text:
Abbot of Tavistock
Bishop of Worcester
Archbishop of York
Anglo-Saxon England
Winchester
Abbot
Tavistock Abbey
Edward the Confessor
Edward the Exile
Diocese of Hereford
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn
Wulfstan
Harold Godwinson
Battle of Hastings
Edgar the Ætheling
William the Conqueror
Duke of Normandy
Lyfing
Abbot of Gloucester
cathedral chapter
Winchester Cathedral
suffragan
Crediton
Cornwall
Leofric
Gruffydd ap Rhydderch
Rhys ap Rhydderch
Norman Conquest of England
Herman
Sweyn
Godwin, Earl of Wessex
Leominster Abbey
Beorn Estrithson
Earl Godwin's family
Gwent
River Usk
bishop of Hereford
Æthelstan
Ælfric Puttoc
plurality
Cynesige
Henry III
Edward the Exile
Edmund Ironside
Andrew I
Cnut
Hermann II
Archbishop of Cologne
Henry IV
Pontificale Romano-Germanicum
set of liturgies
Cotton Vitellus E xii
Rule of Chrodegang
secular canons
Ramsbury
Winchcombe Abbey
Gloucester Abbey
Herman
Malmesbury Abbey
H. R. Loyn
John of Worcester
Leofgar of Hereford
Jerusalem
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
church of the Holy Sepulchre
Hemming's Cartulary
diocese of Worcester
Wulfstan
cathedral chapter
Evesham Chronicle
Æthelwig
Evesham Abbey
Archbishop of York
pallium
Tostig
Northumbria
simony
Pope Nicholas II
Wulfstan
Stigand
Urse d'Abetot
Beverley
Norman
Geoffrey Gaimar
Battle of Stamford Bridge
Harold Hardrada
Berkhamsted
Christmas Day
Bishop of Coutances
Norman French
Normandy
Edwin of Mercia
Morcar
Whitsun
Matilda
Laudes Regiae
thegn
Worcester Cathedral
Gloucester
Gloucester Cathedral
Beverley Minster
presbytery
rood
Canterbury
John of Beverley
Cambridge Songs
Goliard

categories: 11th-century Roman Catholic archbishops,1069 deaths,Year of birth unknown,11th-century Roman Catholic bishops,Abbots of Tavistock,Bishops of Worcester,Archbishops of York,Bishops of Hereford

paragraph: Ealdred (archbishop of York)

paragraph: Ealdred (or Aldred; died 11 September 1069) was Abbot of Tavistock, Bishop of Worcester, and Archbishop of York in Anglo-Saxon England. He was related to a number of other ecclesiastics of the period. After becoming a monk at the monastery at Winchester, he was appointed Abbot of Tavistock Abbey in around 1027. In 1046 he was named to the Bishopric of Worcester. Ealdred, besides his episcopal duties, served Edward the Confessor, the King of England, as a diplomat and as a military leader. He worked to bring one of the king's relatives, Edward the Exile, back to England from Hungary to secure an heir for the childless king.

paragraph: In 1058 he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first bishop from England to do so. As administrator of the Diocese of Hereford, he was involved in fighting against the Welsh, suffering two defeats at the hands of raiders before securing a settlement with Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, a Welsh ruler.

paragraph: In 1060, Ealdred was elected to the archbishopric of York, but had difficulty in obtaining papal approval for his appointment, only managing to do so when he promised not to hold the bishoprics of York and Worcester simultaneously. He helped secure the election of Wulfstan as his successor at Worcester. During his archiepiscopate, he built and embellished churches in his diocese, and worked to improve his clergy by holding a synod which published regulations for the priesthood.

paragraph: Some sources state that following King Edward the Confessor's death in 1066, it was Ealdred who crowned Harold Godwinson as King of England. Ealdred supported Harold as king, but when Harold was defeated at the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred backed Edgar the Ætheling and then endorsed King William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy and a distant relative of King Edward's. Ealdred crowned King William on Christmas Day in 1066. William never quite trusted Ealdred or the other English leaders, and Ealdred had to accompany William back to Normandy in 1067, but he had returned to York by the time of his death in 1069. Ealdred supported the churches and monasteries in his diocese with gifts and building projects.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Ealdred was probably born in the west of England, and could be related to Lyfing, his predecessor as bishop of Worcester. His family, from Devonshire, may have been well-to-do. Another relative was Wilstan or Wulfstan, who under Ealdred's influence became Abbot of Gloucester. Ealdred was a monk in the cathedral chapter at Winchester Cathedral before becoming abbot of Tavistock Abbey about 1027, an office he held until about 1043. Even after leaving the abbacy of Tavistock, he continued to hold two properties from the abbey until his death. No contemporary documents relating to Ealdred's time as abbot have been discovered.

paragraph: Ealdred was made bishop of Worcester in 1046, a position he held until his resignation in 1062. He may have acted as suffragan, or subordinate bishop, to his predecessor Lyfing before formally assuming the bishopric, as from about 1043 Ealdred witnessed as an "episcopus", or bishop, and a charter from 1045 or early 1046 names Sihtric as abbot of Tavistock. Lyfing died on 26 March 1046, and Ealdred became bishop of Worcester shortly after. However, Ealdred did not receive the other two dioceses that Lyfing had held, Crediton and Cornwall; King Edward the Confessor (reigned 1043–1066) granted these to Leofric, who combined the two sees at Crediton in 1050.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop and royal advisor.

paragraph: Ealdred was an advisor to King Edward the Confessor, and was often involved in the royal government. He was also a military leader, and in 1046 he led an unsuccessful expedition against the Welsh. This was in retaliation for a raid led by the Welsh rulers Gruffydd ap Rhydderch, Rhys ap Rhydderch, and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. Ealdred's expedition was betrayed by some Welsh soldiers who were serving with the English, and Ealdred was defeated.

paragraph: In 1050, Ealdred went to Rome "on the king's errand", apparently to secure papal approval to move the seat, or centre, of the bishopric of Crediton to Exeter. It may also have been to secure the release of the king from a vow to go on pilgrimage, if sources from after the Norman Conquest of England are to be believed. While in Rome, he attended a papal council, along with his fellow English bishop Herman. That same year, as Ealdred was returning to England he met Sweyn, a son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and probably absolved Sweyn for having abducted the abbess of Leominster Abbey in 1046. Through Ealdred's intercession, Sweyn was restored to his earldom, which he had lost after abducting the abbess and murdering his cousin Beorn Estrithson. Ealdred helped Sweyn not only because Ealdred was a supporter of Earl Godwin's family but because Sweyn's earldom was close to his bishopric. As recently as 1049 Irish raiders had allied with Gruffydd ap Rhydderch of Gwent in raiding along the River Usk. Ealdred unsuccessfully tried to drive off the raiders, but was again routed by the Welsh. This failure underscored Ealdred's need for a strong earl in the area to protect against raids. Normally, the bishop of Hereford would have led the defence in the absence of an Earl of Hereford, but in 1049 the incumbent, Æthelstan, was blind, so Ealdred took on the role of defender.

paragraph: Section::::Diplomatic travels.

paragraph: Earl Godwin's rebellion against the king in 1051 came as a blow to Ealdred, who was a supporter of the earl and his family. Ealdred was present at the royal council at London that banished Godwin's family. Later in 1051, when he was sent to intercept Harold Godwinson and his brothers as they fled England after their father's outlawing, Ealdred "could not, or would not" capture the brothers. The banishment of Ealdred's patron came shortly after the death of Ælfric Puttoc, the Archbishop of York. York and Worcester had long had close ties, and the two sees had often been held in plurality, or at the same time. Ealdred probably wanted to become Archbishop of York after Ælfric's death, but his patron's eclipse led to the king appointing Cynesige, a royal chaplain, instead. In September 1052, though, Godwin returned from exile and his family was restored to power. By late 1053 Ealdred was once more in royal favour. At some point, he was alleged to have accompanied Swein on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but proof is lacking.

paragraph: In 1054 King Edward sent Ealdred to Germany to obtain Emperor Henry III's help in returning Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside, to England. Edmund (reigned 1016) was an elder half-brother of King Edward the Confessor, and Edmund's son Edward was in Hungary with King Andrew I, having left England as an infant after his father's death and the accession of Cnut as King of England. In this mission Ealdred was somewhat successful and obtained insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II, the Archbishop of Cologne. He also was impressed with the buildings he saw, and later incorporated some of the German styles into his own constructions. The main objective of the mission, however, was to secure the return of Edward; but this failed, mainly because Henry III's relations with the Hungarians were strained, and the emperor was unable or unwilling to help Ealdred. Ealdred was able to discover that Edward was alive, and had a place at the Hungarian court. Although some sources state that Ealdred attended the coronation of Emperor Henry IV, this is not possible, as on the date that Henry was crowned, Ealdred was in England consecrating an abbot.

paragraph: Ealdred had returned to England by 1055, and brought with him a copy of the "Pontificale Romano-Germanicum", a set of liturgies, with him. An extant copy of this work, currently manuscript Cotton Vitellus E xii, has been identified as a copy owned by Ealdred. It appears likely that the "Rule of Chrodegang", a continental set of ordinances for the communal life of secular canons, was introduced into England by Ealdred sometime before 1059. Probably he brought it back from Germany, possibly in concert with Harold.

paragraph: After Ealdred's return to England he took charge of the sees of Hereford and Ramsbury. Ealdred also administered Winchcombe Abbey and Gloucester Abbey. The authors of the "Handbook of British Chronology Third Edition" say he was named bishop of Hereford in 1056, holding the see until he resigned it in 1060, but other sources say that he merely administered the see while it was vacant, or that he was bishop of Hereford from 1055 to 1060.

paragraph: Ealdred became involved with the see of Ramsbury after its bishop Herman got into a dispute with King Edward over the movement of the seat of his bishopric to Malmesbury Abbey. Herman wished to move the seat of his see, but Edward refused permission for the move. Ealdred was a close associate of Herman's, and the historian H. R. Loyn called Herman "something of an alter ego" to Ealdred. According to the medieval chronicler John of Worcester, Ealdred was given the see of Ramsbury to administer while Herman remained outside England. Herman returned in 1058, and resumed his bishopric. There is no contemporary documentary evidence of Ealdred's administration of Ramsbury.

paragraph: Section::::Welsh affairs, Jerusalem, and Worcester.

paragraph: The king again employed Ealdred as a diplomat in 1056, when he assisted earls Harold and Leofric in negotiations with the Welsh. Edward sent Ealdred after the death in battle of Bishop Leofgar of Hereford, who had attacked Gruffydd ap Llywelyn after encouragement from the king. However, Leofgar lost the battle and his life, and Edward had to sue for peace. Although details of the negotiations are lacking, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn swore loyalty to King Edward, but the oath may not have had any obligations on Gruffydd's part to Edward. The exact terms of the submission are not known in total, but Gruffydd was not required to assist Edward in war nor attend Edward's court. Ealdred was rewarded with the administration of the see of Hereford, which he held until 1061, and was appointed Archbishop of York. The diocese had suffered a serious raid from the Welsh in 1055, and during his administration, Ealdred continued the rebuilding of the cathedral church as well as securing the cathedral chapter's rights. Ealdred was granted the administration in order that the area might have someone with experience with the Welsh in charge.

paragraph: In 1058 Ealdred made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the first English bishop to make the journey. He travelled through Hungary, and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" stated that "he went to Jerusalem in such state as no-one had done before him". While in Jerusalem he made a gift of a gold chalice to the church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is possible that the reason Ealdred travelled through Hungary was to arrange the travel of Edward the Exile's family to England. Another possibility is that he wished to search for other possible heirs to King Edward in Hungary. It is not known exactly when Edward the Exile's family returned to England, whether they returned with Edward in 1057, or sometime later, so it is only a possibility that they returned with Ealdred in 1058.

paragraph: Very little documentary evidence is available from Ealdred's time as Bishop of Worcester. Only five leases that he signed survive, and all date from 1051 to 1053. Two further leases exist in "Hemming's Cartulary" as copies only. How the diocese of Worcester was administered when Ealdred was abroad is unclear, although it appears that Wulfstan, the prior of the cathedral chapter, performed the religious duties in the diocese. On the financial side, the "Evesham Chronicle" states that Æthelwig, who became abbot of Evesham Abbey in 1058, administered Worcester before he became abbot.

paragraph: Section::::Archbishop of York.

paragraph: Cynesige, the archbishop of York, died on 22 December 1060, and Ealdred was elected Archbishop of York on Christmas Day, 1060. Although a bishop was promptly appointed to Hereford, none was named to Worcester, and it appears that Ealdred intended to retain Worcester along with York, which several of his predecessors had done. There were a few reasons for this, one of which was political, as the kings of England preferred to appoint bishops from the south to the northern bishoprics, hoping to counter the northern tendency towards separatism. Another reason was that York was not a wealthy see, and Worcester was. Holding Worcester along with York allowed the archbishop sufficient revenue to support himself.

paragraph: In 1061 Ealdred travelled to Rome to receive the pallium, the symbol of an archbishop's authority. Journeying with him was Tostig, another son of Earl Godwin, who was now earl of Northumbria. William of Malmesbury says that Ealdred, by "amusing the simplicity of King Edward and alleging the custom of his predecessors, had acquired, more by bribery than by reason, the archbishopric of York while still holding his former see." On his arrival in Rome, however, charges of simony, or the buying of ecclesiastical office, and lack of learning were brought against him, and his elevation to York was refused by Pope Nicholas II, who also deposed him from Worcester. The story of Ealdred being deposed comes from the "Vita Edwardi", a life of Edward the Confessor, but the "Vita Wulfstani", an account of the life of Ealdred's successor at Worcester, Wulfstan, says that Nicholas refused the pallium until a promise to find a replacement for Worcester was given by Ealdred. Yet another chronicler, John of Worcester, mentions nothing of any trouble in Rome, and when discussing the appointment of Wulfstan, says that Wulfstan was elected freely and unanimously by the clergy and people. John of Worcester also claims that at Wulfstan's consecration, Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury extracted a promise from Ealdred that neither he nor his successors would lay claim to any jurisdiction over the diocese of Worcester. Given that John of Worcester wrote his chronicle after the eruption of the Canterbury–York supremacy struggle, the story of Ealdred renouncing any claims to Worcester needs to be considered suspect.

paragraph: For whatever reason, Ealdred gave up the see of Worcester in 1062, when papal legates arrived in England to hold a council and make sure that Ealdred relinquished Worcester. This happened at Easter in 1062. Ealdred was succeeded by Wulfstan, chosen by Ealdred, but John of Worcester relates that Ealdred had a hard time deciding between Wulfstan and Æthelwig. The legates had urged the selection of Wulfstan because of his saintliness. Because the position of Stigand, the archbishop of Canterbury, was irregular, Wulfstan sought and received consecration as a bishop from Ealdred. Normally, Wulfstan would have gone to the archbishop of Canterbury, as the see of Worcester was within Canterbury's province. Although Ealdred gave up the bishopric, the appointment of Wulfstan was one that allowed Ealdred to continue his considerable influence on the see of Worcester. Ealdred retained a number of estates belonging to Worcester. Even after the Norman Conquest, Ealdred still controlled some events in Worcester, and it was Ealdred, not Wulfstan, who opposed Urse d'Abetot's attempt to extend the castle of Worcester into the cathedral after the Norman Conquest.

paragraph: While archbishop, Ealdred built at Beverley, expanding on the building projects begun by his predecessor Cynesige, as well as repairing and expanding other churches in his diocese. He also built refectories for the canons at York and Southwell. He also was the one bishop that published ecclesiastical legislation during Edward the Confessor's reign, attempting to discipline and reform the clergy. He held a synod of his clergy shortly before 1066.

paragraph: Section::::After the death of Edward the Confessor.

paragraph: John of Worcester, a medieval chronicler, stated that Ealdred crowned King Harold II in 1066, although the Norman chroniclers mention Stigand as the officiating prelate. Given Ealdred's known support of Godwin's family, John of Worcester is probably correct. Stigand's position as archbishop was canonically suspect, and as earl Harold had not allowed Stigand to consecrate one of the earl's churches, it is unlikely that Harold would have allowed Stigand to perform the much more important royal coronation. Arguments for Stigand having performed the coronation, however, rely on the fact that no other English source names the ecclesiastic who performed the ceremony; all Norman sources name Stigand as the presider. In all events, Ealdred and Harold were close, and Ealdred supported Harold's bid to become king. Ealdred perhaps accompanied Harold when the new king went to York and secured the support of the northern magnates shortly after Harold's consecration.

paragraph: According to the medieval chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar, after the Battle of Stamford Bridge Harold entrusted the loot gained from Harold Hardrada to Ealdred. Gaimar asserts that King Harold did this because he had heard of Duke William's landing in England, and needed to rush south to counter it. After the Battle of Hastings, Ealdred joined the group who tried to elevate Edgar the Ætheling, Edward the Exile's son, as king, but eventually he submitted to William the Conqueror at Berkhamsted. John of Worcester says that the group supporting Edgar vacillated over what to do while William ravaged the countryside, which led to Ealdred and Edgar's submission to William.

paragraph: Ealdred crowned William king on Christmas Day 1066. An innovation in William's coronation ceremony was that before the actual crowning, Ealdred asked the assembled crowd, in English, if it was their wish that William be crowned king. The Bishop of Coutances then did the same, but in Norman French. In March 1067, William took Ealdred with him when William returned to Normandy, along with the other English leaders Earl Edwin of Mercia, Earl Morcar, Edgar the Ætheling, and Archbishop Stigand. Ealdred at Whitsun 1068 performed the coronation of Matilda, William's wife. The "Laudes Regiae", or song commending a ruler, that was performed at Matilda's coronation may have been composed by Ealdred himself for the occasion. In 1069, when the northern thegns rebelled against William and attempted to install Edgar the Ætheling as king, Ealdred continued to support William. He was the only northern leader to support William, however. Ealdred was back at York by 1069. He died there on 11 September 1069, and his body was buried in his episcopal cathedral. He may have taken an active part in trying to calm the rebellions in the north in 1068 and 1069. The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury records a story that when the new sheriff of Worcester, Urse d'Abetot, encroached on the cemetery of the cathedral chapter for Worcester Cathedral, Ealdred pronounced a rhyming curse on him, saying "Thou are called Urse. May you have God's curse."

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: After Ealdred's death, one of the restraints on William's treatment of the English was removed. Ealdred was one of a few native Englishmen who William appears to have trusted, and his death led to fewer attempts to integrate Englishmen into the administration, although such efforts did not entirely stop. In 1070, a church council was held at Westminster and a number of bishops were deposed. By 1073 there were only two Englishmen in episcopal sees, and by the time of William's death in 1087, there was only one, Wulfstan II of Worcester.

paragraph: Ealdred did much to restore discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal with gifts to the churches of his diocese. He built the monastic church of St Peter at Gloucester (now Gloucester Cathedral, though nothing of his fabric remains), then part of his diocese of Worcester. He also repaired a large part of Beverley Minster in the diocese of York, adding a presbytery and an unusually splendid painted ceiling covering "all the upper part of the church from the choir to the tower...intermingled with gold in various ways, and in a wonderful fashion". He added a pulpit "in German style" of bronze, gold and silver, surmounted by an arch with a rood cross in the same materials; these were examples of the lavish decorations added to important churches in the years before the conquest.

paragraph: Ealdred encouraged Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, to write the "Life" of Saint John of Beverley. This was part of Ealdred's promotion of the cult of Saint John, who had only been canonised in 1037. Along with the "Pontificale", Ealdred may have brought back from Cologne the first manuscript of the "Cambridge Songs" to enter England, a collection of Latin Goliardic songs which became famous in the Middle Ages. The historian Michael Lapidge suggests that the "Laudes Regiae", which are included in Cotton Vitellius E xii, might have been composed by Ealdred, or a member of his household. Another historian, H. J. Cowdrey, argued that the "laudes" were composed at Winchester. These praise songs are probably the same performed at Matilda's coronation, but might have been used at other court ceremonies before Ealdred's death.

paragraph: Historians have seen Ealdred as an "old-fashioned prince-bishop". Others say that he "raised the see of York from its former rustic state". He was known for his generosity and for his diplomatic and administrative abilities. After the Conquest, Ealdred provided a degree of continuity between the pre- and post-Conquest worlds. One modern historian feels that it was Ealdred who was behind the compilation of the D version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", and gives a date in the 1050s as its composition. Certainly, Ealdred is one of the leading figures in the work, and it is likely that one of his clerks compiled the version.

description: Abbot of Tavistock; Bishop of Hereford; Bishop of Worcester; Archbishop of York

wikidata_label: Ealdred

wikipedia_title: Ealdred (archbishop of York)


text:
Mediaeval Gaelic
Modern Gaelic
King of Scotland
Treaty of York
Haddington, East Lothian
William the Lion
Ermengarde of Beaumont
John of England
Clerkenwell Priory
Scone
Meic Uilleim
MacHeths
John of England
Kingdom of England
Berwick-upon-Tweed
Dover
Prince Louis of France
John
Henry
Joan of England
Jon Haraldsson
Jarl of Orkney
Bishop Adam
Halkirk
Caithness
Kingdom of Norway
Boethius the Dane
Pope Honorius III
Vatican
bull
Celestine IV
Argyll
Craignish
Ardscotnish
Glassary
Glenary
Cowal
Lorn
Kintyre
Knapdale
Suðreyar
Galloway
Marie de Coucy
Alexander III
make peace
Newcastle
Western Isles
Suðreyjar
Hebrides
Magnus VI of Norway
Isle of Man
Matthew Paris
Chronica Majora
Ewen
Argyll
Haakon IV of Norway
Kerrera
Inner Hebrides
Melrose Abbey
Joan of England
John of England
Isabella of Angoulême
York Minster
Henry I of England
Essex
Tarant Crawford Abbey
Dorset
Marie de Coucy
Alexander III of Scotland
Hugh, Count of Vermandois
Alan Durward
Nigel Tranter
Patrick II, Earl of Dunbar
Barbara Erskine

categories: 13th-century Scottish monarchs,House of Dunkeld,1249 deaths,People from Haddington, East Lothian,12th-century Scottish people,1198 births,Scottish Roman Catholics,Burials at Melrose Abbey

paragraph: Alexander II of Scotland

paragraph: Alexander II (Mediaeval Gaelic: '; Modern Gaelic: '; 24 August 11986 July 1249) was King of Scotland from 1214 until his death. He concluded the Treaty of York (1237) which defined the boundary between England and Scotland, virtually unchanged today.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: He was born at Haddington, East Lothian, the only son of the Scottish king William the Lion and Ermengarde of Beaumont. He spent time in England (John of England knighted him at Clerkenwell Priory in 1213) before succeeding to the kingdom on the death of his father on 4 December 1214, being crowned at Scone on 6 December the same year.

paragraph: Section::::King of Scots.

paragraph: In 1215, the year after his accession, the clans Meic Uilleim and MacHeths, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against John of England, and led an army into the Kingdom of England in support of their cause. This action led to the sacking of Berwick-upon-Tweed as John's forces ravaged the north.

paragraph: The Scottish forces reached the south coast of England at the port of Dover where in September 1216, Alexander paid homage to the pretender Prince Louis of France for his lands in England, chosen by the barons to replace King John. But John having died, the Pope and the English aristocracy changed their allegiance to his nine-year-old son, Henry, forcing the French and the Scots armies to return home.

paragraph: Peace between Henry III, Louis of France, and Alexander followed on 12 September 1217 with the treaty of Kingston. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister Joan of England on 18 June or 25 June 1221.

paragraph: In 1222 Jon Haraldsson, the last native Scandinavian to be Jarl of Orkney, was indirectly implicated in the burning of Bishop Adam at his hall at Halkirk by local farmers when this part of Caithness was still part of the Kingdom of Norway. A contemporary chronicler, Boethius the Dane blamed Haraldsson for the bishop's death. After the Jarl swore oaths to his own innocence, Alexander took the opportunity to assert his claims to the mainland part of the Orkney jarldom. He visited Caithness in person, and hanged the majority of the farmers while mutilating the rest. His actions were applauded by Pope Honorius III, and a quarter of a century later, he was continuing to receive commendation from the Vatican, as in the reward of a bull from Celestine IV.

paragraph: During the same period, Alexander subjugated the hitherto semi-independent district of Argyll (much smaller than the modern area by that name, it only comprised Craignish, Ardscotnish, Glassary, Glenary, and Cowal; Lorn was a separate province, while Kintyre and Knapdale were part of Suðreyar). Royal forces crushed a revolt in Galloway in 1235 without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of England drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in 1237. This was the Treaty of York, which defined the boundary between the two kingdoms as running between the Solway Firth (in the west) and the mouth of the River Tweed (in the east).

paragraph: Joan died in March 1238 in Essex. Alexander married his second wife, Marie de Coucy, the following year on 15 May 1239. Together they had one son, the future Alexander III, born in 1241.

paragraph: A threat of invasion by Henry in 1243 for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at Newcastle.

paragraph: Alexander now turned his attention to securing the Western Isles, which were still part of the Norwegian domain of Suðreyjar. He repeatedly attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success. Alexander set out to conquer these islands but died on the way in 1249. This dispute over the Western Isles, also known as the Hebrides, was not resolved until 1266 when Magnus VI of Norway ceded them to Scotland along with the Isle of Man.

paragraph: The English chronicler Matthew Paris in his "Chronica Majora" described Alexander as red-haired:

paragraph: [King John] taunted King Alexander, and because he was red-headed, sent word to him, saying, 'so shall we hunt the red fox-cub from his lairs.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Alexander attempted to persuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to Haakon IV of Norway. When Ewen rejected these attempts, Alexander sailed forth to compel him, but on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of Kerrera in the Inner Hebrides. He died there in 1249 and was buried at Melrose Abbey

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: He had two wives:

paragraph: 1. Joan of England, (22 July 12104 March 1238), was the eldest legitimate daughter and third child of John of England and Isabella of Angoulême. She and Alexander II married on 21 June 1221, at York Minster. Alexander was 23. Joan was 11. They had no children. Joan was Alexander's 3rd cousin, their closest common ancestor being Henry I of England. Joan died in Essex in 1238, and was buried at Tarant Crawford Abbey in Dorset.

paragraph: 2. Marie de Coucy, who became mother of Alexander III of Scotland. She was Alexander's third cousin once removed by their common ancestor Hugh, Count of Vermandois.

paragraph: He also had an illegitimate daughter Marjorie, who married Alan Durward.

paragraph: Section::::Fictional portrayals.

paragraph: Alexander II has been depicted in historical novels:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sword of State" (1999) by Nigel Tranter. The novel depicts the friendship between Alexander II and Patrick II, Earl of Dunbar. "Their friendship withstands treachery, danger and rivalry".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Child of the Phoenix" by Barbara Erskine.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Worcester Annals"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Rotuli Litterarum Patencium"

description: King of Scots 1214–1249

wikidata_label: Alexander II of Scotland

wikipedia_title: Alexander II of Scotland


text:
Peripatetic
Ancient Greek
commentators
Aristotle
Aphrodisias
Caria
Athens
Peripatetic school
Aristotle
Prior Analytics
Topics
Meteorology
Sense and Sensibilia
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Caria
Athens
Stoic
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Septimius Severus
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commentaries on the works of Aristotle
syncretistic
Prior Analytics
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Meteorology
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Metaphysics
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De Interpretatione
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Physics
On the Heavens
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On the Soul
On Memory
Simplicius of Cilicia
quadrature of the lune
squaring the circle
Categories
Archimedes Palimpsest
Robert Sharples
Arabic
Galen
soul
De anima
God
psychology
physics
ethics
vision
light
fate
providence
logic
metaphysics
Stoic
determinism
libertarianism
mixture
Stoic physics
sublunar world
Physics
Metaphysics
Pseudo-Aristotelian
On the Universe
divine Providence
Arab
Maimonides
a condemnation
Renaissance
Pietro Pomponazzi
Thomists
Averroists
Cesare Cremonini
Alexandrists
Alexander's band
optical phenomenon
Aldine
Themistius
Latin
Grotius
Schulthess
J. C. Orelli
Zürich
H. Bonitz
Berlin
Ancient commentators project
Alexander's band
Free will in antiquity
Alexander on Information Philosopher
Scripta minora
"Metaphysics"
"Prior Analytics" I
"Topics"
"De sensu" and "Meteorology"

categories: Commentators on Aristotle,2nd-century Greek people,Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers,Roman-era students in Athens,2nd-century philosophers,Roman-era philosophers in Athens

paragraph: Alexander of Aphrodisias

paragraph: Alexander of Aphrodisias (; ) was a Peripatetic philosopher and the most celebrated of the Ancient Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria, and lived and taught in Athens at the beginning of the 3rd century, where he held a position as head of the Peripatetic school. He wrote many commentaries on the works of Aristotle, extant are those on the "Prior Analytics", "Topics", "Meteorology", "Sense and Sensibilia", and "Metaphysics". Several original treatises also survive, and include a work "On Fate", in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one "On the Soul". His commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was styled, by way of pre-eminence, "the commentator" ().

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: Alexander was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria and came to Athens towards the end of the 2nd century. He was a student of the two Stoic, or possibly Peripatetic, philosophers Sosigenes and Herminus, and perhaps of Aristotle of Mytilene. At Athens he became head of the Peripatetic school and lectured on Peripatetic philosophy. Alexander's dedication of "On Fate" to Septimius Severus and Caracalla, in gratitude for his position at Athens, indicates a date between 198 and 209. A recently published inscription from Aphrodisias confirms that he was head of one of the Schools at Athens and gives his full name as Titus Aurelius Alexander. His full nomenclature shows that his grandfather or other ancestor was probably given Roman citizenship by the emperor Antoninus Pius, while proconsul of Asia. The inscription honours his father, also called Alexander and also a philosopher. This fact makes it plausible that some of the suspect works that form part of Alexander's corpus should be ascribed to his father.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:Commentaries.

paragraph: Alexander composed several commentaries on the works of Aristotle, in which he sought to escape a syncretistic tendency and to recover the pure doctrines of Aristotle. His extant commentaries are on "Prior Analytics" (Book 1), "Topics", "Meteorology", "Sense and Sensibilia", and "Metaphysics" (Books 1-5). The commentary on the "Sophistical Refutations" is deemed spurious, as is the commentary on the final nine books of the "Metaphysics". The lost commentaries include works on the "De Interpretatione", "Posterior Analytics", "Physics", "On the Heavens", "On Generation and Corruption", "On the Soul", and "On Memory". Simplicius of Cilicia mentions that Alexander provided commentary on the quadrature of the lunes, and the corresponding problem of squaring the circle. In April 2007, it was reported that imaging analysis had discovered an early commentary on Aristotle's "Categories" in the Archimedes Palimpsest, and Robert Sharples suggested Alexander as the most likely author.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.:Original treatises.

paragraph: There are also several extant original writings by Alexander. These include: "On the Soul", "Problems and Solutions", "Ethical Problems", "On Fate", and "On Mixture and Growth". Three works attributed to him are considered spurious: "Medical Questions", "Physical Problems", and "On Fevers". Additional works by Alexander are preserved in Arabic translation, these include: "On the Principles of the Universe", "On Providence", and "Against Galen on Motion".

paragraph: "On the Soul" ("De anima") is a treatise on the soul written along the lines suggested by Aristotle in his own "De anima". Alexander contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material ("nous hylikos") and inseparable from the body. He argued strongly against the doctrine of the soul's immortality. He identified the active intellect ("nous poietikos"), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. A second book is known as the "Supplement to On the Soul" ("Mantissa"). The "Mantissa" is a series of twenty-five separate pieces of which the opening five deal directly with psychology. The remaining twenty pieces cover problems in physics and ethics, of which the largest group deals with questions of vision and light, and the final four with fate and providence. The "Mantissa" was probably not written by Alexander in its current form, but much of the actual material may be his.

paragraph: "Problems and Solutions" ("Quaestiones") consists of three books which, although termed "problems and solutions of physical questions," treat of subjects which are not all physical, and are not all problems. Among the sixty-nine items in these three books, twenty-four deal with physics, seventeen with psychology, eleven with logic and metaphysics, and six with questions of fate and providence. It is unlikely that Alexander wrote all of the "Quaestiones", some may be Alexander's own explanations, while others may be exercises by his students.

paragraph: "Ethical Problems" was traditionally counted as the fourth book of the "Quaestiones". The work is a discussion of ethical issues based on Aristotle, and contains responses to questions and problems deriving from Alexander's school. It is likely that the work was not written by Alexander himself, but rather by his pupils on the basis of debates involving Alexander.

paragraph: "On Fate" is a treatise in which Alexander argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity. In "On Fate" Alexander denied three things - necessity (), the foreknowledge of fated events that was part of the Stoic identification of God and Nature, and determinism in the sense of a sequence of causes that was laid down beforehand () or predetermined by antecedents (). He defended a view of moral responsibility we would call libertarianism today.

paragraph: "On Mixture and Growth" discusses the topic of mixture of physical bodies. It is both an extended discussion (and polemic) on Stoic physics, and an exposition of Aristotelian thought on this theme.

paragraph: "On the Principles of the Universe" is preserved in Arabic translation. This treatise is not mentioned in surviving Greek sources, but it enjoyed great popularity in the Muslim world, and a large number of copies have survived. The main purpose of this work is to give a general account of Aristotelian cosmology and metaphysics, but it also has a polemical tone, and it may be directed at rival views within the Peripatetic school. Alexander was concerned with filling the gaps of the Aristotelian system and smoothing out its inconsistencies, while also presenting a unified picture of the world, both physical and ethical. The topics dealt with are the nature of the heavenly motions and the relationship between the unchangeable celestial realm and the sublunar world of generation and decay. His principal sources are the "Physics" (book 7), "Metaphysics" (book 12), and the Pseudo-Aristotelian "On the Universe".

paragraph: "On Providence" survives in two Arabic versions. In this treatise, Alexander opposes the Stoic view that divine Providence extends to all aspects of the world; he regards this idea as unworthy of the gods. Instead, providence is a power that emanates from the heavens to the sublunar region, and is responsible for the generation and destruction of earthly things, without any direct involvement in the lives of individuals.

paragraph: Section::::Influence.

paragraph: By the 6th century Alexander's commentaries on Aristotle were considered so useful that he was referred to as "the commentator" (). His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the Arabs, who translated many of them, and he is heavily quoted by Maimonides.

paragraph: In 1210, the Church Council of Paris issued a condemnation, which probably targeted the writings of Alexander among others.

paragraph: In the early Renaissance his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by Pietro Pomponazzi (against the Thomists and the Averroists), and by his successor Cesare Cremonini. This school is known as Alexandrists.

paragraph: Alexander's band, an optical phenomenon, is named after him.

paragraph: Section::::Modern editions.

paragraph: Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495–1498; his "De Fato" and "De Anima" were printed along with the works of Themistius at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess, was edited by J. C. Orelli, Zürich, 1824; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by H. Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. In 1989 the first part of his "On Aristotle Metaphysics" was published in English translation as part of the Ancient commentators project. Since then, other works of his have been translated into English.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander's band - an optical phenomenon associated with rainbows

paragraph: BULLET::::- Free will in antiquity

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Translations.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Bergeron, Dufour (trans., comm.), 2009. "De l’Âme. Textes & Commentaires." . Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 2008. 416 p.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. W. Sharples, 1990, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: Ethical Problems". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- W. E. Dooley, 1989, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 1". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- W. E. Dooley, A. Madigan, 1992, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 2-3". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. Madigan, 1993, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 4". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- W. Dooley, 1993, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Metaphysics 5". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- E. Lewis, 1996, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Meteorology 4". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- E. Gannagé, 2005, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Coming-to-Be and Perishing 2.2-5". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. Towey, 2000, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On Sense Perception". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- V. Caston, 2011, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle On the Soul". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. Barnes, S. Bobzien, K. Flannery, K. Ierodiakonou, 1991, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.1-7". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.8-13". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- I. Mueller, J. Gould, 1999, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.14-22". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- I. Mueller, 2006, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.23-31". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- I. Mueller, 2006, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.32-46". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. M. Van Ophuijsen, 2000, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Aristotle Topics 1". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. W. Sharples, 1983, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On Fate". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. W. Sharples, 1992, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 1.1-2.15". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. W. Sharples, 1994, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: Quaestiones 2.16-3.15". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- R. W. Sharples, 2004, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: Supplement to On the Soul". Duckworth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charles Genequand, 2001, "Alexander of Aphrodisias: On the Cosmos". Brill.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.:Studies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Fazzo, S. "Aporia e sistema. La materia, la forma e il divino nelle Quaestiones di Alessandro di Afrodisia", Pisa: ETS, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Flannery, Kevin L. "Ways into the Logic of Alexander of Aphrodisias", Leiden: Brill, 1995.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gili, Luca. "La sillogistica di Alessandro di Afrodisia. Sillogistica categorica e sillogistica modale nel commento agli "Analitici Primi" di Aristotele", Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 2011.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Moraux, Paul. "Der Aristotelismus bei den Griechen, Von Andronikos bis Alexander von Aphrodisias", III: "Alexander von Aphrodisias", Berlin: Walter Gruyter, 2001.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rescher, Nicholas & Marmura, Michael E., "The Refutation by Alexander of Aphrodisias of Galen's Treatise on the Theory of Motion", Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute, 1965.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Todd, Robert B., 'Alexander of Aphrodisias on Stoic Physics. A Study of the "De Mixtione" with Preliminary Essays, Text, Translation and Commentary", Leiden: Brill, 1976.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alexander on Information Philosopher

paragraph: BULLET::::- Online Greek texts:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Scripta minora", ed. Bruns

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aristotelian commentaries: "Metaphysics", "Prior Analytics" I, "Topics", "De sensu" and "Meteorology",

description: Peripatetic philosopher

wikidata_label: Alexander of Aphrodisias

wikipedia_title: Alexander of Aphrodisias


text: Hasmonean

text: Judaea

text: John Hyrcanus

text: Aristobulus I

text: Salome Alexandra

text: Salome Alexandra

text: Hyrcanus II

text: Aristobulus II

text: Pompey the Great

text: Sadducees

text: pharisaic

text: Simeon ben Shetach

text: Ptolemais

text: Dora

text: Ptolemy IX Lathyros

text: Cleopatra III

text: Cyprus

text: Jeruselum

text: talents

text: Straton's Tower

text: Galilee region

text: Asochis

text: Sabbath

text: Sepphoris

text: Jordan River

text: Jews

text: pagans

text: Greek style

text: phalanx

text: Coele-Syria

text: Scythopolis

text: Gadara

text: Amathus

text: Transjordan

text: Raphia

text: Anthedon

text: Gaza

text: Nabatean

text: Temple of Apollo

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: Rome

text: Damascus

text: Obodas I

text: Battle of Gadara

text: Feast of Tabernacles

text: High Priest

text: libation

text: etrogim

text: citron

text: Demetrius III Eucaerus

text: Shechem

text: Aretas III

text: Gamala

text: Gerasa

text: ancestral religion

text: Hippos

categories: 1st-century BC monarchs in the Middle East,2nd-century BC monarchs in the Middle East,2nd-century BCE Jews,1st-century BC High Priests of Israel,2nd-century BC High Priests of Israel,1st-century BC clergy,2nd-century BC Hasmonean monarchs,76 BC deaths,1st-century BC Hasmonean monarchs,1st-century BCE Jews,2nd-century BC births,2nd-century BC clergy

paragraph: Alexander Jannaeus

paragraph: Alexander Jannaeus (also known as Alexander Jannai/Yannai; , born Jonathan Alexander) was the second Hasmonean king of Judaea from 103 to 76 BC. A son of John Hyrcanus, he inherited the throne from his brother Aristobulus I, and married his brother's widow, Queen Salome Alexandra. From his conquests to expand the kingdom to a bloody civil war, Alexander's reign has been generalized as cruel and oppressive with never ending conflict.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Alexander Jannaeus was the third son of John Hyrcanus, by his second wife. When Aristobulus I, Hyrcanus' son by his first wife, became king, he deemed it necessary for his own security to imprison his half-brother. Aristobulus died after a reign of one year. Upon his death, his widow, Salome Alexandra had Alexander and his brothers released from prison. One of these brothers is said to have unsuccessfully sought the throne.

paragraph: Alexander, as the oldest living brother, had the right not only to the throne but also to Salome, the widow of his deceased brother, who had died childless; and, although she was thirteen years older than him, he married her in accordance with Jewish law. By her, he had two sons, the eldest, Hyrcanus II became high-priest in 62 BC and Aristobulus II who was high-priest from 66 - 62 BC and started a bloody civil war with his brother, ending in his capture by Pompey the Great. Like his brother he was an avid supporter of the aristocratic priestly faction known as the Sadducees, his wife Salome on the other hand came from a pharisaic family (her brother was Simeon ben Shetach a famous Pharisee leader), and was more sympathetic to their cause and protected them throughout his turbulent reign. Like his father, Alexander also served as the high priest. This raised the ire of the Rabbis who insisted that these two offices should not be combined. According to the Talmud, Yannai was a questionable desecrated priest (rumor had it that his mother was captured in Modiin and violated) and was not allowed to serve in the temple according to the rabbis, this infuriated the king and sided with the Sadducees who defended him. This incident led the king to turn against the Pharisees and persecute them until his death.

paragraph: Section::::War with Ptolemy Lathyrus.

paragraph: Alexander's first expedition was against the city of Ptolemais. While Alexander went forward to siege the city, Zoilus of Dora took the opportunity to see if he could liberate Ptolemais in hopes of establishing his rule over coastal territories. Alexander's Hasmonean army quickly defeated Zoilus's forces. Ptolemais then requested aid from Ptolemy IX Lathyros, who had been banished by his mother Cleopatra III; Ptolemy founded a kingdom in Cyprus after being cast out by his mother. The situation at Ptolemais was seized as an opportunity by Ptolemy to possibly gain a stronghold and control the Judean coast in order to invade Egypt by sea. However, an individual named Demaenetus convinced the inhabitants of their imprudent request for assistance. Realizing they had allied themselves with Ptolemy, they had unintentionally declared war on Cleopatra. When Ptolemy arrived at the city, the inhabitants denied him access.

paragraph: Alexander too didn't want to be involved in a war between Cleopatra and Ptolemy, so he abandoned his campaign against Ptolemais and returned to Jeruselum. After he offered Ptolemy four hundred talents and a peace treaty in return for Zoilus's death, Alexander met him with treachery by negotiating an alliance with Cleopatra. When Alexander formed an alliance with Ptolemy, Alexader's conquest continued by capturing the coastal cities of Dora and Straton's Tower. As soon as Ptolemy learned of Alexander's scheme, he was determined to kill him. Ptolemy began to attack Ptolemais, but left his generals to besiege the city while he continued to pursue Alexander. Ptolemy's pursuit had caused much destruction in the Galilee region and captured Asochis on the Sabbath, taking ten thousand people as prisoners. Ptolemy also initiated an attack upon Sepphoris but was unsuccessful.

paragraph: Section::::War with Ptolemy Lathyrus.:Battle of Asophon.

paragraph: Ptolemy and Alexander engaged in battle at Asophon near the Jordan River. Estimated to have fifty thousand to eighty thousand soldiers, Alexander's army consisted of both Jews and pagans. At the head of his armed forces were his elite pagan mercenaries; They specialized in Greek style phalanx. One of Ptolemy's commanders, Philostephanus, commenced the first attack by crossing the river that divides both forces. The Hasmoneans had the advantage, however, Philostephanus held back a certain amount of his forces whom he sent to recover lost ground. Perceiving as vast reinforcements, Alexander's army fled. Some of his retreating forces tried to push back but quickly dispersed as Ptolemy's forces pursued Alexander's fleeing army; Thirty thousand to fifty thousand Hasmonean soldiers died.

paragraph: Ptolemy's forces at Ptolemais also succeeded in capturing the city. He then continued to conquer much of the Hasmonean Kingdom, occupying the entirety of northern Judea, the coast, and territories east of the Jordan River. While doing so, he pillaged villages and ordered his soldiers to cannibalize women and children to create psychological fear towards his enemies. At the time, Salome Alexandra was notified of Cleopatra's approachment to Judea.

paragraph: Section::::War with Ptolemy Lathyrus.:Intervention of Cleopatra III.

paragraph: Realizing that her son amassed a formidable force in Judea, Cleopatra appointed Jewish generals Ananias and Chelkias to command her forces. She too also went with a fleet towards Judea. When Cleopatra arrived at Ptolemais, the people refused her entry so she besieged the city. Ptolemy, believing Syria was defenseless, withdrew to Cyprus after his miscalculation. While in pursuit of Ptolemy, Chelkias died at Coele-Syria.

paragraph: After Ptolemy was defeated, Alexander had approached Cleopatra. Bowing before her, he requested to retain his rule. Cleopatra was urged by her subordinates to annex Judea. However, Ananias demanded she consider the residential Egyptian Jews who were the main support of her throne. This induced Cleopatra to modify her longings for Judea. Alexander and Cleopatra then met at Scythopolis to begin negotiations. He met her demands and suspended his campaigns. Cleopatra had passed away five years after. Confident after her death, Alexander found himself free to continue with new campaigns.

paragraph: Alexander captured Gadara and fought to capture the strong fortress of Amathus in the Transjordan region but was defeated. Alexander was more successful in his expedition against the coastal cities, capturing Raphia and Anthedon. In 96 BC, Jannaeus defeated the inhabitants of Gaza. This victory gained Judean control over the Mediterranean outlet of the Nabatean trade routes. Alexander initially returned his focus back to the Transjordan region, avenging his previous defeat, he destroyed Amathus.

paragraph: Section::::Transjordan and coastal conquest.:Battle of Gaza.

paragraph: Determined to proceed with future campaigns despite his defeat at Amathus, Alexander set his focus on Gaza. His campaign against the city wasn't so easily achieved. Gaza's general Apollodotus strategically employed a night attack against the Hasmonean army. With a force of two thousand less-skilled soldiers and ten thousand slaves, Gaza's military was able to deceive the Hasmonean army into believing they were being attacked by Ptolemy. The Gazans killed many, and the Hasmonean army fled the battle. When morning exposed the delusive tactic, Alexader continued his assault but lost a thousand additional soldiers.

paragraph: The Gazans still remained defiant in hopes that the Nabatean Kingdom would come to their aid. The city, however, would eventually suffer defeat from its leadership. Gaza at the time was governed by two brothers, Lysimachus and Apollodotus. Lysimachus had finally convinced the people to surrender, and Alexander peacefully entered the city. Though what seemed like an unaggressive Alexander, he suddenly ravaged the inhabitants. Now some men out of desperation killed their wives and children to ensure they wouldn't be captured and enslaved. Others burned down their homes to prevent the soldiers from plundering. The town council and five hundred civilians took refuge at the Temple of Apollo. There, Alexander massacred them.

paragraph: Section::::Judean Civil War.

paragraph: Section::::Judean Civil War.:War with Obodas I.

paragraph: The Judean Civil War initially began after the conquest of Gaza around 99 BC. Due to Jannaeus's victory at Gaza, the Nabatean kingdom no longer had access to the Mediterranean Sea. Alexander soon captured Gadara, which caused the Nabateans to lose their main trade routes leading to Rome and Damascus. After losing Gadara, the Nabatean king Obodas I launched an attack against Alexander in a steep valley in Gadara where Alexander barely managed to escape. After Jannaeus was defeated in the Battle of Gadara against the Nabataeans, he returned to Jerusalem only to be met with fierce Jewish opposition.

paragraph: Section::::Judean Civil War.:Feast of Tabernacles.

paragraph: During the Jewish holiday Feast of Tabernacles, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his displeasure against the Pharisees by refusing to perform the water libation ceremony properly: instead of pouring it on the altar, he poured it on his feet. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting him with etrogim (citrons). Outraged, he ordered soldiers to kill those who insulted him, which lead to the massacre of six thousand people in the Temple courtyard. With further frustration, Alexander had wooden barriers built around the altars preventing people from sacrificing and denied daily offerings except for the priests. This incident during the Feast of Tabernacles was a major factor leading up to the Judean Civil War by igniting popular opposition against Jannaeus.

paragraph: Section::::Judean Civil War.:War with Demetrius III and the conclusion of the Judean Civil War.

paragraph: After Jannaeus succeeded early in the war, the rebels asked for Seleucid assistance. Judean insurgents joined forces with Demetrius III Eucaerus to fight against Jannaeus. Alexander had gathered six thousand, two hundred mercenaries and twenty thousand Jews for battle as Demetrius had forty thousand soldiers and three thousand horses. There were attempts from both sides to persuade each other to abandon positions but were unsuccessful. The Seleucid forces defeated Jannaeus at Shechem, and all of Alexander's mercenaries were killed in battle. This defeat forced Alexander to take refuge in the mountains. In sympathy towards Jannaeus, six thousand Judean rebels ultimately returned to him. In fear of this news, Demetrius withdrew. Nevertheless, war between Jannaeus and the rebels who returned to him continued. They fought until Alexander achieved victory. Most of the rebels died in battle, while the remaining rebels fled to the city of Bethoma until they were defeated.

paragraph: Jannaeus had brought the surviving rebels back to Jerusalem where he had eight hundred Jews, primarily Pharisees, crucified. Before their deaths, Alexander had the rebels' wives and children executed before their eyes as Jannaeus ate with his concubines. Alexander later returned the land he had seized from the Nabateans in order to have them end their support for the Jewish rebels. The remaining rebels, who numbered eight thousand, fled by night in fear of Alexander. Afterward, all rebel hostility ceased and Alexander's reign continued undisturbed.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: The remainder of Alexander's life continued in his final campaigns. The Nabatean king Aretas III had defeated Alexander in battle, however, Alexander continued his Hasmonean expansion in the Transjordan region. In Gaulantis, he captured the cities of Gamala and Selecuia. In Gaulana and Galaaditis, the cities of Duim, Gerasa, and Pella; Pella was destroyed by Alexander's soldiers for refusing to accept their ancestral religion. He had taken Hippos; Alexander captured all these cities in a period of three years (83 - 80 AD). Three years later, Alexander had succumbed to an illness during the siege of Ragaba.

description: politician

wikidata_label: Alexander Jannaeus

wikipedia_title: Alexander Jannaeus


text:
Byzantine emperor
Manuel I Komnenos
Maria
Raymond of Poitiers
prince of Antioch
AIMA prophecy
prōtosebastos
Renier of Montferrat
Andronikos Komnenos
massacre of 80,000 Latins
Venetian
Agnes of France
Louis VII of France
Adèle of Champagne
Church of Christ of the Chalkè
Béla III
Syrmia
Bosnia
Kingdom of Hungary
Dalmatia
Kilij Arslan II
Siege of Cotyaeum
Cotyaeum
Sozopolis
Greek
Kostas Kyriazis
List of Byzantine emperors
Pseudo-Alexios II
A1
A2
B

categories: Medieval child rulers,1169 births,Rulers who died as children,1183 deaths,Assassinated Byzantine emperors,12th-century Byzantine emperors,12th-century murdered monarchs,People executed by ligature strangulation,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,Komnenos dynasty

paragraph: Alexios II Komnenos

paragraph: Alexios II Komnenos or Alexius II Comnenus () (10 September 1169October 1183) was Byzantine emperor from 1180 to 1183. He was the son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos and Maria, daughter of Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch. He was the long-awaited male heir and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the AIMA prophecy.

paragraph: Section::::His reign and death.

paragraph: On Manuel's death in 1180, Maria, who became a nun under the name Xene, took the position of regent (according to some historians). She excluded her young son from power, entrusting it instead to Alexios the "prōtosebastos" (a cousin of Alexios II), who was popularly believed to be her lover. Friends of the young Alexios II now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the "prōtosebastos"; Alexios II's half-sister Maria, wife of Caesar John (Renier of Montferrat), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.

paragraph: Their party was defeated on 2 May 1182, but Andronikos Komnenos, a first cousin of Emperor Manuel, took advantage of the disorder to aim at the crown. He entered Constantinople, received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the government. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of 80,000 Latins in Constantinople, especially the Venetian merchants, which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexios II to be crowned but was responsible for the death of most of the young emperor's actual or potential defenders, including his mother, his half-sister, and the Caesar, and he refused to allow him any voice in public affairs.

paragraph: The betrothal in 1180 of Alexios II to Agnes of France, daughter of Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne and at the time a child of nine, had not apparently been followed by their marriage. Andronikos was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor before the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexios II to be strangled with a bow-string in October 1183. During the reign of Alexius II, the Byzantine Empire was invaded by King Béla III, losing Syrmia and Bosnia to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1181; later even Dalmatia was lost to the Venetians. Kilij Arslan II invaded the empire in 1182, defeating the Byzantines at the Siege of Cotyaeum, resulting in the Empire losing Cotyaeum and Sozopolis.

paragraph: Section::::Portrayal in fiction.

paragraph: Alexios is a character in the historical novel "Agnes of France" (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis. The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II, and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pseudo-Alexios II

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan, "Byzantium and the Crusades", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014.

paragraph: BULLET::::- , Vols. A1, A2 & B

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Alexios II Komnenos

wikipedia_title: Alexios II Komnenos


text:
Byzantine emperor
second and final siege
Constantinople
Fourth Crusade
Doukas
eyebrow
palace coup
fall
blinded
Latin regime
recapture of Constantinople
Doukas
Alexios I Komnenos
cognatic
Komnenoi
Alexios IV Angelos
Pope Innocent III
Niketas Choniates
logothete of the "sekreta"
Alexios III Angelos
John Komnenos the Fat
Isaac II Angelos
Fourth Crusade
protovestiarios
Eudokia Angelina
Constantinople
Latin
Venetian
Nicholas Kanabos
Palace of Blachernae
Varangian Guard
Hagia Sophia
Angeloi
fortifications
Henry of Flanders
Virgin
Panagia
fire-ships
Doge of Venice
Enrico Dandolo
partition
Petria Gate
Thrace
Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera
Constantine Laskaris
Mosynopolis
blinded
Anatolia
Thierry de Loos
Column of Theodosius
Latin Empire
Nicaean Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos
List of Byzantine emperors
Sack of Constantinople (1204)

categories: Deaths from falls,Monarchs imprisoned and detained during war,Doukas family,Blind royalty and nobility,Byzantine usurpers,Leaders who took power by coup,12th-century births,Executed Byzantine people,Executed monarchs,People executed for treason,Christians of the Fourth Crusade,1204 deaths,Angelid dynasty,Byzantine prisoners and detainees,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,12th-century Byzantine people,13th-century Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Alexios V Doukas

paragraph: Alexios V Doukas (;  December 1204), in Latinised spelling Alexius V Ducas, was Byzantine emperor from 5 February to 12 April 1204, during the second and final siege of Constantinople by the participants of the Fourth Crusade. His family name was Doukas, but he was also known by the nickname Mourtzouphlos or Murtzuphlus (), referring to either bushy, overhanging eyebrows or a sullen, gloomy character. He achieved power through a palace coup, killing his predecessors in the process. Though he made vigorous attempts to defend Constantinople from the crusader army, his military efforts proved ineffective. His actions won the support of the mass of the populace, but he alienated the elite of the city. Following the fall, sack, and occupation of the city, Alexios V was blinded by another ex-emperor and later executed by the new Latin regime. He was the last Byzantine emperor to rule in Constantinople until the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople in 1261.

paragraph: Section::::Origins and character.

paragraph: Though possessing the name of a leading Byzantine aristocratic family, there is very little definitely known concerning the ancestry of Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos. The noble Doukas clan were not the only Doukai, as the surname was also employed by many families of humble origins. It has been claimed that Alexios Doukas was a great-great-grandson of the emperor Alexios I Komnenos () in the female line (cognatic descent). This is not improbable, as all other Byzantine emperors, and the majority of attempted usurpers, of the period had a connection with the former imperial house of the Komnenoi, either by descent or marriage. A more precise theory has been proposed, that he was the son of an Isaac Doukas, and was the second cousin of Alexios IV Angelos (). A letter sent to Pope Innocent III, stated that Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos was 'a blood relation' of Alexios IV Angelos.

paragraph: The contemporary historian Niketas Choniates was dismissed from office as logothete of the "sekreta" by Mourtzouphlos. His assessment of the emperor's character might therefore be biased; however, Choniates allows that he was extremely clever by nature, though arrogant in his manner and lecherous.

paragraph: Section::::Political intrigues and usurpation.

paragraph: The participation of Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos in the attempted overthrow of Alexios III Angelos () by John Komnenos the Fat in 1200 had led to his imprisonment. Mourtzouphlos was probably imprisoned from 1201 until the restoration to the throne of Isaac II Angelos (), the brother and predecessor of Alexios III. Isaac II, along with his son Alexios IV Angelos, were restored to the throne through the intervention of the leaders of the Fourth Crusade in July 1203. On release, Mourtzouphlos was invested with the court position of "protovestiarios" (head of the imperial finances). He had been married twice but was allegedly the lover of Eudokia Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III.

paragraph: By the beginning of 1204, Isaac II and Alexios IV had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople with their efforts to protect the city from the Latin crusaders and their Venetian allies, and the citizens were becoming restless. The crusaders were also losing patience with the emperors; they rioted and set fires in the city when the money and aid promised by Alexios IV was not forthcoming. The fires affected about a sixth of the area of Constantinople and may have made up to a third of the population homeless; the dislocation and desperation of those affected eventually sapped the will of the people to resist the crusaders. Alexios Doukas Mourtzouphlos emerged as a leader of the anti-Latin movement in the city. He won the approval of the populace by his valour in leading an attack on the Latins at "Trypetos Lithos"; in this clash his mount stumbled and he would have been killed or captured had a band of youthful archers from the city not defended him. Mourtzouphlos exploited the hatred of the people for the Latins to serve his personal ambition.

paragraph: The citizens of Constantinople rebelled in late January 1204, and in the chaos an otherwise obscure nobleman named Nicholas Kanabos was acclaimed emperor, though he was unwilling to accept the crown. The two co-emperors barricaded themselves in the Palace of Blachernae and entrusted Mourtzouphlos with a mission to seek help from the crusaders, or at least they informed him of their intentions. Instead of contacting the crusaders, Mourtzouphlos, on the night of 28–29 January 1204, used his access to the palace to bribe the "ax-bearers" (the Varangian Guard), and with their backing arrest the emperors. Choniates states that Mourtzouphlos, when bribing the guards, had the help of a eunuch with access to the imperial treasury. The support of the Varangians seems to have been of major importance in the success of the coup, though Mourtzouphlos also had help from his relations and associates. The young Alexios IV was eventually strangled in prison; while his father Isaac, both enfeebled and blind, died at around the time of the coup, his death variously attributed to fright, sorrow, or mistreatment. Kanabos was initially spared and offered an office under Alexios V, but he refused both this and a further summons from the emperor and took sanctuary in the Hagia Sophia; he was forcibly removed and killed on the steps of the cathedral.

paragraph: Section::::Emperor.

paragraph: The timing of the deaths of the deposed emperors and of Kanabos, and their relation to the coronation of Alexios V are problematic. Alexios V appears to have been acclaimed emperor as early as the night he moved against the Angeloi co-emperors. Hendrickx and Matzukis suggest that Alexios V assumed the imperial insignia immediately, but was crowned later, possibly on 5 February. Finding the treasury empty, the new emperor confiscated money from the aristocracy and high officials to be put to public use. These actions endeared Alexios V to the citizens, but alienated his relations and other prominent supporters. Once in firm control, Alexios V closed the gates of the city to the crusaders and strengthened the fortifications. Sword in hand, he was active in leading attacks on sorties made by the crusaders in search of supplies. On 2 February, Henry of Flanders led a part of the crusader army to Filea (or Phileas), in order to obtain food supplies. As he returned towards Constantinople Alexios V attacked his rearguard. The Byzantines were defeated and the imperial standard and an important icon of the Virgin (the "Panagia Nikopoios") were captured. The Byzantines lost some of their best soldiers in the clash, and Alexios V was lucky to escape alive. At about this time Alexios V attempted to destroy the crusader fleet with fire-ships, but to little effect.

paragraph: The loss of the icon, traditionally seen as a physical embodiment of divine protection for the city, was a severe psychological blow. Its possession by the crusaders convinced many of the population of Constantinople that the victory of the Westerners was now divinely sanctioned, as a punishment for the sins of the Byzantines.

paragraph: On 8 February Alexios V met the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo, for peace talks. The conditions demanded by the Venetian, however, were too harsh for the Byzantines to consider. Choniates states that the meeting was brought to a close by an sudden attack by crusader cavalry on Alexios V and his entourage, the emperor narrowly escaping capture. According to Choniates, Alexios IV was killed the same day; the insistence by the crusaders that he be restored to the throne may have precipitated his death. When news of the death of Alexios IV reached the crusaders, relations between them and Alexios V deteriorated further. The forcible expulsion of all Latins resident in Constantinople in March seems to have been the tipping point which led the crusaders to begin actively negotiating amongst themselves regarding the partition of the Byzantine Empire. They also began to prepare for their final assault on the city, which took place the following month.

paragraph: Section::::The fall of Constantinople, flight and death.

paragraph: The defenders of Constantinople held out against a crusader assault on 9 April. The crusaders' second attack three days later, however, proved too strong to repel. Breaking through the walls near the Petria Gate, the crusaders entered the city and looted the Blachernae Palace. Alexios V attempted to rally the people to the defence of the city, but with no success. Alexios V then boarded a fishing boat and fled the city towards Thrace on the night of 12 April 1204, accompanied by Eudokia Angelina and her mother Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. In the Hagia Sophia Constantine Laskaris was acclaimed as emperor, but being unable to persuade the Varangians to continue the fight, in the early hours of 13 April he also fled, leaving Constantinople under crusader control.

paragraph: Alexios V and his companions eventually reached Mosynopolis, which had been occupied by the deposed emperor Alexios III Angelos and his followers. At first they were well received, with Alexios V marrying Eudokia Angelina. Later, however, Alexios III arranged for his new son-in-law to be made captive and blinded, thereby rendering him ineligible for the imperial throne. Having been abandoned by both his supporters and his father-in-law, Alexios V was captured near Mosynopolis, or possibly in Anatolia, by the advancing Latins under Thierry de Loos in November 1204. On his return to Constantinople as a prisoner, Alexios V was tried for treason against Alexios IV. In his trial the blind ex-emperor argued that it was Alexios IV who had committed treason to his country, through his intention to invite the crusaders to enter Constantinople in force. On being condemned, he was executed by novel means: he was thrown to his death from the top of the Column of Theodosius. The new, alien, Latin regime of conquerors in Constantinople may have viewed the public trial and execution of the man who murdered the last "legitimate emperor" as a way to cast an aura of legitimacy on themselves. Alexios V was the last Byzantine Emperor to reign in Constantinople before the establishment of the Latin Empire, which controlled the city for the next 57 years, until it was recovered by the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sack of Constantinople (1204)

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Akropolites, G. "The History", trans. Ruth Macrides (2007) Oxford University Press

paragraph: BULLET::::- Choniates, N.:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Falk, A. (2010) "Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades", Karnac Books

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giarenis, I. (2017) "The Crisis of the Fourth Crusade in Byzantium (1203-1204) and the Emergence of Networks for Anti-Latin Reaction and Political Action", "Mediterranean World", 23, pp. 73–80.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Head, C. (1980) "Physical Descriptions of the Emperors in Byzantine Historical Writing", "Byzantion", Vol. 50, No. 1 (1980), Peeters Publishers, pp. 226–240

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hendrickx, B. and Matzukis, C. (1979) "Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos: His Life, Reign and Death (?-1204)", in "Hellenika" ("Έλληνικά") 31, pp. 111–117

paragraph: BULLET::::- Madden, T.F. (1992) "The Fires of the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople, 1203- 1204: A Damage Assessment", "Byzantinische Zeitschrift", lxxxiv–v, pp. 72–93.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Madden, T.F. (1995) "Outside and Inside the Fourth Crusade", "The International History Review", Vol. 17, No. 4 (Nov., 1995), Taylor and Francis, pp. 726–743

paragraph: BULLET::::- Runciman, S. (reprinted 1987) "A History of the Crusades: Volume III, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades", Cambridge University Press Archive.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jonathan Harris, "Byzantium and the Crusades" (London and New York, 2nd ed., 2014).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jonathan Phillips, "The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople" (London and New York, 2004)

description: Byzantine emperor

wikidata_label: Alexios V Doukas

wikipedia_title: Alexios V Doukas


text:
regent
Ostrogoths
queen regnant
Theoderic the Great
Justinian I
Eutharic
Amali dynasty
Arian Kingdom of Hispania
Thorismund
king of the Ostrogoths
Theoderic the Great
Gothic
Solomon
Roman virtues
Athalaric
Matasuntha
Germanus
regent
diptych
Byzantine emperor
Justinian I
Constantinople
Theodahad
lake of Bolsena
Justinian
Procopius
Witigis
Cassiodorus
Procopius
Jordanes
tragedy
Carlo Goldoni
Milan
Asteroid
650 Amalasuntha

categories: Ostrogothic kings,6th-century scholars,Women scholars and academics,Ostrogothic women,6th-century Christians,6th-century women rulers,6th-century monarchs in Europe,6th-century Ostrogothic people,Year of birth unknown,6th-century Italian women,Christians of Late Antiquity,Scholars of Latin literature,535 deaths,6th-century murdered monarchs,Amali dynasty,Christians of the Middle Ages,Scholars of Greek language

paragraph: Amalasuntha

paragraph: Amalasuntha (also known as Amalasuentha, Amalaswintha, Amalasuintha, Amalswinthe, Amalasontha or Amalsenta) (30 April 534/535) was a regent of the Ostrogoths during the minority of her son from 526 to 534, and ruling queen regnant from 534 to 535. She was the youngest daughter of Theoderic the Great, and firmly believed in the upholding of Roman virtues and values. She is best known for her diplomatic relationship with Justinian I, who would invade Italy in response to her assassination.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: In 515, Amalasuntha married Eutharic (522), an Ostrogoth noble of the old Amali dynasty who had been previously living in the Arian Kingdom of Hispania. Her husband was the son of Widerich (born ), grandson of Berismund (born ), and great-grandson of Thorismund (died after 400), king of the Ostrogoths . It was important to Amalasuntha's father, Theoderic the Great, that she marry into a legitimate royal family, lest her own family's legitimacy be questioned.

paragraph: She was very much an intellectual, and was well known for her extensive knowledge, which included the study of three languages, Latin, Greek and Gothic. In addition, she was a student of philosophy and was said to possess the wisdom of Solomon. Amalasuntha was also described in her day as possessing all of the central Roman virtues expected of a noble woman: Happiness, fertility, and patience, although more emphasis was placed on her virtues within the political realm versus the feminine, something that separates her from other Ostrogoth princesses.

paragraph: Section::::Regent.

paragraph: Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, Athalaric and Matasuntha (after 550), wife of Germanus. On the death of her father on 28 August 526, her son succeeded him at the age of ten, but she held the power as regent for her son. Her tremendous influence in her position as regent can be seen in a diptych she appears in alongside her son, Athalaric, in 530. Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished — and afterwards put to death — three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of conspiring against her rule. At the same time, she opened negotiations with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death on 2 October 534 initially made little apparent change in the posture of affairs.

paragraph: Section::::Monarch.

paragraph: After Athalaric's death, Amalasuntha became queen, ruling independently only for a short while before making her cousin Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position. Theodahad was a prominent leader of the Gothic military aristocracy, the very group that so opposed her pro-Roman stances. Amalasuntha believed this pairing would help to make supporters out of her harshest critics. The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned in the island of Martana in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where on 30 April in the spring of 534/535 she was murdered in her bath.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: The death of Amalasuntha would give Justinian a reason to go to war with the Ostrogoths and attempt to take Italy. According to the Eastern Roman historian Procopius, it is believed that Amalasuntha and Justinian I had a very close diplomatic relationship. More specifically, Procopius believed that Amalasuntha was thinking about handing over Italy to Justinian around the time of her death. Shortly after Amalasuntha's murder, Theodahad was replaced by Witigis, Amalasuntha's son-in-law. With the people's support, Witigis had Theodahad put to death.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: The letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. Cassiodorus was a part of a greater pro-Roman party that desired to Romanize the traditional Ostrogothic kingship, further evidence of the pro-Roman circle that Amalasuntha surrounded herself with.

paragraph: Section::::Fiction.

paragraph: The life of Amalasuntha was made the subject of a tragedy, the first play written by the young Carlo Goldoni and presented at Milan in 1733.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Asteroid 650 Amalasuntha is named in her honour.

paragraph: Section::::References.

alias: Amalasontha Amalasuentha

description: Queen/Ostrogoths

wikidata_label: Amalasuntha

wikipedia_title: Amalasuntha


text:
Valencia
King of Aragon
Count of Barcelona
Kingdom of Majorca
Peter III of Aragon
Constance
Manfred of Sicily
Balearic Islands
Kingdom of Aragon
James I of Aragon
James II of Majorca
Kingdom of Majorca
Menorca
Muslim
James II of Aragon
Papal States
Union of Aragon
Eleanor
Edward I of England
Dante Alighieri
the Divine Comedy
Purgatory
Europe

categories: Aragonese monarchs,1291 deaths,Roman Catholic monarchs,House of Aragon,People from Valencia,Counts of Barcelona,13th-century Aragonese monarchs,1265 births,Burials at the Cathedral of Santa Eulalia,People of the War of the Sicilian Vespers,Valencian monarchs

paragraph: Alfonso III of Aragon

paragraph: Alfonso III (4 November 1265, in Valencia – 18 June 1291), called the Liberal ("el Liberal") or the Free (also "the Frank," from "el Franc"), was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona (as Alfons II) from 1285. He conquered the Kingdom of Majorca between his succession and 1287.

paragraph: He was a son of King Peter III of Aragon and Constance, daughter and heiress of King Manfred of Sicily.

paragraph: Soon after assuming the throne, he conducted a campaign to reincorporate the Balearic Islands into the Kingdom of Aragon - which had been lost due to the division of the kingdom by his grandfather, James I of Aragon. Thus in 1285 he declared war on his uncle, James II of Majorca, and conquered both Majorca (1285) and Ibiza (1286), effectively reassuming suzerainty over the Kingdom of Majorca. He followed this with the conquest of Menorca - until then, an autonomous Muslim state (Manûrqa) within the Kingdom of Majorca - on 17 January 1287, the anniversary of which now serves as Menorca's national holiday.

paragraph: He initially sought to maintain Aragonese control over Sicily early in his reign by supporting the claims to the island of his brother, James II of Aragon. However, he later retracted the support for his brother shortly before his death and instead tried to make peace with the Papal States France.

paragraph: His reign was marred by a constitutional struggle with the Aragonese nobles, which eventually culminated in the articles of the Union of Aragon - the so-called "Magna Carta of Aragon", which devolved several key royal powers into the hands of lesser nobles. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles was to leave a heritage of disunity in Aragon and further dissent amongst the nobility, who increasingly saw little reason to respect the throne, and brought the Kingdom of Aragon close to anarchy.

paragraph: During his lifetime a dynastic marriage with Eleanor, daughter of King Edward I of England, was arranged. However Alfonso died before meeting his bride. He died at the age of 25 in 1291, and was buried in the Franciscan convent in Barcelona; since 1852 his remains have been buried in Barcelona Cathedral.

paragraph: Dante Alighieri, in the Divine Comedy, recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of Purgatory with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of Europe during the 13th century.

description: King of Aragon

wikidata_label: Alfonso III of Aragon

wikipedia_title: Alfonso III of Aragon


text: Cherokee

text: Cherokee Nation

text: Native American

text: New Echota

text: Georgia

text: John Ridge

text: Major Ridge

text: Treaty of New Echota

text: Cherokee

text: Mississippi River

text: Trail of Tears

text: John Ross

text: Fayetteville, Arkansas

text: Great Barrington School

text: Great Barrington, Massachusetts

text: self-defense

text: Missouri

text: California Gold Rush

text: miner

text: Democratic Party

text: Mexican

text: Zorro

text: Sacramento Bee

text: San Francisco Herald

text: assimilationist

text: Civil War

text: Copperheads

text: Abraham Lincoln

text: Emancipation Proclamation

text: abolitionist

text: Grass Valley, California

text: Encephalitis lethargica

text: Joaquin Murieta

text: Tiburcio Vasquez

categories: People from Gordon County, Georgia,19th-century American journalists,Journalists from California,1867 deaths,People from Fayetteville, Arkansas,19th-century American male writers,1827 births,Cherokee people,Cherokee Nation (1794–1907),American newspaper editors,American male journalists,People from Grass Valley, California,19th-century American novelists,American male novelists,Native Americans in the American Civil War,Native American novelists,Writers from Arkansas,Novelists from Georgia (U.S. state)

paragraph: John Rollin Ridge

paragraph: John Rollin Ridge (Cherokee name: Cheesquatalawny, or Yellow Bird, March 19, 1827 – October 5, 1867), a member of the Cherokee Nation, is considered the first Native American novelist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Born in New Echota, Georgia, he was the son of John Ridge, and the grandson of Major Ridge, both of whom were signatories to the Treaty of New Echota, which Congress affirmed in early 1836, ceding Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi River and ultimately leading to the Trail of Tears. At the age of twelve, Ridge witnessed his father's death at the hands of supporters of Cherokee leader John Ross, who had vehemently opposed the treaty. His mother, Sarah Bird Northrup (a white woman), took him and fled to Fayetteville, Arkansas. In 1843, he was sent to the Great Barrington School in Great Barrington, Massachusetts for two years, after which he returned to Fayetteville to study law. It was during this period that his first known writing appeared in print. He published a poem, "To a Thunder Cloud," in the "Arkansas State Gazette". He married Elizabeth Wilson, a white woman, in 1847. They had one daughter, Alice, in 1848.

paragraph: In 1849, he killed Ross sympathizer David Kell, whom he thought had been involved with his father's assassination, over a horse dispute. Despite having a good argument for self-defense, he fled to Missouri to avoid prosecution. The next year, he joined in the California Gold Rush, but disliked being a miner. While there, he was reunited with his wife and daughter.

paragraph: His writing career began with poetry (published posthumously) and essays for the Democratic Party before what is now considered the first Native American novel and the first novel written in California, "The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta: The Celebrated California Bandit" (1854). A fictionalized version of the notorious bandit's story, the tale describes a young Mexican who comes to California to seek his fortune during the Gold Rush and turns to crime after his wife is raped and his brother murdered by white men. This novel, which condemned American racism especially towards Mexicans, later inspired the Zorro stories. Although widely popular, Ridge saw no money from the book's publication—by the time of his death it had not yet even turned a profit.

paragraph: Ridge was a writer and the first editor of the "Sacramento Bee" and also wrote for the "San Francisco Herald", among other publications. As an editor, he advocated assimilationist policies for American Indians as his father had, placing his trust in the federal government to protect their rights. At the same time, however, he was blind to the ways in which those rights were continually abused by the same government. Despite his novel's stance against racism, Ridge had owned slaves on his Arkansas property and felt that California Indians were inferior to those of other tribes. During the Civil War, Ridge openly supported the "Copperheads" and opposed both the election of Abraham Lincoln as well as the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation, blaming the war on abolitionists.

paragraph: After the war, Ridge was invited by the federal government to head the Southern Cherokee delegation in postwar treaty proceedings. Despite his best efforts, the Cherokee region was not admitted as a state to the Union. In December 1866, he returned to his home in Grass Valley, California, where he died of "brain fever" ("Encephalitis lethargica") on October 5, 1867. He was buried at Greenwood Memorial Park in Grass Valley.

paragraph: Section::::"The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta".

paragraph: Ridge's novel, one of the earliest by a Native American author, is curious both because it is written not about a Native American subject, but about a Mexican immigrant, and because it is not original but based on a legendary figure widely discussed in the media of the day. Ridge presents the figure of Joaquin Murieta as that of a young, innocent and industrious man who is hampered in his attempts to be successful in the United States by the racism of the people and by the 1850 Foreign Miner's Tax Law, which severely hampered the ability of Latinos to mine for gold. Ridge's version of Murieta becomes a bandit who attracts a large number of associates and who terrorizes the state of California for several months with his gruesome acts of violence. At the same time, Ridge's Murieta is a romantic figure, often showing kindness (especially to women) and relishing the stories about him, even as he keeps his identity so well secret that he can walk through town in broad daylight with no one recognizing him.

paragraph: Although the novel is fictional, many people took it as fact and some historians even cited it when writing biographical materials on Murrieta.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta, the Celebrated California Bandit" (San Francisco: W.B. Cooke and Company, 1854) (San Francisco: Fred MacCrellish & Co., 3rd ed., 1871) (Hollister, California: Evening Free Lance, 1927) (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1955) (University of Oklahoma Press, 1969)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Poems, by a Cherokee Indian, with an Account of the Assassination of His Father, John Ridge" (San Francisco: H. Payot, 1868)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Lives of Joaquin Murieta and Tiburcio Vasquez; the California Highwaymen" (San Francisco: F. MacCrellish & Co., 1874)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "California's Age of Terror: Murieta and Vasquez" (Hollister, California: Evening Free Lance, 1927)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Crimes and Career of Tiburcio Vasquez, the Bandit of San Benito County and Notorious Early California Outlaw" (Hollister, California: Evening Free Lance, 1927)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Page images of "The Life and Adventures of Joaquin Murieta"

description: Cherokee novelist

wikidata_label: John Rollin Ridge

wikipedia_title: John Rollin Ridge