sculptors,21st-century American sculptors,21st-century American women artists,Swiss emigrants to the United States,Brzezinski family,1933 births,American people of Czech descent,United States Assistant Secretaries of Defense,People from Geneva,Wellesley College alumni,20th-century American women artists,Living people

paragraph: Emilie Benes Brzezinski

paragraph: Emilie Beneš Brzezinski (born Emilie Anna Beneš; 1933) is an American sculptor and the widow of Zbigniew Brzezinski.

paragraph: Section::::Education and career.

paragraph: Emilie Beneš was born in Geneva, Switzerland. She earned a fine arts degree at Wellesley College in Massachusetts, United States. After marrying, she sculpted for 25 years while raising a family, then had her first solo show in 1981 in Washington, D.C.

paragraph: Since the 1980s, most of her works have been in wood. Her monumental 1993 work "Lintel", constructed from cut cherry trees and then cast in bronze, is in the collection of Grounds for Sculpture, a sculpture park and museum in New Jersey. She exhibited in the 2003 Florence Biennale and participated by invitation in the 2005 Vancouver International Sculpture Biennale.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Shortly after graduating from Wellesley, Emilie Beneš, herself a relative of Czechoslovakia's former president Edvard Beneš, married Polish-born emigrant turned naturalized citizen Zbigniew Brzezinski, a political scientist who served as an adviser to President Carter. The Brzezinskis have three children. Their oldest son, Ian Brzezinski, has served as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Europe and NATO Policy in 2001–2005, under President George W. Bush, among other roles. Their second son, Mark Brzezinski, is a lawyer and political appointee who has served as an adviser to President Clinton and President Obama. Their youngest child, Mika Brzezinski, is a television journalist, political commentator, and co-host for MSNBC.

paragraph: Václav Edvard Beneš, a mathematician, is her brother.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museum Kampa in Prague

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vancouver Sculpture Biennale

paragraph: BULLET::::- Grounds for Sculpture: Collection

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official website

alias:
Emily Benes Brzezinski
Emilie Benes

description: American artist and sculptor

wikidata_label: Emilie Benes Brzezinski

wikipedia_title: Emilie Benes Brzezinski


text:
Bremen
diocese of Skara
Adam of Bremen
Värmland
Skara Cathedral
Adalvard the Younger

categories: Viking Age clergy,11th-century clergy,1060s deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Adalvard the Elder

paragraph: Adalvard the Elder (dead c. 1064) was a German clergyman. He was first the dean of Bremen, but he was sent to the diocese of Skara in Sweden, as bishop during the early 1060s. Adam of Bremen wrote well of him, and tells that he made missionary attempts in Värmland. In Skara Cathedral a chalice was found with the inscription "Adalwardus Peccator" (Adalvard the sinner). He was succeeded by Adalvard the Younger.

description: 11th-century German clergyman

wikidata_label: Adalvard the Elder

wikipedia_title: Adalvard the Elder


text:
Villerupt
French
Grand Prix
motorcycle
road racer
250cc European Championship
2000
Tech 3
Shinya Nakano
Daijiro Kato
250cc Motorcycle World Champion
Yamaha YZR250
2001
Tech 3
2004
Moriwaki
2005
Alex Hofmann
China
Valentino Rossi
Kawasaki
2006
2007
Randy de Puniet
Sete Gibernau
Istanbul
Colin Edwards
Dani Pedrosa
Chris Vermeulen
Shanghai
Le Mans
Barcelona
Kawasaki Racing Team
Peace and Sport
Monaco
Official website

categories: Kawasaki Motors Racing MotoGP riders,Sportspeople from Meurthe-et-Moselle,Living people,French motorcycle racers,Knights of the National Order of Merit (France),250cc World Championship riders,500cc World Championship riders,Tech 3 MotoGP riders,1973 births

paragraph: Olivier Jacque

paragraph: Olivier Jacque (born 29 August 1973 in Villerupt, France) is a French former professional Grand Prix motorcycle road racer.

paragraph: Section::::Motorcycling career.

paragraph: He was second in the 250cc European Championship in 1994, before moving on to the 250cc World Championship. He achieved a top ten finish in the points standings every year he competed. In 2000 he had a season-long battle for the championship with Tech 3 teammate Shinya Nakano and Daijiro Kato, ultimately winning the 250cc Motorcycle World Champion on a Yamaha YZR250.

paragraph: For 2001, he moved up to the 500 cc class with the Tech 3 team. He spent three years in them, before starting 2004 without a ride. He made one appearance on a Moriwaki bike, but again was without a ride as 2005 started. He stepped in for the injured Alex Hofmann in China and stunned the series regulars by finishing 2nd to Valentino Rossi on the factory Kawasaki. He was then permanently hired by Kawasaki as an occasional extra race rider. He did not race for them in 2006, but was chosen for 2007 alongside countryman Randy de Puniet, replacing Nakano. Sete Gibernau was later revealed to have rejected the ride before Jacque was offered it.

paragraph: However, the season was a disaster. At Istanbul he triggered a four-bike collision, missing his braking point into a corner on lap 1 and hitting Colin Edwards, with Dani Pedrosa and Chris Vermeulen also getting caught up. In the next round in Shanghai he crashed in practice, gashing his arm severely enough to be unable to race there or at Le Mans. He again crashed in practice at Barcelona, missing this race too.

paragraph: Following the series of injuries, Olivier announced his retirement from MotoGP in June 2007. He remains as development rider and technical advisor for Kawasaki Racing Team.

paragraph: Section::::Commitment.

paragraph: Olivier Jacque is today a member of the ‘Champions for Peace’ club, a group of 54 famous elite athletes committed to serving peace in the world through sport, created by Peace and Sport, a Monaco-based international organization.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official website

description: Japanese motorcycle racer

wikidata_label: Olivier Jacque

wikipedia_title: Olivier Jacque


text:
Prus
Polish
general
Napoleonic Wars
baron
French Empire
Napoleon Bonaparte
November Uprising
Vistula River
szlachta
National Cavalry
War of the Constitution
Kościuszko's Uprising
Tadeusz Kościuszko
Ostrołęka
Łasia
Captain of Cavalry
Polish Legions in Italy
Jan Henryk Dąbrowski
Legnano
Castel Nuovo
Castel Franco
battle of Naples
siege of Mantua
Napoleonic Wars
Prussia
Glogau
Neisse
podpułkownik
Vistulan Legion
Peninsular War
Tudela
First Siege of Saragossa
Siege of Valencia
Louis Gabriel Suchet
Napoleon Bonaparte
Baron of the Empire
French invasion of Russia
battles of Smolensk
Vitebsk
Mozhaysk
Maloyaroslavets
Eugene Beauharnais
Vilna
brigadier general
V Cavalry Corps
Édouard Jean-Baptiste Milhaud
Battle of Leipzig
Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube
Congress Poland
Łowicz
November Uprising
Józef Chłopicki
Kostroma
sanatoria
Rome
Campo Verano

categories: Polish commanders of the Napoleonic Wars,Generals of the November Uprising,1847 deaths,1775 births,Polish generals

paragraph: Stanisław Klicki

paragraph: Stanisław Klicki of Prus (1775–1847) was a Polish military commander, aristocrat and a general of the Polish forces. For his service during the Napoleonic Wars, he was made a baron of the French Empire by Napoleon Bonaparte. During the November Uprising he commanded all Polish forces on the left bank of the Vistula River.

paragraph: Born to a lesser szlachta family, Klicki started his military career in 1791, joining the ranks of the National Cavalry. He fought with distinction in the War of the Constitution. A skilled cavalryman, during the Kościuszko's Uprising of 1794 he became the "governor of National Cavalry" under Tadeusz Kościuszko. For his valour shown in the battles of Ostrołęka and Łasia, he was promoted to the rank of Captain of Cavalry. Soon afterwards he was attached to Gen. Zieliński. After the fall of the uprising he was forced to leave the country and settled in Italy.

paragraph: There in 1797 he joined the Polish Legions in Italy and fought under command of Gen. Jan Henryk Dąbrowski. Klicki took part in the battles of Legnano, Castel Nuovo, Castel Franco and the battle of Naples. During the siege of Mantua in 1799 he was taken prisoner by the Austrians, but was released soon afterwards and returned to his unit. Promoted to the rank of Major, he became a commanding officer of the 5th Battalion. Soon afterwards, in 1800, he left the infantry and was among the first officers to be accepted in the newly formed 1st Uhlans' Regiment of the Legion.

paragraph: During the Napoleonic Wars he fought with distinction in several campaigns. During the war against Prussia he took part in the battles of Świdnica, Glogau and Neisse. On July 1, 1807 he was again promoted, this time to the rank of podpułkownik (lieutenant colonel). In that rank he joined the Vistulan Legion and became the commander of the cavalry of that unit. With his men he took part in the Peninsular War and fought in the battles of Mallen, Alagon, Epila and Tudela. In the summer of 1808 he fought in the First Siege of Saragossa. Following the Siege of Valencia he was awarded by Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet with a private audience with Napoleon Bonaparte. The Emperor granted him a yearly reward of 2000 francs and a promotion to colonel. Considered a hero, in 1812 Klicki was made a Baron of the Empire.

paragraph: During the French invasion of Russia Klicki returned to front-line service and fought at battles of Smolensk, Vitebsk, Mozhaysk and Maloyaroslavets. During the retreat he was among the most successful commanders of the fleeing armies and managed to save almost all of his 4000 men, including viceroy of Italy Eugene Beauharnais. He found his way to Vilna, which he attempted to defend against the pursuing Russians. However, his attempt failed and Klicki retreated with his units further westwards. He then fought in the Saxon Campaign (at Köppen, Motzern, Dresden, Magdeburg and Möchern). On July 22, 1813 he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general and became the commanding officer of the 32nd Light Cavalry Brigade of the V Cavalry Corps under General Édouard Jean-Baptiste Milhaud. He led his brigade in the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. He moved to France and fought in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube in 1814. However, the abdication of Napoleon stopped his military career in the French forces.

paragraph: He resigned his post and returned to Congress Poland, where he joined the army and became the commanding officer of the 2nd Brigade of Mounted Rifles. In 1817 he was nominated the commanding officer of the entire division, but for unknown reasons the document was handed to him only in 1826. He set up his staff in Łowicz. There he greeted the outbreak of the November Uprising. Together with his division he arrived to Warsaw and subordinated himself to the Provisional Government and General Józef Chłopicki. Following the latter's resignation, Klicki briefly served as a deputy Commander-in-Chief and since December 18, 1830, was a member of the War Council. As his support for the uprising was weak and his health was failing, in 1831 he resigned his post and was allowed to leave Poland for Bavaria, where he intended to settle. However, on crossing the Austrian border he was arrested and handed over to the Russians, who imprisoned him and resettled to Kostroma. Released in 1836, he spent the rest of his life in sanatoria. Stanisław Klicki died April 23, 1847 in Rome, and was buried at the Campo Verano cemetery.

description: Polish general

wikidata_label: Stanisław Klicki

wikipedia_title: Stanisław Klicki


text: Welsh

text: Latin

text: Brython

text: Westcountry

text: martyr

text: English

text: Devon

text: North Devon

text: Chittlehampton

text: John Leland

text: Capgrave

text: miracle

text: Latin

text: Trinity College, Cambridge

text: William Camden

text: Swimbridge parish

text: English

text: Devon

text: Kea

text: pagan

text: scythe

text: spring

text: Chittlehampton

text: parish church

text: feast day

text: tithe

text: glebe

text: pulpit

text: martyr

text: palm

text: stained-glass

text: Nettlecombe

text: Somerset

text: Robert Edward Trefusis

text: Bishop of Crediton

text: Sir John Pole, 3rd Baronet

text: Shute

text: Sir John Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet

text: Nettlecombe Court

text: Knowstone

text: John Chichester

text: Raleigh

text: Devon

text: John Trevelyan

text: Nettlecombe Court

text: Devon CC: Chittlehampton

categories: 8th-century Christian martyrs,Southwestern Brythonic saints

paragraph: Urith

paragraph: Urith (more properly in Welsh Iwerydd, but also known in Latin as Hieritha and occasionally corrupted to Erth), was a Brythonic maiden from the Westcountry who was martyred, possibly in the early 8th century, and subsequently revered as a saint. The name is still common in the English county of Devon. Her feast day is 8 July and her shrine is located in the North Devon village of Chittlehampton.

paragraph: Section::::History.

paragraph: Urith is a fairly obscure figure. John Leland makes no mention of her, nor does Capgrave's "Nova Legenda Angliae", and Nicholas Roscarock knew little of her apart from the fact of her existence. A book of her life, containing a record of her miracles, was at one time present in her shrine, and appears to be the basis of a rhyming poem in Latin now held by Trinity College, Cambridge. According to both this and William Camden, her legend was as follows:

paragraph: Section::::History.:The legend.

paragraph: Legend says Saint Urith was born at East Stowford in Swimbridge parish, in the English county of Devon. She was converted to Christianity by St Kea, lived as a hermit in nearby Chittlehampton, where she founded a church. At the urging of an allegedly jealous, and perhaps pagan, stepmother, some female haymakers beheaded the girl with a scythe, during a period of severe drought. When she fell to the ground, a spring of water burst from the spot and flowers, thought to be scarlet pimpernels, sprang forth wherever a drop of her blood was sprinkled.

paragraph: Section::::Veneration.

paragraph: Saint Urith's holy well still stands at the east end of Chittlehampton, now called by the corrupt name of Taddy Well or Saint Teara's Well. Many of the pilgrims were sufferers of eye disease who came to anoint themselves with the holy water. There are still two stone crosses in the parish which may have been guideposts to the shrine. The exact burial place of Saint Urith was probably in the small chapel on the north side of the sanctuary of the parish church, which originally contained an image of the saint. This chapel now doubles as a passage leading to a vestry. There is reason to believe that a medieval slab there may still cover Saint Urith's body. There was a regular pilgrimage to her shrine on her feast day, 8 July, until 1539. Offerings left there were sufficient to rebuild the church tower, reputedly the finest in Devon. Even in the last year of pilgrimages, the vicar received £50 from his share of the offerings. This was three times his income from tithes and glebe. By 1540 the saint's statue had been removed from the church. The pulpit of the church, carved around 1500, survives and this depicts Urith holding a martyr's palm and the foundation stone of the church. A modern statue now stands in a niche high up on the exterior of the tower and she is also shown in a stained-glass window of the 16th century found at Nettlecombe in Somerset.

paragraph: Continuing the tradition, the pilgrimage has now been revived and villagers still celebrate the legend on her feast day, with a procession to the well. The Trinity College hymn is sung by the congregation, the well is opened and water drawn from it and blessed.

paragraph: Section::::Veneration.:The Trinity College hymn.

paragraph: ""Sing, Chittlehampton, sing! BR

paragraph: "Let all Devon's meadows ring with Holy Gladness for our Saint's renown", BR

paragraph: "And thou", BR

paragraph: "Blest maiden pray", BR

paragraph: "that we on this our day", BR

paragraph: "May bear our cross and win our heavenly crown"".

paragraph: Section::::Devonshire girls baptised Urith.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hyeritha Trefusis, a daughter of Robert Edward Trefusis (1843–1930), vicar of Chittlehampton 1867–89 and later suffragan Bishop of Crediton. She became known to local parishioners as "Miss Urith".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Urith Pole, a daughter of Sir John Pole, 3rd Baronet (1649–1708), of Shute, Devon, and wife of Sir John Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet (1670–1755), of Nettlecombe Court in Somerset. A stained-glass figure of St Urith survives in an early 16th-century window in Nettlecombe Church, with the Latin inscription "Sancta Uritha".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Urith Shapcott (born 1617), wife of Sir Courtenay Pole, 2nd Baronet (1618–1695). She was the daughter of the lawyer Thomas Shapcott (1587–1670) of Shapcott in the parish of Knowstone, Devon, by his wife Urith Sotherin (d. 1661) of Cheshire.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Urith Chichester, a daughter of Sir John Chichester (1519/20 – 1569) of Raleigh in Devon, who in 1591 married John Trevelyan of Nettlecombe Court in Somerset. It may have been in memory of this marriage that the existing stained-glass figure of a female saint (possibly St Sidwell) in a window of Nettlecombe Church was given the inscription "Sancta Uritha".

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Farmer, David Hugh. (1978). "The Oxford Dictionary of Saints". Oxford: Oxford University Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Withycombe, E. G. (1950) "The Oxford Dictionary of English Christian Names"; 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press; p. 272

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Devon CC: Chittlehampton

paragraph: BULLET::::- Icon of St. Urith of Chittlehampton written in canonical style.

description: Anglo-Saxon saint

wikidata_label: Urith

wikipedia_title: Urith


text: Commander-in-Chief, North America

text: Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia

text: Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick

text: East Norfolk Regiment of Militia

text: 25th Foot

text: George III

text: Gibraltar

text: Commander-in-Chief, North America

text: major general

text: St. Paul's Church (Halifax)

text: Nova Scotia

text: Chelsworth

categories: Governors of the Colony of Nova Scotia,1767 births,British Army generals,1823 deaths,King's Own Scottish Borderers officers,Governors of the Colony of New Brunswick

paragraph: George Stracey Smyth

paragraph: George Stracey Smyth (4 April 1767 – 27 March 1823) was Commander-in-Chief, North America, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia and Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born in England, he was appointed an ensign in the East Norfolk Regiment of Militia in 1779. He joined the army as an ensign in the 25th Foot in 1780. In 1791, as a lieutenant, he served with Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of George III, in Gibraltar. He would serve on the prince's staff in Gibraltar, Quebec, the West Indies, and Nova Scotia for twelve years. In 1798, he was promoted to major and the following year was the senior aide-de-camp and acting quartermaster general for the Duke of Kent when he became Commander-in-Chief, North America. In 1812, he was promoted to major general. From 1817 to 1823, he was the Lieutenant-Governor of New Brunswick.

paragraph: While he was Commander-in-Chief his wife Amelia Ann Smyth died and has a memorial to her in St. Paul's Church (Halifax), Nova Scotia. There is a memorial to him in the church of All Saints, Chelsworth, Suffolk, England that was erected by his brother John Gee Smyth, Rector of Chelsworth, Suffolk and Chaplain to the Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. (His brother John became the guardian of George's children upon his death in 1823.)

description: British Army general

wikidata_label: George Stracey Smyth

wikipedia_title: George Stracey Smyth


href: Schorbus Drebkau Naumburg Wends Sorbs Lusatia Domowina Sorbian%20languages Cottbus Dissen-Striesow Sielow Rudolstadt Mina%20Witkojc Fritz%20Lattke

text:
Schorbus
Drebkau
Naumburg
Wendish
Sorbian
Lausitz
Domowina
Sorbian language
Cottbus
Dissen
Sielow
Rudolstadt
Mina Witkojc
Fritz Lattke

categories: German Protestant clergy,Writers from Brandenburg,People from Drebkau,People from the Province of Brandenburg,Sorbian-language writers,1873 births,1948 deaths,Sorbian people

paragraph: Bogumił Šwjela

paragraph: Krystijan Bogumił Šwjela (also spelled "Schwela" and "Schwele") (5 September 1873 in Schorbus, Drebkau – 20 May 1948 in Naumburg) was a Wendish/Sorbian Protestant clergyman and ethnic activist in the Lower Lausitz region.

paragraph: He also acted as a linguist and journalist, was chairman of the "Masica Serbska" organization and co-founder of the Sorbian umbrella organization Domowina in 1911. Šwjela advocated the preservation of Sorbian language and culture in the Lower Lausitz.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: After Šwjela had in 1898 completed his theological studies, he sought a long time for a pastoral position in the Lower Lausitz. Beginning in 1904, he was curate at the Wendish church in Cottbus, where he preached regularly in Lower Sorbian, rather than in German.

paragraph: His ordination took place at a time when the oppression of Sorbian language and culture by the Prussian authorities peaked. Education in Sorbian at the Friedrich-Wilhelm-Gymnasium in Cottbus was stopped in 1888 and later religious instruction in the language was also stopped. The older Sorbian intellectuals were initially paralyzed. Šwjela, of the nationally conscious young Sorbian movement, was motivated strongly to work for the cultural interests of the Sorbs. Things came to a head in the Cottbus parish where he continued to minister in Sorbian. In 1908, Swjela had to leave the city because he had refused to hold sermons in German only. He was then several years as vicar in Nochten before he came to the Dissen parish in 1913.

paragraph: Šwjela's father, Kito Šwjela (1836–1922), had edited the Lower Sorbian newspaper "Bramborski Serbski casnik" beginning in 1864. Following in his father's journalistic footsteps, Šwjela wrote for the Lower Sorbian newspapers and magazines "Pratyja", "Bramborski Casnik", and "Woßadnik", whose main author was himself. He founded the series "Serbska knigłownja" (Sorbian Library), in which he published especially poetry but also published literary, religious and popular scientific works by different authors. Šwjela published his textbooks for teaching the Lower Sorbian language in two parts, in 1906 and 1911.

paragraph: Šwjela succeeded in motivating young Sorbs in his region to work on behalf of their traditional national cultural work. He strengthened them in their self-image by contacts in the Sorbian core areas of Oberlausitz.

paragraph: In 1912 Šwjela co-founded the Sorbian umbrella organization Domowina. He suggested the name for the association, and was also elected Deputy Chairman. In the interwar period Šwjela collected the Sorbian geographical name in the Cottbus area and worked on a Lower Sorbian dictionary. Neither work was allowed to be printed until after his death.

paragraph: With the increased power of the National Socialists (Nazis) from 1933 onward, the pressure on the small Slavic minority in Germany increased. The imposition of prohibitions of Sorbian language and some cultural expression began in Domowina in 1937, initiating open persecution of Sorbian life. From that year onward, no publications in Sorbian were allowed to be published. While in most Protestant congregations, services were not held in Sorbian, Šwjela refused to be intimidated. During the Nazi era, he led in the renovation of the church in Dissen, where the Sorbian quoations were again painted on the balcony. He preached in Dissen and Sielow in Sorbian, even though this was forbidden. On April 7, 1941, the Gestapo informed the leading Wendish pastor that all the Wendish pastors' association had been dissolved and its assets seized. Hymn singing, teaching, and preaching was required to be in German, both officially and in private. Therefore, Šwjela was forced to retire and was banished from the Lower Sorbian area of Lausitz to Rudolstadt. In his exile, Šwjela remained committed to the Sorbian cause. Together with earlier companions, including the journalist Mina Witkojc and the painter Fritz Lattke, he developed an important foundation for the revival of the Lower Sorbian culture in the postwar period.

paragraph: In 1946 he was involved in the re-establishment of the Lower Sorbian branch of Domowina and since 1947 he was editor of the Lower Sorbian newspaper "Nowy Casnik". Before he found a new apartment in the Lower Sorbian region, Šwjela died in 1948 from a stroke on a railway journey from Rudolstadt to Cottbus. In Cottbus, a street was named in his honor him.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gerat Hančka: Šwjela, Bogumił. W: Jan Šołta, Pětr Kunze, Franc Šěn (wud.): Nowy biografiski słownik k stawiznam a kulturje Serbow. Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina, Budyšin 1984, str. 556slsl.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lehrbuch der niederwendischen Sprache". Teil 1: Grammatik. Heidelberg 1906; Teil 2: Übungsbuch. Cottbus 1911.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kurzes Lehrbuch der Oberwendischen Sprache". Bautzen 1913

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Evangelska wera mjes Sslowjanami". Bautzen 1915.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vergleichende Grammatik der ober- und niedersorbischen Sprache". Bautzen 1926

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Das Wendentum in der Niederlausitz und im Spreewald". Bautzen 1929

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Serbske praeposicyje. Pó hugronach z ludowych hust hobźěłane a zestajane". In: Časopis Maćicy Serbskeje. 1933/34.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Deutsch-niedersorbisches Taschenwörterbuch". Domowina-Verlag, Bautzen 1953.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Flurnamen des Kreises Cottbus." (= Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Slawistik. Band 17). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1958.

wikidata_label: Bogumił Šwjela

wikipedia_title: Bogumił Šwjela


text: Louis XV of France

text: Encyclopédie

text: Article "Vénerie" in the "Encyclopédie"

text: Charles Gautier de Vinfrais

text: Certificate marriage of Vinfray

categories: 1704 births,Contributors to the Encyclopédie (1751–72),People of the Ancien Régime,People from Saint-Germain-en-Laye

paragraph: Charles Gautier de Vinfrais

paragraph: Charles Gautier de Vinfrais, better known under the name Vinfrais l'ainé, (7 November 1704 – 4 Novembre 1797) was an 18th-century French officer of the Royal venery.

paragraph: Long a huntsman of King Louis XV of France with whom he hunted regularly, Vinfrais wrote the article "Vénerie" for the 16th volume of the "Encyclopédie", comprehensive on the organization and history of Royal Hunts, informative, but poorly organized, absolutely devoid of any critical spirit and silent on the social costs of hunting on the peasantry of his time.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eugène Chapus, "Les Chasses princières en France de 1589 à 1841", Hunting, 1853

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jules Henri D. de Tardy, "Le Particule nobiliaire",

paragraph: BULLET::::- Annie Becq, "L'Encyclopédisme - Actes Du Colloque de Caen, 12–16 January 1987"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Article "Vénerie" in the "Encyclopédie"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Gautier de Vinfrais on Wikisource

paragraph: BULLET::::- Généalogie de la famille Gautier de Vinfrais

paragraph: BULLET::::- Certificate marriage of Vinfray

wikidata_label: Charles Gautier de Vinfrais

wikipedia_title: Charles Gautier de Vinfrais


text: Cesena

text: Jacopo Facciolati

text: Basel

text: Venice

text: Ercole II d'Este

text: duke of Ferrara

text: Pope

text: Martin Luther

text: Inquisition

text: Pope Paul IV

text: Index Librorum Prohibitorum

text: William Shakespeare

text: Seven ages of man

text: As You Like It

categories: Italian medical writers,1500s births,Italian poets,People from the Province of Ferrara,Italian male poets

paragraph: Pier Angelo Manzolli

paragraph: Pier Angelo Manzolli was a name used for the author of the book "Zodiacus vitae", who is believed to be the Neapolitan poet Marcello Stellato, in Latin Marcellus Palingenius Stellatus (born ca. 1500 - died in Cesena before 1551).

paragraph: The persona of Pier Angelo Manzolli was created by Jacopo Facciolati in the eighteenth-century.

paragraph: Section::::Writing.

paragraph: "Zodiacus vitae" is a Latin poem divided into 12 books, one for each sign of the zodiac, published at Basel in 1543, but first published in Venice in 1536, and dedicated to Ercole II d'Este, duke of Ferrara. The didactic poem addresses the subject of human happiness in connection with scientific knowledge, and combines metaphysical speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical hypocrisy, and especially on the Popes and Martin Luther.

paragraph: It was translated into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition on the ground of its rationalizing tendencies. In 1551. After Stellato's death, the Catholic Church burned his heretical bones and Pope Paul IV placed his book in the first Index Librorum Prohibitorum, ("Index of Prohibited Books"), in 1559.

paragraph: Section::::Writing.:Influence in England.

paragraph: As a Christian humanist poet, Palingenius features strongly in the grammar-school education of 16th England. His specific influence on William Shakespeare has been noted especially in the Seven ages of man speech from "As You Like It".

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- F. Watson, "The Zodiacus Vitae" (nd)

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. B. Garrigus, "A Study of the Parallels Between Shakespeare and Palingenius" (Illinois 1938)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter Nahon, «De Marcelli Palingenii Stellati carmine, anno 1534 vulgato, quod 'Zodiacus vitæ' inscribitur», Melissa, Folia perenni Latinitati dicata 210, 2019, 11-14.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marcellus Palingenius Stellatus, "Zodiacus Vitae" Book 11, "Aquarius"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Essay in Latin about the "Zodiacus Vitae"

description: Italian poet

wikidata_label: Pier Angelo Manzolli

wikipedia_title: Pier Angelo Manzolli


text: sea-king

text: Isle of Man

text: Hebrides

text: Guðrøðr Óláfsson

text: King of the Isles

text: King of Dublin

text: Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn

text: High King of Ireland

text: Cenél nEógain

text: Rögnvaldr

text: Chronicle of Mann

text: heir

text: Lewis

text: King of Scots

text: pilgrimage

text: Santiago de Compostela

text: Reginald, Bishop of the Isles

text: King of Scots

text: Ferchar

text: Earl of Ross

text: Guðrøðr

text: Páll Bálkason

text: Skye

text: Alan

text: Lord of Galloway

text: this son

text: Clann Somairle

text: Norwegian king

text: Óspakr-Hákon

text: Norwegians

text: Scots

text: Haraldr

text: Magnús Óláfsson

text: Crovan dynasty

text: Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles

text: Hebrides

text: Isle of Man

text: Irish Sea

text: Great Britain

text: Ireland

text: Inner Hebrides

text: Somairle

text: Lord of Argyll

text: anachronistically

text: styled

text: King of Mann

text: secondary sources

text: Rögnvaldr

text: King of Mann and the Isles

text: epithet

text: hair colour

text: Orkneyinga saga

text: Close Roll

text: papal legate

text: Cardinal priest

text: St Stephen in Celio Monte

text: Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn

text: High King of Ireland

text: Henry II, King of England

text: Gaelic

text: concubine

text: Lewis

text: Lewis and Harris

text: largest island in Scotland

text: Harris

text: hunting

text: fishing

text: Guðmundr Arason

text: Iceland

text: Norway

text: Bishop of Hólar

text: Sanday

text: tidal island

text: Canna

text: Small Isles

text: William I

text: King of Scots

text: pilgrimage

text: St James

text: Santiago de Compostela

text: Spain

text: Clann Somairle

text: Ragnall mac Somairle

text: Ruaidrí

text: Lord of Kintyre

text: Reginald, Bishop of the Isles

text: c.

text: synod

text: prohibited degree of kinship

text: arranged marriage

text: Nicholas

text: Ferchar mac an t-sagairt

text: Earldom of Ross

text: Alexander II, King of Scots

text: Meic Uilleim

text: Guðrøðr

text: Ross

text: Páll Bálkason

text: Iona

text: furlong

text: pm

text: castrated

text: hostage

text: Argyll

text: Domnall mac Ragnaill

text: Alan

text: Lord of Galloway

text: Thomas

text: Thomas, Earl of Atholl

text: Ronaldsway

text: Tynwald

text: Óspakr-Hákon

text: Eirspennill

text: Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar

text: Hákon Hákonarson

text: Donnchad

text: Dubgall mac Somairle

text: assembly

text: Bergen

text: Þórkell Þórmóðsson

text: Islay

text: Mull of Kintyre

text: Bute

text: the castle

text: Kintyre

text: Iona

text: Scots

text: Lewis

text: Þórmóðr Þórkelson

text: Scottish kingdom

text: John, King of England

text: protégé

text: monastery of Holm Cultram

text: St Patrick's Isle

text: Haraldr

text: Rögnvaldr

text: Magnús

text: kinsman

text: Wales

text: foster-son

text: quitclaim

text: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd

text: Ralph de Mortimer

text: Manx Sword of State

text: ceremonial sword

text: Tynwald Day

text: St John's, Isle of Man

text: Douglas, Isle of Man

text: blade

text: hilt

text: Spain

text: Scottish clans

text: MacLeods

text: Leod

text: heraldic

text: Morrisons of Ness

text: Macaulays of Uig

categories: 13th-century Manx people,Crovan dynasty,13th-century monarchs in Europe,Monarchs of the Isle of Man,13th-century rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles,Rulers of the Kingdom of the Isles,1237 deaths,12th-century Manx people

paragraph: Olaf the Black

paragraph: Óláfr Guðrøðarson (), commonly known in English as Olaf the Black, was a mid 13th century sea-king who ruled the Isle of Man (Mann) and parts of the Hebrides. Óláfr was the son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of the Isles, King of Dublin, and his wife Finnguala, granddaughter of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, High King of Ireland, King of Cenél nEógain. Óláfr was a younger son of his father; his elder brother Rögnvaldr more than likely had a different mother. According to the "Chronicle of Mann", Guðrøðr appointed Óláfr as heir since he had been born "in lawful wedlock". Whether or not this is the case, on Guðrøðr's death in 1187 the Manxmen instead appointed Rögnvaldr as king, as he was a capable adult and Óláfr was a mere child. Rögnvaldr ruled the Crovan dynasty's island-kingdom for almost 40 years, during which time the half-brothers vied for the kingship.

paragraph: At one point Óláfr, who had been given possession of Lewis, complained to Rögnvaldr that his lands were not enough. Rögnvaldr's response was to seize Óláfr and send him to the King of Scots, where he was imprisoned for almost seven years. Upon his release, Óláfr undertook a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, after which the half-brothers were reconciled and Rögnvaldr had Óláfr married to Lauon, the sister of his own wife. Sometime after 1217 this marriage was nullified by Reginald, Bishop of the Isles, who may have been an ally of Óláfr against Rögnvaldr. Óláfr then married Christina, a daughter of the King of Scots' protégé Ferchar, Earl of Ross. The chronicle claims that Rögnvaldr's bitter wife tricked their own son, Guðrøðr, into attempting to kill Óláfr; however, Óláfr narrowly escaped with his life and fled to the protection of his father-in-law on the mainland. Together with a loyal follower, one Páll Bálkason, Óláfr later defeated Guðrøðr on Skye.

paragraph: In the 1220s Rögnvaldr formed an alliance with Alan, Lord of Galloway, in an attempt to fend off Óláfr. Rögnvaldr married his daughter to one of Alan's sons, and it has been theorised that this son was intended to inherit the island-kingdom. Rögnvaldr's actions enraged the Manxmen and in 1226 they deposed him in favour of Óláfr. Rögnvaldr was later killed battling Óláfr in 1229.

paragraph: In 1230 Óláfr fled to Norway to seek military assistance against Alan and members of Clann Somairle. The Norwegian king's response was to send a fleet into the Isles under the command of Óspakr-Hákon, a member of Clann Somairle. Óspakr-Hákon was slain early in the campaign, after which Óláfr took control of the fleet and secured himself on Mann. The island-kingdom was divided between him and his mutilated nephew Guðrøðr, with the latter ruling the Hebridean portion and Óláfr ruling Mann itself. Guðrøðr was soon after killed on Lewis, and Óláfr ruled the whole Kingdom of Mann and the Isles peacefully, until his death in 1237. Óláfr's restoration on Mann was seen as a success by the Norwegians, and likely favourably viewed by the Scots as well; since the internal struggle between him and his rivals had been brought to an end. Óláfr was succeeded by his son, Haraldr. In all, three of Óláfr's sons ruled the Crovan dynasty's island-kingdom—the last of which, Magnús Óláfsson, was also the last of the dynasty to rule.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Óláfr was a member of the Crovan dynasty of sea-kings, a younger son of Guðrøðr Óláfsson, King of Dublin and the Isles (d. 1187), and grandson of Óláfr Guðrøðarson, King of the Isles (d. 1153). Guðrøðr inherited a vast island-kingdom from his father, which encompassed the Hebrides—situated on the western seaboard of Scotland—and the Isle of Man (Mann), located in the middle of the northern Irish Sea, a strategically important point approximately equidistant from the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. In the mid 12th century Guðrøðr lost control of much of the Inner Hebrides to Somairle, Lord of Argyll, and was unable to regain these islands on Somairle's death in 1164. Like his predecessors, Guðrøðr is sometimes anachronistically styled "King of Mann" in secondary sources. This is because Guðrøðr, his sons Rögnvaldr and Óláfr, and his father Óláfr styled themselves "Rex Insularum" ("King of the Isles"); it was not until the reigns of Guðrøðr's grandsons (Óláfr's sons) that the leading members of the dynasty adopted the Latin title "Rex Manniae et Insularum" ("King of Mann and the Isles").

paragraph: Óláfr's epithet "the black", considered to refer to his hair colour, is recorded in the "Orkneyinga saga" and within a 13th-century English document, the Close Roll.

paragraph: Section::::Ascension of Rögnvaldr Guðrøðarson.

paragraph: According to the "Chronicle of Mann" Guðrøðr, in 1187, instructed that his younger son Óláfr should succeed to the kingdom, since Óláfr had been born "in lawful wedlock". Other contemporary sources record that two decades prior to this the papal legate, Vivian Cardinal priest of St Stephen in Celio Monte, visited Mann for a fortnight in late December 1176, as he sailed from Scotland to Ireland. The chronicle records that during his visit the cardinal formally married Guðrøðr to Finnguala, daughter of an unnamed son of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn, High King of Ireland (d. 1166). Finnguala's father was more than likely Niall Mac Lochlainn, King of Cenél nEógain (died 1176). Since the chronicle contradicts itself in detailing Óláfr's age, it is uncertain whether he was born during the year of his father's marriage, or a few years before—what is certain, however, is that Rögnvaldr was older than Óláfr.

paragraph: Although the chronicle indirectly implies that Rögnvaldr was also a son of Finnguala, there is evidence that strongly suggests that he had a different mother. Within a letter from Óláfr to Henry II, King of England, Óláfr describes Rögnvaldr as a bastard. Further evidence is found within a Gaelic praise-poem of Rögnvaldr, which states that he was a son of Sadb, an otherwise unknown Irishwoman who may have been an unrecorded wife or concubine of Guðrøðr. The chronicle records that because Óláfr was only a child at the time of his father's death, the Manxmen chose Rögnvaldr to rule instead, describing him as a vigorous and hardier man. The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr began his reign the following year, in 1188.

paragraph: Section::::In the Outer Isles, and imprisonment.

paragraph: The "Chronicle of Mann" states that Rögnvaldr gave Óláfr possession of Lewis, which is described as an island; Lewis is in fact the northern part of the island of Lewis and Harris, which is by far the largest island in Scotland. The northern part of the island is rather flat and boggy, while the southern part, Harris, is more mountainous. The chronicle seems, however, to have conflated the northern and southern parts as it describes Óláfr's island as being mountainous and rocky, completely unsuitable for cultivation, and declares that the island's small population lived mostly by hunting and fishing. The chronicle relates that Óláfr was unable to support himself and his followers, because of his poor land, and states that he led "a sorry life".

paragraph: Óláfr's time in the Isles is confirmed by several Icelandic sources which recount how, in 1202, Guðmundr Arason attempted to sail from Iceland to Norway to become consecrated as the Bishop of Hólar. These saga accounts relate how the Icelanders encountered a severe storm and were blown far off course before being forced to make landfall in the Hebrides. The island they landed upon was almost certainly Sanday, a tiny tidal island linked to its larger neighbour Canna, the westernmost of the Small Isles. According to the saga the Icelanders were pressured numerous times to pay a landing-tax to a king named "Óláfr". The king encountered by the Icelanders is considered to have been Óláfr, although at this point in history the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles is not known to have encompassed the Small Isles. One possibility is that Óláfr, like the Icelanders, may have been temporarily stranded on the tidal island, and that he may have taken advantage of the storm-stricken churchmen to offset the poverty that is assigned to him by the chronicle.

paragraph: The chronicle also relates that Óláfr went to Rögnvaldr, who was also living in the Hebrides, and asked him for more land. Rögnvaldr's response was, according to the chronicle, to have Óláfr seized and sent to William I, King of Scots, who kept him imprisoned for almost seven years. The chronicle states that, on the seventh year, William died and that just before his death ordered the release of all his political prisoners. William is known to have died on 4 December 1214. The chronicle relates that upon gaining his freedom, Óláfr met with Rögnvaldr on Mann, and then set out on a pilgrimage with a significant number of noblemen. Óláfr's intended destination is considered to have been the shrine of St James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages, and nephew Guðrøðr Rögnvaldsson.

paragraph: Upon Óláfr's return the chronicle says that Rögnvaldr welcomed him back and had him marry Lauon, the daughter of a certain nobleman from Kintyre, who was also the sister of his own wife. The precise identification of the father-in-law of Óláfr and Rögnvaldr is uncertain, but he may have been a member of Clann Somairle; possibly Ragnall mac Somairle, or his son Ruaidrí, who are both styled Lord of Kintyre in documents contemporaneous to their reigns. The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr then gave Lewis back to Óláfr, where the newly-weds proceeded to live until the arrival of Reginald, Bishop of the Isles (d. "c." 1226), sometime later. According to the chronicle the bishop disapproved of Óláfr's marriage, as Óláfr had formerly had a concubine who was a cousin of Lauon. A synod was then assembled and the chronicle records that the marriage was nullified. Although at first glance the marriage appears to have been doomed, as it was deemed "as being within prohibited degree of kinship", it may be that this was merely a convenient excuse, and that the contention between the half-brothers may have played a part in its demise. It is also possible that Bishop Reginald may have released Óláfr from an arranged marriage which had been forced upon him; the bishop and Óláfr appear to have been close, as the chronicle describes Bishop Reginald as a son of Óláfr's sister, and notes that Óláfr was glad at his coming to Lewis. Furthermore, it was Bishop Reginald who annulled the marriage which Rögnvaldr had arranged for Óláfr. In fact, when the previous Bishop of the Isles died in 1217, Bishop Reginald had vied with a rival candidate for the position—a certain Nicholas—and there is evidence to suggest that Reginald was supported by Óláfr, while Óláfr's half-brother Rögnvaldr supported the bid of Nicholas.

paragraph: The chronicle states that Óláfr then married Christina, daughter of Ferchar mac an t-sagairt (d. "c." 1251). Óláfr's father-in-law emerges from historical obscurity in 1215 and, by the mid 1220s (about the time of, or not long after, the marriage), Ferchar had obtained the Earldom of Ross from Alexander II, King of Scots (d. 1249) for his part in defeating the Meic Uilleim northern rebellion in 1215. The chronicle declares that Óláfr's separation from Lauon had enraged her sister, and Rögnvaldr's bitter queen sought to sow discord between the half-brothers. If the chronicle is to be believed, the queen secretly wrote under her husband's name to their son Guðrøðr, ordering him to seize and kill Óláfr. The chronicle states that Guðrøðr dutifully gathered a force on Skye and proceeded to Lewis, where he laid waste to most of the island before returning to Skye—Óláfr had narrowly escaped with a few men and fled to the protection of his father-in-law, on the mainland in Ross.

paragraph: One of the more powerful men in the Isles at this time, according to the chronicle, was a sheriff on Skye named Páll Bálkason. Páll refused to take up arms against Óláfr and he left Skye to live in Ross with Óláfr. After several days Páll and Óláfr secretly returned to Skye, according to the chronicle, and learned that Guðrøðr was stationed on the "island of St Columba". The location and identity of the island are unknown for certain, although Iona and various places and islands on Skye are possible. The chronicle tells how Óláfr and Páll rounded up their forces and dragged five ships from the seashore, which is described as being about two furlongs from the island, and subsequently surrounded Guðrøðr's island. The chronicle states that Óláfr and Páll assaulted the island at about 2–3 pm, and that everyone one of Guðrøðr's followers who was captured outside of the enclosure of the church was slain. Guðrøðr was seized, blinded and castrated. The chronicle claims that Óláfr did not consent to Guðrøðr's brutal mutilation, but was unable to prevent it due to Páll.

paragraph: Section::::Rise of Óláfr, and fall of Rögnvaldr.

paragraph: Óláfr's marriage to the daughter of one of Alexander the King of Scots' most trusted northern lords, and the lord's assistance rendered to Óláfr and Páll, may suggest that Óláfr had gained Alexander's approval against Rögnvaldr. In the summer following the defeat of Guðrøðr on Skye, the chronicle states that Óláfr took hostages from the Hebridean portion of the kingdom and, with a fleet of 32 ships, landed on Mann and confronted Rögnvaldr directly. It was then agreed that the kingdom would be split between the two—with Rögnvaldr keeping Mann itself along with the title of king, and Óláfr retaining the Hebridean portions. In the 1220s Alexander began to extend Scottish royal authority into what is today the western coast Scotland, making several expeditions into Argyll. A this time Ruaidrí may have been forced from his lands in Kintyre and replaced by Alexander, installing Domnall mac Ragnaill, a more palatable member of Clann Somairle, in his place. Óláfr's control of Lewis and Skye, bordering the domains of Clann Somairle, may have made him appear as a potentially valuable ally to Alexander's eyes, who wished to rein in the more dangerous members of Clann Somairle.

paragraph: Alexander played both sides in the struggle between Óláfr and Rögnvaldr however, and encouraged one of his most powerful lords Alan, Lord of Galloway (d. 1234), to enter into the fray as an ally of Rögnvaldr. In 1225, according to the chronicle, Rögnvaldr and Alan attempted to take possession of Óláfr's Hebridean portion of the kingdom; however, the Manxmen were unwilling to wholeheartedly aid the cause and nothing came of the expedition. A short time later the chronicle records that Rögnvaldr's daughter was married to Alan's son. Such a marriage, between Rögnvaldr's daughter and Alan's illegitimate son Thomas, gave Alan a stake in the kingship since Thomas was likely to succeed. The possibility of control over a future ruler on Mann led Alexander to lend his consent to the union. The marriage was beneficial to Rögnvaldr as well, since he could rely on Alan's military might to fend off his troublesome half-brother. Unfortunately for Rögnvaldr, the chronicle records that the Manxmen were angered by the marriage and they consequently appointed Óláfr as their king. At this point Rögnvaldr seems to have gone into exile in Galloway, at the court of his ally, Alan. The chronicle dates Óláfr's kingship to have begun in 1226, and that he ruled the kingdom peacefully for the next two years.

paragraph: The chronicle records that in 1228, while Óláfr and his chiefs were away from Mann, the island was attacked and devastated by Alan, his brother Thomas, Earl of Atholl (d. 1231), and Rögnvaldr. It was only when Alan left with most of his force that Óláfr was able to regain control of the island. Rögnvaldr sailed from Galloway in the winter of the same year, landed on Mann, and burnt all the ships of Óláfr and his chiefs. The chronicle states that Rögnvaldr stayed at Ronaldsway for forty days; and that he won over the hearts of the southern inhabitants of the island. Óláfr and his forces arrived at Tynwald on 14 February 1229, where they attacked Rögnvaldr and his men. The chronicle claims that Rögnvaldr was treacherously killed by his own men, without the prior knowledge of Óláfr, and also notes that Óláfr never avenged his half-brother's death.

paragraph: Section::::Norwegian intervention into the Isles.

paragraph: The "Chronicle of Lanercost" states that a Norwegian fleet sailed down the west coast of Scotland in 1230 with a certain Óspakr-Hákon (d. 1230), who had been appointed King of the Isles by the King of Norway; also amongst the fleet were Óláfr and Guðrøðr. The "Eirspennill" version of "Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar", the most authoritative version of the saga, gives a much more illustrative account; although it does not specifically state that Guðrøðr travelled with the fleet from Norway. The saga states that in the summer before the fleet left Norway, news of warring in the Isles reached the Norwegian king, Hákon Hákonarson (d. 1263). Óláfr is described as a faithful vassal of the Norwegian king, while two Hebridean noblemen, Donnchad and Dubgall—both sons of Dubgall mac Somairle ("fl." 1175)—are described as unfaithful. The saga relates how the Norwegian king summoned an assembly that winter, appointed Óspakr-Hákon King of the Isles, and decided upon a plan to give him a military force to command in the Isles.

paragraph: Members of Clann Somairle seem to have been attacking parts of the Crovan dynasty's island-kingdom, possibly taking advantage of the warring between Rögnvaldr and Óláfr. It may have been that they were also lending support to Alan's destabilising incursions into the Isles. Whatever the case, it is clear that the state of affairs in the Isles was chaotic and, because of Óláfr's inability to control of the situation, the formidable Hákon decided to pacify the region using Óspakr-Hákon. In fact, the saga notes that Óspakr-Hákon was also a son of Dubgall, and it is likely that his family connections would have made him a palatable over-king of the unruly Clann Somairle. Óspakr-Hákon's kingdom was likely meant to encompass the territories of Clann Somairle, and control of the Crovan dynasty's domain may have been retained by the dynasty.

paragraph: The saga states that, with the coming of spring, Hákon ordered the preparation of Óspakr-Hákon's fleet. While preparations were under way Óláfr came to the king at Bergen, and reported the unrest in the Isles, noting that Alan had assembled a powerful army and was causing unrest in the region. When the fleet left Norway for Orkney, Óláfr accompanied it on-board Páll Bálkason's ship. When the fleet reached Orkney, several ship-commanders sailed to Skye, where they defeated a certain Þórkell Þórmóðsson in a sea-battle. The fleet then united at Islay, and was strengthened by Óspakr-Hákon's brothers and their followers, and swelled in size to 80 ships. The fleet then sailed south and around the Mull of Kintyre to Bute, where the force invaded the island and took the castle whilst suffering heavy casualties. The fleet then sailed to Kintyre, and Óspakr-Hákon fell ill and died. The "Chronicle of Mann", however, specifically states that Óspakr-Hákon was struck by a stone and killed, and later buried on Iona.

paragraph: The chronicle continues by stating that Óláfr then took control of the fleet whereupon he led it to Mann, where he and Guðrøðr divided the kingdom between themselves—with Óláfr retaining Mann, and Guðrøðr controlling the Hebridean portions; in fact, it is possible that Hákon may have originally intended for Óláfr and Guðrøðr to split the kingdom of Mann and the Isles between themselves. According to the saga the Norwegians left in the spring, sailing north to Kintyre where they encountered and battled a strong force of Scots with both sides losing many men during the ensuing battle. The saga then recounts how the fleet sailed north to Lewis and displaced a certain Þórmóðr Þórkelson, before travelling to Orkney, from where most of the fleet sailed back to Norway. Páll, however, is stated to have remained behind, and to have been slain by Guðrøðr several weeks later. The saga notes that Guðrøðr was also slain in the Isles a short time after this. The "Chronicle of Mann" specifically places Guðrøðr's death on Lewis, although it does not cast any light upon the circumstances. Even so, what is certain is that it was only after Guðrøðr's death that Óláfr's kingship was safe from any rival claim.

paragraph: The campaign is regarded to have been the gravest threat to the Scottish kingdom since John, King of England's (d. 1216) northern campaigning and invasion in 1216. Although Óláfr's restoration on Mann was claimed as a success by the Norwegians, it was probably accepted gladly by the Scots as well; considering Óláfr's familial relationship with Alexander's protégé Ferchar and the consolidation of the Crovan dynasty after years of chaos. Óláfr consequently ruled the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles peacefully until his death, seven years later. At some point during his reign, he is known to have granted certain commercial rights and protections to the monks of the monastery of Holm Cultram. The chronicle states that he died on St Patrick's Isle on 21 May 1237 and was buried at St Mary's Abbey, Rushen. There is a possibility that a coffin-lid or grave-slab found at Rushen may be associated with Óláfr, or of two of his sons who are known to have been buried there (Rögnvaldr and Magnús).

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Óláfr is known to have been survived by three children; Haraldr (d. 1248), Rögnvaldr (d. 1249), and Magnús (d. 1265)—all of whom ruled as kings in their own right. Although the mother of Óláfr's children is not known for certain, she is thought to have been Christina. The "Chronicle of Mann" states that Óláfr's immediate successor, Haraldr, was only fourteen years old at the time of his father's death, which dates his birth to about the time of the marriage of Óláfr and Christina.

paragraph: There is evidence to suggest that Óláfr might have had a fourth son named Guðrøðr. For example, the chronicle relates how the governor of Mann, described as a kinsman of Haraldr, fled from the king in 1238 and set sail for Wales, taking with him his foster-son Guðrøðr Óláfsson. When the fleeing ship reached the Welsh coast it was wrecked and, according to the chronicle, Guðrøðr perished on board. Furthermore, amongst the names of witnesses within a quitclaim between Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (d. 1282) and Ralph de Mortimer (d. 1246), thought to date to about 1241, there is a certain Guðrøðr who appears in Latin as "Godredo filio regis Mannie" ("Guðrøðr, son of the King of Mann"). Although the possibility has been raised that the two sources may refer to the same man, there is no further evidence to confirm it.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The Manx Sword of State, a ceremonial sword used at the annual Tynwald Day sittings at St John's, Isle of Man, and whenever the Tynwald sits at the Legislative Chambers in Douglas, Isle of Man, is popularly said to have belonged to Óláfr. The sword, which has a steel blade and inch hardwood hilt, is sometimes said to have been brought back from Spain when Óláfr returned from his pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela; however, recent analysis of the sword has determined that it dates no earlier than the 15th century, and that the blade dates only to the 17th century. The current understanding is that the sword itself was made for the Tynwald meetings of 1417 or 1422.

paragraph: Several Scottish clans that were historically seated on Lewis have traditionally been ascribed a descent from Óláfr. The MacLeods claim a descent from Leod (Old Norse "Ljótr"), who is popularly said to have been a son of Óláfr. Clan traditions dating to the late 18th century link Leod with Óláfr, and heraldic evidence dating to the late 17th century may be the earliest indication of such a claim; however, recent research into the MacLeods' traditional ancestry has determined such claims of descent from Óláfr are unsupportable. Other Lewis clans have been linked with Óláfr in various traditions, such as the Morrisons of Ness and their adversaries the Macaulays of Uig, although there is no supporting evidence that Óláfr left any descendants on the island.

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paragraph: BULLET::::- Olaf II, king of the Isles (d.1237) @ People of Medieval Scotland, 1093–1314

alias:
Óláfr Guðrøðarson
Olaf Godredsson

description: Sea-king of the Isle of Man and parts of the Hebrides

wikidata_label: Olaf the Black

wikipedia_title: Óláfr Guðrøðarson (died 1237)

wikipedia_title: Olaf the Black