text: Romanize

text: Iran

text: academic

text: Research

text: anthropology

text: Iranian clothing

text: Fighting Cock Society

text: Bandar-e Anzali

text: Tehran

text: visual arts

text: Fighting Cock

text: visual arts

text: Surrealism

text: futurism

text: Iranian culture

text: decorative arts

text: anthropology

text: Tarbiat Modares

text: Behesht-e Zahra

text: Fighting Cock

text: Takht-e Jamshid Avenue

text: Farrukhi Sistani

text: Alexander

text: Tudeh Party

text: cubism

text: communism

text: Surrealism

text: compositions

text: aesthetics

text: geometric

text: cubism

text: composition

text: Kavir

text: anthropological

text: nomad

text: adornment

text: allegorical

text: Tehran

text: Sassanid

text: Gilan

text: Aryans

text: Iranian Plateau

text: Abaya

text: Arkhalig

text: Tehran University

text: Rise of Islam

text: Islamists

text: Nomad

text: Median

text: Adornment

text: Qajar

text: Achaemenids

text: Takht-e Jamshid

text: Zoroaster

text: Keyumars

text: Jamshid

text: Alborz

text: Shahnameh

text: Decorative

text: Safavid

text: Rostam

text: Sistan

text: Ghaffari

text: Dictionary

text: Gilaki Language

categories: People from Bandar-e Anzali,1920 births,1999 deaths

paragraph: Jalil Ziapour

paragraph: Jalil Ziapour (; also Romanized as "Jalīl Z̤iyāʼpūr") was an Iranian painter, academic member, Researcher and writer mentioned as "the father of modern Iranian painting". Besides having been a leading painter and the head of the futuristic movement, he has had many research activities in the fields of anthropology, study and familiarization with language, public culture, clothing and decorative designs of different regions of Iran, and their results are currently used in universities as reference books. During his cultural and artistic activity, Ziapour has performed giving more than 85 lectures, presenting more than 70 cultural and artistic articles, writing more than 28 books in the fields of Iranian clothing, art and history and also creating about 40 paintings and two statues. He was one of the founders of the artistic Fighting Cock Society.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Jalil Ziapour was born in Bandar-e Anzali on 1920. His childhood hobbies were forming statues from Anzali marshes mud and listening to music. He began his art studies since youth. After finishing primary education, he went to Tehran in 1938 and entered the Music School, which was directed by Mr. Minbashian then, for composing and passed the entrance tests; but at that time, the foreign professors of the school returned to their home countries and he was not able to follow his agenda. Therefore, he started studying and familiarizing with traditional arts in the School of Fine Arts. In 1941, he entered the Beautiful Arts School. The first period of the school (1941–1945) announced three graduates in painting and Ziapour received the first place and the first class cultural medal from the school and headed to France by the scholarship presented by that country's government and continued studying in École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts in visual arts field.

paragraph: In 1948, after his first return to Iran, the academy painters including Javad Hamidi, Hossein Kazemi... assembled and the remarkable activity of contemporary painting in Iran was established. In 1949, Ziapour established the artistic board "Fighting Cock", which was a leading committee in the field of modern arts in literature, theater, music and painting, and started printing a magazine with the same name with his proponents and presented his theory about visual arts (painting) called "Refute of the Theories of Past and Contemporary Ideologies -from Primitive to Surrealism". During his artistic activity as a painter, he was always considered as the leader of futurism and the developer of modern art and is the initiator of artistic criticism in Iran. Ziapour contended in four fronts: the followers of past methods, the degenerate modernists who had returned from abroad, the mass traditionalists, the followers of the old European method. His effort was to preserve the Iranian identity by leaning on the capacity of native culture, but speak by a global tongue and present it and eventually bring honor to his Iranian culture.

paragraph: In 1952, he was offered a job from the National General Agency of Beautiful Arts and performed many cultural-artistic activities, jobs and missions like founding the female and male high schools for visual arts, decorative arts school, dean of anthropology museum, etc. In 1979, he retired from public service and since then until his final days of life, he performed research, writing and teaching at the schools of dramatic and decorative arts, Islamic Art Collective, Tarbiat Modares and Al-Zahra Universities. In 79 years of age, Ziapour died at the Tus hospital of Tehran on Tuesday, December 21, 1999, as a result of heart failure after spending a difficult period of disease, and two days later on December 23, he was buried at the artists section of Behesht-e Zahra.

paragraph: Section::::Fighting Cock Society.

paragraph: After his first return to Iran (1949), he founded the artistic society of Fighting Cock, which was a leading society in the fields of modern art about literature, theater, music and painting, and also started printing a magazine with the same name. The location of the society was the Ziapour Atelier at the Takht-e Jamshid Avenue. He announced the goal of the Fighting Cock Society "Contending Conservatism and Traditionalism far from the Realities of the Time" and picked a poem by Farrukhi Sistani as the motto of the society:

paragraph: فسانه گشت و کهن شد حدیث اسکندر/ سخن نو آر که نو را حلاوتی است دگر

paragraph: Meaning: "The tale of Alexander became a legend and an old one. State new words which have a different sweet taste."

paragraph: Eventually, the opponents, who had introduced the Fighting Cock Magazine a publication associated with the Tudeh Party and believed cubism equal to communism, caused Ziapour's interrogation at the Official Misdemeanors Court and the banning of the magazine. Then be published another magazine titled "Kavir", which was also banned, and then continued reflecting his thoughts at the publication "Claw of Cock".

paragraph: Section::::Theory.

paragraph: Ziapour presented his art theory and view as a thesis titled "Refute of the Theories of Past and Contemporary Ideologies from Primitive to Surrealism" in October 1948 to cultural and journal societies; and in it, after presenting a short history of Occidental art ideologies, he considered all those ideologies ineffective for the main goal of painting and stated most of them as covers for supplying things other than painting. By that thesis, he became very close to the definition of single and abstract painting and looked at the material of modern painting, whose cleansing from literary, historical, social and so on is necessary in order to achieve an independent function of color, line, light and creative compositions. The general conclusions stated in the theory are:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. The color and design are types of a far abnormal form and composition that the painting should act based on.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. The more abnormal the concept in the painting is from the aspect of organization, the more complete and valuable from the aspect of specialty it is.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. The concept of the painting, should not present the subject, the phrase and the result "like normal writings"; since every line and color, every form and every composition, is by itself possessing the subject and phrase and result and subsequently the concept; therefor, any form and picture and concept inclined to the familiar nature is contradictory with the profession of painting.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. The more the natural and close unnatural pictures are replaced by combinations of color and design and other professional factors, the more the painting progresses towards perfection, where it can earn its beauties and individual pleasures further.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. If the painting contains natural or close unnatural pictures, the artist should deliberately destroy them so that it becomes dissimilar to the normal nature in order to show the artistic factors completely and without any parasites.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. In painting without a picture, which means outside natural and close unnatural pictures, the artist understands their own assignment and knows that they should directly perform artistic factors, i.e. forming more accurate and pleasant synchronizations and more lively and meaningful designs, in order to make specialized beauties. In this stage, both the artist and the public, especially those who "believed to have understood specialized beauty by realizing normal and visual concepts like their own memories and wishes", understand their assignments; and from now on, they refer directly to artistic factors in order to understand the beauty of the painting, not to the visual concepts or the picture itself. That will be the first stage where the artist and the public both find out the truth about specialized beauty or specialized aesthetics.

paragraph: BULLET::::7. Until now, painting has not reached its limits of specialized art and beauty and has had a very close interaction with other beautiful arts especially the literature of "descriptive events". By applying this theory, an ideology which we call "perfect" is born that separates the limits and borders of painting from other arts. This place, i.e. "the perfect ideology", will be the true home of professional and specialized painting- apart from other arts; and from here, painting will show itself with a more extensive concept.

paragraph: BULLET::::8. The beauty of painting is different from that of other fine arts, and should be inspected separately.

paragraph: BULLET::::9. It should be noted that no new method is ever born without the required environment; and no request can ever be ahead of the current request of its time; because every request has a factor; and surely the main factor of any motivated request in the society has a requester. Therefor, my theory is not outside the demand of my current time and can not be.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: Ziapour's works are famous because of possessing original Iranian concepts, simplification of figures, loyalty to the traditional levels along with geometric lines of cubism, awareness of composition and generally the special style of painting. His research trip to Kavir and various Iranian regions for anthropological inspections, guided his attention towards nomadic lifestyle. He saw their behaviors, customs and traditions, clothes and adornments worth noticing and utilized those resources in his works and because of his research inclination toward farming lifestyle, nomadic concepts appeared in his works in an allegorical way.

paragraph: Journalistic illustrations, researches on Iran and cultural and educational activities left him less time for creating more works.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1949: A Theory about the Causes of the Weakness of Stating the Methods of Painting and Presenting the Procedure, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1953: The Art of Sculpture in Iran, Arash printing shop, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1953: The Ancient Clothing of Iranians until the end of the Sassanid Era, Publication of General Agency of Museums and public culture of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1954: History of the General Art of the Orient,Middle East and Europe"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1954: A Research about the General State, Settlement and Customs of the People of Gasemabad, Gilan"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1956: A Research about the Aryans and the Way of Their Immigration to the Iranian Plateau"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1958: A Research about the Clothings Abaya, Arkhalig, Yal, Ordered by Iran and Islam Encyclopedia, Publication of Tehran University"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1966: A Research about the Importance of Tailing of Cloth by the Iranians of the Sassanid Era and Its Influence since the Rise of Islamamong Islamists and Others."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1967: The Clothings of Yils, Nomads and Farmers of Iran, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1968: The Clothing of Olden People of the Iranian Plateau (before the arrival of the Aryans) until the Median Era."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1968: The Clothing of Iranian Women since the Oldest Times, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1969: Adornments of Iranian Women since the Olden Times until Now, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1970: The Clothing of Iranians since Fourteen Centuries Ago (From the rise of Islam until the end of Qajar era), Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1971: The Clothing of the Achaemenids and Medians Based on the Paintings of Takht-e Jamshid, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1971: The Clothings of Prophet Zoroaster and the Clerics"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1973: A Research about the Olden Aryans Settling in Central Asia and Their Initial Humanoid Thoughts"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1973: A Research about the Clothing and Weaponry of the Olden Aryan People since the Era of Keyumars (Iranian Adam Allfather) untilJamshid the Jam."

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1973: A Research about Alborz and its Similarities in Shahnameh"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1974: Decorative Designs in Iran since the Oldest Times, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1974: An Introduction to Coloring in Art Works since the Oldest Times until the Safavid Era, Publication of the Ministry of Culture and Art, Tehran"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1974: The Medians and the Establishment of the First Kingdom in Western Iranian Plateau, Publication of the National Works Board"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1974: A Research about Rostam, an Iranian Knight – Weaponry of the People of SistanRegions (Rostam's region)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1976: A Research about Sea Transportation in the Anzali Marsh and the Economic Status of the Residents around the Marsh, Ordered by the supreme council of culture and art"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1977: Fifty Years of Iranian Contemporary Visual Art (Since Ghaffari until now)"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "1998: The Brief History of Iranian and Global Art, Publication of Jahad-e Daneshgahi of Art"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dictionary of Gilaki Language (60000 words), Ready for printing

description: Iranian painter

wikidata_label: Jalil Ziapour

wikipedia_title: Jalil Ziapour


text:
Georgian
Bagratid dynasty
Tao-Klarjeti
Klarjeti
Sumbat II
Sumbat III

categories: 993 deaths,10th-century rulers in Asia,Bagrationi dynasty of Tao-Klarjeti

paragraph: David II of Klarjeti

paragraph: David II () (died 993) was a Georgian prince of the Bagratid dynasty of Tao-Klarjeti and ruler of Klarjeti from 988 until his death.

paragraph: David II was a son of Sumbat II, whom he succeeded as prince of Klarjeti. Virtually nothing is known about his life. He died without issue, being succeeded by his nephew Sumbat III.

description: King of Klarjeti

wikidata_label: David II of Klarjeti

wikipedia_title: David II of Klarjeti


text:
Milan
Mantua
Bernabò Visconti
Beatrice Regina della Scala
Mantua
Francesco I Gonzaga
Milan
Italy
Church
Bologna
Curia
heretic
Pope Urban V
crusade
Mastino II della Scala
da Carrara
Stefano Visconti
Doria
Taddea Visconti
Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria
Isabeau of Bavaria
Charles VI of France
Gonzaga
condottiero
Francesco I Gonzaga
Mantua
Ludovico I Gonzaga
scudi
Parma
Cremona
Brescia
Bergamo
Alda Gonzaga
Padua
Antonio Scandiano
Gian Galeazzo Visconti
Mantua

categories: House of Visconti,14th-century executions,1363 births,People executed by Italy by decapitation,Aristocracy of Mantua,1391 deaths,People executed for adultery,Executed Italian women,14th-century Italian people,Executed Italian people

paragraph: Agnese Visconti

paragraph: Agnese Visconti also known as Agnes (1363 in Milan – 1391 in Mantua) was a daughter of Bernabò Visconti and his wife Beatrice Regina della Scala. She was consort of Mantua by her marriage to Francesco I Gonzaga.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Agnese was born in Milan, Italy and was the ninth of seventeen children.

paragraph: Agnese's father, Bernabò, was a cruel and ruthless despot, and an implacable enemy of the Church. He seized the papal city of Bologna, rejected the Pope and his authority, confiscated ecclesiastical property, and forbade any of his subjects to have any dealings with the Curia. He was excommunicated as a heretic in 1363 by Pope Urban V, who preached crusade against him. When Bernabò was in one of his frequent rages, only the children's mother, Beatrice Regina, was able to approach him.

paragraph: Agnese's maternal grandparents were Mastino II della Scala and his wife Taddea da Carrara. Her paternal grandparents were Stefano Visconti and his wife Valentina Doria.

paragraph: Agnese's sister, Taddea Visconti, married Stephen III, Duke of Bavaria and was mother of Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI of France. Agnese and the rest of her sisters secured politically advantageous marriages.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage.

paragraph: Agnese's father led a policy of balance between the nearby powers of the Gonzaga family. Her father arranged for her to marry condottiero Francesco I Gonzaga, ruler of Mantua. He was the son of Ludovico I Gonzaga and Alda d'Este. Agnese brought a dowry of 50,000 gold scudi and the cities of Parma, Cremona, Brescia and Bergamo.

paragraph: The couple had only one daughter:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alda Gonzaga (? -30 July 1405), who married in 1405 Francis II Novello da Carrara, Lord of Padua.

paragraph: Agnese was later accused by her husband of having committed adultery with Antonio Scandiano. Agnese may not have been guilty, as her husband wanted to end his alliance with her father and wanted to form one instead with Gian Galeazzo Visconti. He could have just divorced Agnese, but to break off all relations with her father completely, it was necessary for Agnese to die. She was executed in Mantua 1391 along with her alleged lover.

wikidata_label: Agnese Visconti

wikipedia_title: Agnese Visconti


text:
Swedish
Old Norse
Sweden
Eric the Saint
Christina
Inge the Elder
Uppsala
Norway
Magnus Henriksson
Charles VII
Näs Castle
Visingsö
Vättern
Sverker the Elder
Kol
Burislev
Bjälbo
"Law of Västergötland"
jarl
Birger Brosa
Sigtuna
Lödöse
Henry the Lion
Saxony
Henry II of England
Scandinavia
Norwegian
Sverre
Erling Steinvegg
Denmark
Skåne
Karelians
Mälaren
Sigtuna
Johannes
Almarestäket
Stockholm
Baltic lands
Stegeborg
Kalmar
Borgholm
Novgorod
Varyags
Gotland
Germans
Gotland
Baltic Sea
Curland
Estonia
Skáldatal
skald
Hallbjörn hali
Þorsteinn Þorbjarnarson
Eriksberg
Västergötland
Philip
Varnhem Abbey
Sverker Karlsson
House of Sverker
Cecilia Johansdotter of Sweden
Pope Celestine III
Battle of Älgarås
Battle of Älgarås
Battle of Älgarås
Erik Knutsson
Sverker the Younger
King of Sweden
Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar
Cecilia Knutsdotter

categories: 1190s deaths,12th-century Swedish monarchs,12th-century births,Rulers of Finland,Year of birth uncertain,Year of death uncertain,Swedish monarchs,House of Eric

paragraph: Canute I of Sweden

paragraph: Canute I (Swedish: "Knut Eriksson", Old Norse: "Knútr Eiríksson"; born before 1150 – died 1195/96) was king over all of Sweden from 1173 to 1195 (rival king since 1167). He was a son of King Eric the Saint and Queen Christina, who was a granddaughter of the Swedish king Inge the Elder.

paragraph: Section::::Youth and ascension.

paragraph: Canute was born no later than the 1140s, thus before his father had yet gained power over parts of Sweden. As a young man he was betrothed to a lady, sister of another Canute. Her name is not revealed, but her equal could supposedly not be found in the land. When Eric IX was killed in Uppsala in 1160, Canute was defeated and forced to flee, while his fiancée hid in a monastery for reasons of safety. According to late medieval sources he lived in exile in Norway for three years, a piece of information that is highly unreliable. He later returned to reclaim the throne. The killer of his father, Magnus Henriksson, was slain in 1161 by another pretender, Charles VII, who took the throne and resided in Näs Castle at the southern point of Visingsö, an island in Lake Vättern. Canute came over and slew Charles on 12 April 1167. The sources do not allow us to tell if it was a regicide or if Charles was killed in battle. The deed did not immediately secure the throne for Canute, who started fighting for power against Sverker the Elder's sons or grandsons Kol and Burislev. As the chronicle states, "he fought many battles against Sweden and had the victory in them all, and had great effort before he gained Sweden with peace." According to later sources Kol fell in fighting at Bjälbo in 1169, while Burislev underwent the same fate in about 1172-73. Only from this time could Canute call himself king of the whole country. According to the short chronicle included in the "Law of Västergötland", he ruled as a good king for 23 years after his victories.

paragraph: Section::::Rule.

paragraph: After 1174, Canute was ably supported in his rule by the jarl (earl) Birger Brosa who died in 1202. In many ways, the long reign of Canute brought Sweden closer to a Catholic-European state model. The power of the king was consolidated, concomitantly with an emerging central bureaucracy where the written word was increasingly important. The issuing of royal written documents began at this time; nine such are preserved, mostly dealing with the affairs of the monastery of Viby at Sigtuna. There had not been any coinage in Sweden from about 1030 to 1150, when minting once again started in Lödöse. King Canute supported the initiative and issued royal coins after c. 1180 with the inscription KANVTVS REX or KANVTVS. The coins are of German type, and minting may be connected to Canute's relationship with North Germany. Some time before 1180 he concluded a commercial treaty with Henry the Lion of Saxony. It is the first such treaty in Swedish history and may indicate the emergence of towns. He also sent three envoys to Henry II of England in c. 1185 and received pieces of armour in return.

paragraph: Section::::Relations with Scandinavian and Baltic neighbours.

paragraph: Within Scandinavia, Canute and his jarl Birger Brosa entertained good relations with the Norwegian king Sverre, who married the sister of the king, Margareta. The pretender Erling Steinvegg, who was the enemy of Sverre, was arrested by Canute on behalf of his brother-in-law and imprisoned on Visingsö. On the other hand, relations with Denmark were rocky. Danish rebels found refuge in Sweden in 1176 and 1191, and in 1182 Canute and Birger Brosa supported the pretender Harald Skraeng who fomented a rising in Skåne but was defeated by the Danish royal troops.

paragraph: During his reign Canute was reportedly occupied fighting pagans for the sake of dissemination of the Christian faith. A fleet of pagan Karelians entered Lake Mälaren in 1187 and ravaged the coasts. The marauders burned Sigtuna and killed Archbishop Johannes at Almarestäket. It seems that Canute built a defensive tower on the island of Stockholm after this event, one of many such fortifications made necessary by heathen incursions from the Baltic lands. Other such towers were constructed in Skå, Stegeborg, Stenså, Kalmar, Strömsrum and Borgholm. Immediately after the attack, a sea-borne expedition to the east was organized. The chronicles of Novgorod report that Varyags and "Germans" from Gotland attacked its territory in 1188. The Nordic attackers won victories at Khoruzhka and Novotorzhek and stayed over winter. In the next spring they were defeated by the Novgorodians, however. Birger Brosa seems to have led another fleet of Germans and men from Gotland across the Baltic Sea in the 1190s - either before or after Canute's death. The expedition was aimed for Curland but was driven to the coast of eastern Estonia whose inhabitants were defeated and forced to pay tribute.

paragraph: "Skáldatal" names two of Knut Eriksson's skalds: Hallbjörn hali and Þorsteinn Þorbjarnarson.

paragraph: Section::::Death and succession.

paragraph: Canute died in Eriksberg in Västergötland, either in the fall of 1195 or on 8 April 1196. On balance he was the first successful ruler of Sweden for a long time, being the first king since Philip (d. 1118) to die a natural death. He was buried in Varnhem Abbey. His sons were reportedly grown up at his demise, but he was nevertheless succeeded by a son of his former rival Charles VII, Sverker Karlsson. The House of Sverker had sufficient support among the church and grandees to regain power, apparently without shedding blood.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Canute married his cloistered fiancée after his ascension to power. The name of his wife is unknown but sometimes taken to be Cecilia Johansdotter of Sweden. She gave birth to several children of which one was appointed heir to the throne with the consent of the grandees of the kingdom. At a later time she became seriously ill. In her agony she promised before God to observe celibacy if she recovered. Canute agreed in order to console her. In fact she survived and entered a monastery. However, Canute wrote a letter to Pope Celestine III in 1193, asking to be allowed to take up married life. The reason was that he must cooperate with his wife's relative to fight the pagans, and evade the libel of his enemies. The outcome of his request is not clear.

paragraph: Children:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. N.N. son (slain November 1205 at Battle of Älgarås)

paragraph: BULLET::::2. N.N. son (slain November 1205 at Battle of Älgarås)

paragraph: BULLET::::3. N.N. son (slain November 1205 at Battle of Älgarås)

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Erik Knutsson, who would defeat Sverker the Younger and become King of Sweden in 1208.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. daughter, NN Knutsdotter (possibly Sigrid, or Karin), who is said to have married either jarl Knut Birgersson (and become mother of Magnus Broka), or married Magnus Broka himself (and with Magnus had a son Knut Magnusson, or, Knut Katarinason, claimant of Swedish throne and killed in 1251). Existence of this daughter is based on unclear mentions in old saga and chronicle material, especially the Norwegian Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar. It is to an extent accepted in research literature, to explicate Knut Magnusson's hereditary claim to the throne. This daughter was by necessity born in the 1170s or 1180s. She is also proposed by old romantical-looking genealogies as mother of a Duke's daughter Cecilia Knutsdotter (by necessity born near 1208 at earliest), whose parentage however is fully shrouded in mists of history.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gillingstam, Hans. "Knut Eriksson", "Svenskt biografiskt lexikon", https://sok.riksarkivet.se/Sbl/Presentation.aspx?id=11661

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harrison, Dick, "Sveriges historia 600-1350". Stockholm: Norstedts, 2009.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lagerqvist Lars O., Åberg Nils. "Kings and Rulers of Sweden". Vincent Publications, 2002 ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Larsson, Inger. "Svenska medeltidsbrev; framväxten av ett offentligt skriftspråk". Stockholm: Norstedts ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Larsson, Mats G., "Götarnas riken; Upptäcktsfärder till Sveriges enande". Stockholm: Atlantis, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Liljegren, Bengt. "Rulers of Sweden". Historiska Media, 2004 ().

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sundberg, Ulf, "Medeltidens svenska krig". Stockholm: Hjalmarson & Högberg, 1999 ().

wikidata_label: Canute I of Sweden

wikipedia_title: Canute I of Sweden


text:
Sweden
Karl Sverkersson
Christine Stigsdatter of Hvide
Canute VI
Valdemar Sejr
Visingsö
Canute I of Sweden
Denmark
Hvide
Zealand
Skåne
Benedikte Ebbesdotter of Hvide
Birger Brosa
Valdemar I
Canute VI
Canute I of Sweden
Birger Brosa
Ingegerd Birgersdotter of Bjelbo
Valerius
Archbishop of Uppsala
ecclesiastical privilege
Skáldatal
skald
Sumarliði skáld
Þorgeirr Danaskáld
Jarl
Baltic Sea
Estonia
Novgorod Republic
Finland
Åbo
Russians
Ingrians
Mälaren
Karelia
Estonian
Curonian
Norway
Birkebeiner
Battle of Älgarås
Tiveden
Andreas Sunesen
Archbishop of Lund
Bohemia
Battle of Lena
Västergötland
Eric X of Sweden
Pope Innocentius III's
Battle of Gestilren
Folkung
Västergötland
Uppland
"Law of Västergötland"
Alvastra
Benedicta
Helena Sverkersdotter
Sverre of Norway
Rügen
Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg
Ingegerd Birgersdotter of Bjelbo
Folkunge
Birger Brosa
John I of Sweden
Helena Sverkersdotter
Västergötland
Catherine of Ymseborg
Benedicta of Bjelbo
Sverker dynasty
Eric XI of Sweden
Svantepolk of Viby

categories: 1210 deaths,Vikings killed in battle,13th-century Swedish monarchs,12th-century Swedish monarchs,Rulers of Finland,Swedish monarchs,Monarchs killed in action,1164 births

paragraph: Sverker II of Sweden

paragraph: Sverker II or Sverker the Younger (Swedish: "Sverker den yngre" or "Sverker Karlsson", born before 1167 – died 17 July 1210) was King of Sweden from 1195 or 1196 to 1208.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Sverker was a son of King Karl Sverkersson of Sweden and Queen Christine Stigsdatter of Hvide, a Danish noblewoman. Through his mother, he was a cousin's son of the Danish kings Canute VI and Valdemar Sejr. His parents' marriage has been dated to 1162 or more probably 1163.

paragraph: When his father Karl had been murdered in Visingsö in 1167, apparently by minions of the next king Canute I of Sweden, Sverker was taken to Denmark while a boy and grew up with his mother's clan of Hvide, leaders of Zealand. Sverker also allied himself with the Galen clan leaders in Skåne who were close to the Hvide, by marriage through lady Benedikte Ebbesdotter of Hvide. The Danish king supported him as claimant to Sweden, thus helping to destabilize the neighboring country. The troubled Danish-Swedish relations at this time can be seen from attempts by Canute I and his jarl Birger Brosa to support rebels against Valdemar I and Canute VI.

paragraph: When King Canute I of Sweden died in 1195 or 1196, his sons were young but not children. One of them had been appointed heir to the throne, but was passed over. Sverker was chosen as the next king of Sweden, surprisingly without quarrel. At some point he had returned to his native country, however being regarded quite Danish. His uncontested election probably owed much to Jarl Birger Brosa whose daughter, Ingegerd Birgersdotter of Bjelbo, Sverker married soon after his first wife had died. In his own letters he emphasized his birth-right to kingship: "son of King Charles, King of the Swedes, possessor of the throne of the same kingdom according to hereditary right by the grace of God".

paragraph: Section::::Reign.

paragraph: King Sverker confirmed and enlarged privileges for the Swedish church and Valerius, the Archbishop of Uppsala. The privilege document of 1200 is the oldest known ecclesiastical privilege in Sweden. "Skáldatal" names two of Sverker's court skalds: Sumarliði skáld and Þorgeirr Danaskáld. In 1202 Earl Birger died and the late jarl's grandson, Sverker's one-year-old son John received the title of Jarl from his father. This was intended to strengthen him as heir of the crown, but led to much ridicule.

paragraph: Desultory warfare with the peoples east of the Baltic Sea continued during Sverker's reign. Birger Brosa undertook a sea-borne expedition that ended up in Wierland in eastern Estonia, either before or after Sverker's accession. A late and unreliable source indicates that troops from the Novgorod Republic attacked Finland in 1198 and ravaged Åbo where the Swedes already supposedly possessed an outpost. This may be an elaboration of another Russian attack in 1191, and Åbo did not yet exist as a settlement. A certain "Dux" John (Johannes) flourished in the early 13th century; according his grave inscription, he was the "terror of the pagans". He may be identified with a John Jarl who, according to later tradition, fought the Russians and Ingrians for nine years, but was killed at Askanäs by Lake Mälaren by Karelian pirates, immediately after his return. His widow supposedly gathered levies which killed the marauders at Estaskär. It has been suggested that this took place in 1206. In general, Estonian and Curonian raiders constituted a problem for the coasts of Sweden and Denmark in this era.

paragraph: Section::::Civil war.

paragraph: Around 1203, Canute's four sons, who had lived in Swedish royal court, began to claim the throne and Sverker exiled them to Norway. His position as king became insecure from this point forward. The sons of Canute returned with troops in 1205, supported by the Norwegian party of Birkebeiner. Sverker, however, attacked and defeated them in the Battle of Älgarås in Tiveden, where three of the sons fell. The only survivor, Eric, returned with Norwegian support in 1208. Sverker sought assistance from his Danish kinsmen, and such was provided. Popular tradition speaks of 12,000 Danish auxiliary troops, which is likely a gross exaggeration. The forces were commanded by Ebbe Sunesen, the father of his late first wife and brother of Andreas Sunesen, Archbishop of Lund. Apart from the forces of the Sunesen brothers, King Valdemar Sejr contributed with troops, even including Bohemian soldiers. The opponents met in the Battle of Lena in Västergötland, where Sverker was heavily defeated. Ebbe and his brother Lars were slain by the enemy together with a considerable part of their army. Sverker's jarl Knut seems to have been killed as well. King Eric X of Sweden drove Sverker to exile to Denmark.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Pope Innocentius III's attempt to have the crown returned to Sverker did not succeed. Sverker made a new military expedition, with Danish support, to Sweden, but was defeated and killed in the Battle of Gestilren in July 1210. The ancient sources state that "the Folkung [party] took his life". Responsible for the killing was his brother-in-law Folke Jarl, head of the Folkungs, who also succumbed in the battle. The site of the battle has engendered some discussion; while it is usually taken to have taken place in the parish of Varv in Västergötland, Gästre in Uppland has also been suggested.

paragraph: In spite of his hapless fate, Sverker II receives several kind words in the short chronicle included in the "Law of Västergötland": "The sixteenth [ruler] was King Sverker, a wise and good fellow; the kingdom fared well from him. But the Folkungs took his life; his own brother-in-law did that to him at Gestilren. He rests in Alvastra, and the best things are always spoken about him".

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: With his first wife, the Danish noble Benedicta Ebbesdatter (Galen branch of the Hvide family), b. c. 1165/70, d. 1200), whom he married before 1190 when yet living in Denmark, Sverker had at least one well-attested daughter, Helena Sverkersdotter. There were possibly further children, such as Karl Sverkersson who according to Norwegian sources married a daughter of king Sverre of Norway and lost his life in 1198; his position is however doubtful, and if he was King Sverker's son he died in adolescence at the latest. There were possibly even two other daughters, Margaret and Christina, married to Witzlav of Rügen and Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg ("Henry Borwin" in some later texts), respectively. The genealogical reconstruction is based on vague contemporary statements – however, Margaret and Christina may just have been Sverker's first wife's kinswomen.

paragraph: The second marriage in 1200 with Ingegerd Birgersdotter of Bjelbo, daughter of the Folkunge Jarl Birger Brosa, produced a son and heir, Jon (1201–1222), who was chosen king of Sweden 1216 as John I of Sweden.

paragraph: His attested daughter Helena Sverkersdotter married (earl) Sune Folkason of the family of Bjelbo, justiciar of Västergötland. Their daughters Catherine of Ymseborg and Benedicta of Bjelbo became pawns in marriages to gain Swedish succession after 1222, when the Sverker dynasty became extinct in male line. Catherine was married to the rival dynasty's heir Eric XI of Sweden but they remained apparently childless. Benedikte married Svantepolk of Viby and had several daughters, who married Swedish noblemen. Several Swedish noble families claim descent from Benedikte.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: BULLET::::- , häfte 1, 1981

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harrison, Dick, "Sveriges historia; medeltiden". Stockholm: Liber, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lönnroth, Erik, "Från svensk medeltid". Stockholm: Aldus, 1959.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Munch, P.A., "Det norske Folks Historie", Vol. III. Christiania: Chr. Tönsbergs Forlag, 1857.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sandblom, Sven, "Gestilren 1210. Striden stod i Uppland! I Gästre!". Enköping: Enköpings kommun, 2004.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sundberg, Ulf, "Medeltidens svenska krig". Stockholm: Hjalmarson & Högberg, 1999.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lindström, Fredrik; Lindström, Henrik "Svitjods undergång och Sveriges födelse" (Albert Bonniers Förlag AB. 2006)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lagerqvist, Lars O. "Sverige och dess regenter under 1.000 år" (Albert Bonniers Förlag AB. 1982)

description: King of Sweden

wikidata_label: Sverker II of Sweden

wikipedia_title: Sverker II of Sweden


text:
king of Cyprus
Kingdom of Jerusalem
Henry I
Queen Plaisance
Santa Sophia
Nicosia
Conradin
Hohenstaufen
Europe
Alice of Champagne
Isabella I of Jerusalem
John of Ibelin, lord of Jaffa
Bohemund VI of Antioch
Acre
Isabella of Lusignan
Nicosia
Dominican
Nicosia
Nicosia
Isabella of Ibelin
Beirut
Lady of Beirut
Hugh III of Cyprus
Hugh of Brienne
Walter V of Brienne
Amalric I of Cyprus
Thomas Aquinas

categories: Medieval child rulers,Roman Catholic monarchs,Kings of Cyprus,1253 births,13th-century rulers,1267 deaths,Regents of Jerusalem,13th century in Cyprus

paragraph: Hugh II of Cyprus

paragraph: Hugh II of Cyprus (or Hugues II de Lusignan) (June–August, 1252 or 1253 – November or December 5, 1267) was king of Cyprus and, from the age of 5 years, also Regent of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

paragraph: On January 18, 1253, at the age of two months, he succeeded his father Henry I as king of Cyprus, with his mother, Queen Plaisance, acting as regent, and was crowned at Santa Sophia, Nicosia, later in that year. Although he had only a weaker claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, many felt that he was a better candidate (living in a Crusader state close to the Palestinian coast) than Conradin, the Hohenstaufen claimant who was also a child but absent in Europe (Hugh II was second in order of succession, right after Conradin himself, since he was the son of the only surviving son of Alice of Champagne, the second surviving daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem and thus Conradin's great-grandaunt). In 1258 John of Ibelin, lord of Jaffa, and Bohemund VI of Antioch brought Hugh and Plaisance to Acre, where Hugh was set up as regent for Conradin, and Plaisance was chosen to carry out Hugh’s regency while he remained underage, becoming Lord of Jerusalem.

paragraph: In 1261 Plaisance died and the regency of Cyprus passed to Hugh of Antioch-Lusignan, Hugh II's 25-year-old first cousin. His mother, Hugh II's younger aunt Isabella of Lusignan became acting regent of Jerusalem in Acre. Hugh II died in Nicosia in November 1267 at the age of 14 and was buried in the Dominican Church in Nicosia. He had been betrothed and was possibly married at Nicosia in 1264/1265 to Isabella of Ibelin (ca. 1252 – Beirut, 1282/1283 and buried there), Lady of Beirut 1264, but the marriage was never consummated. He was succeeded by Hugh of Lusignan-Antioch (son of his younger aunt Isabella) as Hugh III of Cyprus, though his heir-general was another first cousin, Hugh of Brienne (c. 1240–1296), son of Mary of Cyprus, the eldest aunt of the deceased Hugh II. This claim fell to his son Walter V of Brienne and his descendants. They are the heirs-general of King Amalric I of Cyprus.

paragraph: It has often been claimed that 1266 Thomas Aquinas dedicated his work "De regimine principum" ("On the Government of Rulers") to Hugh II, but in view of the strong argument by Christoph Flüeler (Rezeption und Interpretation der Aristotelischen “Politica” im späten Mittelalter, Bochumer Studien zur Philosophie, 19 (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: B.R. Grüner, 1992), 2v.; v.1, 23–29.) for redating the work to 1271–73, it now seems likely that it was written for his successor Hugh III (1267–84). Later works, such as Panos Leventis' "Twelve Times in Nicosia. Nicosia, Cyprus, 1192-1570: Topography, Architecture and Urban Experience in a Diversified Capital City" (Nicosia: Cyprus Research Center, 2005, pp. 49, 51) argue for the earlier dating and the work's dedication to Hugh II, based on a perceived "formative" understanding of Aristotelian works by Aquinas, i.e. prior to 1265.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans E. Mayer, "The Crusades". Oxford, 1965.

description: King of Cyprus

wikidata_label: Hugh II of Cyprus

wikipedia_title: Hugh II of Cyprus


text:
Jain histories
Magadha
Haryanka dynasty
Anga
Maurya Empire
Buddha
Hiuen Tsang
city
Rajgir
Ajatashatru
Haryanka dynasty
Magadha
Pataliputra
Rajagriha
Anga
Ajatashatru
Champa
Jivaka
Ujjain
Pradyota
Avanti
Gandhara
Kosala Devi
Kosala
Prasenjit
Kashi
Lichchhavi princess
Vaishali
Chetaka
Madra
Punjab
Ajatashatru
Magadha
Rajgir
Jain literature
Jainism
Jain Muni
Samavasarana
Mahavira
Ramayana
Balabhadra
karma
tirthankara
sotapanna
Puranas
Sinhalese
Khema

categories: 490s BC deaths,491 BC,550s BC births,Disciples of Gautama Buddha,Indian Buddhists,Kings of Magadha,Haryanka dynasty,558 BC,5th-century BC Indian monarchs,6th-century BC Indian monarchs,Jain monarchs

paragraph: Bimbisara

paragraph: Bimbisāra (c. 558 – c. 491 BC or during the late 5th century BC) also known as Seniya or Shrenika in the Jain histories was a King of Magadha ( or c. 400 BC) and belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He was the son of Bhattiya. His expansion of the kingdom, especially his annexation of the kingdom of Anga to the east, is considered to have laid the foundations for the later expansion of the Maurya Empire.

paragraph: He is also known for his cultural achievements and was a great friend and protector of the Buddha. Bimbisara—according to Hiuen Tsang—built the city of Rajgir (Rajagriha), famous in Buddhist writings (others attribute the city's foundation to his successor). He was succeeded on the throne by his son Ajatashatru.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Bimbisara was the son of Bhattiya, a chieftain. He ascended to throne at the age of 15 in 543 BC. He established the Haryanka dynasty laid the foundations of Magadha by fortification of a village, which later became the city of Pataliputra. Bimbisara's first capital was at "Girivraja" (identified with Rajagriha). He led a military campaign against Anga, perhaps to avenge his father's earlier defeat at the hands of its king, "Brahmadatta". The campaign was successful, Anga was annexed, and prince "Kunika" (Ajatashatru) was appointed governor at Champa. Bimbisara sent Jivaka, his physician, to Ujjain for medical treatment of Pradyota, the king of Avanti, from jaundice. Pukkusati, the king of Gandhara, sent Bimbisara an embassy.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Marriage alliances.

paragraph: Bimbisara used marriage alliances to strengthen his position. His first wife was Kosala Devi, the daughter of Mahā Kosala the king of Kosala, and a sister of Prasenjit. His bride brought him Kashi, which was then a mere village, as dowry. This marriage also ended the hostility between Magadha and Kosala and gave him a free hand in dealing with the other states. His second wife, Chellana, was a Lichchhavi princess from Vaishali and daughter of King Chetaka. His third wife, "Kshema", was a daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. "Mahavagga" depict him of having 500 wives.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Death.

paragraph: According to the tradition, Bimbisara was imprisoned by his son Ajatashatru to ascend the throne of the kingdom of Magadha. Ajatashatru later ordered his father's release after the birth of his first child, but by then it was too late and Bimbisara had already died. This was reported to have taken place around 491 BC.

paragraph: Section::::Traditional accounts.

paragraph: Section::::Traditional accounts.:Jainism.

paragraph: Bimbisara is referred to as Shrenika of Rajgir in Jain literature who became a devotee of Jainism impressed by the calmness of Yamadhar (a Jain Muni). He frequently visited Samavasarana of Lord Mahavira seeking answers to his queries. He asked about the true version of Ramayana and an illuminating sage (King Prasana). He is said to be a "Balabhadra" in one of his previous lives.

paragraph: Per Jain scripture, Bimbisara killed himself in a fit of passion, after his son had imprisoned him. Consequently, he was reborn in hell, where he is currently residing, until the karma which led to his birth there comes to an end. It is further written, that he will be reborn as "Mahapadma" (sometimes called "Padmanabha"), the first in the chain of future tirthankaras who are to rise at the beginning of the upward motion ("Utsarpini") of the next era of time.

paragraph: Section::::Traditional accounts.:Buddhism.

paragraph: According to Buddhist scriptures, King Bimbisara met the Buddha for the first time prior to the Buddha's enlightenment, and later became an important disciple that featured prominently in certain Buddhist suttas. He is recorded to have attained sotapannahood, a degree of enlightenment in Buddhist teachings. Although Bimbisara let the women in his palace visit Buddha in his monastery in the evenings; the women wanted a hair-and-nail stupa they could use to venerate the Buddha any time. Bimbisara spoke with Buddha who complied with their request.

paragraph: Section::::Traditional accounts.:Others.

paragraph: According to Puranas, Bimbisara ruled Magadha for a period of 28 or 38 years. Sinhalese chronicles date his reign to be of 52 years.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Khema

alias: Shrenika Srenika

description: king of Magadha

wikidata_label: Bimbisara

wikipedia_title: Bimbisara


text: independence activist

text: Governor-General of India

text: Indian National Congress

text: Premier of the Madras Presidency

text: Governor of West Bengal

text: Chief Minister of Madras state

text: Swatantra Party

text: Bharat Ratna

text: Thorapalli

text: Krishnagiri district

text: Madras Presidency

text: Central College

text: Presidency College, Madras

text: Salem

text: Rowlatt Act

text: Non-Cooperation movement

text: Vaikom Satyagraha

text: Civil Disobedience

text: Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha

text: Dandi March

text: Quit India Movement

text: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Muslim League

text: C. R. formula

text: Interim Government of India

text: Governor of West Bengal

text: Union Home Minister

text: Chief Minister of Madras state

text: C. N. Annadurai

text: Indian English literature

text: Kurai Onrum Illai

text: Carnatic music

text: temperance

text: temple entry movements

text: Dalit

text: Hindi

text: Madras Scheme of Elementary Education

text: Madras State

text: Mahatma Gandhi

text: Jawaharlal Nehru

text: munsiff

text: Thorapalli

text: Madras Presidency

text: Presidency College, Madras

text: C. R. Narasimhan

text: Lakshmi Gandhi

text: Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari Narasimhan

text: Krishnagiri

text: Devdas Gandhi

text: Rajmohan Gandhi

text: Ramchandra Gandhi

text: West Bengal

text: Gopalkrishna Gandhi

text: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Kesavan

text: Tamil Nadu Congress Committee

text: Salem

text: Indian National Congress

text: Calcutta

text: Bal Gangadhar Tilak

text: Dalit

text: P. Varadarajulu Naidu

text: Rowlatt Act

text: V. O. Chidambaram Pillai

text: Annie Besant

text: C. Vijayaraghavachariar

text: Mahatma Gandhi

text: Gaya

text: diarchial

text: Government of India Act 1919

text: Imperial Legislative Council

text: Pandit Motilal Nehru

text: C. R. Das

text: Vaikom Satyagraha

text: untouchability

text: Tamil Nadu

text: broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam

text: Nagapattinam

text: Sardar Vedaratnam

text: British

text: Madras Presidency

text: Madras elections of 1937

text: Shanars

text: Meenakshi temple at Madurai

text: prohibition

text: casteist

text: Nai Talim

text: anti-Hindi

text: Second World War

text: Viceroy of India

text: Quit India Movement

text: Muslim League

text: K. Kamaraj

text: West Bengal

text: East Bengal

text: Governor of West Bengal

text: Subhas Chandra Bose

text: Sarat Chandra Bose

text: Calcutta riots

text: Bihar

text: Odisha

text: Prafulla Chandra Ghosh

text: Governor-General of India

text: Lord Mountbatten

text: Princess Elizabeth

text: Prince Philip

text: Vallabhbhai Patel

text: North India

text: Sardar Patel

text: Home Affairs Minister

text: Tibet

text: Hindu Mahasabha

text: Communists

text: Telangana uprising

text: Soviet

text: 1952 Madras elections

text: Communist Party of India

text: Sri Prakasa

text: MLC

text: MLAs

text: Andhra State

text: Telugu

text: Potti Sriramulu

text: Kurnool

text: Dravidian parties

text: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: Hereditary Education Policy

text: Ramayana

text: Kalki

text: Tamil language

text: Republic Day

text: Bharat Ratna

text: Congress Reform Committee

text: K. S. Venkatakrishna Reddiar

text: 1957 state assembly elections

text: Lok Sabha

text: 1957 Indian elections

text: Madurai

text: Murari Vaidya

text: Minoo Masani

text: classical liberal

text: Swatantra Party

text: N. G. Ranga

text: K. M. Munshi

text: Field Marshal

text: K. M. Cariappa

text: Jayaprakash Narayan

text: licence-permit Raj

text: C. N. Annadurai

text: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: 1962 Madras legislative assembly elections

text: 1962 Lok Sabha elections

text: India's use of military force against Portugal

text: Hindi

text: anti-Hindi protests

text: Tiruchirapalli

text: Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

text: C. N. Annadurai

text: lower house

text: Parliament of India

text: Rajasthan

text: Gujarat

text: coalition government

text: Odisha

text: Andhra Pradesh

text: Bihar

text: M. Karunanidhi

text: Tamil Nadu

text: Congress

text: Jan Sangh

text: Samyukta Socialist Party

text: Indira Gandhi

text: 1971 Indian general election

text: 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections

text: uraemia

text: dehydration

text: urinary infection

text: V. R. Nedunchezhiyan

text: V. V. Giri

text: Christmas

text: C. R. Narasimhan

text: Mahabharata

text: Kambar

text: Thirukkural

text: Bhagavad Gita

text: Upanishads

text: Socrates

text: Marcus Aurelius

text: Sahitya Akademi Award

text: Tamil

text: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan

text: Kurai Onrum Illai

text: Lord Venkateshwara

text: Carnatic

text: M. S. Subbulakshmi

text: Richard Nixon

text: Gandhi Peace Foundation

text: John F. Kennedy

text: White House

text: E. M. S. Namboodiripad

text: Communist Party

text: Indira Gandhi

text: Poona Pact

text: B. R. Ambedkar

text: prohibition

text: Kalki

text: Swarajya

text: Philip Spratt

text: Richard Casey

text: Nehru Memorial Museum & Library

text: Teen Murti House

text: C. R. formula

text: P. C. Alexander

text: Tamil Brahmin

text: "nemesis"

text: anti-Brahmin

text: demagogues

text: "Dravidian movement"

text: Vedas

text: Upanishads

text: Anti-Hindi agitations

text: List of places named after C. Rajagopalachari

categories: 20th-century Indian translators,Writers from Tamil Nadu,20th-century Indian lawyers,1878 births,Indian Vaishnavites,Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Tamil,Members of the Constituent Assembly of India,Indian classical liberals,Indian people of World War II,Governors-General of India,Indian anti-communists,Recipients of the Bharat Ratna,20th-century Indian musicians,Indian political party founders,People from Krishnagiri district,Indian nationalists,20th-century Indian politicians,Carnatic composers,19th-century Indian lawyers,Tamil-language writers,Governors of West Bengal,Presidency College, Chennai alumni,Chief ministers from Indian National Congress,Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu,Ministers for External Affairs of India,Swatantra Party politicians,Indian independence activists from Tamil Nadu,1972 deaths,Indian National Congress politicians from Tamil Nadu,Indian anti–nuclear weapons activists,20th-century Indian writers,University of Madras alumni,English-language writers from India,Indian anti-war activists,Indian Hindus,Bangalore University alumni,Indian tax resisters

paragraph: C. Rajagopalachari

paragraph: Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), informally called Rajaji or C.R., was an Indian politician, independence activist, lawyer, writer, historian and statesman. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India, as India soon became a Republic in 1950. Furthermore, he was the first Indian-born governor-general, since before him the posts were held by British nationals. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress, Premier of the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal, Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname 'Mango of Krishnagiri'.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari was born in the village of Thorapalli in the Krishnagiri district of the Madras Presidency (now the Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu) and educated at Central College, Bangalore, and Presidency College, Madras. In 1900 he started a legal practice that in time became prosperous. On entering politics, he became a member and later President of the Salem municipality. He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement. In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha in response to the Dandi March. In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he resigned due to Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He later advocated co-operation over Britain's war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement. He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later came to be known as the "C. R. formula". In 1946, Rajagopalachari was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to 1948, Governor-General of India from 1948 to 1950, Union Home Minister from 1951 to 1952 and as Chief Minister of Madras state from 1952 to 1954. In 1959, he resigned from the Indian National Congress and founded the Swatantra Party, which fought against the Congress in the 1962, 1967 and 1971 elections. Rajagopalachari was instrumental in setting up a united Anti-Congress front in Madras state under C. N. Annadurai, which swept the 1967 elections. He died on 25 December 1972 at age 94.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari was an accomplished writer who made lasting contributions to Indian English literature and is also credited with composition of the song "Kurai Onrum Illai" set to Carnatic music. He pioneered temperance and temple entry movements in India and advocated Dalit upliftment. He has been criticised for introducing the compulsory study of Hindi and the controversial Madras Scheme of Elementary Education in Madras State. Critics have often attributed his pre-eminence in politics to his standing as a favourite of both Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Rajagopalachari was described by Gandhi as the "keeper of my conscience".

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari was born to Chakravarti Venkataryan, "munsiff" of Thorapalli Village and Chakravarti Singaramma on 10 December 1878 in Thorapalli, Madras Presidency. The couple already had two sons, Chakravarti Narasimhachari and Chakravarti Srinivasa.

paragraph: A weak and sickly child, Rajagopalachari was a constant worry to his parents who feared that he might not live long. As a young child, he was admitted to a village school in Thorapalli then at the age of five moved with his family to Hosur where Rajagopalachari enrolled at Hosur R.V.Government Boys Hr sec School. He passed his matriculation examinations in 1891 and graduated in arts from Central College, Bangalore in 1894. Rajagopalachari also studied law at the Presidency College, Madras, from where he graduated in 1897.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari married Alamelu Mangalamma in 1897 and the couple had five children; three sons—C. R. Narasimhan, C. R. Krishnaswamy, and C. R. Ramaswami—and two daughters—Lakshmi Gandhi née C. R. and Namagiri Ammal C. R. . Mangamma died in 1916 whereupon Rajagopalachari took sole responsibility for the care of his children. His son Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari Narasimhan was elected to the Lok Sabha from Krishnagiri in the 1952 and 1957 elections and served as a member of parliament for Krishnagiri from 1952 to 1962. He later wrote a biography of his father. Rajagopalachari's daughter Lakshmi married Devdas Gandhi, son of Mahatma Gandhi while his grandsons include biographer Rajmohan Gandhi, philosopher Ramchandra Gandhi and former governor of West Bengal Gopalkrishna Gandhi. His great grandson, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Kesavan, is a spokesperson of the Congress Party and Trustee of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee.

paragraph: Section::::Indian Independence Movement.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari's interest in public affairs and politics began when he commenced his legal practice in Salem in 1900. At the age of 28, he joined the Indian National Congress and participated as a delegate in the 1906 Calcutta session. Inspired by Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he later became a member of the Salem municipality in 1911. In 1917, he was elected Chairman of the municipality and served from 1917 to 1919 during which time he was responsible for the election of the first Dalit member of the Salem municipality. In 1917, he defended Indian independence activist P. Varadarajulu Naidu against charges of sedition and two years later participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act. Rajagopalachari was a close friend of the founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company V. O. Chidambaram Pillai as well as greatly admired by Indian independence activists Annie Besant and C. Vijayaraghavachariar.

paragraph: After Mahatma Gandhi joined the Indian independence movement in 1919, Rajagopalachari became one of his followers. He participated in the Non-Cooperation movement and gave up his law practice. In 1921, he was elected to the Congress Working Committee and served as the General Secretary of the party before making his first major breakthrough as a leader during the 1922 Indian National Congress session at Gaya when he strongly opposed collaboration with the colonial administration and participation in the diarchial legislatures established by the Government of India Act 1919. While Gandhi was in prison, Rajagopalachari led the group of "No-Changers", individuals against contesting elections for the Imperial Legislative Council and other provincial legislative councils, in opposition to the "Pro-changers" who advocated council entry. When the motion was put to the vote, the "No-changers" won by 1,748 to 890 votes resulting in the resignation of important Congress leaders including Pandit Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das, the President of the Indian National Congress. When the Indian National Congress split in 1923, Rajagopalachari was a member of the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee. He was also involved in the Vaikom Satyagraha movement against untouchability during 1924–25.

paragraph: In the early 1930s, Rajagopalachari emerged as one of the major leaders of the Tamil Nadu Congress. When Gandhi organised the Dandi march in 1930, Rajagopalachari broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam, near Nagapattinam, along with Indian independence activist Sardar Vedaratnam and was afterwards imprisoned by the British. He was subsequently elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Following enactment of the Government of India Act in 1935, Rajagopalachari was instrumental in getting the Indian National Congress to participate in the 1937 general elections.

paragraph: Section::::Madras Presidency 1937–39.

paragraph: The Indian National Congress first came to power in the Madras Presidency (also called Madras Province by the British), following the Madras elections of 1937. Except for a six-year period when Madras was under the governor's direct rule, the Congress administered the presidency until India became independent on 15 August 1947. At the age of 59, Rajagopalachari won the Madras University seat and entered the Assembly as the first Premier of the Madras Presidency from the Congress party.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari issued the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939, under which restrictions were removed on Dalits and Shanars entering Hindu temples. In the same year, the Meenakshi temple at Madurai was also opened to the Dalits and Shanars. In March 1938 Rajagopalachari introduced the Agricultural Debt Relief Act, to ease the burden of debt on the province's peasant population.

paragraph: He also introduced prohibition, along with a sales tax to compensate for the loss of government revenue that resulted from the ban on alcohol. As a result of the revenue decline resulting from prohibition, the Provincial Government shut down hundreds of government-run primary schools, a decision that Rajagopalachari's political opponents alleged deprived many low-caste and Dalit students of their education. His opponents also attributed casteist motives to his government's implementation of Gandhi's Nai Talim scheme into the education system.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief Minister of Madras is largely remembered for the compulsory introduction of Hindi in educational institutions, which made him highly unpopular. This measure sparked off widespread anti-Hindi protests, which led to violence in some places and the jailing of over 1,200 men, women and children who took part in the unrest. Two protesters, Thalamuthu Nadar and Natarasan, were killed during the protests. In 1940, Congress ministers resigned in protest over the declaration of war on Germany without their consent, leaving the governor to take over the reins of the administration. On 21 February 1940 the unpopular new law on the use of Hindi was quickly repealed by the Governor of Madras. Despite its numerous shortcomings, Madras under Rajagopalachari was still considered by political historians as the best administered province in British India.

paragraph: Section::::Second World War.

paragraph: Some months after the outbreak of the Second World War, Rajagopalachari resigned as premier along with other members of his cabinet in protest at the declaration of war by the Viceroy of India. Rajagopalachari was arrested in December 1940, in accordance with the Defence of India rules, and sentenced to one-year in prison. However, subsequently, Rajagopalachari differed in opposition to the British war effort. He also opposed the Quit India Movement and instead advocated dialogue with the British. He reasoned that passivity and neutrality would be harmful to India's interests at a time when the country was threatened with invasion. He also advocated dialogue with the Muslim League, which was demanding the partition of India. He subsequently resigned from the party and the assembly following differences over resolutions passed by the Madras Congress legislative party and disagreements with the leader of the Madras provincial Congress K. Kamaraj.

paragraph: Following the end of the war in 1945, elections followed in the Madras Presidency in 1946. During the last years of the war, Kamaraj was requested by Nehru, PM; Sardar Vallabbhai Patel, Home Minister; and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to make Rajaji the Premier of Madras Presidency. Kamaraj, President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, was forced to make [Tanguturi Prakasam] as Chief Ministerial candidate, by the elected members, to prevent Rajagopalachari from winning. However, Rajagopalachari did not contest the elections, and Prakasam was elected.

paragraph: Rajaji was instrumental in initiating negotiations between Gandhi and Jinnah. In 1944, he proposed a solution to the Indian Constitutional tangle. In the same year, he proposed an "absolute majority" threshold of 55 per cent when deciding whether a district should become part of India or Pakistan, triggering a huge controversy among nationalists.

paragraph: From 1946 to 1947, Rajagopalachari served as the Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.

paragraph: Section::::Governor of West Bengal 1947–1948.

paragraph: When India and Pakistan attained independence on 15 August 1947, the British province of Bengal was partitioned into two, with West Bengal becoming part of India and East Bengal part of Pakistan. Supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajagopalachari was appointed first Governor of West Bengal.

paragraph: Disliked by Bengalis for his criticism of the Bengali revolutionary Subhas Chandra Bose during the 1938 Tripuri Congress session, Rajagopalachari's appointment was unsuccessfully opposed by Bose's brother Sarat Chandra Bose. During his tenure as governor, Rajagopalachari's priorities were to deal with refugees and to bring peace and stability in the aftermath of the Calcutta riots. He declared his commitment to neutrality and justice at a meeting of Muslim businessmen: "Whatever may be my defects or lapses, let me assure you that I shall never disfigure my life with any deliberate acts of injustice to any community whatsoever." Rajagopalachari was also strongly opposed to proposals to include areas from Bihar and Odisha as part of the province of West Bengal. One such proposal by the editor of an important newspaper led to the reply:

paragraph: "I see that you are not able to restrain the policy of agitation over inter-provincial boundaries. It is easy to yield to current pressure of opinion and it is difficult to impose on enthusiastic people any policy of restraint. But I earnestly plead that we should do all we can to prevent ill-will from hardening into a chronic disorder. We have enough ill-will and prejudice to cope with. Must we hasten to create further fissiparous forces?"

paragraph: Despite the general attitude of the Bengalis, Rajagopalachari was highly regarded and respected by Chief Minister Prafulla Chandra Ghosh and the state cabinet.

paragraph: Section::::Governor-General of India 1948–1950.

paragraph: From 10 until 24 November 1947, Rajagopalachari served as Acting Governor-General of India in the absence of the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten, who was on leave in England to attend the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Mountbatten's nephew Prince Philip. Rajagopalachari led a very simple life in the viceregal palace, washing his own clothes and polishing his own shoes. Impressed with his abilities, Mountbatten made Rajagopalachari his second choice to succeed him after Vallabhbhai Patel, when he was to leave India in June 1948. Rajagopalachari was eventually chosen as the governor-general when Nehru disagreed with Mountbatten's first choice, as did Patel himself. He was initially hesitant but accepted when Nehru wrote to him, "I hope you will not disappoint us. We want you to help us in many ways. The burden on some of us is more than we can carry." Rajagopalachari then served as Governor-General of India from June 1948 until 26 January 1950, and was not only the last Governor-General of India, but the only Indian national ever to hold the office.

paragraph: By the end of 1949, an assumption was made that Rajagopalachari, already governor-general, would continue as president. Backed by Nehru, Rajagopalachari wanted to stand for the presidential election but later withdrew, due to the opposition of a section of the Indian National Congress mostly made up of North Indians who were concerned about Rajagopalachari's non-participation during the Quit India Movement.

paragraph: Section::::Role in Constituent Assembly.

paragraph: He was elected to the Constituent Assembly from Madras. He was a part of Advisory Committee and Sub-Committee on Minorities. He debated on issues relating to rights of religious denominations.

paragraph: Section::::In Nehru's Cabinet.

paragraph: At Nehru's invitation, in 1950 Rajagopalachari joined the Union Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio where he served as a buffer between Nehru and Home Minister Sardar Patel and on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel's death on 15 December 1950, Rajagopalachari was finally made Home Affairs Minister and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China and expressed regret over the Tibet problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate differences amongst the people.

paragraph: By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajagopalachari came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajagopalachari held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly opposed Nehru's decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telangana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being persistently over-ruled by Nehru with regard to critical decisions, Rajagopalachari submitted his resignation on the "grounds of ill-health" and returned to Madras.

paragraph: Section::::Madras State 1952–1954.

paragraph: In the 1952 Madras elections, the Indian National Congress was reduced to a minority in the state assembly with a coalition led by the Communist Party of India winning most of the seats. Though he did not contest the election, Madras Governor Sri Prakasa appointed Rajagopalachari as Chief Minister by nomination as MLC without consulting either the Indian Prime Minister Nehru or the ministers in the Madras state cabinet. Rajagopalachari was then able to prove that he had a majority in the assembly by luring MLAs from opposition parties to join the Indian National Congress. Nehru was furious and wrote to Rajagopalachari saying "the one thing we must avoid giving is the impression that we stick to office and we want to keep others out at all costs." Rajagopalachari, however, refused to contest a by-election and remained as an unelected member of the legislative council.

paragraph: During Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief Minister, a powerful movement for a separate Andhra State, comprising the Telugu-speaking districts of the Madras State, gained a foothold. On 19 October 1952, an Indian independence activist and social worker from Madras named Potti Sriramulu embarked on a hunger strike reiterating the demands of the separatists and calling for the inclusion of Madras city within the proposed state. Rajagopalachari remained unmoved by Sriramulu's action and refused to intervene. After fasting for days, Sriramulu eventually died on 15 December 1952, triggering riots in Madras city and the Telugu-speaking districts of the state. Initially, both Rajagopalachari and Prime Minister Nehru were against the creation of linguistically demarcated states but as the law and order situation in the state deteriorated, both were forced to accept the demands. Andhra State was thus created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras, with its capital at Kurnool. However, the boundaries of the new state were determined by a commission which decided against the inclusion of Madras city. Though the commission's report suggested the option of having Madras as the temporary capital of Andhra State to allow smooth partitioning of the assets and the secretariat, Rajagopalachari refused to allow Andhra State to have Madras even for a day.

paragraph: On 31 May 1952, Rajagopalachari put an end to sugar rationing and followed up by abolishing control over food supplies on 5 June 1952. He also introduced measures to regulate the running of universities in the state. In 1953, he introduced a new education scheme known as the "Modified System of Elementary Education", which reduced schooling for elementary school students to three hours per day with students expected to learn the family vocation at home during the remainder of the day. The plan came in for sharp criticism and evoked strong protests from the Dravidian parties. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam dubbed the scheme "Kula Kalvi Thittam" or Hereditary Education Policy and attempted to organise massive demonstrations outside Rajagopalachari's house on 13 and 14 July 1953. The rising unpopularity of his government forced K. Kamaraj to withdraw his support for Rajagopalachari and on 26 March 1954, he resigned as President of the Madras Legislature Congress Party thereby precipitating new elections. During the subsequent poll held on 31 March 1954, Rajagopalachari fielded C. Subramaniam against Kamaraj. But Subramaniam could garner only 41 votes to Kamaraj's 93 and lost the elections. Rajagopalachari eventually resigned as Chief Minister on 13 April 1954, attributing the decision to poor health.

paragraph: Section::::Split from Congress – parting of ways.

paragraph: Following his resignation as Chief Minister, Rajagopalachari took a temporary break from active politics and instead devoted his time to literary pursuits. He wrote a Tamil re-telling of the Sanskrit epic "Ramayana" which appeared as a serial in the Tamil magazine "Kalki" from 23 May 1954 to 6 November 1955. The episodes were later collected and published as "Chakravarthi Thirumagan", a book which won Rajagopalachari the 1958 Sahitya Academy award in Tamil language. On Republic Day 1955, Rajagopalachari was honoured with India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari tendered his official resignation from the Indian National Congress and along with a number of other dissidents organised the Congress Reform Committee (CRC) in January 1957. K. S. Venkatakrishna Reddiar was elected president and the party fielded candidates in 55 constituencies in the 1957 state assembly elections, to emerge as the second largest party in Madras state with 13 seats in the legislative assembly. The Congress Reform Committee also contested 12 Lok Sabha seats during the 1957 Indian elections. The committee became a fully-fledged political party and was renamed the Indian National Democratic Congress at a state conference held in Madurai on September 28–29, 1957.

paragraph: On 4 June 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, Rajagopalachari, along with Murari Vaidya of the newly established Forum of Free Enterprise (FFE) and Minoo Masani, a classical liberal and critic of socialist Nehru, announced the formation of the new Swatantra Party at a meeting in Madras. Conceived by disgruntled heads of former princely states such as the Raja of Ramgarh, the Maharaja of Kalahandi and the Maharajadhiraja of Darbhanga, the party was conservative in character. Later, N. G. Ranga, K. M. Munshi, Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa and the Maharaja of Patiala joined the effort. Rajagopalachari, Masani and Ranga also tried but failed to involve Jayaprakash Narayan in the initiative.

paragraph: In his short essay "Our Democracy", Rajagopalachari explained the necessity for a right-wing alternative to the Congress by saying:

paragraph: since... the Congress Party has swung to the Left, what is wanted is not an ultra or outer-Left [viz. the CPI or the Praja Socialist Party, PSP], but a strong and articulate Right

paragraph: Rajagopalachari also insisted that the opposition must:

paragraph: operate not privately and behind the closed doors of the party meeting, but openly and periodically through the electorate.

paragraph: He outlined the goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document. The party stood for equality and opposed government control over the private sector. Rajagopalachari sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "licence-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of permissions and licences required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajagopalachari's personality became a rallying point for the party.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch up with his former adversary C. N. Annadurai of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Annadurai grew close to Rajagopalachari and sought an alliance with the Swatantra Party for the 1962 Madras legislative assembly elections. Although there were occasional electoral pacts between the Swatantra Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Rajagopalachari remained non-committal on a formal tie-up with the DMK due to its existing alliance with Communists whom he dreaded. The Swatantra Party contested 94 seats in the Madras state assembly elections and won six as well as won 18 parliamentary seats in the 1962 Lok Sabha elections.

paragraph: India's use of military force against Portugal to capture the Portuguese enclave of Goa was criticised by Rajagopalachari who said of the operation and subsequent acts of international diplomacy, "India has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power."

paragraph: Section::::1965 Anti-Hindi agitations in Madras.

paragraph: On 26 January 1950, the Government of India adopted Hindi as the official language of the country, but because of objections in non-Hindi-speaking areas, it introduced a provision tentatively making English the second official language on a par with Hindi for a stipulated fifteen-year period to facilitate a switch to Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states. From 26 January 1965 onwards, Hindi was to become the sole official language of the Indian Union and people in non-Hindi speaking regions were compelled to learn Hindi. This led to vehement opposition and just before Republic Day, severe anti-Hindi protests broke out in Madras State. Rajagopalachari had earlier been sharply critical of the recommendations made by the Official Languages Commission in 1957. On 28 January 1956, Rajagopalachari signed a resolution along with Annadurai and Periyar endorsing the continuation of English as the official language. At an All-India Language Conference held on 8 March 1958, he declared: "Hindi is as much foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as English [is] to the protagonists of Hindi". When the Anti-Hindi agitations broke out in 1965, Rajagopalachari completely reversed his 1938 support for the introduction of Hindi and took a strongly anti-Hindi stand in support of the protests, On 17 January 1965, he convened the Madras state Anti-Hindi conference in Tiruchirapalli. angrily declaring that Part XVII of the Constitution of India which declared that Hindi was the official language should "be heaved and thrown into the Arabian Sea."

paragraph: Section::::1967 elections.

paragraph: The fourth elections to the Madras Legislative assembly were held in February 1967. At the age of 88, Rajagopalachari worked to forge a united opposition to the Indian National Congress through a tripartite alliance between the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, the Swatantra Party and the Forward Bloc. The Congress party was defeated in Madras for the first time in 30 years and the coalition led by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam came to power. C. N. Annadurai served as Chief Minister from 6 March 1967 till his death on 3 February 1969. Rajagopalachari delivered a moving eulogy to Annadurai at his funeral.

paragraph: The Swatantra party also did well in elections in other states and to the Lok Sabha, the directly elected lower house of the Parliament of India. It won 45 Lok Sabha seats in the 1967 general elections and emerged as the single largest opposition party. The principal opposition party in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, it also formed a coalition government in Odisha and had a significant presence in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.

paragraph: Section::::Later years and death.

paragraph: In 1971, Annadurai's successor M. Karunanidhi relaxed prohibition laws in Tamil Nadu due to the poor financial situation of the state. Rajagopalachari pleaded with him not to repeal prohibition but to no avail and as a result, the Swatantra Party withdrew its support for the state government and instead allied with the Congress, a breakaway faction of the Indian National Congress led by Kamaraj.

paragraph: In January 1971, a three-party anti-Congress coalition was established by the Congress (O), Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party then on 8 January, the national executive of the Swatantra Party took the unanimous decision to join the coalition. The dissident parties formed an alliance called the National Democratic Front and fought against the Indian National Congress led by Indira Gandhi in the 1971 Indian general elections. However, the alliance fared badly. The Swatantra Party's tally was reduced to 8 seats from 23 in the 1967 elections. The decline of the Swatantra Party was also visible in the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections in which it won just 19 seats down from 27 in the 1967 elections.

paragraph: By November 1972, Rajagopalachari's health had begun to decline and on 17 December the same year, a week after his 94th birthday, he was admitted to the Government Hospital, Madras suffering from uraemia, dehydration and a urinary infection. In the hospital, he was visited by Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, V. V. Giri, Periyar and other state and national leaders. Rajagopalachari's condition deteriorated in the following days as he frequently lost consciousness and he died at 5:44 pm on Christmas day, 25 December 1972 at the age of 94. His son, C. R. Narasimhan, was at his bedside at the time of his death reading him verses from a Hindu holy book. He was a widower for 56 years, and also outlived a son and both his sons-in-law.

paragraph: Section::::Contributions to literature and music.

paragraph: An accomplished writer both in his mother tongue Tamil as well as English, Rajagopalachari was the founder of the Salem Literary Society and regularly participated in its meetings. In 1922, he published "Siraiyil Tavam" (Meditation in jail), a day-to-day account of his first imprisonment by the British from 21 December 1921 to 20 March 1922.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari started the Tamil Scientific Terms Society in 1916, a group that coined new words in Tamil for terms connected to botany, chemistry, physics, astronomy and mathematics. At about the same time, he called for Tamil to be introduced as the medium of instruction in schools.

paragraph: In 1951, he wrote an abridged retelling of the "Mahabharata" in English, followed by one of the "Ramayana" in 1957. Earlier, in 1961, he had translated Kambar's Tamil "Ramayana" into English. In 1965, he translated the Thirukkural into English and also wrote books on the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads in English as well as works on Socrates, and Marcus Aurelius in Tamil. Rajagopalachari often regarded his literary works as the best service he had rendered to the people. In 1958, he was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award for works in the Tamil language for his retelling of the "Ramayana" – "Chakravarti Thirumagan". He was also one of the founders of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of education and Indian culture. In 1959 the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published his book: "Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life".

paragraph: Apart from his literary works, Rajagopalachari also composed a devotional song "Kurai Onrum Illai" devoted to Lord Venkateshwara, a song set to music and a regular at Carnatic concerts. Rajagopalachari composed a benediction hymn sung by M. S. Subbulakshmi at the United Nations General Assembly in 1967.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: In 1954, during US Vice-President Richard Nixon's nineteen country Asian tour, he was lectured by Rajagopalachari on the consuming emotional quality of nuclear weapons. The pair discussed spiritual life, particularly reincarnation and predestination. Nixon wrote three pages of notes recording Rajagopalachari's words, claiming in his memoirs thirty-six years later that the afternoon "had such a dramatic effect on me that I used many of his thoughts in my speeches over the next several years."

paragraph: While on a tour to the United States as a member of the Gandhi Peace Foundation delegation, in September 1962 Rajagopalachari visited American President John F. Kennedy at the White House. Rajagopalachari warned Kennedy of the dangers of embarking on an arms race, even one which the US could win. At the end of the meeting Kennedy remarked "This meeting had the most civilizing influence on me. Seldom have I heard a case presented with such precision, clarity and elegance of language". On 1 May 1955, Rajagopalachari appealed to the Government of India to cancel receipt of aid from America if the country continued with its nuclear tests.

paragraph: E. M. S. Namboodiripad, a prominent Communist Party leader, once remarked that Rajagopalachari was the Congress leader he respected the most despite the fact he was also someone with whom he had the most differences. Of Rajagopalachari, Periyar, one of his foremost political rivals remarked "he was a leader unique and unequalled, who lived and worked for high ideals". On his death, condolences poured in from all corners of the country. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India commented:

paragraph: Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajagopalachari issued temple entry proclamations in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits. He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact between B. R. Ambedkar and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938. He was a staunch advocate of prohibition and was elected Secretary of the Prohibition League of India in 1930. On assuming the premiership of the Madras Presidency, he introduced prohibition throughout the province. where it remained in vogue until its removal by M. Karunanidhi over thirty years later. Rajagopalachari was also an active member of the All India Spinners Association. and a strong opponent of "linguistic states", which he felt would bring anarchy to India.

paragraph: He is also remembered for his literary contributions, some of which are considered modern-day classics. He frequently wrote articles for "Kalki" and his own journal Swarajya, of which Philip Spratt was editor.

paragraph: Richard Casey, Governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded Rajagopalachari as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to Rajagopalachari was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the "keeper of my conscience". Today, his private papers are part of the Archives at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library, at Teen Murti House, Delhi.

paragraph: Section::::Criticism.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari was considered one of the most able statesmen in the national arena. Critics opine that he completely failed to gauge the thoughts and feelings of the masses – his introduction of Hindi and the Madras Scheme of Elementary Education have both been extensively criticised while his pacifist stance during the Quit India Movement and his "C. R. formula" angered the majority of his colleagues in the Indian National Congress. P. C. Alexander, a former governor of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, once wrote:

paragraph: Although his popularity at the regional level fluctuated greatly, it is believed that Rajagopalachari was able to exercise his stranglehold over provincial politics mainly because he was favoured by national leaders such as Gandhi, Patel and Nehru. Critics feel that when the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee K. Kamaraj and a majority of the provincial leaders turned against him in the 1940s, Rajagopalachari clung on to a position of influence in regional politics through support from his colleagues at the centre.

paragraph: Rajagopalachari was portrayed as an "archetypal" Tamil Brahmin "nemesis" of the anti-Brahmin demagogues constituting the self-proclaimed "Dravidian movement". A deeply religious, pious Hindu and follower of the Vedas and Upanishads, he was "accused" of being "pro-Sanskrit" and "pro-Hindi", positions that had in fact long been the consensus among other Dravidian-language speaking States in India who far exceeded Tamil speakers by population. Rajagopalachari found this "stigma" difficult to erase despite his vehement protests against the "imposition" of Hindi during the Madras Anti-Hindi agitations of 1965. He was also "accused" of attempting to heavily "Sanskritise" Tamil vocabulary through the inclusion of a large number of Sanskrit-derived words in his writings.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of places named after C. Rajagopalachari

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Vasanthi Srinivasan, Gandhi's Conscience Keeper: C Rajagopalachari and Indian Politics (Permanent Black 2009)

description: Political leader

enwikiquote_title: C. Rajagopalachari

wikidata_label: C. Rajagopalachari

wikipedia_title: C. Rajagopalachari