text: baseball

text: catcher

text: Negro Leagues

text: Mexican League

text: Major League Baseball

text: paralyzed

text: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: scouting

text: Baseball Hall of Fame

text: Sicilian

text: Germantown

text: Nicetown

text: North Philadelphia

text: baseball color line

text: Negro league baseball

text: Washington Elite Giants

text: Mexican League

text: Monterrey Sultans

text: Lázaro Salazar

text: Brooklyn Dodgers

text: minor league

text: Jackie Robinson

text: Branch Rickey

text: Montreal Royals

text: International League

text: Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League

text: racial integration

text: Don Newcombe

text: Nashua Dodgers

text: New England League

text: Walter Alston

text: African American

text: All-Star Game

text: Larry Doby

text: Shawn Green

text: Matt Kemp

text: Adrián González

text: Joc Pederson

text: Most Valuable Player

text: National League

text: Jack Fournier

text: Babe Herman

text: Tommy Davis

text: Todd Hundley

text: base runners

text: steal

text: World Series

text: the series

text: Johnny Podres

text: no-hitter

text: Carl Erskine

text: Sal Maglie

text: 1957 season

text: Glen Cove, New York

text: Long Island

text: Harlem

text: Chevrolet

text: vertebrae

text: spinal cord

text: spring training

text: Vero Beach, Florida

text: Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum

text: New York Yankees

text: Baseball Hall of Fame

text: Jackie Robinson

text: Bronze Medallion

text: Jackie Robinson

text: Sandy Koufax

text: California

text: Don Newcombe

text: Edward R. Murrow

text: Person to Person

text: What's My Line?

text: The Name's the Same

text: We Didn't Start the Fire

text: Billy Joel

text: Ralph Edwards

text: This Is Your Life

text: Lassie

text: Roy Campanella II

text: heart failure

text: Woodland Hills, California

text: Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery

text: Los Angeles

text: The Sporting News

text: Major League Baseball All-Century Team

text: Carl Erskine

text: Michael Landon

text: It's Good to Be Alive

text: Paul Winfield

text: postage stamp

text: Mickey Mantle

text: Hank Greenberg

text: Mel Ott

text: Los Angeles Dodgers

text: Rafael Furcal

text: Simon & Schuster

text: Neil Lanctot

text: SpiritClips.com

text: Hallmark Channel

text: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum

text: Oxford University Press

text: A. S. Barnes

text: 1955 TIME article on Campanella

text: Spiritclips.com

categories: American people of Sicilian descent,American people with disabilities,Major League Baseball players with retired numbers,Los Angeles Dodgers scouts,Brooklyn Dodgers players,Sportspeople from Philadelphia,St. Paul Saints (AA) players,Nashua Dodgers players,National League All-Stars,Montreal Royals players,National League RBI champions,American expatriate baseball players in Mexico,Baltimore Elite Giants players,Cangrejeros de Santurce (baseball) players,Sportspeople from Brooklyn,African-American baseball players,Major League Baseball catchers,Sabios de Vargas players,Baseball players from Pennsylvania,Sportspeople from Los Angeles,1921 births,People with tetraplegia,American expatriate baseball players in Canada,Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills),1993 deaths,National League Most Valuable Player Award winners,Mexican Professional Baseball Hall of Fame inductees,National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees,American sportspeople of Italian descent,American sportsmen

paragraph: Roy Campanella

paragraph: Roy Campanella (November 19, 1921 – June 26, 1993), nicknamed "Campy", was an American baseball player, primarily as a catcher. The Philadelphia native played for the Negro Leagues and Mexican League for several seasons before entering the minor leagues in 1946. He made his Major League Baseball (MLB) debut in 1948. His playing career ended when he was paralyzed in an automobile accident in January 1958.

paragraph: Widely considered to be one of the greatest catchers in the history of the game, Campanella played for the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1940s and 1950s. After he retired as a player as a result of the accident, Campanella held positions in scouting and community relations with the Dodgers. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1969.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: He was born Roy Campanella in Philadelphia to parents Ida, who was African American, and John Campanella, son of Sicilian immigrants. Roy was one of four children born to the couple. They first lived in Germantown, and then moved to Nicetown in North Philadelphia, where the children attended integrated schools. Because of their mixed race, he and his siblings were sometimes harassed by other children in school. But Campanella had athletic gifts that he used to great effect. He was elected captain of every sport team he played on in high school, but baseball was his passion.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Negro leagues.

paragraph: Of mixed-race, Campanella was considered on the wrong side of the baseball color line and prohibited from MLB play. He dropped out of high school on his sixteenth birthday and began playing Negro league baseball in 1937 for the Washington Elite Giants. The Elite Giants moved to Baltimore the following year, and Campanella became a star player with the team.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Mexican League.

paragraph: In 1942 and 1943, Campanella played in the Mexican League with the Monterrey Sultans. Lázaro Salazar, the team's manager, told Campanella that one day he would play at the major league level.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Minor leagues.

paragraph: Campanella moved into the Brooklyn Dodgers' minor league system in as the Dodger organization began preparations to break the MLB color barrier with Jackie Robinson. His easy-going personality and strong work ethic were credited with his being able to move successfully between the races. Although Branch Rickey considered hiring Campanella to break baseball's color barrier, Rickey ultimately decided upon Robinson.

paragraph: For the 1946 season, Robinson was assigned to the Montreal Royals, the Dodgers' affiliate in the Class AAA International League. On March 18, 1946, Campanella signed a contract to play for Danville Dodgers of the Illinois–Indiana–Iowa League. After the general manager of the Danville Dodgers reported that he did not feel the league was ready for racial integration, the organization sent Campanella and pitcher Don Newcombe to the Nashua Dodgers of the Class B New England League, where the Dodgers felt the climate would be more tolerant. The Nashua team thus became the first professional baseball team of the 20th century to field a racially integrated lineup in the United States.

paragraph: Campanella's 1946 season proceeded largely without racist incidents, and in one game Campanella assumed the managerial duties after manager Walter Alston was ejected. Campanella was the first African American to manage Caucasian players of an organized professional baseball team. Nashua was three runs down at the time Campanella took over. They came back to win, in part due to Campanella's decision to use Newcombe as a pinch hitter during the seventh inning; Newcombe hit a game-tying two-run home run.

paragraph: Section::::Playing career.:Major League Baseball.

paragraph: Jackie Robinson's first season in the major leagues came in 1947, and Campanella began his MLB career with the Brooklyn Dodgers the following season, playing his first game on April 20, 1948. In later years, Robinson and his wife sometimes stayed with the Campanella family during some ballgames because adequate hotels for blacks could not be found in the city.

paragraph: Campanella played for the Dodgers from through as their regular catcher. In 1948, he had three different uniform numbers (33, 39, and 56) before settling on 39 for the rest of his career.

paragraph: Campanella was selected to the All-Star Game every year from through . With his 1949 All-Star selection, he was one of the first four African Americans so honored. (Jackie Robinson, Don Newcombe and Larry Doby were also All-Stars in 1949.) In 1950 Campanella hit home runs in five straight games; the only other Dodgers to homer in five consecutive games are Shawn Green (2001), Matt Kemp (2010), Adrián González (2014–15), and Joc Pederson (2015).

paragraph: Campanella received the Most Valuable Player (MVP) award in the National League three times: in , , and . In each of his MVP seasons, he batted more than .300, hit more than 30 home runs, and had more than 100 runs batted in. His 142 RBI during 1953 exceeded the franchise record of 130, which had been held by Jack Fournier () and Babe Herman (). Today it is the second most in franchise history, Tommy Davis breaking it with 153 RBI in . That same year, Campanella hit 40 home runs in games in which he appeared as a catcher, a record that lasted until , when it was exceeded by Todd Hundley. During his career, he threw out 57% of the base runners who tried to steal a base on him, the highest by any catcher in major league history. Campanella had five of the seven top caught stealing percentages for a single season in major league history.

paragraph: In 1955 (Campanella's final MVP season), he helped Brooklyn win its first-ever World Series championship. After the Dodgers lost the first two games of the series to the Yankees, Campanella began Brooklyn's comeback by hitting a two-out, two-run home run in the first inning of Game 3. The Dodgers won that game, got another home run from Campanella in a Game 4 victory that tied the series, and then went on to claim the series in seven games when Johnny Podres shutout the Yankees 2-0 in Game 7.

paragraph: Campanella caught three no-hitters during his career: Carl Erskine's two on June 19, and May 12, and Sal Maglie's on September 25, 1956.

paragraph: After the 1957 season, the Brooklyn Dodgers relocated to Los Angeles and became the Los Angeles Dodgers, but Campanella's playing career came to an end as a result of an automobile accident. He never played a game for Los Angeles.

paragraph: Section::::Automobile accident.

paragraph: Campanella lived in Glen Cove, New York, on the North Shore of Long Island; he operated a liquor store in Harlem between regular-season games and during the off-season. After closing the store for the night on January 28, 1958, he began his drive home to Glen Cove. While he was traveling at about , his rented 1957 Chevrolet sedan hit a patch of ice at an S-curve on Dosoris Lane near Apple Tree Lane in Glen Cove, skidded into a telephone pole, and overturned, breaking Campanella's neck. He fractured the fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae and compressed the spinal cord. The accident left Campanella paralyzed from the shoulders down. With physical therapy, he was eventually able to regain substantial use of his arms and hands. He was able to feed himself, shake hands, and gesture while speaking, but he required a wheelchair for mobility for the remainder of his life.

paragraph: Section::::Post-playing career.

paragraph: After his playing career, Campanella remained involved with the Dodgers. In January 1959 the Dodgers named him assistant supervisor of scouting for the eastern part of the United States and special coach at the team's annual spring training camp in Vero Beach, Florida, serving each year as a mentor and coach to young catchers in the Dodger organization.

paragraph: On May 7, , the Dodgers, then playing their second season in Los Angeles, honored Campanella with "Roy Campanella Night" at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The New York Yankees agreed to make a special visit to Los Angeles to play an exhibition game against the Dodgers for the occasion. The Yankees won the game, 6–2. The attendance at the game was 93,103, setting a record at that time for the largest crowd to attend a Major League Baseball game. The proceeds from the game went to defray Campanella's medical bills.

paragraph: During , Campanella was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame, the second player of black heritage so honored, after Jackie Robinson. The same year, he received the Bronze Medallion from the City of New York.

paragraph: Campanella was elected to the Mexican Professional Baseball Hall Of Fame in 1971. On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Campanella's uniform number 39 alongside Jackie Robinson's number 42 and Sandy Koufax's number 32.

paragraph: In 1978, Campanella moved to California and accepted a job with the Dodgers as assistant to the director of community relations, Don Newcombe, his former teammate and longtime friend.

paragraph: Section::::Representation in other media.

paragraph: Campanella was interviewed by Edward R. Murrow on the CBS program "Person to Person" on October 2, 1953 and again on January 2, 1959. Campanella also appeared as Mystery Guest on "What's My Line?" episode 171 on September 6, 1953 and as a guest celebrity on "The Name's the Same" (ABC-TV) on July 27, 1954. Campanella was also mentioned in the lyrics of the song "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit that Ball?", written and recorded by Buddy Johnson in 1949 (and covered by Count Basie and his Orchestra that same year) and in the lyrics to the song "We Didn't Start the Fire" by Billy Joel. Campanella was also honored on the famous Ralph Edwards show "This Is Your Life". Campanella appeared as himself in the "Lassie" episode "The Mascot", first broadcast September 27, 1959, in a story where he is coaching Timmy Martin's "Boys' League" team.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages and family.

paragraph: Campanella was married three times. His first marriage, to Bernice Ray on January 3, 1939, ended in divorce. They had two daughters together.

paragraph: On April 30, 1945, he married Ruthe Willis, who brought her son David to the marriage. They also had three children together (including a son, Roy Campanella II, who became a television director). Their marriage deteriorated after Campanella's accident and was never the same; they separated in 1960. Ruthe died of a heart attack at age 40 in January 1963. Campanella's adopted son David had a somewhat troubled life; he was arrested a number of times, developed a problem with drugs, and died at the age of 41.

paragraph: On May 5, 1964, Campanella married Roxie Doles, who survived him.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Campanella died of heart failure at age 71 on June 26, 1993, at his home in Woodland Hills, California. He was cremated at the Forest Lawn, Hollywood Hills Cemetery in Los Angeles.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: In 1999, Campanella ranked number 50 on "The Sporting News"' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.

paragraph: The book "" (2004) includes short stories from former Dodger pitcher Carl Erskine. He features Campanella in many of these stories.

paragraph: Campanella wrote his autobiography, "It's Good to Be Alive", which was published in 1959; he discussed his convalescence and partial recovery after his accident. Michael Landon directed a TV-movie based on the book, "It's Good to Be Alive" (1974), which was considerably fictionalized. Campanella was portrayed by Paul Winfield.

paragraph: Campanella was featured on a United States postage stamp in 2006. The stamp is one of a block of four honoring baseball sluggers, the others being Mickey Mantle, Hank Greenberg, and Mel Ott.

paragraph: In September 2006, the Los Angeles Dodgers announced the creation of the Roy Campanella Award. The club's players and coaches vote on it annually, and is given to the Dodger who best exemplifies "Campy's" spirit and leadership. Shortstop Rafael Furcal was named the inaugural winner of the award.

paragraph: Simon & Schuster published a 2011 biography of Campanella written by Neil Lanctot, author of "Negro League Baseball – The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution". The book is entitled "Campy – The Two Lives of Roy Campanella". The book reveals new details about Campanella's near-fatal car accident and his volatile relationship with Jackie Robinson. It also provides the most comprehensive look at Campanella's Negro League career, including newly compiled year-by-year statistics.

paragraph: SpiritClips.com, a sub-division of Hallmark Channel, released "Roy Campanella Night", a 2013 short film documenting the period of paralysis and convalescence that preceded Roy Campanella receiving a public tribute on May 7, 1959 at Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The movie was directed by Chris Commons and stars Anthony Holiday, Tia Streaty and Nathan Wilson.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Campanella, Roy. "It's Good to Be Alive", New York: Little Brown and Co., 1959

paragraph: BULLET::::- Daly, Steve. "Dem Little Bums: The Nashua Dodgers", Concord, New Hampshire: Plaidswede Publishing, 2002

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kashatus, William C. "Jackie & Campy: The Untold Story of Their Rocky Relationship and the Breaking of Baseball's Color Line", Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014. Finalist, 2014 CASEY Award.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roper, Scott C., and Stephanie Abbot Roper. "'We're Going to Give All We Have for this Grand Little Town': Baseball Integration and the 1946 Nashua Dodgers" "Historical New Hampshire", Spring/Summer, 1998

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tygiel, Jules. "Baseball's Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy", New York: Oxford University Press, 1997

paragraph: BULLET::::- Young, A.S. (Andrew Sturgeon). "Great Negro Baseball Stars, and How They Made the Major Leagues", New York: A. S. Barnes, 1953.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1955 TIME article on Campanella

paragraph: BULLET::::- Spiritclips.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roy Campanella addressing "The New York Herald Tribune Book and Author Luncheon" October 26, 1959 as broadcast by WNYC Radio.

description: baseball player; born 19 November 1921 Philadelphia Pa; Baltimore Elite Giants Negro National League (NNL); Brooklyn Dodgers 1948; died 26 June 1993 Woodland Hills Ca

enwikiquote_title: Roy Campanella

wikidata_label: Roy Campanella

wikipedia_title: Roy Campanella


text:
Greek
Bithynia
Nicomedes I
Prusias II
Apame IV
Rome
Roman Senate
Attalus II Philadelphus
Pergamon
Nicomedia
Eumenes III
Nicomedes III
Bithynian era

categories: 127 BC deaths,2nd-century BC rulers,Kings of Bithynia,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Nicomedes II of Bithynia

paragraph: Nicomedes II Epiphanes (Greek: Νικομήδης ὁ Ἐπιφανής) was the king of Bithynia from 149 to c. 127 BC. He was fourth in descent from Nicomedes I. Nicomedes II was the son and successor of Prusias II and Apame IV. His parents were related as they were maternal cousins.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was so popular with the people that his father sent him to Rome to limit his influence. However, in Rome, he also gained favor from the Roman Senate, forcing Prusias to send an emissary named Menas with secret orders to assassinate him. But the emissary revealed the plot, and persuaded the prince to rebel against his father.

paragraph: Supported by Attalus II Philadelphus, king of Pergamon, he was completely successful, and ordered his father to be put to death at Nicomedia. During his long reign Nicomedes adhered steadily to the Roman alliance, and assisted them against the pretender to the throne of Pergamon Eumenes III. He was succeeded by his son Nicomedes III.

paragraph: Nicomedes introduced the Bithynian era for numbering years on his coins. This system was to last in parts of the Greek world down to the 4th century AD.

wikidata_label: Nicomedes II of Bithynia

wikipedia_title: Nicomedes II of Bithynia


text: Bithynia

text: Nicomedes III of Bithynia

text: Nysa

text: Nysa

text: Mithridates VI of Pontus

text: Rome

text: Socrates Chrestus

text: Italy

text: Manius Aquillius

text: Gaius Marius

text: Consul

text: Lucius Cornelius Sulla

text: Anatolia

text: First Mithridatic War

text: Julius Caesar

text: Triumph

text: Bithynia

text: Roman Senate

text: Third Mithridatic War

text: Attalus III

text: Suetonius

text: Lives of the Caesars

text: Smith, William

text: "Nicomedes III"

text: Boston

categories: 1st-century BC rulers in Asia,Kings of Bithynia,Gay royalty,Year of birth unknown,LGBT heads of state,74 BC deaths

paragraph: Nicomedes IV of Bithynia

paragraph: Nicomedes IV Philopator () was the king of Bithynia from c. 94 BC to 74 BC. He was the first son and successor of Nicomedes III of Bithynia and Nysa and had a sister called Nysa.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: There is nothing known about Nicomedes IV's birth or the years before he became king. However, his reign began at the death of his father. The first few years of his kingship were relatively peaceful, but soon King Mithridates VI of Pontus (the maternal grand-uncle of Nicomedes IV), one of Rome's greatest enemies during the late Republic, began harassing Bithynia's borders.

paragraph: Nicomedes IV's brother, Socrates Chrestus, assisted by Mithridates VI, defeated Nicomedes IV's army in 90 BC, and Nicomedes IV was forced to flee to Italy. He was restored to his throne by Manius Aquillius due to Rome's influence in the region. However, Aquillius encouraged Nicomedes IV to raid Mithridates VI's territory, prompting Mithridates VI to retaliate again in 88 BC. Nicomedes IV fled once again to Rome.

paragraph: The East was seen by the Romans as a province providing an abundance of gold and silver. As such, two powerful Romans, Gaius Marius and the Consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla aimed at command in the region. Sulla fled the intrigues of Rome to Anatolia, where he commenced the First Mithridatic War. Sulla fought Mithridates VI on several occasions over the next three years, and finally in 85 BC, Mithridates VI sued for peace, and was allowed to retain his kingship in Pontus after paying a heavy fine.

paragraph: Nicomedes IV was restored to his throne in Bithynia in 84 BC. The years that followed were relatively peaceful, though Bithynia came more and more under the control of Rome. In 80 BC, young Gaius Julius Caesar was an ambassador to Nicomedes IV's court. Caesar was sent to raise a fleet using Bithynia's resources, but he dallied so long with the King that a rumor of a sexual relationship between the two men surfaced, leading to the disparaging title for Caesar, "the Queen of Bithynia", an allegation which Caesar's political enemies made use of later in his life. During Caesar's Gallic Triumph a popular verse began: ""Gallias Caesar subegit, Caesarem Nicomedes"," (Caesar laid the Gauls low, Nicomedes laid Caesar low), suggesting that Caesar was the receiving partner in the relationship.

paragraph: It is unknown if a sexual relationship was true or just a story generated by his opponents and Caesar denied its truthfulness vigorously.

paragraph: As one of his last acts as king of Bithynia, in 74 BC, Nicomedes IV bequeathed the entire kingdom of Bithynia to Rome. The Roman Senate quickly voted it as a new province. Rome's old enemy Mithridates VI had other plans for Bithynia, however, and Nicomedes IV's death and bequeathal led directly to the Third Mithridatic War.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Attalus III

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Suetonius, "Lives of the Caesars": "Caesar".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Smith, William (editor); "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology": "Nicomedes III" (erroneously called so), Boston, (1867).

paragraph: BULLET::::- B. C. McGing, The foreign policy of Mithridates VI Eupator, King of Pontus, BRILL, 1986

description: king of Bithynia

wikidata_label: Nicomedes IV of Bithynia

wikipedia_title: Nicomedes IV of Bithynia


text:
Parthian Empire
King of Kings
Achaemenid Empire
ancient East
Near East
Babylonia
Armenia
Adiabene
Characene
Gordyene
Osrhoene
Dura-Europos
Syria
Sakastan
House of Suren
Gotarzes I
Orodes I
Greek
Iranian
theophoric name
Mithra
Old Persian
Modern Persian
Babylonia
Characene
Hyspaosines
Mesopotamia
Dura-Europus
Armenia
Artavasdes I
Tigranes the Great
Scythians
Sakas
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Parthia
Aria
Sakastan
Saka
Indo-Scythians
Yuezhi
House of Suren
Afghanistan
Emperor Wu of Han
Xiongnu
Ferghana
Silk Road
Tigranes I
Adiabene
Gordyene
Osrhoene
city state
Euphrates
Romans
Orobazus
Sulla
Gotarzes I
cuneiform
Babylonian style
Nebuchadnezzar II
Nisa
diadem
tiara
Mount Behistun
Iran
rock relief
Achaemenid Empire
Arsaces I
Artaxerxes II
Mithridates I
bashlyk
satrap
diadem
Median
Kings of Persis
Strabo
Geographica
Justin

categories: 1st-century BC Iranian monarchs,Parthian kings,Year of birth unknown,2nd-century BC rulers in Asia,80s BC deaths

paragraph: Mithridates II of Parthia

paragraph: Mithridates II ( "Mihrdāt") was king of Parthian Empire from 124 to 88 BC. He was already known as "the Great" in antiquity. He is the first Parthian ruler to regularly use the title of "King of Kings", thus stressing the Parthian association with the Achaemenid Empire. Considered one of the most prominent monarchs of the ancient East, his reign marked the rise of the Parthians as a superpower. He spent most of reign consolidating his rule in the Near East, successfully re-conquering Babylonia, and turning the kingdoms of Armenia, Adiabene, Characene, Gordyene, and Osrhoene into vassal states. He also captured Dura-Europos in Syria, and restored Parthian authority in Sakastan, which was given as a fief to the House of Suren. During the last years of his reign, however, his empire fell into disarray, with the Parthian nobility having enough authority to challenge the Parthian king periodically, including a rival-monarch named Gotarzes I (), who claimed the throne. Following Mithridates II's death in 88 BC, Gotarzes ruled Babylonia, while Orodes I () ruled the eastern territories of the empire separately.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: "Mithridates" is the Greek form of the Iranian theophoric name of "Mihrdāt", meaning "gift of Mithra". The Old Persian version is Miθradāta (), whilst the Modern Persian version is "Mehrdād".

paragraph: Section::::Wars in the west.

paragraph: At the time of his succession, the Parthian Empire was reeling from military pressures in the West and East. Several embarrassing defeats at the hands of eastern nomads had sapped the strength and prestige of the kingdom. However, Mithridates II proved himself to be a capable king and was soon able to reincorporate Babylonia into the kingdom, which had been lost to Characene a short time before. As a sign of victory he had the coinage of the Characene ruler Hyspaosines overstruck, although he had already died in 124 BC. The whole of Mesopotamia was taken in a rush and he reached Dura-Europus in 113 BC.

paragraph: Mithridates II then attacked Armenia, then ruled by Artavasdes I and took hostage the Armenian king's son, the future Tigranes the Great. This was the first time that the Parthians actively interfered in Armenian politics.

paragraph: Section::::Wars in the east.

paragraph: In the east of the Empire, the situation seemed unsalvagable. Invading nomads (called Scythians in the Greek sources and Sakas in Indian sources) had destroyed the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and greatly threatened the eastern borders of the empire. However, Mithridates II was able to fend off the attacking nomads and reincorporate the provinces of Parthia and Aria back into the realm. He was able to reconquer the region of Sakastan, which had since c. 129 BC been under the control of nomadic peoples, mainly the Eastern Iranian Saka (Indo-Scythians) and the Indo-European Yuezhi. He gave the province as a fiefdom to the House of Suren, and also further expanded his rule as far as present-day southern Afghanistan.

paragraph: Section::::Diplomatic activity.

paragraph: In 121 BC the Chinese under Emperor Wu of Han had defeated the Xiongnu in the east and were expanding westwards in force. In Ferghana the Chinese sphere of influence encountered that of the Parthians. A Chinese delegation to the Parthian court is attested for the year 120 BC. In the following year the Silk Road was opened.

paragraph: The Armenian King Tigranes I died in 95 BC and Mithridates II put the Armenian heir Tigranes II, who had hitherto lived among the Parthians, on the Armenian throne. Soon after this Mithridates II attacked Adiabene, Gordyene and Osrhoene and conquered these city states, bringing the western border of the Parthian realm to the Euphrates. Here the Parthians encountered the Romans for the first time. In 96 BC Mithridates II sent a certain Orobazus as an envoy to Sulla. While the Romans were increasing immensely in power, the Parthians sought friendly relations with the Romans and thus wanted to reach a agreement that assured mutual respect between the two powers. Negotiation followed in which Sulla apparently gained the upper hand and Orobazus made himself and the Parthians look like suppliants. The actual result of the negotiations is not known, but it can be assumed that the border was set at the upper Euphrates. Orobazus would later be executed. The Parthian diplomatic affairs with the Romans and Chinese demonstrates their rise as a superpower.

paragraph: Section::::Internal politics and death.

paragraph: By the late 90s BC, Mithridates II seems to have faced internal political issues. In 93/2 BC Mithridates II's nephew, Sinatruces, rebelled in Susiana. He proclaimed himself king and held the region until 88/7 BC, at which point Mithridates II's son, Gotarzes I, forced him to flee to the Central Asian steppe. Sinatruces later returned to the Parthian throne in 77/76 BC with the aid of Sakae mercenaries. Mithridates II did not outlive the usurper and died in 91 BC.

paragraph: There are clear signs that the Parthian empire was restructured under Mithridates II. The last administrative texts in cuneiform were written under his rule. Temples in the Babylonian style were replaced by some in a more Hellenic/Parthian style. Both facts seem to indicate that the temple administration system which dated back at least to Nebuchadnezzar II did not continue. The oldest documents yet discovered from Nisa belong to his reign.

paragraph: Section::::Depictions of the King.

paragraph: The portrait of the king is almost exclusively known from his coinage. It is possible to identify several types of depiction in the coinage. He can be shown with a short beard and a diadem, but there are images which show him with a mid-length beard or with a long beard, still wearing the diadem. A completely different type of image shows him with a high domed tiara on his head.

paragraph: At Mount Behistun, now in the west of Iran, there is a rock relief which shows the king and four vassals or officials, who make obeisance to him. There are accompanying inscriptions in Greek. The relief is now in a bad state and known only from old copies.

paragraph: Section::::Imperial ideology.

paragraph: Since the early 2nd-century BC, the Arsacids had begun adding obvious signals in their dynastic ideology, which emphasized their association with the heritage of the ancient Achaemenid Empire. Examples of these signs included a fictitious claim that the first Arsacid king, Arsaces I () was a descendant of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II (). Achaemenid titles were also assumed by the Arsacids, including the title of "king of kings" by Mithridates I (). However, the title was infrequently by the latter, and it was first under Mithridates II, from c. 109/8 BC onwards, that the use of the title became regular. The early Arsacids had originally worn a soft cap, known as the "bashlyk", which had also been worn by Achaemenid satraps. From Mithridates I, the Hellenistic diadem was used by the Arsacid kings. The diadem was also used during the early reign of Mithridates II, till he later started using a distinctive crown that was of Median heritage. The crown would be continued to used by his successor, and later also the vassal kings of the Arsacids, such as the Kings of Persis.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Ancient works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Strabo, "Geographica".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus.

description: Parthian king

wikidata_label: Mithridates II of Parthia

wikipedia_title: Mithridates II of Parthia


text: Sparta

text: Babylon

text: Sparta

text: mercenary

text: Cyrus the Younger

text: Hellespont

text: Byzantium

text: Athenian

text: Alcibiades

text: ephors

text: Greek colonies

text: tyrant

text: Cyrus

text: Persian daric

text: Persian

text: Artaxerxes II Mnemon

text: Helixus of Megara

text: Coeratadas

text: expedition of the ten thousand

text: Peloponnesian

text: Army of the Ten Thousand

text: battle of Cunaxa

text: satrap

text: Sardis

text: Tissaphernes

text: Babylon

categories: Ancient Greek garrison commanders,5th-century BC Spartans,Ancient Greek mercenaries,Ancient Greek tyrants,Proxenoi,Ancient Spartan generals,Military personnel of the Achaemenid Empire,5th-century BC births,Spartan hegemony,People executed by the Achaemenid Empire,401 BC deaths

paragraph: Clearchus of Sparta

paragraph: Clearchus or Clearch (; born in Sparta circa 450 BC - died at Babylon in 401 BC), the son of Rhamphias, was a Spartan general and mercenary, noted for his service under Cyrus the Younger.

paragraph: Born about the middle of the 5th century BC, Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor of Byzantium, of which town he was "proxenus". His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army under Alcibiades (409).

paragraph: Subsequently, Clearchus returned to Sparta and appealed to the ephors, asking to be given a force to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from Thracian attacks. He was granted that force, but when the ephors learned that the citizens of Byzantium considered him a tyrant, they recalled him through a messenger that reached Clearchus while he was still in the Isthmus of Corinth. Clearchus ignored the messenger and proceeded to Byzantium, and thus he was instantly declared an outlaw by the ephors. He fought the Thracian tribes successfully, in the process gaining the unofficial support of the Greek cities that were thus relieved. Clearchus, counting on his successes to gain him back the Spartan ephors' good graces, was ultimately disappointed in this expectation. When Cyrus learned that a Greek force in high fighting condition was so near Asia, he sent ambassadors with money (10,000 Persian darics) asking Clearchus to help him claim the throne from his brother, the Persian Emperor Artaxerxes II Mnemon. Clearchus accepted not because of the money but because he knew that sooner or later he would have to face his fellow Spartans since he was still considered an outlaw by the ephors. He left the command of the garrison of Byzantium to Helixus of Megara (see Coeratadas).

paragraph: In the "expedition of the ten thousand" undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, Clearchus led the Peloponnesian delegation of the Army of the Ten Thousand, who formed the right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command and conducted the retreat until, being treacherously seized with his fellow-generals by the satrap of Sardis, Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes and executed at the royal court at Babylon.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA — Encyclopaedia Iranica

description: Spartan general

wikidata_label: Clearchus of Sparta

wikipedia_title: Clearchus of Sparta


text:
Old Persian
Persian
Satrap
Lydia
Hydarnes
Darius the Great
Proto-Indo-European
Avestan
xvarənah
Hydarnes
Persian
Immortals
Xerxes
Greece
Darius II
Pissuthnes
satrap
Darius II
Sparta
Athens
Ionia
Alcibiades
Pharnabazus
Hellespont
Phrygia
Cyrus the Younger
Darius II
Artaxerxes II
Persia
Cyrus the Younger
Parysatis
Pisidia
Taurus mountains
Xenophon
Ten Thousand
Sardis
trireme
Cilicia
Amanus
Syria
Cheirisophus
Babylonia
Battle of Cunaxa
hoplite
peltast
Ariaeus
Clearchus of Sparta
Ariaeus
Ariaeus
Lydia
Persian army
Asia Minor
Agesilaus II
Caria
Hellespontine Phrygia
Pharnabazus II
Tithraustes
Parysatis
Colossae
Encyclopædia Iranica
Caria
Achaemenid Empire
Hecatomnids
Livius.org: Tissaphernes

categories: Achaemenid satraps of Ionia,5th-century BC Iranian people,445 BC births,Military leaders of the Achaemenid Empire,Achaemenid satraps of Lydia,4th-century BC Iranian people,Achaemenid satraps of Caria,395 BC deaths

paragraph: Tissaphernes

paragraph: Tissaphernes (; Old Persian "Čiθrafarnah"  Mod. Persian "Čehrfar") (445 BC – 395 BC) was a Persian soldier and statesman, Satrap of Lydia. He was a grandson of Hydarnes, one of the six conspirators who had supported the rise of Darius the Great.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: "Chithrafarna" ("čiθra" + "farnah") "Shining Fortune": "čiθra" is from the Proto-Indo-European adjective "(s)koitrós" 'bright'; "farnah" is equivalent to Avestan "xvarənah" 'fortune', 'glory', which appears as 'luminous'. "čiθra" means nature, specifically the animate nature. Hence, the phrase "čihr-farn" means 'of glorious or splendid nature', or (if it is translated literally) 'of radiant appearance'.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.

paragraph: Tissaphernes was born in 445 BC. He belonged to an important Persian family: he was the grandson of Hydarnes, an eminent Persian general, who was the commander of the Immortals during the time of king Xerxes' invasion of Greece.

paragraph: In 414 BC, Tissaphernes was assigned by Darius II to suppress the rebellion of Pissuthnes, the Persian satrap of Asia Minor, and to take over his office. Tissaphernes bribed Pissuthnes' Greek mercenaries to desert him and promised that his life would be spared if he surrendered, a promise which Darius did not keep. When Darius II ordered Tissaphernes to proceed to suppress the continued rebellion of Pissuthnes' son Amorges, and also ordered him to collect the outstanding tribute from the Greek cities of Asia Minor, many of which were under Athenian protection, Tissaphernes entered into an alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of the greater part of Ionia.

paragraph: But Tissaphernes was unwilling to take action and tried to achieve his aim by astute and often perfidious negotiations. Alcibiades persuaded him that Persia's best policy was to keep the balance between Athens and Sparta, and rivalry with his neighbour Pharnabazus of Hellespontic Phrygia still further lessened his willingness to act against the Greeks. When, therefore, in 408 BC the king decided to actively support Sparta, Tissaphernes was removed as a general and his responsibilities were limited to the satrapy of Caria, with Lydia and the conduct of the war being entrusted to Cyrus the Younger.

paragraph: Section::::Civil war.

paragraph: On the death of Darius II in 404 BC, Artaxerxes II was crowned king of Persia. Tissaphernes, who found out about Cyrus the Younger's plan to assassinate his brother, informed the king about the conspiracy, who then had Cyrus imprisoned. But by the intercession of his mother Parysatis, Cyrus was pardoned and sent back to his satrapy. According to Plutarch, "his resentment for [his arrest] made him more eagerly desirous of the kingdom than before."

paragraph: With the desire for revenge, Cyrus gathered a large army and pretended to prepare an expedition against the Pisidians, a tribe based in the Taurus mountains.

paragraph: In the spring of 401 BC, Cyrus united all his forces into an army, which now included Xenophon's "Ten Thousand", and advanced from Sardis without announcing the object of his expedition. By dexterous management and promises of large rewards, he overcame the misgivings of the Greek troops over the length and danger of the war. A Spartan fleet of 35 triremes sent to Cilicia opened the passes of the Amanus into Syria and a Spartan detachment of 700 men under Cheirisophus was conveyed to Cyrus. However, Tissaphernes managed to warn Artaxerxes II and quickly gathered together an army. Cyrus advanced into Babylonia before he met with any opposition. In October 401 BC, the Battle of Cunaxa ensued. Cyrus had 10,400 Greek hoplites (heavy-armed citizen-soldiers), 2,500 peltasts (light infantry) and an Asiatic army of approximately 10,000 under the command of Ariaeus.

paragraph: Cyrus saw that the outcome depended on the fate of the king. He therefore wanted Clearchus of Sparta, the commander of the Greeks, to take the centre against Artaxerxes. Clearchus, out of arrogance, disobeyed. As a result, the left wing of the Persians under Tissaphernes was free to engage the rest of Cyrus' forces. Cyrus in the centre threw himself upon Artaxerxes, but was slain. Tissaphernes claimed to have killed the rebel himself.

paragraph: The Greek soldiers of Cyrus, once they heard about the news of his death, realised that they were in the middle of a massive empire with no provisions, no-one to finance them, and no reliable allies amongst the Persian nobles. They offered to make their Persian ally, Ariaeus, king, but he refused on the grounds that he was not of royal blood and so would not find enough support among the Persians to succeed. They then offered their services to Tissaphernes, but he refused. However, the Greeks refused to surrender to him.

paragraph: Tissaphernes was left with a problem: he faced a large army of heavy troops that he could not defeat by frontal assault. He supplied them with food and, after a long wait, led them northwards for home, meanwhile detaching the Persian general Ariaeus and his light troops from the Greeks. The senior Greek officers foolishly accepted an invitation from Tissaphernes to attend a feast. There they were made prisoners, taken before the king, and decapitated. As a reward for his loyalty, Artaxerxes gave Tissaphernes one of his own daughters in marriage and restored him as governor of Lydia and as the commander in chief of the Persian army in Asia Minor.

paragraph: Section::::Later life and death.

paragraph: After returning to Asia Minor, Tissaphernes attacked the Greek cities to punish them for their allegiance to Cyrus. This led to a war with Sparta beginning in 399 BC. In 396 BC, the Spartan king and commander Agesilaus II led a campaign to free the Greek cities of Asia Minor. Tissaphernes at this point proposed an armistice and solemnly ratified a truce, which he instantly broke when Persian reinforcements arrived. Agesilaus thanked Tissaphernes for having put the gods on the side of the Greeks by committing perjury, and let it be known that he now planned to lead his troops against Caria. When Tissaphernes gathered his troops to meet this supposed Carian invasion, Agesilaus instead successfully attacked the Persian province of Hellespontine Phrygia. In 395 BC, Agesilaus let it be known that his next target would be the rich land around the Lydian city of Sardis. Tissaphernes, believing that if Agesilaus really intended to attack Sardis he would not have said so, assumed that this time Agesilaus would finally attack Caria, so Tissaphernes concentrated his troops in that area, but Agesilaus successfully attacked Sardis just as he said he would.

paragraph: At last the fall of Tissaphernes came about when the Persian king yielded to the representations of Pharnabazus II, strongly supported by the "chiliarch" (vizier) Tithraustes and by the queen-mother Parysatis, who hated Tissaphernes as the principal cause of the death of her favourite son Cyrus. Tithraustes was sent to execute Tissaphernes, who was lured to Ariaeus' residence in Colossae and slain in 395 BC.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Encyclopædia Iranica comments that:

paragraph: Following the death of Tissaphernes, Caria re-established a line of semi-independent local dynasts, still under the umbrella of the Achaemenid Empire, the dynasty of the Hecatomnids.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Livius.org: Tissaphernes

description: Persian satrap

wikidata_label: Tissaphernes

wikipedia_title: Tissaphernes


text:
medieval
prelate
chronicler
archbishop of Tyre
Jerusalem
Kingdom of Jerusalem
First Crusade
liberal arts
canon law
universities of Europe
Amalric
Byzantine Empire
Baldwin IV
leper
chancellor
Third Council of the Lateran
Patriarchate of Jerusalem
Muhammad
chronicle
classical literature
Middle Ages
Christian territories
County of Edessa
Principality of Antioch
County of Tripoli
Godfrey of Bouillon
Baldwin I
Baldwin II
Israel
Palestine
Lebanon
Italy
France
burgesses
cathedral school
Church of the Holy Sepulchre
Latin
French
Italian
Greek
Persian
Arabic
Paris
Bologna
universities
liberal arts
theology
Paris
Orléans
Thierry of Chartres
Gilbert de la Porrée
Robert of Melun
Adam de Parvo Ponte
Hilary of Orléans
mathematics
Euclid
William of Soissons
Peter Lombard
Maurice de Sully
civil law
canon law
Bologna
Four Doctors
Hugo de Porta Ravennate
Bulgarus
Martinus Gosia
Jacobus de Boragine
Twelfth-Century Renaissance
John of Salisbury
canon
Acre
archdeacon
Tyre
Frederick de la Roche
Amalric
conquer Egypt
Egypt
Fatimid Caliphate
Zengid
Nur ad-Din
Damascus
siege of Damascus
Second Crusade
Ascalon
fell to the crusaders
Maria Comnena
Byzantine emperor
Manuel I Comnenus
Byzantine navy
Damietta
Saladin
Rome
Baldwin IV
leprosy
Agnes of Courtenay
immediate family
Raymond III of Tripoli
Ibelin family
Miles of Plancy
chancellor of Jerusalem
Nazareth
chancery
William of Montferrat
Sibylla
patriarch of Jerusalem
Amalric of Nesle
Third Lateran Council
Heraclius
archbishop of Caesarea
Joscius
bishop of Acre
Sebastea
Bethlehem
Tripoli
Jabala
Mount Sion
Patriarch of Antioch
Aimery of Limoges
Pope Alexander III
Principality of Antioch
Greek patriarch
age of majority
Bohemond III of Antioch
Baldwin of Ibelin
Poitevin
Guy of Lusignan
Aimery of Lusignan
continuator
Baldwin V
Hans E. Mayer
Battle of Hattin
capture Jerusalem
Roger of Wendover
Gisors
Henry II of England
Philip II of France
go on crusade
Archbishop of Rheims
Joscius
Muhammad
Eutychius of Alexandria
August C. Krey
Usama ibn Munqidh
conquest of Syria
Umar
First Crusade
Fulcher of Chartres
Albert of Aix
Raymond of Aguilers
Baldric of Dol
Gesta Francorum
Walter the Chancellor
Principality of Antioch
calque
rhetoric
medieval Latin
reflexive
possessive pronouns
accusative
ablative case
preposition
diphthong
dative
sh
Shawar
Bible
Peter the Hermit
Pope Urban II
resurrection of the dead
apologia
Knights Templar
Siege of Ascalon
invasion of Egypt
Assassin
Alexius I Comnenus
John II Comnenus
massacre of the Latins
Andronicus I Comnenus
Mu'in ad-Din Unur
Shirkuh
crusader state
James of Vitry
Guy of Bazoches
Matthew Paris
Roger of Wendover
Itinerarium Regis Ricardi
Roger Hoveden
Nicholas Brylinger
Jacques Bongars
Recueil des historiens des croisades
Auguste-Arthur Beugnot
Auguste Le Prévost
Patrologia Latina
Jacques Paul Migne
Corpus Christianorum
Hans E. Mayer
Gerhard Rösch
Old French
Ernoul
Kingdom of Cyprus
Cilician Armenia
Marino Sanuto the Elder
Alfonso the Wise of Castile
Renaissance
Francesco Pipino
Middle English
William Caxton
topos
Steven Runciman
Hans Eberhard Mayer
Peter Edbury
Bernard Hamilton
Dictionary of the Middle Ages
A.C. Krey
Dictionary of the Middle Ages
Joseph Strayer
Kenneth M. Setton
Cambridge University Press
Charles Homer Haskins
Steven Runciman
A History of the University in Europe
Recueil des historiens des croisades
Roger of Wendover
Louis de Mas Latrie
Alexis Paulin Paris
Thomas Asbridge
R. H. C. Davis
Conor Kostick
Hans Prutz
Excerpts from the "Historia"
Internet Medieval Sourcebook
Fiasco at Damascus 1148
Latin version
Patrologia Latina
The Latin Library
Latin version
Latin version with concordance
Old French translation and continuation
Internet Medieval Sourcebook
English translation

categories: 12th-century Latin writers,Crusade literature,Canon law jurists,1130s births,People from Jerusalem,1186 deaths,12th-century historians,People of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,12th-century Roman Catholic archbishops

paragraph: William of Tyre

paragraph: William of Tyre (; 1130 – 29 September 1186) was a medieval prelate and chronicler. As archbishop of Tyre, he is sometimes known as William II to distinguish him from his predecessor, William I, the Englishman and former Prior of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, who was Archbishop of Tyre from 1127 to 1135. He grew up in Jerusalem at the height of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which had been established in 1099 after the First Crusade, and he spent twenty years studying the liberal arts and canon law in the universities of Europe.

paragraph: Following William's return to Jerusalem in 1165, King Amalric made him an ambassador to the Byzantine Empire. William became tutor to the king's son, the future King Baldwin IV, whom William discovered to be a leper. After Amalric's death, William became chancellor and archbishop of Tyre, two of the highest offices in the kingdom, and in 1179 William led the eastern delegation to the Third Council of the Lateran. As he was involved in the dynastic struggle that developed during Baldwin IV's reign, his importance waned when a rival faction gained control of royal affairs. He was passed over for the prestigious Patriarchate of Jerusalem, and died in obscurity, probably in 1186.

paragraph: William wrote an account of the Lateran Council and a history of the Islamic states from the time of Muhammad. Neither work survives. He is famous today as the author of a history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. William composed his chronicle in excellent Latin for his time, with numerous quotations from classical literature. The chronicle is sometimes given the title "Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum" ("History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea") or "Historia Ierosolimitana" ("History of Jerusalem"), or the "Historia" for short. It was translated into French soon after his death, and thereafter into numerous other languages. Because it is the only source for the history of twelfth-century Jerusalem written by a native, historians have often assumed that William's statements could be taken at face value. However, more recent historians have shown that William's involvement in the kingdom's political disputes resulted in detectable biases in his account. Despite this, he is considered the greatest chronicler of the crusades, and one of the best authors of the Middle Ages.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: The Kingdom of Jerusalem was founded in 1099 at the end of the First Crusade. It was the third of four Christian territories to be established by the crusaders, following the County of Edessa and the Principality of Antioch, and followed by the County of Tripoli. Jerusalem's first three rulers, Godfrey of Bouillon (1099–1100), his brother Baldwin I (1100–1118), and their cousin Baldwin II (1118–1131), expanded and secured the kingdom's borders, which encompassed roughly the same territory as modern-day Israel, Palestine, and Lebanon. During the kingdom's early decades, the population was swelled by pilgrims visiting the holiest sites of Christendom. Merchants from the Mediterranean city-states of Italy and France were eager to exploit the rich trade markets of the east.

paragraph: William's family probably originated in either France or Italy, since he was very familiar with both countries. His parents were likely merchants who had settled in the kingdom and were "apparently well-to-do", although it is unknown whether they participated in the First Crusade or arrived later. William was born in Jerusalem around 1130. He had at least one brother, Ralph, who was one of the city's burgesses, a non-noble leader of the merchant community. Nothing more is known about his family, except that his mother died before 1165.

paragraph: As a child William was educated in Jerusalem, at the cathedral school in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The "scholaster", or school-master, John the Pisan, taught William to read and write, and first introduced him to Latin. From the "Historia" it is clear that he also knew French and possibly Italian, but there is not enough evidence to determine whether he learned Greek, Persian, and Arabic, as is sometimes claimed.

paragraph: Around 1145 William went to Europe to continue his education in the schools of France and Italy, especially in those of Paris and Bologna, "the two most important intellectual centers of twelfth-century Christendom." These schools were not yet the official universities that they would become in the 13th century, but by the end of the 11th century both had numerous schools for the arts and sciences. They were separate from the cathedral schools, and were established by independent professors who were masters of their field of study. Students from all over Europe gathered there to hear lectures from these masters. William studied liberal arts and theology in Paris and Orléans for about ten years, with professors who had been students of Thierry of Chartres and Gilbert de la Porrée. He also spent time studying under Robert of Melun and Adam de Parvo Ponte, among others. In Orléans, one of the pre-eminent centres of classical studies, he read ancient Roman literature (known simply as "the Authors") with Hilary of Orléans, and learned mathematics ("especially Euclid") with William of Soissons. For six years, he studied theology with Peter Lombard and Maurice de Sully. Afterwards, he studied civil law and canon law in Bologna, with the "Four Doctors", Hugo de Porta Ravennate, Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, and Jacobus de Boragine. William's list of professors "gives us almost a who's who of the grammarians, philosophers, theologians, and law teachers of the so-called Twelfth-Century Renaissance", and shows that he was as well-educated as any European cleric. His contemporary John of Salisbury had many of the same teachers.

paragraph: Section::::Religious and political life in Jerusalem.

paragraph: The highest religious and political offices in Jerusalem were usually held by Europeans who had arrived on pilgrimage or crusade. William was one of the few natives with a European education, and he quickly rose through the ranks. After his return to the Holy Land in 1165, he became canon of the cathedral at Acre. In 1167 he was appointed archdeacon of the cathedral of Tyre by Frederick de la Roche, archbishop of Tyre, with the support of King Amalric.

paragraph: Amalric had come to power in 1164 and had made it his goal to conquer Egypt. Egypt had been invaded by King Baldwin I fifty years earlier, and the weak Fatimid Caliphate was forced to pay yearly tribute to Jerusalem. Amalric turned towards Egypt because Muslim territory to the east of Jerusalem had fallen under the control of the powerful Zengid sultan Nur ad-Din. Nur ad-Din had taken control of Damascus in 1154, six years after the disastrous siege of Damascus by the Second Crusade in 1148. Jerusalem could now expand only to the southwest, towards Egypt, and in 1153 Ascalon, the last Fatimid outpost in Palestine, fell to the crusaders. Nur ad-Din, however, also wished to acquire Egypt, and sent his army to hinder Amalric's plans. This was the situation in the east when William returned from Europe. In 1167 Amalric married Maria Comnena, grand-niece of Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus, and in 1168 the king sent William to finalize a treaty for a joint Byzantine-crusader campaign against Egypt. The expedition, Amalric's fourth, was the first with support from the Byzantine navy. Amalric, however, did not wait for the fleet to arrive. He managed to capture Damietta, but within a few years he was expelled from Egypt by one of Nur ad-Din's generals, Saladin, who would later become Jerusalem's greatest threat.

paragraph: Meanwhile, William continued his advancement in the kingdom. In 1169 he visited Rome, possibly to answer accusations made against him by Archbishop Frederick, although if so, the charge is unknown. It is also possible that while Frederick was away on a diplomatic mission in Europe, a problem within the diocese forced William to seek the archbishop's assistance.

paragraph: On his return from Rome in 1170 he may have been commissioned by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom. He also became the tutor of Amalric's son and heir, Baldwin IV. When Baldwin was thirteen years old, he was playing with some children, who were trying to cause each other pain by scratching each other's arms. "The other boys gave evidence of pain by their outcries," wrote William, "but Baldwin, although his comrades did not spare him, endured it altogether too patiently, as if he felt nothing  ...  It is impossible to refrain from tears while speaking of this great misfortune." William inspected Baldwin's arms and recognized the possible symptoms of leprosy, which was confirmed as Baldwin grew older.

paragraph: Amalric died in 1174, and Baldwin IV succeeded him as king. Nur ad-Din also died in 1174, and his general Saladin spent the rest of the decade consolidating his hold on both Egypt and Nur ad-Din's possessions in Syria, which allowed him to completely encircle Jerusalem. The subsequent events have often been interpreted as a struggle between two opposing factions, a "court party" and a "noble party." The "court party" was led by Baldwin's mother, Amalric's first wife Agnes of Courtenay, and her immediate family, as well as recent arrivals from Europe who were inexperienced in the affairs of the kingdom and were in favour of war with Saladin. The "noble party" was led by Raymond III of Tripoli and the native nobility of the kingdom, who favoured peaceful co-existence with the Muslims. This is the interpretation offered by William himself in the "Historia", and it was taken as fact by later historians. Peter W. Edbury, however, has more recently argued that William must be considered extremely partisan as he was naturally allied with Raymond, who was responsible for his later advancement in political and religious offices. The accounts of the 13th-century authors who continued the "Historia" in French must also be considered suspect, as they were allied to Raymond's supporters in the Ibelin family. The general consensus among recent historians is that although there was a dynastic struggle, "the division was not between native barons and newcomers from the West, but between the king's maternal and paternal kin."

paragraph: Miles of Plancy briefly held the regency for the underaged Baldwin IV. Miles was assassinated in October 1174, and Raymond III was soon appointed to replace him. Raymond named William chancellor of Jerusalem, as well as archdeacon of Nazareth, and on 6 June 1175, William was elected archbishop of Tyre to replace Frederick de la Roche, who had died in October 1174. William's duties as chancellor probably did not take up too much of his time; the scribes and officials in the chancery drafted documents and it may not have even been necessary for him to be present to sign them. Instead he focused on his duties as archbishop. In 1177 he performed the funeral services for William of Montferrat, husband of Baldwin IV's sister Sibylla, when the patriarch of Jerusalem, Amalric of Nesle, was too sick to attend.

paragraph: In 1179, William was one of the delegates from Jerusalem and the other crusader states at the Third Lateran Council; among the others were Heraclius, archbishop of Caesarea, Joscius, bishop of Acre and William's future successor in Tyre, the bishops of Sebastea, Bethlehem, Tripoli, and Jabala, and the abbot of Mount Sion. Patriarch Amalric and Patriarch of Antioch Aimery of Limoges were unable to attend, and William and the other bishops did not have sufficient weight to persuade Pope Alexander III of the need for a new crusade. William was, however, sent by Alexander as an ambassador to Emperor Manuel, and Manuel then sent him on a mission to the Principality of Antioch. William does not mention exactly what happened during these embassies, but he probably discussed the Byzantine alliance with Jerusalem, and Manuel's protectorate over Antioch, where, due to pressure from Rome and Jerusalem, the emperor was forced to give up his attempts to restore a Greek patriarch. William was absent from Jerusalem for two years, returning home in 1180.

paragraph: Section::::Patriarchal election of 1180.

paragraph: During William's absence a crisis had developed in Jerusalem. King Baldwin had reached the age of majority in 1176 and Raymond III had been removed from the regency, but as a leper Baldwin could have no children and could not be expected to rule much longer. After the death of William of Montferrat in 1177, King Baldwin's widowed sister Sibylla required a new husband. At Easter in 1180, the two factions were divided even further when Raymond and his cousin Bohemond III of Antioch attempted to force Sibylla to marry Baldwin of Ibelin. Raymond and Bohemond were King Baldwin's nearest male relatives in the paternal line, and could have claimed the throne if the king died without an heir or a suitable replacement. Before Raymond and Bohemond arrived, however, Agnes and King Baldwin arranged for Sibylla to be married to a Poitevin newcomer, Guy of Lusignan, whose older brother Aimery of Lusignan was already an established figure at court.

paragraph: The dispute affected William, since he had been appointed chancellor by Raymond and may have fallen out of favour after Raymond was removed from the regency. When Patriarch Amalric died on 6 October 1180, the two most obvious choices for his successor were William and Heraclius of Caesarea. They were fairly evenly matched in background and education, but politically they were allied with opposite parties, as Heraclius was one of Agnes of Courtenay's supporters. It seems that the canons of the Holy Sepulchre were unable to decide, and asked the king for advice; due to Agnes' influence, Heraclius was elected. There were rumours that Agnes and Heraclius were lovers, but this information comes from the partisan 13th-century continuations of the "Historia", and there is no other evidence to substantiate such a claim. William himself says almost nothing about the election and Heraclius' character or his subsequent patriarchate, probably reflecting his disappointment at the outcome.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: William remained archbishop of Tyre and chancellor of the kingdom, but the details of his life at this time are obscure. The 13th-century continuators claim that Heraclius excommunicated William in 1183, but it is unknown why Heraclius would have done this. They also claim that William went to Rome to appeal to the Pope, where Heraclius had him poisoned. According to Peter Edbury and John Rowe, the obscurity of William's life during these years shows that he did not play a large political role, but concentrated on ecclesiastical affairs and the writing of his history. The story of his excommunication, and the unlikely detail that he was poisoned, were probably an invention of the Old French continuators. William remained in the kingdom and continued to write up until 1184, but by then Jerusalem was internally divided by political factions and externally surrounded by the forces of Saladin, and "the only subjects that present themselves are the disasters of a sorrowing country and its manifold misfortunes, themes which can serve only to draw forth lamentations and tears."

paragraph: His importance had dwindled with the victory of Agnes and her supporters, and with the accession of Baldwin V, infant son of Sibylla and William of Montferrat. Baldwin was a sickly child and he died the next year. In 1186 he was succeeded by his mother Sibylla and her second husband Guy of Lusignan, ruling jointly. William was probably in failing health by this point. Rudolf Hiestand discovered that the date of William's death was 29 September, but the year was not recorded; whatever the year, there was a new chancellor in May 1185 and a new archbishop of Tyre by 21 October 1186. Hans E. Mayer concluded that William died in 1186, and this is the year generally accepted by scholars.

paragraph: William's foresight about the misfortunes of his country was proven correct less than a year later. Saladin defeated King Guy at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, and went on to capture Jerusalem and almost every other city of the kingdom, except the seat of William's archdiocese, Tyre. News of the fall of Jerusalem shocked Europe and plans were made to send assistance. According to Roger of Wendover, William was present at Gisors in France in 1188 when Henry II of England and Philip II of France agreed to go on crusade: "Thereupon the king of the English first took the sign of the cross at the hands of the Archbishop of Rheims and William of Tyre, the latter of whom had been entrusted by our lord the pope with the office of legate in the affairs of the crusade in the western part of Europe." Roger was however mistaken; he knew that an unnamed archbishop of Tyre was present and assumed it must have been the William whose chronicle he possessed, although the archbishop in question was actually William's successor Joscius.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: William reports that he wrote an account of the Third Council of the Lateran, which does not survive. He also wrote a history of the Holy Land from the time of Muhammad up to 1184, for which he used Eutychius of Alexandria as his main source. This work seems to have been known in Europe in the 13th century but it also does not survive. August C. Krey thought William's Arabic sources may have come from the library of the Damascene diplomat Usama ibn Munqidh, whose library was looted by Baldwin III from a shipwreck in 1154. Alan V. Murray, however, has argued that, at least for the accounts of Persia and the Turks in his chronicle, William relied on Biblical and earlier medieval legends rather than actual history, and his knowledge "may be less indicative of eastern ethnography than of western mythography."

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Latin chronicle.

paragraph: William's great work is a Latin chronicle, written between 1170 and 1184. It contains twenty-three books; the final book, which deals with the events of 1183 and the beginning of 1184, has only a prologue and one chapter, so it is either unfinished or the rest of the pages were lost before the whole chronicle began to be copied. The first book begins with the conquest of Syria by Umar in the seventh century, but otherwise the work deals with the advent of the First Crusade and the subsequent political history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It is arranged, but was not written, chronologically; the first sections to be written were probably the chapters about the invasion of Egypt in 1167, which are extremely detailed and were likely composed before the Fatimid dynasty was overthrown in 1171. Much of the "Historia" was finished before William left to attend the Lateran Council, but new additions and corrections were made after his return in 1180, perhaps because he now realized that European readers would also be interested in the history of the kingdom. In 1184 he wrote the Prologue and the beginning of the twenty-third book.

paragraph: William had access to the chronicles of the First Crusade, including Fulcher of Chartres, Albert of Aix, Raymond of Aguilers, Baldric of Dol, and the "Gesta Francorum", as well as other documents located in the kingdom's archives. He used Walter the Chancellor and other now-lost works for the history of the Principality of Antioch. From the end of Fulcher's chronicle in 1127, William is the only source of information from an author living in Jerusalem. For events that happened in William's own lifetime, he interviewed older people who had witnessed the events about which he was writing, and drew on his own memory.

paragraph: William's classical education allowed him to compose Latin superior to that of many medieval writers. He used numerous ancient Roman and early Christian authors, either for quotations or as inspiration for the framework and organization of the "Historia". His vocabulary is almost entirely classical, with only a few medieval constructions such as "loricator" (someone who makes armour, a calque of the Arabic "zarra") and "assellare" (to empty one's bowels). He was capable of clever word-play and advanced rhetorical devices, but he was prone to repetition of a number of words and phrases. His writing also shows phrasing and spelling which is unusual or unknown in purely classical Latin but not uncommon in medieval Latin, such as:

paragraph: BULLET::::- confusion between reflexive and possessive pronouns;

paragraph: BULLET::::- confusion over the use of the accusative and ablative cases, especially after the preposition "in";

paragraph: BULLET::::- collapsed diphthongs (i.e. the Latin diphthongs "ae" and "oe" are spelled simply "e");

paragraph: BULLET::::- the dative "mihi" ("to me") is spelled "michi";

paragraph: BULLET::::- a single "s" is often doubled, for example in the adjectival place-name ending which he often spells "-enssis"; this spelling is also used to represent the Arabic "sh", a sound which Latin lacks, for example in the name Shawar which he spells "Ssauar".

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Literary themes and biases.

paragraph: Despite his quotations from Christian authors and from the Bible, William did not place much emphasis on the intervention of God in human affairs, resulting in a somewhat "secular" history. Nevertheless, he included much information that is clearly legendary, especially when referring to the First Crusade, which even in his own day was already considered an age of great Christian heroes. Expanding on the accounts of Albert of Aix, Peter the Hermit is given prominence in the preaching of the First Crusade, to the point that it was he, not Pope Urban II, who originally conceived the crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon, the first ruler of crusader Jerusalem, was also depicted as the leader of the crusade from the beginning, and William attributed to him legendary strength and virtue. This reflected the almost mythological status that Godfrey and the other first crusaders held for the inhabitants of Jerusalem in the late twelfth century.

paragraph: William gave a more nuanced picture of the kings of his own day. He claimed to have been commissioned to write by King Amalric himself, but William did not allow himself to praise the king excessively; for example, Amalric did not respect the rights of the church, and although he was a good military commander, he could not stop the increasing threat from the neighbouring Muslim states. On a personal level, William admired the king's education and his interest in history and law, but also noted that Amalric had "breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist" and was shocked when the king questioned the resurrection of the dead.

paragraph: About Amalric's son Baldwin IV, however, "there was no ambiguity". Baldwin was nothing but heroic in the face of his debilitating leprosy, and he led military campaigns against Saladin even while still underaged; William tends to gloss over campaigns where Baldwin was not actually in charge, preferring to direct his praise towards the afflicted king rather than subordinate commanders. William's history can be seen as an "apologia", a literary defense, for the kingdom, and more specifically for Baldwin's rule. By the 1170s and 1180s, western Europeans were reluctant to support the kingdom, partly because it was far away and there were more pressing concerns in Europe, but also because leprosy was usually considered divine punishment.

paragraph: William was famously biased against the Knights Templar, whom he believed to be arrogant and disrespectful of both secular and ecclesiastical hierarchies, as they were not required to pay tithes and were legally accountable only to the Pope. Although he was writing decades later, he is the earliest author to describe the actual foundation of the Templar order. He was generally favourable towards them when discussing their early days, but resented the power and influence they held in his own time. William accused them of hindering the Siege of Ascalon in 1153; of poorly defending a cave-fortress in 1165, for which twelve Templars were hanged by King Amalric; of sabotaging the invasion of Egypt in 1168; and of murdering Assassin ambassadors in 1173.

paragraph: Compared to other Latin authors of the twelfth century, William is surprisingly favourable to the Byzantine Empire. He had visited the Byzantine court as an official ambassador and probably knew more about Byzantine affairs than any other Latin chronicler. He shared the poor opinion of Alexius I Comnenus that had developed during the First Crusade, although he was also critical of some of the crusaders' dealings with Alexius. He was more impressed by Alexius' son John II Comnenus; he did not approve of John's attempts to bring the crusader Principality of Antioch under Byzantine control, but John's military expeditions against the Muslim states, the common enemy of both Greeks and Latins, were considered admirable. Emperor Manuel, whom William met during his visits to Constantinople, was portrayed more ambivalently, much like King Amalric. William admired him personally, but recognized that the Empire was powerless to help Jerusalem against the Muslim forces of Nur ad-Din and Saladin. William was especially disappointed in the failure of the joint campaign against Egypt in 1169. The end of the "Historia" coincides with the massacre of the Latins in Constantinople and the chaos that followed the coup of Andronicus I Comnenus, and in his description of those events, William was certainly not immune to the extreme anti-Greek rhetoric that was often found in Western European sources.

paragraph: As a medieval Christian author William could hardly avoid hostility towards the kingdom's Muslim neighbours, but as an educated man who lived among Muslims in the east, he was rarely polemical or completely dismissive of Islam. He did not think Muslims were pagans, but rather that they belonged to a heretical sect of Christianity and followed the teachings of a false prophet. He often praised the Muslim leaders of his own day, even if he lamented their power over the Christian kingdom; thus Muslim rulers such as Mu'in ad-Din Unur, Nur ad-Din, Shirkuh, and even Jerusalem's ultimate conqueror Saladin are presented as honourable and pious men, characteristics that William did not bestow on many of his own Christian contemporaries.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Circulation of the chronicle.

paragraph: After William's death the "Historia" was copied and circulated in the crusader states and was eventually brought to Europe. In the 13th century, James of Vitry had access to a copy while he was bishop of Acre, and it was used by Guy of Bazoches, Matthew Paris, and Roger of Wendover in their own chronicles. However, there are only ten known manuscripts that contain the Latin chronicle, all of which come from France and England, so William's work may not have been very widely read in its original form. In England, however, the "Historia" was expanded in Latin, with additional information from the "Itinerarium Regis Ricardi", and the chronicle of Roger Hoveden; this version was written around 1220.

paragraph: It is unknown what title William himself gave his chronicle, although one group of manuscripts uses "Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum" and another uses "Historia Ierosolimitana". The Latin text was printed for the first time in Basel in 1549 by Nicholas Brylinger; it was also published in the "Gesta Dei per Francos" by Jacques Bongars in 1611 and the "Recueil des historiens des croisades" (RHC) by Auguste-Arthur Beugnot and Auguste Le Prévost in 1844, and Bongars' text was reprinted in the "Patrologia Latina" by Jacques Paul Migne in 1855. The now-standard Latin critical edition, based on six of the surviving manuscripts, was published as "Willelmi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon" in the "Corpus Christianorum" in 1986, by R. B. C. Huygens, with notes by Hans E. Mayer and Gerhard Rösch. The RHC edition was translated into English by Emily A. Babcock and August C. Krey in 1943 as "A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea," although the translation is sometimes incomplete or inexact.

paragraph: Section::::Works.:Old French translation.

paragraph: A translation of the "Historia" into Old French, made around 1223, was particularly well-circulated and had many anonymous additions made to it in the 13th century. In contrast to the surviving Latin manuscripts, there are "at least fifty-nine manuscripts or fragments of manuscripts" containing the Old French translation. There are also independent French continuations attributed to Ernoul and Bernard le Trésorier. The translation was sometimes called the "Livre dou conqueste"; it was known by this name throughout Europe as well as in the crusader Kingdom of Cyprus and in Cilician Armenia, and 14th-century Venetian geographer Marino Sanuto the Elder had a copy of it. The French was further translated into Spanish, as the "Gran Conquista de Ultramar", during the reign of Alfonso the Wise of Castile in the late 13th century. The French version was so widespread that the Renaissance author Francesco Pipino translated it back into Latin, unaware that a Latin original already existed. A Middle English translation of the French was made by William Caxton in the 15th century.

paragraph: Section::::Modern assessment.

paragraph: William's neutrality as an historian was often taken for granted until the late twentieth century. August C. Krey, for example, believed that "his impartiality  ...  is scarcely less impressive than his critical skill." Despite this excellent reputation, D. W. T. C. Vessey has shown that William was certainly not an impartial observer, especially when dealing with the events of the 1170s and 1180s. Vessey believes that William's claim to have been commissioned by Amalric is a typical ancient and medieval "topos", or literary theme, in which a wise ruler, a lover of history and literature, wishes to preserve for posterity the grand deeds of his reign. William's claims of impartiality are also a typical "topos" in ancient and medieval historical writing.

paragraph: His depiction of Baldwin IV as a hero is an attempt "to vindicate the politics of his own party and to blacken those of its opponents." As mentioned above, William was opposed to Baldwin's mother Agnes of Courtenay, Patriarch Heraclius, and their supporters; his interpretation of events during Baldwin's reign was previously taken as fact almost without question. In the mid twentieth century, Marshall W. Baldwin, Steven Runciman, and Hans Eberhard Mayer were influential in perpetuating this point of view, although the more recent re-evaluations of this period by Vessey, Peter Edbury and Bernard Hamilton have undone much of William's influence.

paragraph: An often-noted flaw in the "Historia" is William's poor memory for dates. "Chronology is sometimes confused, and dates are given wrongly", even for basic information such as the regnal dates of the kings of Jerusalem. For example, William gives the date of Amalric's death as 11 July 1173, when it actually occurred in 1174.

paragraph: Despite his biases and errors, William "has always been considered one of the greatest medieval writers." Runciman wrote that "he had a broad vision; he understood the significance of the great events of his time and the sequence of cause and effect in history." Christopher Tyerman calls him "the historian's historian", and "the greatest crusade historian of all," and Bernard Hamilton says he "is justly considered one of the finest historians of the Middle Ages". As the "Dictionary of the Middle Ages" says, "William's achievements in assembling and evaluating sources, and in writing in excellent and original Latin a critical and judicious (if chronologically faulty) narrative, make him an outstanding historian, superior by medieval, and not inferior by modern, standards of scholarship."

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Primary.

paragraph: BULLET::::- William of Tyre, "A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea", trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. Columbia University Press, 1943.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.:Secondary.

paragraph: BULLET::::- John Carl Andressohn, "The Ancestry and Life of Godfrey of Bouillon". Indiana University Publications, Social Science Series 5, 1947.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Susan M. Babbitt, "William of Tyre." "Dictionary of the Middle Ages", ed. Joseph Strayer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989, vol. 12.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Marshall W. Baldwin, "The Decline and Fall of Jerusalem, 1174–1189." "A History of the Crusades" (gen. ed. Kenneth M. Setton), vol. 1: The First Hundred Years (ed. Marshall W. Baldwin). University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Malcolm Barber, "The Trial of the Templars". Cambridge University Press, 1993.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frederic Duncalf, "The First Crusade: Clermont to Constantinople." "A History of the Crusades" (gen. ed. Kenneth M. Setton), vol. 1: The First Hundred Years (ed. Marshall W. Baldwin). University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter W. Edbury and John G. Rowe, "William of Tyre and the Patriarchal election of 1180." "The English Historical Review" 93 (1978), repr. "Kingdoms of the Crusaders: From Jerusalem to Cyprus" (Aldershot: Ashgate, Variorum Collected Series Studies, 1999), pp. 1–25.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter W. Edbury and John G. Rowe, "William of Tyre: Historian of the Latin East". Cambridge University Press, 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter W. Edbury, "Propaganda and faction in the Kingdom of Jerusalem: the background to Hattin." "Crusaders and Muslims in Twelfth-Century Syria", ed. Maya Shatzmiller (Leiden: Brill, 1993), repr. in Kingdoms of the Crusaders: From Jerusalem to Cyprus (Aldershot: Ashgate, Variorum Collected Series Studies, 1999), pp. 173–189.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bernard Hamilton, "The Leper King and his Heirs". Cambridge University Press, 2000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Homer Haskins, "The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century". Harvard University Press, 1927; repr. Meridian Books, 1966.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. B. C. Huygens, "Guillaume de Tyr étudiant: un chapître (XIX, 12) de son Histoire retrouvé." "Latomus" 21 (1962), pp. 811–829.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. B. C. Huygens, "Editing William of Tyre." "Sacris Erudiri" 27 (1984), pp. 461–473.

paragraph: BULLET::::- G. A. Loud and J. W. Cox, "The 'Lost' Autobiographical Chapter of William of Tyre's Chronicle (Book XIX.12)." "The Crusades: An Encyclopedia", ed. Alan V. Murray (ABC-Clio, 2006), vol. 4, Appendix: Texts and Documents #4, pp. 1305–1308.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans E. Mayer, "The Crusades", 2nd ed., trans. John Gillingham. Oxford University Press, 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alan V. Murray, "William of Tyre and the origin of the Turks: on the sources of the Gesta Orientalium Principum," in "Dei gesta Per Francos: Études sur les crioisades dédiées à Jean Richard/Crusade Studies in Honour of Jean Richard", edd. Michel Balard, Benjamin Z. Kedar and Jonathan Riley-Smith (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), pp. 217–229.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alan V. Murray, "William of Tyre." "The Crusades: An Encyclopedia", ed. Alan V. Murray (ABC-Clio, 2006), vol. 4.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helen J. Nicholson, "William of Tyre." "Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing", ed. Kelly Boyd. Taylor & Francis, 1999, vol. 2.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Steven Runciman, "A History of the Crusades", volume 1: The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press, 1951.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Steven Runciman, "A History of the Crusades", volume 2: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East. Cambridge University Press, 1952.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. C. Schwinges, "William of Tyre, the Muslim enemy, and the problem of tolerance." "Tolerance and Intolerance. Social Conflict in the Age of the Crusades", ed. Michael Gervers and James M. Powell, Syracuse University Press, 2001.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christopher Tyerman, "The Invention of the Crusades". University of Toronto Press, 1998.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Christopher Tyerman, "God's War: A New History of the Crusades". Penguin, 2006.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jacques Verger, "The birth of the universities". "A History of the University in Europe", vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, ed. Hilde de Ridder-Symoens. Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 47–55.

paragraph: BULLET::::- D. W. T. C. Vessey, "William of Tyre and the art of historiography." "Mediaeval Studies" 35 (1973), pp. 433–455.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Primary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Willemi Tyrensis Archiepiscopi Chronicon", ed. R. B. C. Huygens. 2 vols. "Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Medievalis", vols. 63 & 63a. Turnholt: Brepols, 1986. Latin text with introduction and notes in French.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "L'Estoire d'Eracles empereur et la conqueste de la terre d'Outremer", in Recueil des historiens des croisades, Historiens occidentaux, vols. I-II (1844, 1859).

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. A. Giles, trans. "Roger of Wendover's Flowers of History". London, 1849.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "La Chronique d'Ernoul et de Bernard le Trésorier", ed. Louis de Mas Latrie. Paris, 1871.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Guillaume de Tyr et ses continuateurs", ed. Alexis Paulin Paris. Paris, 1879–1880.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret Ruth Morgan, "La continuation de Guillaume de Tyr (1184–1197)". Paris, 1982.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Helen J. Nicholson, ed. "The Chronicle of the Third Crusade: The Itinerarium Peregrinorum and the Gesta Regis Ricardi". Aldershot: Ashgate, 1997.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Janet Shirley, "Crusader Syria in the Thirteenth Century: The Rothelin Continuation of the History of William of Tyre with part of the Eracles or Acre text". Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.:Secondary sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas Asbridge, "". Oxford University Press, 2004.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. H. C. Davis, "William of Tyre." "Relations Between East and West in the Middle Ages", ed. Derek Baker (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973), pp. 64–76.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter W. Edbury, "The French translation of William of Tyre's "Historia": the manuscript tradition." "Crusades" 6 (2007).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philip Handyside, "The Old French William of Tyre". Brill, 2015.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rudolf Hiestand, "Zum Leben und Laufbahn Wilhelms von Tyrus." "Deutsches Archiv" 34 (1978), pp. 345–380.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Conor Kostick, "William of Tyre, Livy and the Vocabulary of Class." "Journal of the History of Ideas" 65.3 (2004), 352-367.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans E. Mayer, "Guillaume de Tyr à l'école." "Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences, arts et belles-lettres de Dijon" 117 (1985–86), repr. "Kings and Lords in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem" (Aldershot: Ashgate, Variorum Collected Studies Series, 1994), pp. 257–265.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans E. Mayer, "Zum Tode Wilhelms von Tyrus." "Archiv für Diplomatik" 5–6 (1959–1960), pp. 182–201.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Margaret Ruth Morgan, "The Chronicle of Ernoul and the Continuations of William of Tyre". Oxford University Press, 1973.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans Prutz, "Studien über Wilhelm von Tyrus." "Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde" 8 (1883), pp. 91–132.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Excerpts from the "Historia" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fiasco at Damascus 1148 from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook

paragraph: BULLET::::- Latin version from the Patrologia Latina, via The Latin Library

paragraph: BULLET::::- Latin version from Crusades-Encyclopedia.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Latin version with concordance from Intertext.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Old French translation and continuation from Internet Medieval Sourcebook

paragraph: BULLET::::- English translation by E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey, from ACLS Humanities E-Books (login required)

description: Medieval prelate and chronicler,  archbishop of Tyre

wikidata_label: William of Tyre

wikipedia_title: William of Tyre


text:
painter
installation artist
performance artist
Manila
Philippines
Performance Art
visual artist
avant-garde
Cultural Center of the Philippines
Cesare Syjuco

categories: People from Manila,Avant-garde art,Filipino artists,1952 births

paragraph: Jean Marie Syjuco

paragraph: Jean Marie Syjuco (born June 26, 1952) is a painter, installation artist, and performance artist from Manila, Philippines.

paragraph: Through the 1980s and the 1990s, Jean Marie brought attention and institutional support to the maverick art-form of Performance Art in the Philippines. Beginning in the 1970s as an extension of her work as a visual artist, her performance works developed from conceptual pieces of marked brevity rooted in anti-narrative devices, to the thematic spectacles and large-scale collaborations and video documentations for which she is now better known.

paragraph: For over 3 decades, she has balanced her roles as a painter of Abstract and Fantasy genres, sculptor, installation and performance artist. Since she was awarded the "Gold Medal for Sculpture in the 1980 AAP (Art Institution of the Philippines) Annual Art Competition", her transmedia objects and installations have occupied a unique place in contemporary art for their avant-garde melding of folk and technological elements.

paragraph: Jean Marie Syjuco was a recipient of the 1990 Cultural Center of the Philippines Gawad CCP Para Sa Sining Biswal Award.

paragraph: Currently, she is building the "New “Art Lab”", a non-profit developmental art facility (founded with her husband, Cesare Syjuco), which served as the haven of experimental art in the 1990s.

description: Avant-garde artist

wikidata_label: Jean Marie Syjuco

wikipedia_title: Jean Marie Syjuco


text:
Nagaokakyo
Speranza FC Takatsuki
INAC Leonessa
L.League
2011
2013
2011
2013
Japan national team
2008 AFC Women's Asian Cup
Chinese Taipei
2011 World Cup
final
United States
2012 Summer Olympics
South Africa
2015 World Cup
Japan Football Association

categories: Nadeshiko League players,Footballers at the 2014 Asian Games,Association football people from Kyoto Prefecture,Olympic footballers of Japan,Women's association football goalkeepers,1986 births,Olympic medalists in football,INAC Kobe Leonessa players,2015 FIFA Women's World Cup players,Olympic silver medalists for Japan,Asian Games gold medalists for Japan,Living people,Japan women's international footballers,Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics,Footballers at the 2010 Asian Games,Asian Games medalists in football,Japanese women's footballers,Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics,2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players,Footballers at the 2012 Summer Olympics,Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games,FIFA Women's World Cup-winning players,Speranza Osaka-Takatsuki players

paragraph: Ayumi Kaihori

paragraph: Section::::Club career.

paragraph: Kaihori was born in Nagaokakyo on September 4, 1986. In 2004, she was a high school student, she joined Speranza FC Takatsuki. She moved to INAC Leonessa (later "INAC Kobe Leonessa") in 2008. The club won L.League championship for 3 years in a row (2011-2013). She was also elected Best Eleven 2 times in 2011 and 2013. In 2015, she retired.

paragraph: Section::::National team career.

paragraph: In May 2008, Kaihori was elected Japan national team for 2008 AFC Women's Asian Cup. At this competition, on May 31, she debuted against Chinese Taipei. She was Japan's goalkeeper in the 2011 World Cup final, where she saved two penalties in the shoot-out which saw Japan defeat the United States by winning 3–1. She was part of the Japanese team that won the silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, playing in one game, vs South Africa, which saw Kaihori keep a clean sheet. She also played 5 matches at 2015 World Cup and Japan won 2nd position. She played 53 games for Japan until 2015.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Japan Football Association

description: Japanese footballer

wikidata_label: Ayumi Kaihori

wikipedia_title: Ayumi Kaihori