text: Christian apologist

text: Logos

text: martyr

text: saint

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: Anglican Church

text: Eastern Orthodox Church

text: Oriental Orthodox Churches

text: First Apology

text: philosophical

text: Antoninus

text: Logos

text: incarnation

text: Socrates

text: Plato

text: unknowing Christians

text: Nablus

text: pagan

text: Gentile

text: Stoic

text: Peripatetic

text: Pythagorean

text: Platonism

text: martyr

text: Antoninus Pius

text: Rome

text: Tatian

text: Marcus Aurelius

text: cynic

text: Crescens

text: Junius Rusticus

text: beheaded

text: Sacrofano

text: Church of the Jesuits

text: Pope Leo XIII

text: Mass

text: Office

text: feast day

text: Paschal

text: Byzantine Rite

text: Tatian

text: Irenaeus

text: Tertullian

text: heretics

text: Hippolytus

text: Methodius of Olympus

text: Eusebius of Caesarea

text: First Apology

text: Antoninus Pius

text: Second Apology of Justin Martyr

text: Hortatory Address to the Greeks

text: Dialogue with Trypho

text: St Irenaeus

text: St Jerome

text: Rufinus

text: Latin

text: Hadrian

text: Eusebius

text: Chronicon Paschale

text: Cohortatio ad Graecos

text: Clement of Alexandria

text: Pierre Batiffol

text: Sisinnius

text: First Apology

text: Antoninus Pius

text: Marcus Aurelius

text: Lucius Verus

text: Dialogue with Trypho

text: follows from

text: 1 Corinthians

text: Hegesippus

text: Flacius

text: Semler

text: Ferdinand Christian Baur

text: Albrecht Ritschl

text: Old Testament

text: millennium

text: millenarianism

text: Judaism

text: eschatology

text: Hebrew

text: Midrash

text: Saul Lieberman

text: Jewish deicide

text: Dialogue with Trypho

text: John Chrysostom

text: Old Testament

text: Stoic

text: Christ

text: Socrates

text: Heraclitus

text: Logos

text: Messiah

text: circumcision

text: Sabbath

text: Irenaeus

text: Catholic Encyclopedia

text: "First Apology"

text: Dialogue with Trypho

text: Jesus

text: sayings of Jesus

text: apostles

text: Greek

text: transliteration

text: gospels

text: Marcion

text: Old Testament

text: David E. Aune

text: Greco-Roman

text: Synoptic Gospels

text: Memorabilia of Xenophon

text: Helmut Koester

text: early Christianity

text: Papias

text: Mark

text: Peter

text: Gospel of Mark

text: fulfillment of prophecy

text: prophets of Israel

text: LXX

text: Christian kerygma

text: Charles E. Hill

text: gospel harmony

text: Gospel of John

text: Book of Revelation

text: John

text: Brooke Foss Westcott

text: canonical gospels

text: Marcion

text: Romans

text: 1 Corinthians

text: Galatians

text: Ephesians

text: Colossians

text: 2 Thessalonians

text: Philippians

text: Titus

text: 1 Timothy

text: Hebrews

text: 1 John

text: Oskar Skarsaune

text: Aristo of Pella

text: Messiah

text: Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus

text: Tatian

text: Diatesseron

text: Arthur Bellinzoni

text: prooftext

text: annunciation

text: virgin birth of Jesus

text: prooftext

text: Two Parousias

text: return in glory

text: Messiah to the Gentiles

text: Apocalypse of Peter

text: baptism

text: temptation

text: Psalm 2:7

text: Western text-type

text: prooftext

text: Wisdom

text: Second Adam

text: Fall of Man

text: Ascension of Isaiah

text: catechism

text: On Swearing Oaths

text: Epistle of James

text: Patristic

text: Clementine Homilies

text: 2 Clement

text: Church Fathers

text: Antichrist

text: time, times, and a half

text: Maran, P.

text: Migne

text: Patrologia Graeca

text: Miroslav Marcovich

text: Louis Auchincloss

text: headmaster

text: New England

text: prep school

text: Groton

text: Episcopal school

text: Epistle to Diognetus

text: Early Christian descriptions of the execution cross

text: New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge

text: Opera Omnia ex Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes

text: EarlyChurch.org.uk

text: Martyr Justin the Philosopher and those with him at Rome

text: Icon

text: Synaxarion

categories: 2nd-century executions,2nd-century Romans,People executed by decapitation,Church Fathers,Christian anti-Gnosticism,Lay theologians,People executed by the Roman Empire,People from Nablus,Christian apologists,Executed philosophers,Saints from the Holy Land,Catholic philosophers,Christian pacifists,2nd-century Christian martyrs,Executed ancient Roman people,Romans from unknown gentes,100 births,165 deaths,Christian philosophers,2nd-century Christian theologians,Samaritan culture and history

paragraph: Justin Martyr

paragraph: Justin Martyr () was an early Christian apologist, and is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of the Logos in the 2nd century. He was martyred, alongside some of his students, and is considered a saint by the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches.

paragraph: Most of his works are lost, but two apologies and a dialogue did survive. The "First Apology", his most well known text, passionately defends the morality of the Christian life, and provides various ethical and philosophical arguments to convince the Roman emperor, Antoninus, to abandon the persecution of the Church. Further, he also indicates, as St Augustine did regarding the "true religion" that predated Christianity, that the "seeds of Christianity" (manifestations of the Logos acting in history) actually predated Christ's incarnation. This notion allows him to claim many historical Greek philosophers (including Socrates and Plato), in whose works he was well studied, as unknowing Christians.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Justin Martyr was born around AD 100 at Flavia Neapolis (today Nablus) in Samaria into a pagan family, and defined himself as a Gentile. His grandfather, Bacchius, had a Greek name, while his father, Priscus, bore a Latin name, which has led to speculations that his ancestors may have settled in Neapolis soon after its establishment or that they were descended from a Roman "diplomatic" community that had been sent there.

paragraph: In the opening of the "Dialogue", Justin describes his early education, stating that his initial studies left him unsatisfied due to their failure to provide a belief system that would afford theological and metaphysical inspiration to their young pupil. He says he tried first the school of a Stoic philosopher, who was unable to explain God's being to him. He then attended a Peripatetic philosopher but was put off because the philosopher was too eager for his fee. Then he went to hear a Pythagorean philosopher who demanded that he first learn music, astronomy, and geometry, which he did not wish to do. Subsequently, he adopted Platonism after encountering a Platonist thinker who had recently settled in his city.

paragraph: Some time afterwards, he chanced upon an old man, possibly a Syrian Christian, in the vicinity of the seashore, who engaged him in a dialogue about God and spoke of the testimony of the prophets as being more reliable than the reasoning of philosophers.

paragraph: Moved by the aged man's argument, Justin renounced both his former religious faith and his philosophical background, choosing instead to re-dedicate his life to the service of the Divine. His newfound convictions were only bolstered by the ascetic lives of the early Christians and the heroic example of the martyrs, whose piety convinced him of the moral and spiritual superiority of Christian doctrine. As a result, he thenceforth decided that the only option for him was to travel throughout the land, spreading the knowledge of Christianity as the "true philosophy." His conversion is commonly assumed to have taken place at Ephesus though it may have occurred anywhere on the road from "Syria Palestina" to Rome.

paragraph: He then adopted the dress of a philosopher himself and traveled about teaching. During the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161), he arrived in Rome and started his own school. Tatian was one of his pupils. In the reign of Marcus Aurelius, after disputing with the cynic philosopher Crescens, he was denounced by the latter to the authorities, according to Tatian (Address to the Greeks 19) and Eusebius (HE IV 16.7–8). Justin was tried, together with six companions, by Junius Rusticus, who was urban prefect from 163–167, and was beheaded. Though the precise year of his death is uncertain, it can reasonably be dated by the prefectoral term of Rusticus (who governed from 162 and 168). The martyrdom of Justin preserves the court record of the trial.

paragraph: The church of St. John the Baptist in Sacrofano, a few miles north of Rome, claims to have his relics.

paragraph: The Church of the Jesuits in Valletta, Malta, founded by papal decree in 1592 also boasts relics of this second century Saint.

paragraph: A case is also made that the relics of St. Justin are buried in Annapolis, Maryland. During a period of unrest in Italy, a noble family in possession of his remains sent them in 1873 to a priest in Baltimore for safekeeping. They were displayed in St. Mary’s Church for a period of time before they were again locked away for safekeeping. The remains were rediscovered and given a proper burial at St. Mary’s, with Vatican approval, in 1989.

paragraph: In 1882 Pope Leo XIII had a Mass and an Office composed for his feast day, which he set at 14 April, one day after the date of his death as indicated in the Martyrology of Florus; but since this date quite often falls within the main Paschal celebrations, the feast was moved in 1968 to 1 June, the date on which he has been celebrated in the Byzantine Rite since at least the 9th century.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.

paragraph: The earliest mention of Justin is found in the "Oratio ad Graecos" by Tatian who, after calling him "the most admirable Justin", quotes a saying of his and says that the Cynic Crescens laid snares for him. Irenaeus speaks of Justin's martyrdom and of Tatian as his disciple. Irenaeus quotes Justin twice and shows his influence in other places. Tertullian, in his "Adversus Valentinianos", calls Justin a philosopher and a martyr and the earliest antagonist of heretics. Hippolytus and Methodius of Olympus also mention or quote him. Eusebius of Caesarea deals with him at some length, and names the following works:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. The "First Apology" addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate;

paragraph: BULLET::::2. a "Second Apology of Justin Martyr" addressed to the Roman Senate;

paragraph: BULLET::::3. the "Discourse to the Greeks", a discussion with Greek philosophers on the character of their gods;

paragraph: BULLET::::4. an "Hortatory Address to the Greeks" (known now not to have been written by Justin);

paragraph: BULLET::::5. a treatise "On the Sovereignty of God", in which he makes use of pagan authorities as well as Christian;

paragraph: BULLET::::6. a work entitled "The Psalmist";

paragraph: BULLET::::7. a treatise in scholastic form "On the Soul"; and

paragraph: BULLET::::8. the "Dialogue with Trypho".

paragraph: Eusebius implies that other works were in circulation; from St Irenaeus he knows of the apology "Against Marcion," and from Justin's "Apology" of a "Refutation of all Heresies ". Epiphanius and St Jerome mention Justin.

paragraph: Rufinus borrows from his Latin original of Hadrian's letter.

paragraph: After Rufinus, Justin was known mainly from St Irenaeus and Eusebius or from spurious works. The "Chronicon Paschale" assigns his martyrdom to the year 165. A considerable number of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas, Photius, and other writers, but this attribution is now generally admitted to be spurious. The "Expositio rectae fidei" has been assigned by Draseke to Apollinaris of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as the 6th century. The "Cohortatio ad Graecos" has been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, as well as others. The "Epistola ad Zenam et Serenum", an exhortation to Christian living, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and is assigned by Pierre Batiffol to the Novatian Bishop Sisinnius (c. 400). The extant work under the title "On the Sovereignty of God" does not correspond with Eusebius' description of it, though Harnack regards it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of the 2nd century. The author of the smaller treatise "To the Greeks" cannot be Justin, because he is dependent on Tatian; Harnack places it between 180 and 240.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.:"Apology".

paragraph: The "Dialogue" is a later work than the "First Apology"; the date of composition of the latter, judging from the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius and his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, must fall between 147 and 161.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.:Dialogue with Trypho.

paragraph: In the "Dialogue with Trypho", after an introductory section, Justin undertakes to show that Christianity is the new law for all men.

paragraph: Section::::Writings.:"On The Resurrection".

paragraph: The treatise "On the Resurrection" exists in extensive fragments that are preserved in the "Sacra parallela". The fragments begin with the assertion that the truth, and God the author of truth, need no witness, but that as a concession to the weakness of men it is necessary to give arguments to convince those who gainsay it. It is then shown, after a denial of unfounded deductions, that the resurrection of the body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God, and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking for it. Another fragment takes up the positive proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ and of those whom he recalled to life. In yet another fragment the resurrection is shown to be that of what has gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concerning it is the new doctrine, in contrast to that of the old philosophers. The doctrine follows from the command to keep the body in moral purity.

paragraph: The authenticity of the treatise is not so generally accepted as are Justin's other works. Even so, earlier than the "Sacra parallela", it is referred to by Procopius of Gaza (c. 465–528). Methodius appeals to Justin in support of his interpretation of 1 Corinthians 15:50 in a way that makes it natural to assume the existence of a treatise on the subject, to say nothing of other traces of a connection in thought both here in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii. 5) and in Tertullian, where it is too close to be anything but a conscious following of the Greek. The "Against Marcion" is lost, as is the "Refutation of all Heresies" to which Justin himself refers in "Apology", i. 26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it.

paragraph: Section::::Role within the Church.

paragraph: Flacius discovered "blemishes" in Justin's theology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan philosophers; and in modern times Semler and S.G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene, while Semisch and Otto defend him from this charge.

paragraph: In opposition to the school of Ferdinand Christian Baur, who considered him a Jewish Christian, Albrecht Ritschl has pointed out that it was precisely because he was a Gentile Christian that he did not fully understand the Old Testament foundation of Paul's teaching, and explained in this way the modified character of his Paulinism and his legal mode of thought.

paragraph: M. von Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show that his conceptions of God, of free will and righteousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of the 2nd century, dominated by the Platonic and Stoic philosophy.

paragraph: But he admits that Justin is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh, crucified, and risen, through which belief he succeeds in getting away from the dualism of both pagan and Gnostic philosophy.

paragraph: Justin was confident that his teaching was that of the Church at large. He knows of a division among the orthodox only on the question of the millennium and on the attitude toward the milder Jewish Christianity, which he personally is willing to tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile converts; his millenarianism seems to have no connection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a millennium, and generally in the Christian eschatology.

paragraph: Justin saw himself as a scholar, although his skills in Hebrew were either non-existent or minimal. After collaborating with a Jewish convert to assist him with Hebrew, Justin published an attack on Judaism based upon a no-longer-extant text of a Midrash. This Midrash was reconstructed and published by Saul Lieberman.

paragraph: Opposition to Judaism was typical of church leaders in his day, however Justin Martyr was particularly antagonistic towards Jews and regarded them as a cursed people. His anti-Judaic polemics have been cited as an origin of Christian antisemitism, he was the first to argue that the Romans had no responsibility for the death of Jesus, supporting the idea of Jewish deicide. However his views elaborated in the "Dialogue with Trypho" were comparatively tame to those of John Chrysostom and others.

paragraph: Section::::Christology.

paragraph: Justin, like others, thought that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the "seminal word," and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word—in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him.

paragraph: Thus he does not scruple to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians ("Apol.", i. 46, ii. 10). His aim was to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him. The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ.

paragraph: While the gentile peoples, seduced by devils, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah. However, the law, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through Christ, the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed. In his character, as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law, lies the essential nature of his redeeming work.

paragraph: The idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the union with God which had been destroyed by sin, is not foreign to him. It is noteworthy that in the "Dialogue" he no longer speaks of a "seed of the Word" in every man, and in his non-apologetic works the emphasis is laid upon the redeeming acts of the life of Christ rather than upon the demonstration of the reasonableness and moral value of Christianity, though the fragmentary character of the latter works makes it difficult to determine exactly to what extent this is true and how far the teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from him.

paragraph: The 1913 "Catholic Encyclopedia" notes that scholars have differed on whether Justin's writings on the nature of God were meant to express his firm opinion on points of doctrine, or to speculate on these matters. Specific points Justin addressed include that the Logos is "numerically distinct from the Father" though "born of the very substance of the Father," and that "through the Word, God has made everything." Justin used the metaphor of fire to describe the Logos as spreading like a flame, rather than "dividing" the substance of the Father. He also defended the Holy Spirit as a member of the Trinity, as well as the birth of Jesus to Mary when she was a virgin. The Encyclopedia states that Justin places the genesis of the Logos as a voluntary act of the Father at the beginning of creation, noting that this is an "unfortunate" conflict with later Christian teachings.

paragraph: Section::::Memoirs of the apostles.

paragraph: Justin Martyr, in his "First Apology" (c. 155) and "Dialogue with Trypho" (c. 160), sometimes refers to written sources consisting of narratives of the life of Jesus and quotations of the sayings of Jesus as "memoirs of the apostles" (Greek: ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων; transliteration: "apomnêmoneúmata tôn apostólôn") and less frequently as gospels (Greek: εὐαγγέλιον; transliteration: "euangélion") which, Justin says, were read every Sunday in the church at Rome ("1 Apol". 67.3 – "and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are being read as long as it is allowable").

paragraph: The designation "memoirs of the apostles" occurs twice in Justin's "First Apology" (66.3, 67.3–4) and thirteen times in the "Dialogue", mostly in his interpretation of Psalm 22, whereas the term "gospel" is used only three times, once in "1 Apol." 66.3 and twice in the "Dialogue". The single passage where Justin uses both terms ("1 Apol." 66.3) makes it clear that "memoirs of the apostles" and "gospels" are equivalent, and the use of the plural indicates Justin's awareness of more than one written gospel. ("The apostles in the memoirs which have come from them, which are also called gospels, have transmitted that the Lord had commanded..."). Justin may have preferred the designation "memoirs of the apostles" as a contrast to the "gospel" of his contemporary Marcion to emphasize the connections between the historical testimony of the gospels and the Old Testament prophecies which Marcion rejected.

paragraph: The origin of Justin's use of the name "memoirs of the apostles" as a synonym for the gospels is uncertain. Scholar David E. Aune has argued that the gospels were modeled after classical Greco-Roman biographies, and Justin's use of the term "apomnemoneumata" to mean all the Synoptic Gospels should be understood as referring to a written biography such as the "Memorabilia of Xenophon" because they preserve the authentic teachings of Jesus. However, scholar Helmut Koester has pointed out the Latin title "Memorabilia" was not applied to Xenophon's work until the Middle Ages, and it is more likely "apomnemoneumata" was used to describe the oral transmission of the sayings of Jesus in early Christianity. Papias uses a similar term meaning "remembered" ("apomnemoneusen") when describing how Mark accurately recorded the "recollections of Peter", and Justin also uses it in reference to Peter in "Dial." 106.3, followed by a quotation found only in the Gospel of Mark (Mk 3:16–17). Therefore, according to Koester, it is likely that Justin applied the name "memoirs of the apostles" analogously to indicate the trustworthy recollections of the apostles found in the written record of the gospels.

paragraph: Justin expounded on the gospel texts as an accurate recording of the fulfillment of prophecy, which he combined with quotations of the prophets of Israel from the LXX to demonstrate a proof from prophecy of the Christian kerygma. The importance which Justin attaches to the words of the prophets, which he regularly quotes with the formula "it is written", shows his estimate of the Old Testament Scriptures. However, the scriptural authority he attributes to the "memoirs of the apostles" is less certain. Koester articulates a majority view among scholars that Justin considered the "memoirs of the apostles" to be accurate historical records but not inspired writings, whereas scholar Charles E. Hill, though acknowledging the position of mainstream scholarship, contends that Justin regarded the fulfillment quotations of the gospels to be equal in authority.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Scriptural sources.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Scriptural sources.:Gospels.

paragraph: Justin uses material from the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) in the composition of the "First Apology" and the "Dialogue", either directly, as in the case of Matthew, or indirectly through the use of a gospel harmony, which may have been composed by Justin or his school. However, his use, or even knowledge, of the Gospel of John is uncertain. One possible reference to John is a saying that is quoted in the context of a description of Christian baptism ("1 Apol". 61.4 – "Unless you are reborn, you cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven."). However, Koester contends that Justin obtained this saying from a baptismal liturgy rather than a written gospel. Justin's possible knowledge of John's gospel may be suggested by verbal similarities to John 3:4 directly after the discussion about the new birth ("Now, that it is impossible for those who have once been born to enter their mother's womb is manifest to all"). Justin also uses language very similar to that of John 1:20 and 1:28. Furthermore, by employing the term "memoirs of the apostles" and distinguishing them from the writings of their "followers", Justin must have been aware of at least two gospels written by actual apostles. Since one of these must be Matthew, the other can be inferred as John.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Scriptural sources.:Apocalypse.

paragraph: Justin does not quote from the Book of Revelation directly, yet he clearly refers to it, naming John as its author ("Dial". 81.4 "Moreover also among us a man named John, one of the apostles of Christ, prophesied in a revelation made to him that those who have believed on our Christ will spend a thousand years in Jerusalem; and that hereafter the general and, in short, the eternal resurrection and judgment of all will likewise take place"). Scholar Brooke Foss Westcott notes that this reference to the author of the single prophetic book of the New Testament illustrates the distinction Justin made between the role of prophecy and fulfillment quotations from the gospels, as Justin does not mention any of the individual canonical gospels by name.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Scriptural sources.:Letters.

paragraph: Reflecting his opposition to Marcion, Justin's attitude toward the Pauline epistles generally corresponds to that of the later Church. In Justin's works, distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy. It seems likely that he also knew Hebrews and 1 John.

paragraph: The apologetic character of Justin's habit of thought appears again in the Acts of his martyrdom, the genuineness of which is attested by internal evidence.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Testimony sources.

paragraph: According to scholar Oskar Skarsaune, Justin relies on two main sources for his proofs from prophecy that probably circulated as collections of scriptural testimonies within his Christian school. He refers to Justin's primary source for demonstrating scriptural proofs in the "First Apology" and parallel passages in the "Dialogue" as a "kerygma source". A second source, which was used only in the "Dialogue", may be identical to a lost dialogue attributed to Aristo of Pella on the divine nature of the Messiah, the "Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus" (c. 140). Justin brings in biblical quotes verbatim from these sources, and he often appears to be paraphrasing his sources very closely, even in his interpretive remarks.

paragraph: Justin occasionally uses the Gospel of Matthew directly as a source for Old Testament prophecies to supplement his testimony sources. However, the fulfillment quotations from these sources most often appear to be harmonizations of the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Koester suggests that Justin had composed an early harmony along the lines of his pupil Tatian's "Diatesseron". However, the existence of a harmony independent of a collection of sayings for exposition purposes has been disputed by scholar Arthur Bellinzoni. The question of whether the harmonized gospel materials found in Justin's writings came from a preexisting gospel harmony or were assembled as part of an integral process of creating scriptural prooftexts is an ongoing subject of scholarly investigation.

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Testimony sources.:"Kerygma source".

paragraph: The following excerpt from "1 Apol". 33:1,4–5 (partial parallel in "Dial". 84) on the annunciation and virgin birth of Jesus shows how Justin used harmonized gospel verses from Matthew and Luke to provide a scriptural proof of the messiahship of Jesus based on fulfillment of the prophecy of .

paragraph: According to Skarsaune, the harmonized gospel narratives of Matthew and Luke were part of a tradition already circulating within Justin's school that expounded on the life and work of Jesus as the Messiah and the apostolic mission. Justin then rearranged and expanded these testimonia to create his "First Apology". The "kerygma source" of prooftexts (contained within "1 Apol". 31–53) is believed to have had a Two Parousias Christology, characterized by the belief that Jesus first came in humility, in fulfillment of prophecy, and will return in glory as the Messiah to the Gentiles. There are close literary parallels between the Christology of Justin's source and the "Apocalypse of Peter".

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Testimony sources.:"Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus".

paragraph: The following excerpts from the "Dialogue with Trypho" of the baptism ("Dial". 88:3,8) and temptation ("Dial". 103:5–6) of Jesus, which are believed to have originated from the "Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus", illustrate the use of gospel narratives and sayings of Jesus in a testimony source and how Justin has adopted these "memoirs of the apostles" for his own purposes.

paragraph: The quotations refer to the fulfillment of a prophecy of Psalm 2:7 found in the Western text-type of Luke 3:22. Justin's mention of the fire on the Jordan without comment suggests that he was relying on an intermediate source for these gospel quotations, and his literal interpretation of a pseudo-etymology of the Hebrew word Satan indicates a dependence on a testimony source with a knowledge of Hebrew, which was probably the "Dialogue of Jason and Papiscus".

paragraph: The "Dialogue" attributed to Aristo of Pella is believed to have furnished Justin with scriptural prooftexts on the divinity of the Messiah by combining a Wisdom Christology – Christ as the incarnation of preexistent Wisdom – with a Second Adam Christology – the first Adam was conquered by Satan, but this Fall of Man is reversed by Christ as the Second Adam who conquers Satan. This is implied in the pseudo-etymology in "Dial". 103:5–6 linking the name of Satan to the "apostate-serpent". The Christology of the source is close to that of the "Ascension of Isaiah".

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Catechetical sources.

paragraph: Justin quotes many sayings of Jesus in "1 Apol". 15–17 and smaller sayings clusters in "Dial". 17:3–4; 35:3; 51:2–3; and 76:4–7. The sayings are most often harmonizations of Matthew and Luke that appear to be grouped together topically and organized into sayings collections, including material that probably originated from an early Christian catechism.

paragraph: The following example of an ethical teaching On Swearing Oaths in "1 Apol". 16:5 shows a combination of sayings material found in Matthew and the Epistle of James:

paragraph: Do not swear at all (Mt 5:34). Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No (Jas 5:12). Everything beyond these is from evil (Mt 5:37).

paragraph: The saying "Let your Yes be Yes and your No be No" from James 5:12 is interpolated into a sayings complex from Matthew 5:34,37. The text appears in a large number of Patristic quotations and twice in the Clementine Homilies ("Hom". 3:55, 19:2). Thus, it is likely that Justin was quoting this harmonized text from a catechism.

paragraph: The harmonization of Matthew and Luke is evident in the following quotations of Mt 7:22–23 and Lk 13:26–27, which are used by Justin twice, in "1 Apol". 16:11 and "Dial". 76:5:

paragraph: Many will say to me, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and do powerful deeds?' And then I shall say to them, 'go away from me, workers of lawlessness'.

paragraph: Many will say to me on that day, 'Lord, Lord, did we not in your name eat and drink and prophecy and drive out demons?' And I shall say to them, 'go away from me'.

paragraph: In both cases, Justin is using the same harmonized text of Matthew and Luke, although neither of the quotations includes the entire text of those gospel passages. The last phrase, "workers of lawlessness", has an exact parallel with 2 Clement 4:5. This harmonized text also appears in a large number of quotations by the Church Fathers. "1 Apol". 16:11 is part of a larger unit of sayings material in "1 Apol" 16:9–13 which combines a warning against being unprepared with a warning against false prophets. The entire unit is a carefully composed harmony of parallel texts from Matthew and Luke. This unit is part of a larger collection of sayings found in "1 Apol". 15–17 that appear to have originated from a catechism used by Justin's school in Rome, which may have had a wide circulation. Justin excerpted and rearranged the catechetical sayings material to create "Apol". 15–17 and parallel passages in the "Dialogue".

paragraph: Section::::Composition.:Other sources.

paragraph: Justin includes a tract on Greek mythology in "1 Apol". 54 and "Dial". 69 which asserts that myths about various pagan deities are imitations of the prophecies about Christ in the Old Testament. There is also a small tract in "1 Apol". 59–60 on borrowings of the philosophers from Moses, particularly Plato. These two tracts may be from the same source, which may have been an early Christian "Apology".

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.

paragraph: Justin's writings constitute a storehouse of early interpretation of the prophetic Scriptures.

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Belief in prophecy.

paragraph: The truth of the prophets, he declares, compels assent. He considered the Old Testament an inspired guide and counselor. He was converted by a Christian philosopher whom he paraphrased as saying:

paragraph: Then Justin told his own experience:

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Fulfillment.

paragraph: Justin listed the following events as fulfillments of Bible prophecy

paragraph: BULLET::::- The prophecies concerning the Messiah, and the particulars of His life.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The destruction of Jerusalem.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Gentiles accepting Christianity.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Isaiah predicted that Jesus would be born of a virgin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Micah mentions Bethlehem as the place of His birth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zechariah forecasts His entry into Jerusalem on the foal of an ass (a donkey).

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Second Advent and Daniel 7.

paragraph: Justin connected the Second Advent with the climax of the prophecy of Daniel 7.

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Antichrist.

paragraph: The second advent Justin placed close upon the heels of the appearance of the Antichrist, or "man of apostasy." His interpretation of prophecy is less clear and full than that of others who followed him.

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Time, times, and a half.

paragraph: Daniel's "time, times, and a half", Justin believed, was nearing its consummation, when Antichrist would speak his blasphemies against the Most High.

paragraph: Section::::Prophetic exegesis.:Eucharist.

paragraph: Justin's statements are some of the earliest Christian expressions on the Eucharist.

paragraph: Section::::Editions.

paragraph: Greek texts:

paragraph: BULLET::::- P.Oxy.5129 (Egyptian Exploration Society, 4th century)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thirlby, S., London, 1722.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maran, P., Paris, 1742 (the Benedictine edition, reprinted in Migne, "Patrologia Graeca", Vol. VI. Paris, 1857).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Otto, J. C., Jena, 1842 (3d ed., 1876–1881).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Krüger, G., Leipzig, 1896 (3d ed., Tübingen, 1915).

paragraph: BULLET::::- In "Die ältesten Apologeten", ed. G.J. Goodspeed, (Göttingen, 1914; reprint 1984).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Iustini Martyris Dialogus cum Tryphone", ed Miroslav Marcovich (Patristische Texte und Studien 47, Berlin/New York: de Gruyter, 1997).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Minns, Denis, and Paul Parvis. "Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies". Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts. Oxford: OUP, 2009. (In addition to translating into English has a critical Greek text).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippe Bobichon (ed.), "Justin Martyr, Dialogue avec Tryphon", édition critique, introduction, texte grec, traduction, commentaires, appendices, indices, (Coll. Paradosis nos. 47, vol. I-II.) Editions Universitaires de Fribourg Suisse, (1125 pp.), 2003

paragraph: English translations:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Halton, TP and M Slusser, eds, "Dialogue with Trypho", trans TB Falls, Selections from the Fathers of the Church, 3, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Minns, Denis, & Paul Parvis. "Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies". Edited by Henry Chadwick, Oxford Early Christian Texts. Oxford: OUP, 2009.

paragraph: Section::::Literary references.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Rector of Justin" (1964), perhaps Louis Auchincloss's best regarded novel, is the tale of a renowned headmaster of a New England prep school—similar to Groton—and how he came to found his institution. He chooses the name Justin Martyr for his Episcopal school. ("The school was named for the early martyr and scholar who tried to reconcile the thinking of the Greek philosophers with the doctrines of Christ. Not for Prescott [the headmaster] were the humble fishermen who had their faith and faith alone.")

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Epistle to Diognetus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Early Christian descriptions of the execution cross

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (a text that has entered the public domain and is available online at New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippe Bobichon's Greek edition with a French translation and notes. Volume I https://books.google.com/books?id=0uDYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1&dq=dialogue+avec+tryphon+bobichon&hl=fr&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=dialogue%20avec%20tryphon%20bobichon&f=false

paragraph: BULLET::::- Philippe Bobichon's Greek edition with a French translation and notes. Volume II https://books.google.com/books?id=gOHYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA647&dq=dialogue+avec+tryphon+bobichon&hl=fr&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=dialogue%20avec%20tryphon%20bobichon&f=false

paragraph: BULLET::::- Opera Omnia ex Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes

paragraph: BULLET::::- EarlyChurch.org.uk

paragraph: BULLET::::- Martyr Justin the Philosopher and those with him at Rome Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion for 1 June

alias:
Saint Justin
St. Justin
Justin the Philosopher
Iustinus Martyr

description: early Christian martyr

enwikiquote_title: Justin Martyr

wikidata_label: Justin Martyr

wikipedia_title: Justin Martyr


text: Archbishop of Canterbury

text: Gregory the Great

text: Christianize

text: Anglo-Saxons

text: paganism

text: Bishop of Rochester

text: Æthelberht of Kent

text: Gaul

text: Northumbria

text: St Augustine's Abbey

text: Canterbury

text: Gregorian mission

text: Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum

text: Bede

text: Augustine of Canterbury

text: Mellitus

text: Bishop of London

text: Thomas of Elmham

text: St. Augustine Gospels

text: Kentish

text: Rochester

text: Nicholas Brooks

text: Watling Street

text: Medway

text: Textus Roffensis

text: Old English

text: Laurence

text: Eadbald

text: nave

text: chancel

text: Rochester Cathedral

text: native church

text: calculating

text: Easter

text: Dagan

text: Council of Paris

text: Frankish

text: Chlothar II

text: Peter

text: Sts Peter and Paul

text: Boniface V

text: J. M. Wallace-Hadrill

text: pallium

text: Romanus

text: Barbara Yorke

text: Henry Mayr-Harting

text: Paulinus

text: Bishop of York

text: Æthelburg of Kent

text: Edwin of Northumbria

text: Stowe Missal

text: translated

text: Goscelin of Saint-Bertin

text: Reginald of Canterbury

text: Gervase of Canterbury

text: William of Malmesbury

categories: 7th-century deaths,Kentish saints,Archbishops of Canterbury,Gregorian mission,Bishops of Rochester,7th-century archbishops,7th-century Christian saints,People from Rome

paragraph: Justus

paragraph: Justus (died on 10 November between 627 and 631) was the fourth Archbishop of Canterbury. He was sent from Italy to England by Pope Gregory the Great, on a mission to Christianize the Anglo-Saxons from their native paganism, probably arriving with the second group of missionaries despatched in 601. Justus became the first Bishop of Rochester in 604, and attended a church council in Paris in 614.

paragraph: Following the death of King Æthelberht of Kent in 616, Justus was forced to flee to Gaul, but was reinstated in his diocese the following year. In 624 Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury, overseeing the despatch of missionaries to Northumbria. After his death he was revered as a saint, and had a shrine in St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury.

paragraph: Section::::Arrival in Britain.

paragraph: Justus was a member of the Gregorian mission sent to England by Pope Gregory I. Almost everything known about Justus and his career is derived from the early 8th-century "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum" of Bede. As Bede does not describe Justus' origins, nothing is known about him prior to his arrival in England. He probably arrived in England with the second group of missionaries, sent at the request of Augustine of Canterbury in 601. Some modern writers describe Justus as one of the original missionaries who arrived with Augustine in 597, but Bede believed that Justus came in the second group. The second group included Mellitus, who later became Bishop of London and Archbishop of Canterbury.

paragraph: If Justus was a member of the second group of missionaries, then he arrived with a gift of books and "all things which were needed for worship and the ministry of the Church". A 15th-century Canterbury chronicler, Thomas of Elmham, claimed that there were a number of books brought to England by that second group still at Canterbury in his day, although he did not identify them. An investigation of extant Canterbury manuscripts shows that one possible survivor is the St. Augustine Gospels, now in Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, Manuscript (MS) 286.

paragraph: Section::::Bishop of Rochester.

paragraph: Augustine consecrated Justus as a bishop in 604, over a province including the Kentish town of Rochester. The historian Nicholas Brooks argues that the choice of Rochester was probably not because it had been a Roman-era bishopric, but rather because of its importance in the politics of the time. Although the town was small, with just one street, it was at the junction of Watling Street and the estuary of the Medway, and was thus a fortified town. Because Justus was probably not a monk (he was not called that by Bede), his cathedral clergy was very likely non-monastic too.

paragraph: A charter purporting to be from King Æthelberht, dated 28 April 604, survives in the "Textus Roffensis", as well as a copy based on the Textus in the 14th-century "Liber Temporalium". Written mostly in Latin but using an Old English boundary clause, the charter records a grant of land near the city of Rochester to Justus' church. Among the witnesses is Laurence, Augustine's future successor, but not Augustine himself. The text turns to two different addressees. First, Æthelberht is made to admonish his son Eadbald, who had been established as a sub-ruler in the region of Rochester. The grant itself is addressed directly to Saint Andrew, the patron saint of the church, a usage parallelled by other charters in the same archive.

paragraph: Historian Wilhelm Levison, writing in 1946, was sceptical about the authenticity of this charter. In particular, he felt that the two separate addresses were incongruous and suggested that the first address, occurring before the preamble, may have been inserted by someone familiar with Bede to echo Eadbald's future conversion (see below). A more recent and more positive appraisal by John Morris argues that the charter and its witness list are authentic because it incorporates titles and phraseology that had fallen out of use by 800.

paragraph: Æthelberht built Justus a cathedral church in Rochester; the foundations of a nave and chancel partly underneath the present-day Rochester Cathedral may date from that time. What remains of the foundations of an early rectangular building near the southern part of the current cathedral might also be contemporary with Justus or may be part of a Roman building.

paragraph: Together with Mellitus, the Bishop of London, Justus signed a letter written by Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury to the Irish bishops urging the native church to adopt the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter. This letter also mentioned the fact that Irish missionaries, such as Dagan, had refused to share meals with the missionaries. Although the letter has not survived, Bede quoted from parts of it.

paragraph: In 614, Justus attended the Council of Paris, held by the Frankish king, Chlothar II. It is unclear why Justus and Peter, the abbot of Sts Peter and Paul in Canterbury, were present. It may have been just chance, but historian James Campbell has suggested that Chlothar summoned clergy from Britain to attend in an attempt to assert overlordship over Kent. The historian N. J. Higham offers another explanation for their attendance, arguing that Æthelberht sent the pair to the council because of shifts in Frankish policy towards the Kentish kingdom, which threatened Kentish independence, and that the two clergymen were sent to negotiate a compromise with Chlothar.

paragraph: A pagan backlash against Christianity followed Æthelberht's death in 616, forcing Justus and Mellitus to flee to Gaul. The pair probably took refuge with Chlothar, hoping that the Frankish king would intervene and restore them to their sees, and by 617 Justus had been reinstalled in his bishopric by the new king. Mellitus also returned to England, but the prevailing pagan mood did not allow him to return to London; after Laurence's death, Mellitus became Archbishop of Canterbury. According to Bede, Justus received letters of encouragement from Pope Boniface V (619–625), as did Mellitus, although Bede does not record the actual letters. The historian J. M. Wallace-Hadrill assumes that both letters were general statements of encouragement to the missionaries.

paragraph: Section::::Archbishop.

paragraph: Justus became Archbishop of Canterbury in 624, receiving his pallium—the symbol of the jurisdiction entrusted to archbishops—from Pope Boniface V, following which Justus consecrated Romanus as his successor at Rochester. Boniface also gave Justus a letter congratulating him on the conversion of King "Aduluald" (probably King Eadbald of Kent), a letter which is included in Bede's "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum". Bede's account of Eadbald's conversion states that it was Laurence, Justus' predecessor at Canterbury, who converted the King to Christianity, but the historian D. P. Kirby argues that the letter's reference to Eadbald makes it likely that it was Justus. Other historians, including Barbara Yorke and Henry Mayr-Harting, conclude that Bede's account is correct, and that Eadbald was converted by Laurence. Yorke argues that there were two kings of Kent during Eadbald's reign, Eadbald and Æthelwald, and that Æthelwald was the "Aduluald" referred to by Boniface. Yorke argues that Justus converted Æthelwald back to Christianity after Æthelberht's death.

paragraph: Justus consecrated Paulinus as the first Bishop of York, before the latter accompanied Æthelburg of Kent to Northumbria for her marriage to King Edwin of Northumbria. Bede records Justus as having died on 10 November, but does not give a year, although it is likely to have between 627 and 631. After his death, Justus was regarded as a saint, and was given a feast day of 10 November. The ninth century Stowe Missal commemorates his feast day, along with Mellitus and Laurence. In the 1090s, his remains were translated, or ritually moved, to a shrine beside the high altar of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury. At about the same time, a "Life" was written about him by Goscelin of Saint-Bertin, as well as a poem by Reginald of Canterbury. Other material from Thomas of Elmham, Gervase of Canterbury, and William of Malmesbury, later medieval chroniclers, adds little to Bede's account of Justus' life.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of members of the Gregorian mission

description: Archbishop of Canterbury; Bishop of Rochester

wikidata_label: Justus

wikipedia_title: Justus


text:
Marianus IV of Arborea
Timbor of Rocabertí
"Giudice" (Judge) of Arborea
Goceano
John III of Viterbo
Louis I, Duke of Anjou
Charles V of France
Pere de Luna
Catalan
battles
Oristano
Peter IV of Aragon
Frederick
Eleanor

categories: Judges (judikes) of Arborea,1383 deaths,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Hugh III of Arborea

paragraph: Hugh III (died 3 March 1383) was the eldest son and successor of Marianus IV of Arborea and Timbor of Rocabertí. He succeeded in 1376 as "Giudice" (Judge) of Arborea and Count of Goceano. In most ways he continued and augmented the policies of his father. He has been praised as a legislator who led a "saggio e moderato governo": "wise and moderate government."

paragraph: In 1363, he married a daughter of John III of Viterbo, of the Da Vico family, but she died in 1369. They had a daughter named Benedetta, who in 1373 was asked in marriage by the Louis I, Duke of Anjou, second son of King Charles V of France, without success.

paragraph: Hugh participated in his father's last military campaign against Pere de Luna, the Catalan general, commanding one of the battles which ambushed him in a pincer movement at Oristano in 1365. As judge, he continued to oppose the pretensions of Peter IV of Aragon and the Catalans and warred against them.

paragraph: He made enemies with the nobles, who tried to incite the poor to rebel. On 3 March 1383, Hugh and his daughter—and heiress—were assassinated at Oristano during a popular revolt. The rebels declared a "Republic" and made the law (which Hugh and his father had done so much to codify, expand, and improve) the sovereignty in Arborea. Hugh's successor was his nephew Frederick, under the regency of his sister Eleanor, who pacified the rebels and reinstated judicial government.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nowé, Laura Sannia. "Dai "lumi" dalla patria Italiana: Cultura letteraria sarda". Mucchi Editore: Modena, 1996.

description: Italian noble

wikidata_label: Hugh III of Arborea

wikipedia_title: Hugh III of Arborea


text:
Czech
ice hockey
goaltender
HC Plzeň
Czech Extraliga
2010–11 season
HC Kladno
HC Oceláři Třinec
SK Kadaň
KLH Chomutov
Orli Znojmo

categories: HC Plzeň players,1979 births,People from Kladno,HC Oceláři Třinec players,HC Kladno players,Czech ice hockey players,Living people

paragraph: Luboš Horčička

paragraph: Luboš Horčička (born 21 May 1979) is a Czech professional ice hockey goaltender. He played with HC Plzeň in the Czech Extraliga during the 2010–11 season.

paragraph: Horčička previously played for HC Kladno, HC Oceláři Třinec, SK Kadaň, KLH Chomutov and Orli Znojmo.

description: Czech ice hockey player

wikidata_label: Luboš Horčička

wikipedia_title: Luboš Horčička


text:
Barcelona
Esplugues de Llobregat
1992 Summer Olympics
Lérida
Central School of Arts and Crafts
London
Lausanne
Switzerland
Ana Corbero
Esplugues de Llobregat
State of Bavaria
New York City
Japan
Barcelona
London
Broadgate
Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Beirut
Souks
Kuwait City
Chicago
77 West Wacker Drive
New York City
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Meadows Museum
Dallas
1992 Summer Olympics
Creu de Sant Jordi Award
Generalitat de Catalunya

categories: 19th-century Spanish sculptors,Modern sculptors,1935 births,2017 deaths,Spanish contemporary artists

paragraph: Xavier Corberó

paragraph: Xavier Corberó i Olivella, known as Xavier (or Javier) Corberó (Barcelona, 13 June 1935 - Esplugues de Llobregat, 24 April 2017) was a Catalan sculptor. He is best known for monumental public sculpture, and was also the designer of the 1992 Summer Olympics medals.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Corberó was born in 1935 in a family of metalworkers and silversmiths, originally from Lérida. In the late 1950s he became the first-ever Spanish student at the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London and went on to work for a while in Lausanne, Switzerland.

paragraph: He married actress Mary-Ann Bennett Coates in 1959. They separated in 1970. Their daughter Ana Corbero was born in 1960.

paragraph: In 1967 he acquired an ancient house and plot of land in Esplugues de Llobregat, a village in the outskirts of Barcelona, and developed it extensively until his death in April 2017 into a highly elaborate complex of houses (largely devoted to hosting artists-in-residence, as well as his own residence) and exhibition spaces, which also houses a significant sample of his sculptures and personal collections.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Corberó had his first individual exhibition in Munich in 1963, for which he received a Gold medal from the State of Bavaria. Later exhibitions included shows in New York City, Japan, and multiple European countries.

paragraph: His monumental sculptures can be seen in Barcelona, London (Broadgate), Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Beirut (Souks), Kuwait City, Chicago (lobby of 77 West Wacker Drive), New York City (outside the Metropolitan Museum of Art), as well as in numerous museums including the Meadows Museum in Dallas.

paragraph: He was chosen to design the medals for the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona. That same year, he received the Creu de Sant Jordi Award from the Generalitat de Catalunya.

alias:
Javier Corberó
Xavier Corberó Olivella
Xavier Corberó
Javier Corbero
Xavier Corbero Olivella

description: Spanish sculptor

wikidata_label: Xavier Corbero

wikipedia_title: Xavier Corberó


text:
Radford
Plymstock
Member of Parliament
Plymouth
heir apparent
Christopher Harris
Liskeard
Member of Parliament
West Looe
Frances Drake
John Hele
Wembury
serjeant-at-law
Buckland Abbey
The Armada Service
British Museum
Richard Carew
William Harris
Member of Parliament
Newport-"juxta"-Launceston
Trecarrell
Dunsland
Bradford
Cookbury
John Harris
Thomas Grenville
lord of the manor
Bideford
Stowe
Kilkhampton
Sheriff of Cornwall
lord of the manor
Bideford
Stowe
Kilkhampton
heir apparent
John Harris
West Looe
West Looe
Christopher II Harris
Member of Parliament
West Looe
John Harris
History of Parliament

paragraph: Christopher Harris (died 1625)

paragraph: Sir Christopher Harris (c. 1553 – 1625) of Radford in the parish of Plymstock in Devon, was a Member of Parliament for Plymouth in Devon in 1584. He was knighted in 1607. He should not be confused with his great-nephew and heir apparent Christopher Harris (d.1623) of Lanrest in the parish of Liskeard in Cornwall, a Member of Parliament for West Looe in Cornwall (1621).

paragraph: He was a close friend of Admiral Sir Frances Drake, who on one occasion lodged part of his captured treasure at Radford. In partnership with John Hele (died 1608) of Wembury in Devon, serjeant-at-law and MP, Harris acquired the estate of Buckland Abbey in Devon as a seat for Drake. He owned The Armada Service, a set of 31 silver dishes now in the British Museum. His contemporary the Cornwall historian Richard Carew (d.1620) wrote that he: "admitteth no partner in the sweetly tempered mixture of bounty and thrift, gravity and pleasantness, kindness and stoutness, which grace all his actions".

paragraph: Section::::Origins.

paragraph: He was the son and heir of William Harris (born 1504) of Radford, a Member of Parliament for Newport-"juxta"-Launceston in Cornwall in 1529, by his wife Catherine Trecarrel, a daughter and co-heiress of Henry Trecarrell ("alias" Esse) of Trecarrell in Cornwall.

paragraph: Section::::Marriages & progeny.

paragraph: He married twice as follows, but left no surviving progeny:

paragraph: Firstly to Barbara Arscott (d.1597/8), a daughter of John Arscott of Dunsland in the parish of Bradford (or Cookbury) in Devon. His son by Barbara, namely John Harris, died young and pre-deceased his father, thus Radford passed to his nearest surviving male relative, namely his great-nephew John Harris (c. 1596 – 1648) of Lanrest in Cornwall, MP.

paragraph: Secondly he married his cousin Bridget Grenville (both were descended from Sir Thomas Grenville (d.1513), lord of the manors of Bideford in Devon and of Stowe in the parish of Kilkhampton, Cornwall, Sheriff of Cornwall in 1481 and in 1486), a daughter of Richard Grenville, lord of the manors of Bideford in Devon and of Stowe in the parish of Kilkhampton, Cornwall.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: As he died without surviving progeny, his heirs became the descendants of his only sister Jane Harris, who in 1562/3 at Menheniot in Cornwall married her cousin John Harris (died 1579) of Lanrest in Cornwall. Her eldest son (and thus heir apparent to his uncle) was John Harris (1564 – June 1623) of Lanrest, Recorder (or Steward) of the Borough of West Looe in Cornwall (established in 1574) and MP for West Looe in Cornwall in 1614. However, as he predeceased his uncle by two years, he did not inherit, nor did his eldest son Christopher II Harris (1590 – November 1623) of Lanrest, a Member of Parliament for West Looe in Cornwall (1621), who also predeceased his great-uncle by two years, having survived his father by only a few months. It was thus Christopher II's younger brother John Harris (c. 1596 – 1648) of Lanrest, MP, who gained the inheritance.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hasler, P. W., biography of "Harris, Christopher (c.1553-1625), of Radford, Devon", published in "History of Parliament: House of Commons 1558-1603", ed. P.W. Hasler, 1981

description: English Member of Parliament (died 1625)

wikidata_label: Christopher Harris

wikipedia_title: Christopher Harris (died 1625)


text: Mary Wollstonecraft

text: Charles Godfrey Leland

text: Whistler

text: food criticism

text: Philadelphia

text: Charles Godfrey Leland

text: Atlantic Monthly

text: Joseph Pennell

text: Mary Wollstonecraft

text: William Godwin

text: Charles Kegan Paul

text: British Library

text: Richard Garnett

text: the Roberts Brothers

text: Walter Scott Publishing Company

text: Joseph Pennell

text: The Century Magazine

text: Edmund Gosse

text: William Archer

text: Aubrey Beardsley

text: James McNeil Whistler

text: Henry James

text: Max Beerbohm

text: Oscar Wilde

text: George Bernard Shaw

text: John Lane

text: William E. Henley

text: Aesthetic Eighties

text: Daily Chronicle

text: Pall Mall Gazette

text: George Gissing

text: New Grub Street

text: New Woman

text: Cork Street

text: Bond Street

text: West End

text: East End

text: Walter Besant

text: People’s Palace at Mile End

text: Samuel

text: Henrietta Barnett

text: Whitechapel

text: New Art Criticism

text: Alfred Lys Baldry

text: D.S. MacColl

text: George Moore

text: R.A.M. Stevenson

text: Charles Whibley

text: Frederick Wedmore

text: Elizabeth David

text: M. F. K. Fisher

text: Jane Grigson

text: first edition

text: Hannah Glasse

text: Library of Congress

text: Katherine Bitting

text: etymology of "lady"

text: Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches

text: Neopagan

text: Wicca

text: Lady Colin Campbell

text: Giovanni Boldini

text: Humber model

text: step-through ("dropped") frame

text: Chaucer

text: Canterbury Tales

text: Laurence Sterne

text: safety bicycle

text: women's rights

text: Suffragists

text: Susan B. Anthony

text: Frances Willard

text: Annie Londonderry

text: World War I

text: New York City

text: nom de plume

text: Life of Mary Wollstonecraft

text: A Canterbury Pilgrimage

text: An Italian Pilgrimage

text: To Gipsyland

text: Tantallon Castle

text: Over the Alps on a Bicycle

text: "My Cookery Books"

text: Library of Congress

text: Charles Godfrey Leland: a Biography

text: Our House and the People in It

text: The Life of James McNeill Whistler

text: The Lovers

text: The Whistler Journal

text: Pennell family papers Ms. Coll. 50

text: University of Pennsylvania Libraries

text: Harry Ransom Center

text: The University of Texas at Austin

text: Elizabeth Robins Pennell Collection

text: Library of Congress

categories: American biographers,Women food writers,American women journalists,American food writers,American art critics,1936 deaths,Women critics,1855 births,Place of birth missing,American expatriates in the United Kingdom,American travel writers,Touring cyclists,American female cyclists,Women biographers

paragraph: Elizabeth Robins Pennell

paragraph: Elizabeth Robins Pennell (February 21, 1855 – February 7, 1936) was an American writer who, for most of her adult life, made her home in London. A recent researcher summed her up as "an adventurous, accomplished, self-assured, well-known columnist, biographer, cookbook collector, and art critic"; in addition, she wrote travelogues, mainly of European cycling voyages, and memoirs, centred on her London salon. Her biographies included the first in almost a century of the proto-feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, one of her uncle the folklorist Charles Godfrey Leland, and one of her friend the painter Whistler. In recent years, her art criticism has come under scrutiny, and her food criticism has been reprinted.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: She grew up in Philadelphia. Her mother died when she was very young, and she was sent away to a convent school from the ages of 8 to 17. When she returned to her father's home, he had remarried, and she was bored with the demands and restrictions of being a proper Catholic young lady. She wanted to work, and, with the encouragement of her uncle, the writer and folklorist Charles Godfrey Leland, she took up writing as a career. She started with articles in periodicals such as "Atlantic Monthly", and through this work she met a young Quaker artist named Joseph Pennell, who had also had to face down parental disapproval to pursue his creative calling. This began a fruitful collaboration between writer and illustrator.

paragraph: Section::::First book, marriage, move to London.

paragraph: Her first book was the first full-length biography of Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–97) since the hastily published "Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" by her widower William Godwin. Pennell's biography drew on three main sources: Godwin's "Memoirs"; a London publisher named Charles Kegan Paul, who had written a sketch about the husband and wife a few years previously; and a curator at the British Library, Richard Garnett. It was published in 1884 by the Roberts Brothers of Boston, as one of the first in their Famous Women series, and also in London by the Walter Scott Publishing Company.

paragraph: In June that year, Elizabeth Robins married Joseph Pennell. The couple accepted a travel writing commission from "The Century Magazine" and set off for Europe, making several cycling journeys, in 1884 from London to Canterbury and then in 1885 through France. Her uncle had travelled widely in Europe and settled in London, and so did the Pennells, basing themselves in the British capital for more than thirty years, with frequent visits to the Continent. They made a good working team, producing many articles and books together, and supporting each other in their work. For many years they opened their home on Thursday evenings as a literary and artistic salon; some of the people who enjoyed their hospitality included: "critics Sir Edmund Gosse and William Archer; artists Aubrey Beardsley and James McNeil Whistler; authors Henry James, Max Beerbohm, Oscar Wilde, and George Bernard Shaw; and publishers John Lane and William E. Henley." Pennell wrote of these gatherings in her memoirs, "Our House and the People in It" (1910), "Our House and London Out of Our Windows" (1912), and "Nights: Rome & Venice in the Aesthetic Eighties, London & Paris in the Fighting Nineties" (1916).

paragraph: Section::::Her works and their appraisal.:Art criticism.

paragraph: Pennell's main work was as an art and, later, a food critic, writing for periodicals including the "Daily Chronicle" and the "Pall Mall Gazette". Scholar Meaghan Clarke ties "real-life women art journalists" such as Pennell to the literary figures and hacks that populate George Gissing's "New Grub Street", as well as to the concept of the New Woman. "Like journalism and, one might argue, because of journalism, the London art world was undergoing an intensive popularization during the 1880s and 1890s." Keeping up (as Clarke puts it) "a peripatetic pace in search of copy", Pennell went to Paris in May for the art salons, and regularly visited the London galleries (from Cork Street and Bond Street in the fashionable West End to philanthropic art projects in the slums of the East End) to review the exhibitions. She wrote critically of Walter Besant’s People’s Palace at Mile End (similar in spirit to Samuel and Henrietta Barnett’s St Jude’s at Whitechapel). Kimberly Morse Jones writes that "Pennell's criticism constitutes a vital component of a wider movement in Victorian criticism that came to be known as the New Art Criticism", listing Alfred Lys Baldry, D.S. MacColl, George Moore, R.A.M. Stevenson, Charles Whibley and Frederick Wedmore as fellow contributors to this movement.

paragraph: Section::::Her works and their appraisal.:Food criticism.

paragraph: Pennell's place in the literary history of cooking and eating has recently been reappraised, as she "paved the way for food writers such as Elizabeth David, M. F. K. Fisher, and Jane Grigson," according to Jacqueline Block Williams. "The Delights of Delicate Eating" was reprinted in 2000, and Pennell appears as one of the "forgotten female aesthetes" that Shaeffer evaluates in her book of that title, one who "aimed to reconfigure meals as high art, employing the language of aestheticism to turn eating into an act of intellectual appreciation". Clarke holds that Pennell demonstrated a "continuity" between "her thoughts on other types of taste".

paragraph: Section::::Her works and their appraisal.:Cookbook collecting.

paragraph: To enable her to write these light but erudite columns, Pennell bought cookbooks to use as reference material. At one point she owned more than 1000 volumes, including a rare first edition of Hannah Glasse, which led to her becoming, in the view of culinary historian Cynthia D. Bertelsen, "one of the most well-known cookbook collectors in the world". Pennell compiled a bibliography of her culinary library, which appeared first in articles for "The Atlantic" and then in a book entitled "My Cookery Books", focussing on C17 and C18 English writers. Much of this collection eventually went to the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress, where curator Leonard N. Beck gave it a professional evaluation, pairing her collection with that of food chemist Katherine Bitting See the Elizabeth Robins Pennell Collection. The title, "Two Loaf-Givers", refers to the Old English etymology of "lady"; a digital version is available.

paragraph: Section::::Her works and their appraisal.:Biographies.

paragraph: Following her success with "Mary Wollstonecraft", Pennell wrote other biographies, producing in 1906 the first one of her uncle, Charles Leland, who had written, or compiled, "Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches"(1899), a book very influential in the development of the Neopagan religion of Wicca. The Pennells were friends and correspondents of the painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler, and they wrote a lengthy biography of him in 1911. (Her fellow art critic Lady Colin Campbell, whose famous portrait by Giovanni Boldini Pennell had praised, was also close to Whistler.) Pennell also wrote a biography, after his death in 1928, of her husband.

paragraph: Section::::Her works and their appraisal.:Cycle tourism.

paragraph: The final string to her bow was as a cyclist. She praised cycling in general, and the ease with which it enabled city dwellers to escape to the countryside, for its fresh air and views. She claimed that "there is no more healthful or more stimulating form of exercise; there is no physical pleasure greater than that of being borne along, at a good pace, over a hard, smooth road by your own exertions". She disparaged racing (for men but especially for women), preferring long unpressured travel, and wondering if she had inadvertently "broken the record as a touring wheel-woman".

paragraph: She started off cycling in the 1870s, while she still lived in Philadelphia. On moving to London, she and her husband exchanged their Coventry Rotary tandem tricycle for a Humber model, going on to experiment with a single tricycle, a tandem bicycle, and finally a single bicycle with a step-through ("dropped") frame.

paragraph: The first journey that she turned into a book was "A Canterbury Pilgrimage", a homage to Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales", as a gentle introduction to cycling in England. Over the next few years, the pair took several trips together, including another literary pilgrimage, this time on the trail of Laurence Sterne's 1765 travel novel "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy". On a later leg of this 1885 journey they "wheeled" a tandem tricycle from Florence to Rome, attracting more attention than she was comfortable with, as possibly the first female rider that the Italians had ever seen. In 1886, now each on safety bicycles, they journeyed to Eastern Europe. This was at a key time in the history of the bicycle, and, of course, in the history of women's rights as well, and they were both intertwined, in the figure of the New Woman. Suffragists and social activists such as Susan B. Anthony and Frances Willard recognised the transformative power of the bicycle. By the time the Pennells had gone "Over the Alps on a Bicycle" (1898), Annie Londonderry had already become the first woman to bicycle around the world. There was a ready audience for Robins Pennell's books, and the last-mentioned was chosen as a book of the month.

paragraph: Section::::Later life.

paragraph: The Pennells moved back to the United States towards the end of World War I, settling in New York City. After her husband's death, she moved from Brooklyn to Manhattan, dying there in February 1936. Their books, especially her significant cookbook collection (reduced to 433) and a 300-strong collection on fine printing and bibliography, were bequeathed to the Library of Congress. Her papers and those of her husband are held by university archives.

paragraph: Pennell often made her contributions under nom de plumes such as "N.N." (No Name), "A.U." (Author Unknown) and "P.E.R." (her initials jumbled up).

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Life of Mary Wollstonecraft" (Roberts Brothers, 1884, part of the "Famous Women" series)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Canterbury Pilgrimage" (Seeley & Co., 1885)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "An Italian Pilgrimage" (Seeley & Co., 1887) with Joseph Pennell.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our Sentimental Journey through France and Italy" (1888) with Joseph Pennell.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our Journey to the Hebrides" (with Joseph Pennell) (1889)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Stream of Pleasure: a Narrative of a Journey on the Thames from Oxford to London" (with Joseph Pennell) (1891)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "To Gipsyland" (The Century Co., 1893)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Tantallon Castle" (1895) (see Tantallon Castle

paragraph: BULLET::::- "London's Underground Railways"(1895)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Feasts of Autolycus: the Diary of a Greedy Woman" (1896). A compilation of the culinary essays she first published in the "Pall Mall Gazette". Re-issued 1901 as "The Delights of Delicate Eating". (Also, "A Guide for the Greedy, by a Greedy Woman: being a new and revised edition of "The Feasts of Autolycus"".) Reprinted in 2000 with an introduction by Jacqueline Block Williams.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Around London by Bicycle" (1897)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Over the Alps on a Bicycle (1898) with Joseph Pennell

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lithography and Lithographers" (1898) with Joseph Pennell (see also 1915)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "My Cookery Books" (1903). From the Collections at the Library of Congress

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Charles Godfrey Leland: a Biography" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1906)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "French Cathedrals, Monasteries and Abbeys, and Sacred Sites of France" (New York, The Century Co.) 1909

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our House and the People in It" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1910) (Also "Our House and London Out of Our Windows" 1912.)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life of James McNeill Whistler" (J. B. Lippincott company, 1911) with Joseph Pennell.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our Philadelphia" (1914) with Joseph Pennell.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lithography and Lithographers" (1915) with Joseph Pennell 'Not merely a new edition. The book is new though based upon the old!--(Preface) (see also 1898).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nights: Rome & Venice in the Aesthetic Eighties, London & Paris in the Fighting Nineties" (J. B. Lippincott Company, 1916)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Lovers" (W. Heinemann, 1917)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Whistler Journal" (J. B. Lippincott Company, 1921)

paragraph: BULLET::::- " Italy's Garden of Eden" (1927)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Art of Whistler" (1928)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Life and Letters of Joseph Pennell" (1929)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Whistler the Friend" (1930)

paragraph: BULLET::::- (anthologized in) "American Food Writing: an Anthology with Classic Recipes", ed. Molly O'Neill (Library of America, 2007)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Finding aid to the Pennell family papers Ms. Coll. 50 at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph and Elizabeth R. Pennell's papers at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elizabeth Robins Pennell Collection at the Library of Congress

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Schaffer, Talia. "The Forgotten Female Aesthetes: Literary Culture in Late-Victorian England". University of Virginia Press, 2008.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Morse Jones, Kimberly, "Elizabeth Robins Pennell: Nineteenth-Century Pioneer of Modern Art Criticism". Ashgate, 2015.

description: American author

wikidata_label: Elizabeth Robins Pennell

wikipedia_title: Elizabeth Robins Pennell


text:
bishop of Dunblane
bishop of Vaison
William Chisholm (I)
coadjutor
Pope Pius IV
John Knox
Nicolas de Gouda
Mary, Queen of Scots
Rome
Darnley
consanguinity
France
Bothwell
George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly
Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore
Carlo Borromeo
bishopric
Vaison-la-Romaine
Avignon
Scotland
William Chisholm (III)
Grande Chartreuse
Chartreuse
Lyon
church of the Carthusians

categories: 1593 deaths,Bishops of Vaison,1520s births,Bishops of Dunblane,Alumni of the University of St Andrews

paragraph: William Chisholm (II)

paragraph: William Chisholm (called II in some biographies; died 26 September 1593), bishop of Dunblane and bishop of Vaison, was a son of James Chisholm of Cromlix, and nephew to William Chisholm (I), bishop of Dunblane from 1527 to 1564, to whom he was appointed coadjutor by a brief of Pope Pius IV dated 1 June 1561.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He is spoken of by John Knox as "one of the chief pillars of the Papisticall Kirk", and in the very highest terms by the pope's legate, Nicolas de Gouda, in his despatch from the Scottish court in 1562. The legate, after commenting on the incapacity of the Scottish bishops generally, goes on to say: "The only exception is the coadjutor bishop of Dunblane; though holding but a secondary position during the lifetime of his superior, he has already made his influence felt, both in public and in private, having succeeded in confirming a great many people in the faith, and being justly held in high esteem and regard by all good men".

paragraph: This bishop was much employed by Mary, Queen of Scots, in diplomatic missions, of which the most important were in 1565 to Rome to obtain the pope's leave for her marriage with Darnley in spite of their consanguinity, and in 1567, when she sent him as special envoy to France to convey the intelligence of her marriage with Bothwell, and to explain the circumstances attending that event.

paragraph: He was also one of the commissioners for the divorce of Bothwell from Lady Jane Gordon, daughter of George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly. He is said to have still further dilapidated the income of his bishopric, and was declared to have forfeited it for non-compliance with the new arrangements after the fall of his royal mistress. In exile in Rome in January 1569, he was appointed as a priest at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore by Carlo Borromeo. On 3 July 1573 a license was issued by the four regents for the choice of successor as Bishop of Dunblane.

paragraph: Chisholm had before this retired to France, where he was well known, and in 1570 he was instituted by the pope to the bishopric of Vaison-la-Romaine, near Avignon, as some recompense for the loss of his position in Scotland and his exile. This bishopric, however, he resigned in 1584 in favour of his nephew, William Chisholm (III), when he retired to the convent of Grande Chartreuse. He took the vows only of a simple monk, but was soon made prior of the Chartreuse at Lyon, and eventually at Rome. He continued to busy himself greatly with Scottish affairs until his death at Rome on 26 September 1593, and is buried in the church of the Carthusians there.

paragraph: Section::::Notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Attribution

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Keith, Robert, "An Historical Catalogue of the Scottish Bishops: Down to the Year 1688", (London, 1824), p. 180

paragraph: BULLET::::- Forbes-Leith, William, "Narratives of Scottish Catholics under Mary Stuart and James VI: now first printed from the original manuscripts in the secret archives of the Vatican and other collections", (Edinburgh, 1885), i. 935

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stephens, H. M., "Chisholm, William II (d 1593), bishop of Dunblane and bishop of Vaison", "Dictionary of National Biography", (Oxford, 1887)

description: Scottish bishop

wikidata_label: William Chisholm

wikipedia_title: William Chisholm (II)


text:
Hamelin
Indramayu
Java
German
physicist
biologist
botanist
fauna
flora
Göttingen
Jakarta
Philipp Franz von Siebold
Dejima
Temminck
Schlegel
Leiden
Groningen
Munich
Paris
London
Florence
St. Louis
Naturalis
Sumatra
Padang
Order of the Netherlands Lion
Bangka
Borneo
Magetan
Madiun Residency
IPNI
epitheton
Aceraceae
Acer
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulon
Polypodiaceae
Lepidomicrosorium
Ericaceae
Rhododendron
Zoologische Mededelingen
Repository.naturalis.nl PDF
Repository.naturalis.nl PDF
Zoologische Mededelingen
Repository.naturalis.nl PDF

categories: German biologists,German Jews,German zoologists,People from Hamelin,German botanists,German physicists,1800s births,1858 deaths,Jewish Japanologists

paragraph: Heinrich Bürger

paragraph: Heinrich Bürger (or: Heinrich Burger) (Hamelin, 29 February 1804, or 7 November 1804, or 20 January 1806, - Indramayu (Java) 25 March 1858) was a German physicist, biologist and botanist employed by the Dutch government, and an entrepreneur. He was important for the study of Japanese fauna and flora.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Bürger's exact birth date is unknown. Bürger himself gave 29 February 1804. Most archival sources have the year 1806; it looks as if Heinrich moved his birth date two years back so as to appear older. Bürger was Jewish; his father Samuel Burger was a merchant and “Schutzjude” in Hamlin, who went bankrupt in 1817, and died in 1821.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: In the years 1821-1822 Heinrich studied mathematics and astronomy at Göttingen university. Though he sometimes used the title of doctor, no proof has been found of an academic promotion. In 1824 Bürger left for Batavia (Dutch East Indies), now Jakarta, where he visited the school for apothecaries. On 14 January 1825 he gained the degree of apothecary 3rd class.

paragraph: Section::::Dejima.

paragraph: On 14 June 1825 Heinrich Bürger was appointed by the Dutch government as the assistant of Philipp Franz von Siebold on the isle of Dejima (Nagasaki, Japan) for the "natural research" in Japan. He left for Japan on 1 July.

paragraph: On Dejima Bürger did chemistry and biological research, and he taught the Japanese. He also was head of pharmacy and assisted Siebold's polyclinical visits to patients outside Dejima. In 1828 Bürger was appointed as successor of Von Siebold as far as the chemical, natural and biological work was concerned. In the following years he collected large quantities of minerals, plants and animals, among which 650 fishes. Much of this material was used for the later publication Fauna Japonica by Temminck and Schlegel. Plants sent by Bürger arrived in the botanical gardens of university cities like Leiden, Groningen, Munich, Paris, London, Florence and St. Louis. The Naturalis Museum in Leiden boasts a large Bürger collection.

paragraph: Section::::Padang.

paragraph: In 1832 or 1833 (literary sources contradict each other here) Bürger was "added" to the "Committee for natural research in East-India". In that capacity he visited Sumatra between June and December 1833. In that period he planned a road from the Padang lowlands to the interior; the road through the Anai Valley (Batang Anai), which today is a tourist attraction because of its natural beauty. The realisation of this road earned him the Order of the Netherlands Lion. In 1833 Bürger married Anna Cornelia van Daalen in Padang. In 1834 he was back on Dejima, but he installed his wife in Batavia.

paragraph: Section::::Entrepreneur.

paragraph: From 1 July 1835 Bürger was relieved of his duties in Japan. In 1840-1842 he traveled extensively with his family throughout western Europe. Back on Java he was pensioned off in 1842 as a member of the Natural Committee, and on 30 June 1843 he was honorably discharged from public service. Heinrich then moved into business, a.o. the production of rice and oil on Bangka, the Nederlandsch-Indische Zee-Assurantie Maatschappij (marine insurances), de Maatschappij tot Bevordering van Mijnontginningen in Nederlandsch-Indië (Society for the advancement of mining development in the Dutch Indies), which operated on Borneo, and he was co-owner of sugar factory Rejosari in Magetan (Madiun Residency, Java). Bürger also was a prominent member of the social club "De Harmonie" in Batavia 1850-1853.

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: Although Bürger is mentioned in the IPNI, he did not describe new plants. But he has been honoured by those who worked on his collections: they have named many of the new species he collected after him. These species can be recognized by the epitheton “Buergerianum” or “Burgeri(i)”, such as:

paragraph: “"burgerianum"” 19 distinct (i.e., excluding combinations for the same plant in different genera) taxa that at some point been published at the level of species including:

paragraph: BULLET::::- (Aceraceae) "Acer buergerianum"

paragraph: BULLET::::- (Eriocaulaceae) "Eriocaulon buergerianum"

paragraph: BULLET::::- (Polypodiaceae) "Lepidomicrosorium buergerianum"

paragraph: “"buergeri"” 10 distinct species level taxa including

paragraph: BULLET::::- (Ericaceae) "Rhododendron burgeri"

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Boeseman: "Revision of the fishes collected by Burger and Von Siebold in Japan". in: "Zoologische Mededelingen", Vol. 28, 1947, p. 1-242 Repository.naturalis.nl PDF

paragraph: BULLET::::- P.M. Kernkamp, "Heinrich Bürger (Hamelen 1804/1806 - Indramajoe 1858) en zijn Duitse en Nederlandse familie", in: "De Nederlandsche Leeuw" 132 (2015) 108-132.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J. Mac Lean: "Natural science in Japan from 1828-1849", in "Janus" LXII (1975), p. 51-78

paragraph: BULLET::::- M.J. van Steenis-Kruseman: "Heinrich Bürger (?1806 - 1858), explorer in Japan and Sumatra", Contributions to the history of botany and exploration in Malaysia 8—9, in: Blumea - Biodiversity, Evolution and Biogeography of Plants, Vol. 11 (1962), p. 495-508. Repository.naturalis.nl PDF

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Uéno: "A Japanese portrait of Heinrich Bürger". in: Zoologische Mededelingen Vol. 49, 1975, p. 91-93 Repository.naturalis.nl PDF

alias:
Bürger
H. Burger
Hendrik Burger

description: German scientist

wikidata_label: Heinrich Bürger

wikipedia_title: Heinrich Bürger


text:
sixth dynasty of Egypt
Pepi I
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
Pepi II
Saqqara
vizier
Nebet
Ankhesenpepi I
Pepi I
Djau
vizier
Ankhesenpepi I
Pharaoh
Pepi I
Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
Pepi II
Brooklyn
Isis
Horus
South Saqqara Stone
Saqqara

categories: Ancient women regents,24th-century BC women,Queens consort of the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt,23rd-century BC women,Women rulers in Africa

paragraph: Ankhesenpepi II

paragraph: Ankhesenpepi II or Ankhesenmeryre II was a queen consort during the sixth dynasty of Egypt. She was the wife of Kings Pepi I and Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, and the mother of Pepi II. She was buried in a pyramid in Saqqara.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Ankhesenpepi II was the daughter of Khui and the female vizier Nebet. Her sister Ankhesenpepi I was also married to King Pepi I and her brother Djau served as vizier.

paragraph: Both Ankhesenpepi II and her sister Ankhesenpepi I were married to Pharaoh Pepi I whose throne name was "Meryre"; their name was taken when the marriage took place, since it means "Her life belongs to Pepi/Meryre". Both queens gave birth to the kings: the son of Ankhesenpepi I was Merenre Nemtyemsaf I, who ruled only for a few years; the son of Ankhesenpepi II was Pepi II, who succeeded after Nemtyemsaf's death. Pepi II was a young boy when he succeeded to the throne. There are indications that Ankhesenpepi II served as a regent for her son in those early years of his reign. A statue which shows her with her son on her lap (now in Brooklyn) shows the queen much larger in size than her son. Some have interpreted this statue as Ankhesenpepi II and her son Pepi II assuming the roles of the goddess Isis and her son Horus.

paragraph: Section::::Royal titles of Ankhesenpepi II.

paragraph: Her titles as queen were: "Great one of the hetes-sceptre" (wrt-hetes), "She who sees Horus and Seth" (m33t-hrw-stsh), "Great of Praises" (wrt-hzwt), "King’s Wife of Mennefer-Meryre" (hmt-niswt-mn-nfr-mry-r`), "King’s Wife, his beloved" (hmt-nisw meryt.f), "God’s Daughter" (s3t-ntr), "This Daughter of a God" (s3t-ntr-wt), "Attendant of the Great One" (khtt-wr), "Companion of Horus" (tist-hrw), "Companion of Horus" (smrt-hrw). However, it is now known that she was also the chief queen of Merenre after the death of Pepi I, her first husband. In 1999/2000, excavation work at her Saqqara funerary temple uncovered several stone blocks inscribed with a previously unknown royal title for her:

paragraph: Since the temple was constructed under Pepi II because it makes a reference to king Pepi II, this shows that Merenre married Queen Ankhesenpepi II after Pepi I died. Merenre was Ankhesenpepi II's nephew. As the South Saqqara Stone document, an annal document created under Pepi II, shows that no period of coregency existed under Pepi I and Merenre, this suggests that Merenre and Ankhesenpepi II were rather the parents of Pepi II (rather than Pepi I) particularly since this document also assigns Merenre an independent reign of about a decade to Merenre.

paragraph: After her son Pepi came to the throne, Ankhesenpepi added the titles "Mother of the Dual King Men-ankh-Neferkare" (mwt-niswt-biti-mn-kh`-nfr-k3-r`), "King’s Mother of Men-ankh-Neferkare" (mwt-niswt- mn-kh`-nfr-k3-r`), and "King’s Mother" (mwt-niswt).

paragraph: Section::::Death and burial.

paragraph: Ankhesenpepi II's pyramid in Saqqara was found and excavated in 1998. The finds show that Ankhesenpepi's pyramid contained the first known examples of the pyramid texts in a Queen's pyramid. The texts refer to her as a queen mother, hence the construction of her pyramid dates to the reign of her son.

paragraph: In 1963, the burial chamber was discovered and remains which could be those of the queen were found. The burial was disturbed and the mummy found in and near the sarcophagus was incomplete. The bones belong to a middle aged woman. Next her pyramid were also found the remains of an obelisk. It is one of the largest of the Old Kingdom.

description: Egyptian queen consort

wikidata_label: Ankhesenpepi II

wikipedia_title: Ankhesenpepi II


text:
French
gymnast
1908 Summer Olympics
1912 Summer Olympics

categories: Medalists at the 1912 Summer Olympics,Medalists at the 1908 Summer Olympics,Gymnasts at the 1912 Summer Olympics,Olympic silver medalists for France,Gymnasts at the 1908 Summer Olympics,People from Sidi Bel Abbès,1889 births,French male artistic gymnasts,Sportspeople from Oran,Olympic medalists in gymnastics,1963 deaths,Olympic bronze medalists for France,Olympic gymnasts of France,French people of Spanish descent,Pieds-Noirs

paragraph: Louis Ségura

paragraph: Louis Ségura (July 23, 1889 – 1963) was a French gymnast who competed in the 1908 Summer Olympics and in the 1912 Summer Olympics. He won the bronze medal in the individual all-around in 1908 as well as the silver medal in 1912.

description: gymnast

wikidata_label: Louis Ségura

wikipedia_title: Louis Ségura


text:
Manx
rally
British Rally Championship
Isle of Man
karting
trial bikes
Timo Mäkinen
Anders Kulläng
Ben Collins
James Bond
Quantum of Solace
Skyfall
Powys
brother
Carno
Newtown, Powys

wikipedia_title:
Isle of Man
Rallying
British Rally Championship
Isle of Man
Kart racing
Mountain bike trials
Timo Mäkinen
Anders Kulläng
Ben Collins (racing driver)
James Bond
Quantum of Solace
Skyfall
Powys
David Higgins (rally driver)
Carno
Newtown, Powys

categories: Manx racing drivers,People from Montgomeryshire,World Rally Championship drivers,World Rallycross Championship drivers,British rally drivers,1971 births,British stunt performers,Porsche Carrera Cup GB drivers,Living people

paragraph: Mark Higgins (driver)

paragraph: Mark Higgins (born 21 May 1971) is a Manx rally driver competing in the British Rally Championship. His co-driver was Rory Kennedy.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Higgins was born on the Isle of Man on 21 May 1971. He began his career in motorsport at the age of nine when he took up karting helped by his mother and father.

paragraph: By the age of 17, Higgins had successfully competed in a range of motor sport activities such as trial bikes and karts. He impressed many people as a young man and soon attracted the attention of Manx businessman Roy Dixon who took the young Higgins under his wing, and at just 17 Higgins began his professional motorsport career with a trip to Sweden to learn from the legendary Finn Timo Mäkinen and Anders Kulläng.

paragraph: He has won the British Rally Championship three times, 1997, 2005, 2006.

paragraph: Section::::Other work.

paragraph: Higgins has worked for many years with "Top Gear's" former Stig Ben Collins on various film and television sequences. Higgins was a stunt driver for the James Bond films "Quantum of Solace" and "Skyfall".

paragraph: Higgins also appears as a stunt driver and on-camera in the fifth episode of Amazon's "The Grand Tour," a spiritual successor to Top Gear.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Higgins lives in Powys, Mid-Wales, with his wife and two children. With his brother and father, he is also a partner in the family rally school located in Carno, near Newtown, Powys.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete FIA World Rallycross Championship results.:Supercar.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stobart Motorsport

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile on ewrc-results.com

description: British racing driver

wikidata_label: Mark Higgins

wikipedia_title: Mark Higgins (driver)


text:
Queensland
Berkshire
Brisbane General Hospital
Maryborough General Hospital
Australian Army Nursing Service
Sir Truby King
Florence Chatfield
Caboolture

categories: 1875 births,Australian military nurses,People from Queensland,Australian nurses

paragraph: Ellen Barron

paragraph: Ellen Barron (1875 — 8 July 1951) was a nurse in Queensland, Australia. She was a matron and leader in the Queensland nursing profession.

paragraph: Barron was born in Berkshire, England, was educated at Oxford and Queensland, and trained at the Brisbane General Hospital. She was head nurse at the Maryborough General Hospital from 1902 to 1904.

paragraph: Barron enlisted in the Australian Army Nursing Service in World War I. She was stationed at Lemnos during the landing at Gallipoli, and she also served in Egypt and France. She returned to Australia in early 1917, suffering from pulmonary fibrosis.

paragraph: On her return from active service, she was appointed to the Valley Centre of the Maternal and Child Welfare Services, and in 1922 she was sent to New Zealand for six months to study child welfare under Sir Truby King. In 1923 Barron opened the first training school in child welfare nursing in Brisbane.

paragraph: In 1928 Barron was appointed superintendent of nurses, Maternal and Child Welfare Service. She retired in 1939.

paragraph: She was associated with the Australasian Trained Nurses' Association Rest Home from its inception in 1924, and for some years was honorary secretary and a trustee.

paragraph: Barron was a long-term professional colleague of Florence Chatfield (died 1949) and they lived together for part of their retirement. Barron died in the War Veterans' Home at Caboolture on 8 July 1951 and was cremated.

description: (1875-1951) nurse

wikidata_label: Ellen Barron

wikipedia_title: Ellen Barron