text: President

text: International Olympic Committee

text: amateurism

text: 1972 Summer Olympics

text: Detroit

text: University of Illinois

text: 1912 Summer Olympics

text: pentathlon

text: decathlon

text: Jim Thorpe

text: Nazi regime

text: Olympic movement

text: Eastern Bloc

text: amateur

text: 1972 Summer Olympics

text: murdered

text: anti-Semitism

text: William McKinley

text: second inauguration

text: R. T. Crane Manual Training School

text: Sports Illustrated

text: Horatio Alger

text: University of Illinois

text: civil engineering

text: intramural sports

text: Western Conference

text: University of Chicago

text: Amos Alonzo Stagg

text: Holabird & Roche

text: Edward J. Brundage

text: Chicago's North Side

text: Attorney General of Illinois

text: Chicago Athletic Association

text: decathlon

text: Amateur Athletic Union

text: 1912 Olympics

text: Stockholm

text: pentathlon

text: Jim Thorpe

text: semi-professional

text: Cook County Hospital

text: Morrison Hotel

text: handball

text: National Collegiate Athletic Association

text: National Olympic Committee

text: 1920 Olympic Games

text: Douglas MacArthur

text: "Life" magazine

text: Charlie Paddock

text: 1932 Summer Olympics

text: Mildred "Babe" Didrikson

text: Bavaria

text: Berlin

text: its democratic government

text: Great Depression

text: July 1932 elections

text: Nazi Party

text: Adolf Hitler

text: Reichstag

text: Untermenschen

text: master race

text: attained power

text: Theodor Lewald

text: Jews

text: Henri de Baillet-Latour

text: Emanuel Celler

text: Amateur Athletic Union

text: William May Garland

text: Charles Sherrill

text: Ernest Lee Jahncke

text: Albert Lasker

text: Hamburg

text: "S.S. Manhattan"

text: New York Harbor

text: Eleanor Holm

text: Charles MacArthur

text: Helen Hayes

text: Jesse Owens

text: Baldur von Schirach

text: 4 × 100 meters relay

text: Sam Stoller

text: Marty Glickman

text: Ralph Metcalfe

text: Lawson Robertson

text: Foy Draper

text: Frank Wykoff

text: University of Southern California

text: Randall's Island Stadium

text: Godefroy de Blonay

text: Sigfrid Edström

text: Leni Riefenstahl

text: Olympia

text: German-American Bund

text: Madison Square Garden

text: World War II

text: Keep America Out of War Committee

text: America First

text: Pearl Harbor

text: Pan-American Games

text: Buenos Aires

text: United States Olympic Committee

text: Buenos Aires

text: 1906 Intercalated Games

text: Athens

text: New Orleans

text: 1952 Summer Olympics

text: Helsinki

text: Great Britain's

text: Lord Burghley

text: International Amateur Athletic Federation

text: John Galsworthy

text: amateur sports

text: Renaissance man

text: Paavo Nurmi

text: 1948 Winter Olympics

text: St. Moritz

text: AHAUS

text: IIHF

text: Ice Hockey World Championships

text: Karl Schranz

text: Sapporo Winter Olympics

text: Canadian Amateur Hockey Association

text: NHL

text: Montreal

text: Winnipeg

text: Manitoba

text: Günther Sabetzki

text: broken time

text: alpine skiing

text: 1948 Summer Olympics

text: London

text: Federal Republic of Germany

text: Vienna

text: German Democratic Republic

text: Copenhagen

text: a single German team

text: 1956 Summer Olympics

text: Melbourne

text: the Summer Olympics

text: Rome

text: Olympic Village

text: Opening Ceremony

text: Giovanni Gronchi

text: German reunification

text: Berlin Wall

text: 1964 Summer Olympics

text: Warsaw Pact

text: 1966 European Athletics Championships

text: Czarist Russia

text: Soviet Union

text: international sports federations

text: Latin America

text: Iron Curtain

text: physical education

text: The Saturday Evening Post

text: athletic scholarship

text: Republic of China

text: Los Angeles

text: Chinese Civil War

text: People's Republic of China

text: Taiwan

text: Sicily

text: United States State Department

text: Yang Chuan-Kwang

text: 1980 Winter Games

text: 1984 Summer Olympics

text: South Africa's

text: apartheid

text: Sharpeville massacre

text: African National Congress

text: FIFA

text: association football

text: Baden-Baden

text: Nairobi

text: Amsterdam

text: 1992 Summer Olympics

text: Rhodesia

text: unilaterally declared its independence

text: United Nations Security Council

text: Mexico City

text: Munich

text: in 1980

text: Zimbabwe

text: 1968 Summer Olympics

text: in 2004

text: Giulio Onesti

text: Lord Killanin

text: Chicago

text: California

text: Lausanne

text: Modern Olympics

text: Pierre de Coubertin

text: assassination

text: Martin Luther King

text: Harry Edwards

text: unrest

text: Tommie Smith

text: 200 meters

text: John Carlos

text: The Star-Spangled Banner

text: 400 meters

text: Lee Evans

text: George Foreman

text: heavyweight

text: Olga Korbut

text: Mark Spitz

text: Black September

text: Israel

text: Bavaria

text: Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base

text: Olympic Stadium

text: Stars & Stripes

text: Dick Pound

text: Alfred Senn

text: Red Smith

text: The New York Times

text: factotum

text: Japan

text: Reuss-Köstritz

text: best man

text: Juan Antonio Samaranch

text: Garmisch-Partenkirchen

text: 1936 Winter Olympics

text: Far East

text: the art he loved

text: Garmisch-Partenkirchen

text: soprano

text: Wagner

text: Die Walküre

text: Army Ordnance Corps

text: Lincoln Park

text: Sheridan Road

text: a massive assembly plant

text: Chicago's South Side

text: Ford Motor Company

text: Model T

text: Lake Michigan

text: the Depression

text: La Salle Hotel

text: The Loop

text: Royal Academy

text: Garmisch-Partenkirchen

text: Yokohama

text: Kyoto

text: Osaka

text: Nara

text: Nikko

text: Shanghai

text: Hong Kong

text: University of California

text: neolithic

text: Bodhisattva

text: Huizong

text: Song dynasty

text: The New Yorker

text: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco

text: Golden Gate Park

text: M. H. de Young Memorial Museum

text: Civic Center

text: Santa Barbara

text: netsuke

text: kimono

text: The Independent

text: The Orange County Register

text: New York "Daily News"

text: Andrew Leigh

text: Australian House of Representatives

text: Dick Pound

text: de Coubertin

text: Samaranch

text: Alfred Senn

text: Avery Brundage Collection at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

text: I.N.A.: Avery Brundage in opening ceremony, Grenoble, 1968

text: Transcript of Brundage press conference from 1970

text: Avery Brundage's complicated Olympic legacy

categories: Olympic decathletes,Illinois Fighting Illini men's basketball players,Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany,American art collectors,1887 births,American anti-communists,Basketball players from Illinois,American male decathletes,Presidents of the International Olympic Committee,History of San Francisco,Sportspeople from Detroit,Museum founders,American pentathletes,Athletes (track and field) at the 1912 Summer Olympics,Sportspeople from Chicago,Olympic track and field athletes of the United States,Illinois Fighting Illini men's track and field athletes,Presidents of the Amateur Athletic Union,Burials at Rosehill Cemetery,1975 deaths,International Olympic Committee members

paragraph: Avery Brundage

paragraph: Avery Brundage (; September 28, 1887 – May 8, 1975) was the fifth President of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), serving from 1952 to 1972. The only American to attain that position, Brundage is remembered as a zealous advocate of amateurism and for his involvement with the 1936 and 1972 Summer Olympics, both held in Germany.

paragraph: Brundage was born in Detroit in 1887 to a working-class family. When he was five years old, his father moved his family to Chicago and subsequently abandoned his wife and children. Raised mostly by relatives, he attended the University of Illinois to study engineering and became a track star. He competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics, where he participated in the pentathlon and decathlon, but did not win any medals; both events were won by teammate Jim Thorpe. He won national championships in track three times between 1914 and 1918 and founded his own construction business. He earned his wealth from this company and from investments, and never accepted pay for his involvement in sports.

paragraph: Following his retirement from athletics, Brundage became a sports administrator and rose rapidly through the ranks in United States sports groups. As leader of America's Olympic organizations, he fought zealously against a boycott of the 1936 Summer Olympics, which had been awarded to Germany before the rise of the Nazi regime and its subsequent, escalating persecution of Jews. Brundage successfully prevented a US boycott of the Games, and he was elected to the IOC that year. He quickly became a major figure in the Olympic movement and was elected IOC president in 1952.

paragraph: As President of the American Olympic Committee, Brundage fought strongly for amateurism and against the commercialization of the Olympic Games, even as these stands increasingly came to be seen as incongruous with the realities of modern sports. The advent of the state-sponsored athlete of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The 1972 Summer Olympics at Munich, West Germany were his final Games as president of the IOC. The event was marred by tragedy and controversy when eleven Israeli team members were murdered by Palestinian terrorists. At the memorial service, Brundage decried the politicization of sports and refused to cancel the remainder of the Olympics, declaring "the Games must go on." Although those in attendance applauded Brundage's statement, his decision to continue the Games has since been harshly criticized, and his actions in 1936 and 1972 were seen as evidence of anti-Semitism. In retirement, Brundage married his second wife, a German princess. He died in 1975 at age 87.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and athletic career.

paragraph: Avery Brundage was born in Detroit, Michigan, on September 28, 1887, the son of Charles and Minnie (Lloyd) Brundage. Charles Brundage was a stonecutter; the Brundages moved to Chicago when Avery was five, and Charles soon thereafter abandoned his family. Avery and his younger brother, Chester, were raised mostly by aunts and uncles. At age 13 in 1901, Brundage finished first in an essay competition, winning a trip to President William McKinley's second inauguration. Avery attended Sherwood Public School and then R. T. Crane Manual Training School, both in Chicago. Crane Tech was a journey of by public transportation, which he undertook only after completing a newspaper delivery route. Even though the school had no athletic facilities, Brundage made his own equipment (including a shot and a hammer to throw) in the school's workshop and by his final year was written of in the newspapers as a schoolboy track star. According to sportswriter William Oscar Johnson in a 1980 article in "Sports Illustrated", Brundage was "the kind of man whom Horatio Alger had canonized—the American urchin, tattered and deprived, who rose to thrive in the company of kings and millionaires".

paragraph: After he graduated from Crane Tech in 1905, Brundage enrolled at the University of Illinois, where he undertook an arduous schedule of civil engineering courses. He received an honors degree in 1909. He wrote for various campus publications and continued his involvement in sports. Brundage played basketball and ran track for Illinois, and also participated in several intramural sports. In his senior year, he was a major contributor to Illinois' Western Conference championship track team, which defeated the University of Chicago (coached by Amos Alonzo Stagg).

paragraph: After graduation, Brundage began work as a construction superintendent for the leading architectural firm of Holabird & Roche. In the three years he worked for the firm, he supervised the construction of $7.5 million in buildings—3 percent of the total built in Chicago in that time-frame. He disliked the corruption of the Chicago building trades. Brundage's biographer, Allen Guttmann, points out that the young engineer was in a position to benefit from influence if he had wanted to, as his uncle, Edward J. Brundage, was by then Republican leader of Chicago's North Side and would become Attorney General of Illinois. Brundage had been successful in a number of track and field events while at Illinois. In 1910, as a member of the Chicago Athletic Association (CAA), he finished third in the national all-around championships (an American predecessor of the decathlon), sponsored by the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), and continued training, aiming at the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm.

paragraph: At Stockholm, Brundage finished sixth in the pentathlon and 16th in the decathlon. Far behind on points, after eight events he dropped out of the decathlon, which he always regretted. He later moved up one spot in the standings in each event when his fellow American, Jim Thorpe, who had won both events, was disqualified after it was shown that he had played semi-professional baseball: this meant Thorpe was considered a professional, not an amateur as was required for Olympic participation. Throughout his tenure as president, Brundage refused to ask the IOC to restore Thorpe's medals despite advocacy by Thorpe supporters. The committee eventually did so in 1982, after the deaths of both men. Brundage's refusal led to charges that he held a grudge for being beaten in Stockholm.

paragraph: Upon his return to Chicago, Brundage accepted a position as construction superintendent for John Griffith and Sons Contractors. Among the structures he worked on for Griffith were the Cook County Hospital, the Morrison Hotel, the Monroe Building, and the National Biscuit Company warehouse. In 1915, he struck out on his own in construction, founding the Avery Brundage Company, of which his uncle Edward was a director. Brundage continued his athletic career as well. He was US all-around champion in 1914, 1916, and 1918. Once he had ceased to be a track star, he took up handball. As a young man, he was ranked in the top ten in the country and even in 1934, at the age of 46, he won one game out of two against Angelo Trulio, who had recently been the US national champion.

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.:Rise to leadership.

paragraph: As Brundage approached the end of his track career, he began to involve himself in sports administration, at first through the CAA, then through the Central Association of the Amateur Athletic Union (of which the CAA was a member) and then, beginning in 1919, in the AAU. That group was involved in an ongoing battle for dominance over US amateur sports with the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Athletes were often used as pawns in the battle, with one organization threatening to suspend those who participated in events sponsored by the other. Another venue for conflict was in the United States' National Olympic Committee (NOC), which was then called the American Olympic Committee (AOC), and which was AAU-dominated. In 1920, there was public outcry when the AOC chartered a disused troopship to carry home America's representatives in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp; much of the team instead booked passage by ocean liner. In response, the AAU founded an American Olympic Association as a separate group, although it was still initially dominated by AAU representatives—it then selected the AOC. In 1928, on the resignation of then-AOA president General Douglas MacArthur, Brundage was elected president of the AOA; he was also elected president of the AOC, a post he held for over 20 years.

paragraph: In 1925 Brundage became vice-president of the AAU, and chairman of its Handball Committee. After a year as first vice-president, he became president in 1928 and kept the post (except for a one-year break in 1933) through 1935. In that capacity, he was able to secure peace between the NCAA and AAU, with the former gaining the right to certify college students as amateurs, and greater representation on the AOA's executive board.

paragraph: Brundage quickly displayed what writer Roger Butterfield had termed "a dictatorial temperament" in a 1948 article for "Life" magazine. In 1929, American track star Charlie Paddock stated that Brundage and other sports officials were making money for the AOC by using him as a gate attraction, while treating him badly; Brundage shot back accusing Paddock of "untruths" and "sensationalism of the rankest sort". The runner turned professional, escaping Brundage's jurisdiction. In 1932, soon after winning three medals at the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, track star Mildred "Babe" Didrikson appeared in an automobile advertisement, and the Brundage-led AAU quickly suspended her amateur status. Didrikson objected that she had not been paid and that regardless, the rules for maintaining amateur status were overcomplex. In the first of several well-publicized run-ins he had with female athletes, Brundage replied that he had not had any problem with the rules when an Olympic athlete himself, and stated, "You know, the ancient Greeks kept women out of their athletic games. They wouldn't even let them on the sidelines. I'm not so sure but they were right." According to Butterfield, Brundage was suspicious of female athletes, suspecting that some were actually men in disguise.

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.:1936 Olympics.

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.:1936 Olympics.:Fighting a boycott.

paragraph: In 1931, the IOC awarded the 1936 Olympics to Germany, with the winter games in Bavaria and the summer games in the capital city of Berlin. After Germany was selected, several IOC members indicated that they were showing support for its democratic government, which was under attack from extremists in the hard economic times of the Great Depression. The Berlin Games were thrown in doubt, however, by the July 1932 elections, in which the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, unexpectedly won the most seats in the "Reichstag", the national legislature. The Nazis had expressed little interest in international sport, instead preferring the idea of "German games," in which German athletes would compete without what they deemed subhuman "Untermenschen" such as people of Gypsy or African descent or of the Jewish religion, thereby promoting their ideas of Aryan racial superiority and Germans as a "master race." When the Nazis attained power in January 1933, the Olympics were thought likely to be moved elsewhere.

paragraph: Although the Nazis were suspicious of the chairman of the local Olympic organizing committee, Theodor Lewald, because he had a Jewish grandmother, they quickly saw the propaganda potential in hosting the Olympic Games. Lewald had intended to stage the Games on a shoestring budget; instead, the "Reich" threw its resources behind the effort. As the Nazi hatred of the Jews manifested itself in persecution, there were calls to move the Olympics from Germany, or alternatively, to boycott the Games. As head of the US Olympic movement, Brundage received many letters and telegrams urging action. In 1933 and 1934, the IOC worked to assure that, consistent with Olympic ideals, the Games would be open to all, and that there would be no discrimination because of race or religion. IOC President Comte Henri de Baillet-Latour wrote to Brundage in 1933, "I am not personally fond of jews and of the jewish influence, but I will not have them molested in no way whatsoever." According to historical writer Christopher Hilton in his account of the 1936 Games, "Baillet-Latour, and the great and good around him, had no idea what was coming, and if the [IOC's] German delegates kept offering assurances, what else could they do but accept them?" Baillet-Latour opposed boycotting the Games, as did Brundage (who had learned in 1933 that he was being considered for IOC membership).

paragraph: In her 1982 journal article on his role in the US participation in the 1936 Summer Games, Carolyn Marvin explained Brundage's political outlook:

paragraph: Nazi pledges of non-discrimination in sports proved inconsistent with their actions, such as the expulsion of Jews from sports clubs, and in September 1934, Brundage sailed for Germany to see for himself. He met with government officials and others, although he was not allowed to meet with Jewish sports leaders alone. When he returned, he reported, "I was given positive assurance in writing ... that there will be no discrimination against Jews. You can't ask more than that and I think the guarantee will be fulfilled." Brundage's trip only increased the controversy over the question of US participation, with New York Congressman Emanuel Celler stating that Brundage "had prejudged the situation before he sailed from America." The AOC heard a report from Brundage on conditions in Germany and announced its decision. On September 26, 1934, the Committee voted to send the United States team to Berlin.

paragraph: Brundage took the position that as the Germans had reported non-discrimination to the IOC, and the IOC had accepted that report, US Olympic authorities were bound by that determination. Nevertheless, it became increasingly apparent that Nazi actions would prohibit any Jew from securing a place on the German team. On this issue, Brundage stated that only 12 Jews had ever represented Germany in the Olympics, and it would hardly be surprising if none did in 1936.

paragraph: The people who had advocated a boycott were foiled by the AOC, and they turned to the Amateur Athletic Union, hoping that the organization, though also led by Brundage, would refuse to certify American athletes for the 1936 Olympics. Although no vote took place on a boycott at the AAU's December 1934 meeting, Brundage did not seek re-election, and delegates elected Judge Jeremiah T. Mahoney as the new president, to take office in 1935. Although pro-boycott activities briefly fell into a lull, renewed Nazi brutality against the Jews in June 1935 sparked a resurgence, and converted Mahoney to the pro-boycott cause. In October, Baillet-Latour wrote to the three American IOC members—William May Garland, Charles Sherrill, and Ernest Lee Jahncke—asking them to do all they could to ensure a US team was sent to Germany. Garland and Sherrill agreed; Jahncke, however, refused, stating that he would be supporting the boycott. Brundage, at Baillet-Latour's request, took the lead in the anti-boycott campaign. Matters came to a head at the AAU convention in December 1935. Brundage's forces won the key votes, and the AAU approved sending a team to Berlin, specifying that this did not mean it supported the Nazis. Brundage was not magnanimous in victory, demanding the resignation of opponents. Although not all quit, Mahoney did.

paragraph: Brundage believed that the boycott controversy could be used effectively for fundraising, writing, "the fact that the Jews are against us will arouse interest among thousands of people who have never subscribed before, if they are properly approached." In March 1936, he wrote to advertising mogul Albert Lasker, a Jew, complaining that "a large number of misguided Jews still persist in attempting to hamper the activities of the American Olympic Committee. The result, of course, is increased support from the one hundred and twenty million non-Jews in the United States, for this is a patriotic enterprise." In a letter which David Large, in his book on the 1936 Games, terms "heavy-handed," Brundage suggested that by helping to finance American participation in the Olympic Games, Jews could decrease anti-Semitism in the US. However, "Lasker, to his credit, refused to be blackmailed," writing to Brundage that "You gratuitously insult not only Jews but the millions of patriotic Christians in America, for whom you venture to speak without warrant, and whom you so tragically misrepresent in your letter."

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.:1936 Olympics.:Berlin.

paragraph: Brundage led the contingent of American athletes and officials who embarked for Hamburg on the "S.S. Manhattan" at New York Harbor on July 15, 1936. Immediately upon arrival in Germany, Brundage became headline news when he and the AOC dismissed swimmer Eleanor Holm, who was a gold medalist in 1932 and expected to repeat, for getting drunk at late-night parties and missing her curfew. There were various rumors and accounts of the married swimmer's pursuits while on board the ship; the gossip included statements that she was at an "all-night party" with playwright Charles MacArthur, who was traveling without his wife, actress Helen Hayes. Brundage discussed the matter with fellow AOC members, then met with Holm. Although the AOC attempted to send her home, Holm pleaded in vain for reinstatement; "to the AOC's horror," she remained in Berlin as a journalist. In later years, Holm claimed that Brundage had kicked her off the team because he had propositioned her, and she had turned him down. According to Guttmann, "Brundage has appeared, ever since [1936], in the guise of a killjoy." Butterfield noted that through the efforts of sportswriters who supported Holm, "Brundage became celebrated as a tyrant, snob, hypocrite, dictator and stuffed shirt, as well as just about the meanest man in the whole world of sports."

paragraph: On July 30, 1936, six days after the American arrival in Germany, the IOC met in Berlin and unanimously expelled Jahncke. Two places for the United States were vacant, as Sherrill had died in June, but the minutes specifically note that Brundage was elected to the IOC in Jahncke's place.

paragraph: One of the sensations of the Games was black American track star Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals. According to some American press stories, Hitler left the stadium rather than shake hands with him. This was not the case; IOC president Baillet-Latour had told Hitler not to shake hands with the winners unless he was prepared to shake hands with all gold medalists, which he was not. This, however, was not publicized. According to Butterfield, in later years, retellings of what Brundage termed "a fairy tale" roused the American to "acute fury." Hitler was, however, asked by his youth leader, Baldur von Schirach, to meet Owens, and he refused, saying, "Do you really think that I'd allow myself to be photographed shaking hands with a Negro?"

paragraph: The question of the US 4 × 100 meters relay squad was another controversy that may have involved Brundage. The scheduled team included sprinters Sam Stoller and Marty Glickman, who were both Jewish. After Owens won his third gold medal, both men were removed from the relay squad in favor of Owens and fellow black athlete Ralph Metcalfe. The US track coach, Lawson Robertson, told Stoller and Glickman that the Germans had upgraded their squad and it was important to have the fastest team possible. In the event, the US team turned in back-to-back world record times in the heats and final to take the gold medal; the Italians were a distant second, edging out the Germans for the silver medal. Stoller and Glickman, who were the only Jews on the US track team and the only American athletes who went to Berlin and did not compete, did not believe the stated reason for their replacement. Stoller recorded in his diary that he and Glickman had been left out of the relay because the two other participants, Foy Draper and Frank Wykoff, had been coached by one of Robertson's assistants at the University of Southern California. Glickman conceded college favoritism as a possible reason, but thought anti-Semitism more likely, and his position—that he and Stoller had been replaced so as not to embarrass Hitler by having him see Jews, as well as blacks, win gold medals for the US track team—hardened in the following years. He believed Brundage was behind the replacement. Brundage denied any involvement in the decision, which remains controversial. Glickman went on to a lengthy career as a sports broadcaster, and was given the inaugural Douglas MacArthur Award (for lifetime achievement in the field of sports) in 1998, after Stoller's death, by the United States Olympic Committee (successor to the AOC). USOC chairman William Hybl stated that while he had seen no written proof that Brundage was responsible, "I was a prosecutor. I'm used to looking at evidence. The evidence was there"—though, as Large notes, "exactly "what" evidence, he didn't say." In the report that he submitted after the Games, Brundage called the controversy "absurd"; he noted that Glickman and Stoller had finished fifth and sixth at the Olympic trials at New York's Randall's Island Stadium and that the US victory had validated the decision.

paragraph: Section::::Sports administrator.:Road to the IOC presidency.

paragraph: Brundage's first IOC session as an incumbent member was at Warsaw in June 1937. The vice president of the IOC, Baron Godefroy de Blonay of Switzerland, had died, and Sweden's Sigfrid Edström was elected to replace him. Brundage was selected to fill Edström's place on the executive board. Edström had been a Brundage ally in the boycott fight, writing to the American that while he did not desire the persecution of the Jews, as an "intelligent and unscrupulous" people, "they had to be kept within certain limits". Brundage wrote to a German correspondent regretting that Leni Riefenstahl's film about the Berlin Olympics, "Olympia", could not be commercially shown in the United States, as "unfortunately the theaters and moving picture companies are almost all owned by Jews".

paragraph: The Berlin Games had increased Brundage's admiration for Germany, and he spoke out at a speech before the German-American Bund at Madison Square Garden in October 1936, stating that "five years ago they [Germans] were discouraged and demoralized—today they are united—sixty million people believing in themselves and in their country ..." In 1938, his construction company received the contract to build a new German embassy in Washington (this was not fulfilled as World War II intervened). Brundage joined the Keep America Out of War Committee and became a member of America First (he resigned from both the day after Pearl Harbor).

paragraph: Although the 1940 Olympic Games were canceled due to World War II, Brundage sought to organize Western Hemisphere games that might be able to proceed despite the troubled international climate. Brundage was one of the leaders in the founding of the Pan-American Games, participating in the initial discussions in August 1940 in Buenos Aires. On his return, he arranged for the American Olympic Association to be renamed the United States of America Sports Federation (USASF), which would organize the United States Olympic Committee (as the AOC would now be called) and another committee to see to American participation in the Pan-American Games. Brundage became an early member of the international Pan-American Games Commission, although the inaugural event in Buenos Aires was postponed because of the war and was eventually held in 1951, with Brundage present. Despite his role in founding them, Brundage viewed the Pan-American Games as imitative, with no true link with antiquity.

paragraph: War postponed any future Olympics, and fractured the IOC geographically and politically. With Baillet-Latour in German-occupied Belgium, Brundage and IOC vice president Edström did their best to keep channels of communication open between IOC members; according to Guttmann, "He and Edström perceived themselves as keepers of the sacred flame, guardians of an ideal in whose name they were ready once again to act as soon as the madness ended." Baillet-Latour died in 1942; Edström took on the duties of president, although he continued to style himself vice-president. Edström and Brundage did not await the end of war to rebuild the Olympic movement; Brundage even sent parcels to Europe in aid of IOC members and others in places where food was scarce. With Edström turning 74 in 1944, the Swede expressed concern as to who would lead the IOC if he should die, and suggested that Brundage become second vice-president, a newly created position. A mail ballot of IOC members who could be reached confirmed the choice the following year. When Edström was made president by the first postwar IOC session at Lausanne in September 1946, Brundage was elected first vice-president.

paragraph: As vice president, Brundage served on a commission appointed at the IOC's London session in 1948 to recommend whether the 1906 Intercalated Games, held in Athens, should be considered a full Olympic Games. All three members of what came to be known as the Brundage Commission were from the Western Hemisphere and met in New Orleans in January 1949. The commission found that there was nothing to be gained by recognizing the 1906 games as Olympic, and it might set an embarrassing precedent. The full IOC endorsed the report when it met later that year in Rome.

paragraph: Edström intended to retire following the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, when a successor would be elected. Brundage's rival for the presidency was Great Britain's Lord Burghley, an Olympic gold medalist in track in 1928 and president of the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF). The balloting took place at the IOC session in the Finnish capital before the Games. Although Brundage was the executive board's candidate, he was disliked by some IOC members; others felt that the president should be a European. Private notes kept during the balloting reveal it to have been very close, but on the 25th and final ballot, Brundage received 30 votes to 17 for Burghley and was elected.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:Amateurism.

paragraph: Throughout his career as a sports official, according to Guttmann, Brundage "was unquestionably an idealist." He often concluded speeches by quoting from John Galsworthy:

paragraph: This ideal was best realized, Brundage believed, in amateur sports. The athlete, he stated, should compete "for the love of the game itself without thought of reward or payment of any kind," with professionals being part of the entertainment business. Amateurism, to Brundage, expressed the concept of the Renaissance man, with abilities in many fields, yet a specialist in none.

paragraph: As the definition of "amateur" varied by sport, many of the battles Brundage engaged in concerned the question of what money or valuables an athlete could accept while retaining their amateur status, with some sports more liberal than others 1948, tennis allowed expense payments of up to $600 per tournament, while boxing permitted valuable prizes as awards. Enforcement of these rules often fell to National Olympic Committees, and Brundage found them less than enthusiastic about rules which hampered their own athletes in the pursuit of medals.

paragraph: Both before and after becoming IOC president, Brundage was involved in a number of controversies involving threats to, or sometimes actual disqualification of, athletes for breach of amateur rules. In 1932, he was part of a special committee of the IAAF which disqualified Finnish runner Paavo Nurmi from the Los Angeles Games for allegedly accepting monetary compensation. At the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, rival US ice hockey teams, sponsored by different accrediting organizations (one from the AAU and the other from AHAUS), came to the Games. The dispute proved difficult, and the IOC initially voted to cancel the tournament and eliminate ice hockey as an Olympic sport, but relented as organizers had sold thousands of tickets. A compromise was then reached: the AAU team, backed by Brundage and the AOC, would march in the opening ceremony, while the AHAUS team, not favored by Brundage but supported by the LIHG (the forerunner to today's IIHF) and featuring current and former professional players, were allowed to compete but could not earn an Olympic medal. However, since at the time the Olympic hockey tournament also doubled as that year's Ice Hockey World Championships, their results would be recorded for that competition, in which they finished fourth. In 1972, Brundage banned Austrian skier Karl Schranz from the Sapporo Winter Olympics for commercial activities, calling him "a walking billboard."

paragraph: Eastern bloc countries were notorious for skirting the edge of the rules by having state-sponsored "full time amateurs." Their Olympic athletes were given everything they needed to live and train, but were not technically paid to do it, and all the money came from the government. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis. This put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage.

paragraph: Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use professional players, but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC; Brundage was opposed to the idea of amateurs and professionals competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the organization decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition" was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975, after Brundage had left the post of IOC president, and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics because of the IOC's amateur-only policy.

paragraph: As IOC president, Brundage's views on amateurism came increasingly to be seen as outdated in the modern world, as the rules were tested by athletes who saw everyone making money but themselves. In 1962, against Brundage's opposition, the IOC amended the rules to allow sports federations to offer athletes "broken time" payments, compensating them for time missed from work, but only if they had dependents in need. In 1972, Brundage called for the elimination of the Winter Olympics after 1976, finding them hopelessly polluted by rampant commercialism, especially in alpine skiing. In his final speech to the IOC in Munich in 1972, Brundage maintained his position on amateurism: "There are only two kinds of competitors. Those free and independent individuals who are interested in sports for sport's sake, and those in sports for financial reasons. Olympic glory is for amateurs."

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:National participation controversies.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:National participation controversies.:Germany.

paragraph: No German team was allowed at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London or the Winter Games in St. Moritz. Brundage was anxious to reintegrate Germany into the Olympic movement once the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany, through Brundage's lifetime) was formed in 1949. Soon after the state's formation, its National Olympic Committee approached the IOC, seeking recognition, but there was still much animus towards Germany. Just prior to the IOC session in Vienna in 1951 (Brundage was still vice president), the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) also formed an NOC and requested recognition. This created controversy, as the Federal Republic and its NOC claimed to represent both West and East Germany, but did not control the latter. Despite lengthy discussions, no resolution was reached in 1951, and the matter was put over until February 1952, when a negotiating session was scheduled for Copenhagen. Although the East Germans came to Copenhagen, they refused to attend the session, which was eventually cancelled by Edström after the IOC officials and West Germans waited for hours in vain. The German team which competed in Helsinki that summer was entirely West German.

paragraph: In 1954, the East Germans resumed their attempts at recognition. The following year, after Brundage received assurances that the East German NOC was not government-run, the IOC voted to recognize it, but required that both East and West Germany compete as part of a single German team in 1956. East Germany sent only 37 athletes to the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, and they lived and trained separately from their West German counterparts. For the Summer Olympics at Rome in 1960, under continuing IOC insistence that the two states send a single team, East Germany contributed 141 of the 321 athletes; competitors from both states lived in the same area of the Olympic Village. At the Opening Ceremony at Rome, Italian President Giovanni Gronchi marveled, much to Brundage's delight, that the IOC had obtained the German reunification which politicians had been unable to secure; Brundage responded, "But in sport, we do such things." Brundage saw the German participation as symbolic of the potential for the Olympic Games to overcome divisions to unite.

paragraph: Despite the construction of the Berlin Wall beginning in 1961, which increased tensions between East and West, Brundage was successful in securing a joint German team for the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Nevertheless, the East Germans, supported by IOC members from Warsaw Pact nations, aspired to have their own team. They made a major breakthrough when the IAAF (led by the Marquess of Exeter, the former Lord Burghley) recognized a separate East German team beginning with the 1966 European Athletics Championships. The East Germans did their best to get Brundage's support, and, at the IOC session at Mexico City in 1968, they were granted full membership, with their own team under their own flag, which they displayed on West German soil four years later at the Opening Ceremony at Munich. Brundage, while finally supporting full membership for East Germany, considered the matter a defeat for Olympic ideals.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:National participation controversies.:Soviet Union.

paragraph: Although Czarist Russia had sent athletes to the Olympic Games, after the Soviet Union was formed, it declined to participate, considering the Olympics bourgeois. As early as 1923, the IOC attempted to lure the Soviets back into the fold; Brundage visited the USSR in 1934. He was impressed by the progress which had been made there since a visit he had made in 1912 after competing in Stockholm. Despite his anti-Communism, Brundage wanted the Soviets to join the Olympic movement. According to Guttmann, "When Brundage had to choose between his hostility to Communism and his commitment to the ideal of Olympic universality, he chose the latter. He wanted the Russians [sic] in the Olympics, Communists or not."

paragraph: During World War II, Brundage wrote to other IOC members that he had no objection to Soviet involvement in international sports, with representation on the IOC, if the USSR joined the international sports federations (ISFs). The IOC required that an NOC be independent of the government of the territory which it represents; there were concerns a Soviet NOC would not be. This was a problem not unique to communist states; a number of Latin Americans countries were starting to bring the local NOCs into the political structure, with an official naming the NOC chair—who might even be the country's political leader. This mixture of sports and politics worried Brundage.

paragraph: Beginning in 1946, the Soviets began to join international federations; in 1951 their NOC was recognized by the IOC, and they began Olympic competition the following year. As few Soviet sports officials were internationally known, the IOC had little alternative than to accept the nominees of the USSR's government if they wished to have Soviet IOC members. The Soviet members were believers in sport, and completely loyal to their nation and to communist ideals. They quickly became the leaders of the IOC members from behind the Iron Curtain, who voted in accord with the Soviet members. Brundage visited the USSR at Soviet invitation (though at his own expense) in 1954. He deemed the nation's physical education program as "creating the greatest army of athletes the world has ever seen," warning (as he would often through the 1950s) that Americans were by comparison soft and unfit. Brundage found his view, often expressed in the press, that physical education and competitive sports made for better citizens, especially in the event of war, more enthusiastically embraced in the Soviet Union than in the United States. According to David Maraniss in his account of the 1960 Rome Games, Brundage's admiration for the Soviet Union's sports programs "in some ways mirrored his response two decades earlier to his encounters with Nazi Germany".

paragraph: On his return, he related in an article for "The Saturday Evening Post" that he had confronted Soviet officials with information from defectors stating that the USSR was running year-round training camps and giving athletes material inducements for success. He also repeated the Soviet response, which questioned the defectors' integrity: "These men are deserters, traitors. Would you attach any truth to their statements had they been Americans and had turned against your country?" Since Brundage did not comment on the response, there was a storm of controversy in the press, which accused Brundage of being a Soviet dupe.

paragraph: Despite the evident conflicts between amateurism and the Soviet system in which athletes received salaries and property at state expense, allowing them to train full-time, Brundage took no action against the USSR or Warsaw Pact nations with similar systems; when challenged on this point, he argued that Western nations did similar things. citing athletic scholarships as an example. The Soviet system remained in place.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:National participation controversies.:China and Taiwan.

paragraph: The Republic of China, which then governed the mainland, had joined the Olympic movement in 1924, when the China National Amateur Athletic Federation was recognized by the IOC as the nation's NOC. China participated in the 1932 Olympics in Los Angeles, as well as in Berlin four years later and the first post-war Olympics at London in 1948. When the communists were successful in the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, most NOC members fled the mainland for the island of Taiwan. This left China with two rival NOCs, one on the mainland and one on Taiwan, each claiming to represent the whole of China.

paragraph: Matters came to a head in 1952, when the mainland NOC (the All-China Athletic Federation), considering itself a continuation of the pre-1949 committee, wrote to the IOC stating that it desired to participate in the Helsinki Olympics to be held that year. As the Taiwanese also proposed to send a team, this conflicted with IOC rules stating that only one committee could represent a country, and both Chinese groups were unwilling to negotiate with the other, or to send a joint team. After considerable deliberation, the IOC decided that if either committee was recognized by the ISF for a sport, the committee could send athletes to participate in events in that discipline. In protest, Taiwan withdrew from the Games; the PRC sent a team to Helsinki, though it arrived ten days after the start of the Games. Brundage, president-elect when the decision was made to allow PRC athletes to compete, argued against the decision to allow mainland participation before its NOC was recognized, but he was overruled by his colleagues.

paragraph: In 1954, the Brundage-headed IOC, in a narrow vote, recognized both committees, thus allowing both states to participate at Melbourne. Only the PRC's committee initially accepted, but when the Taiwanese NOC changed its mind and decided to send a team to the Games, the mainlanders withdrew in protest. Brundage took the position that despite similar concerns about state sponsorship as with the USSR, once the PRC's committee was recognized and reported to the IOC that all eligibility rules were observed, the international committee had to accept that unless it had evidence to the contrary. He was frustrated by the continuing controversy, considering the squabble a distraction from the goal of advancing the Olympic movement.

paragraph: When continuing efforts to exclude the Taiwanese failed, in 1958 the mainlanders withdrew from the IOC. The following year, the IOC ruled the Taiwanese could not compete under the name Republic of China Olympic Committee, but would have to compete under some other name which did not imply they governed sports in China. Brundage and Exeter both advocated for the ruling, which they compared to having an Italian NOC represent only Sicily. The press interpreted the ruling to mean that Nationalist China had been expelled from the Olympic movement, and for the next year, the anti-communist Brundage found himself under attack in the press as a communist sympathizer. Although United States State Department officials attempted to persuade them to stand on principle, Taiwanese officials decided to participate in the Rome Games, hoping to secure China's first medal, and believing their NOC's continued presence helped keep mainland China out of the Games. Taiwanese athletes competed under the designation Formosa (an alternate name for Taiwan), and caused a sensation by briefly displaying a sign reading "Under Protest" at the Opening Ceremony; when Yang Chuan-Kwang took the silver medal in the decathlon, he was not allowed to display the Nationalist Chinese flag at the medals ceremony.

paragraph: Brundage, through his tenure, slowly came around to the position advocated by Iron Curtain IOC members, that the important thing was to recognize the mainland, with Taiwan of less importance. Although the mainland Chinese were invited by the Munich Olympic organizers to send an observer delegation to Munich (they declined due to the Taiwanese presence), it was not until 1975, after Brundage's departure as president, that the PRC applied to rejoin the Olympic movement. The PRC again participated at the 1980 Winter Games at Lake Placid and then the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles; the island NOC competed as the Republic of China in 1968 and 1972; when refused permission to compete under that name in 1976, after Brundage's death, it boycotted the 1976 and 1980 games, returning in 1984 as Chinese Taipei.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:National participation controversies.:South Africa and Rhodesia.

paragraph: In the late 1950s, protest against South Africa's apartheid regime reached the stage of seeking to exclude the nation from international sport. In 1956, government rules requiring separate events for whites and non-whites in South Africa were issued; non-whites received poorer facilities. Brundage initially opposed taking any action. The run-up to the 1960 Rome Olympics had seen tumult in South Africa, including the Sharpeville massacre and a crackdown on the African National Congress. Activists attempted to persuade Brundage that South Africa should be excluded from the Games. Brundage initially took the word of South African sport leaders that all citizens were able to compete for a place on the Olympic team, and that non-white South Africans simply were not good enough.

paragraph: The drive towards a boycott was fueled by the large number of African nations which became independent in the late 1950s and early 1960s. To prevent the new nations from overwhelming the ISFs, Brundage proposed that the federations adopt weighted voting systems to allow earlier members to wield disproportionate influence, which some did. By 1962, with the suspension of South Africa from FIFA (the association football governing body), Brundage had come around to the position that South Africa's racist policies were inconsistent with the ideals of the Olympic movement. At the 1963 IOC session in Baden-Baden (moved there from Nairobi when Kenyan officials refused to issue visas to South African representatives), the IOC voted to suspend South Africa from the Olympics unless its NOC and government adopted non-discrimination policies regarding Olympic selection. This did not come to pass, and South Africa did not participate in 1964. In 1968, Brundage and the IOC invited a South African team (supposedly to be multiracial) to the Mexico City Games, but under a threatened boycott and with evidence of minimal South African compliance, withdrew it.

paragraph: In 1971, the IOC, at its Amsterdam session, voted to strip the South African NOC of recognition. Although Brundage had hoped to keep South Africa within the Olympic movement, he believed that those who sought its expulsion had made the stronger case. South Africa did not return to the Olympics until the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, after the end of its apartheid government.

paragraph: A parallel problem was that of Rhodesia, the British colony which had unilaterally declared its independence from Great Britain in 1965. Rhodesia had a white minority government. In May 1968, the United Nations Security Council condemned its government and asked nations not to honor its passports, and the Mexican government, set to host the Olympics later that year, complied with the ban. The IOC initially believed that sports facilities in the breakaway colony were not segregated, despite its government's policies. The proposed 16-member Olympic team included two black athletes. Because of this, Brundage supported Rhodesian participation at Mexico City, but he was overruled by the IOC; according to the head of the Rhodesian Olympic Committee, Douglas Downing, "His voice cries in a wilderness of spite." For Munich in 1972, the IOC decided to allow the Rhodesians to compete as British subjects, which by international law they were. African nations again threatened to boycott if the Rhodesians were allowed to participate, and, at its Munich session in 1972 just before the Games, the IOC narrowly voted to exclude the Rhodesians. Brundage was livid at the decision, believing that the IOC had yielded to blackmail. In 1974, after Brundage left office, the IOC found evidence of segregated facilities in Rhodesia, and it subsequently withdrew recognition from its NOC. Rhodesia returned to the Olympics in 1980 as recognized independent Zimbabwe.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:Olympic administration; challenges to leadership.

paragraph: Unpaid as IOC president, even for his expenses, Brundage sometimes spent $50,000 per year to finance his role. In 1960, the IOC had almost no funds. Brundage and the IOC had considered the potential of television revenue as early as the Melbourne Games of 1956, but had been slow to address the issue, with the result that television rights for the 1960 Games were in the hands of the Rome organizing committee; the IOC received only 5% of the $60,000 rights fee. Accounts submitted by the Rome organizers showed they lost money on the Olympics; the IOC would have received a portion of the profits, and had no money to offer the sports federations who wanted a percentage of the proceeds. In future years, the sale of television rights became a major source of revenue for the IOC, rising to $10 million by the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, and $1.2 billion, long after Brundage's death, at Athens in 2004. Brundage was concerned about the increasing revenue, warning IOC members in 1967, "The moment we handle money, even if we only distribute it, there will be trouble ..."

paragraph: NOC representatives had met with Brundage and the IOC executive board from time to time, but many NOC representatives felt that Brundage was taking no action in response to concerns expressed by the NOC attendees. In the early 1960s, many NOCs, led by Italian IOC member Giulio Onesti, sought to bypass Brundage and the IOC by forming a Permanent General Assembly of National Olympic Committees (PGA-NOC), which Brundage strongly opposed and the IOC refused to recognize. The PGA-NOC from 1965 demanded a share of television revenue; it also desired that the ISFs, not the IOC, set policy on amateurism.

paragraph: Brundage had been initially elected in 1952 for an eight-year term; he was re-elected unanimously in 1960 for an additional four years. Despite talk that he would be opposed by Exeter, Brundage's 1952 rival nominated him for the new term. Brundage was re-elected in 1964 by an announced unanimous vote, though Guttmann records that Brundage actually only narrowly turned back a challenge by Exeter. As Brundage's term as president neared its end in 1968, some IOC members, who saw him as hidebound, or just too old at 81 to effectively lead the organization, sought his ouster. Nevertheless, he was easily re-elected at the IOC session in Mexico City that year, though he pledged not to seek another four-year term, but to retire in 1972. Ireland's Lord Killanin was elected first vice-president. Killanin, seen (correctly) as Brundage's likely successor, was more sympathetic to the concerns of the NOCs, and attended PGA-NOC meetings. Brundage did not recognize the PGA-NOC, but did establish joint IOC-NOC committees to address NOC concerns. Although the PGA-NOC did not gain Olympic recognition, it remained a significant outside organization through Brundage's presidency, and according to Guttmann, "Brundage won a less than total victory and Onesti suffered a far from complete defeat. The I.O.C. had become far more attractive to the national Olympic committees and to their interests, and that is what Onesti called for in the first place."

paragraph: With Brundage in Chicago or at his California home, day to day IOC operations were overseen at "Mon Repos", the IOC headquarters in Lausanne, by Otto Meyer, the IOC's chancellor. Brundage came to consider Meyer too impetuous, and dismissed him in 1964, abolishing the office. Eventually, Brundage promoted Monique Berlioux to be IOC director in the last years of his tenure, and apparently found her services satisfactory. Mon Repos, the former home of the founder of the Modern Olympics, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, proved too cramped for the IOC, which had to share space with de Coubertin's widow, who lived to be 101. In 1968, the IOC moved to new quarters at Lausanne's Château de Vidy.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:Political demonstration at Mexico City.

paragraph: The year 1968 had seen turmoil in the United States, including riots and the assassination of civil rights leader Martin Luther King. Prior to the Olympics in Mexico City in October 1968, some African Americans, led by activist Harry Edwards, had urged a boycott of the Games, but found little enthusiasm among athletes, reluctant to waste years of effort. The atmosphere was made more tense by unrest in Mexico City before the Games which left dozens dead.

paragraph: There were racial tensions between black US athletes and their white counterparts; in one incident, African Americans blocked whites from the track. One black runner, Tommie Smith, told writers on October 15, "I don't want Brundage presenting me any medals". The following day, Smith won the 200 meters, and fellow African-American John Carlos took the bronze medal. The two men, after receiving their medals from IAAF president Lord Exeter, and as "The Star-Spangled Banner" played, raised black-gloved fists, heads down, in salute of black power. Brundage deemed it to be a domestic political statement unfit for the apolitical, international forum the Olympic Games were intended to be. In response to their actions, he ordered Smith and Carlos suspended from the US team and banned from the Olympic Village. When the US Olympic Committee refused, Brundage threatened to ban the entire US track team. This threat led to the expulsion of the two athletes from the Games. Other demonstrations by African-Americans also took place: the three African Americans who took the medals in the 400 meters race, led by gold medalist Lee Evans, wore black berets on the podium but took them off before the anthem while African-American boxer George Foreman, triumphant in the heavyweight division, waved a small American flag around the boxing ring and bowed to the crowd with fellow American boxers. Brundage's comment about the Smith-Carlos incident was "Warped mentalities and cracked personalities seem to be everywhere and impossible to eliminate." The USOC's official report omits the iconic photograph of Smith and Carlos with their fists raised; the local organizing committee's official film showed footage of the ceremony. Brundage, who termed the incident "the nasty demonstration against the American flag by negroes", objected in vain to its inclusion.

paragraph: Section::::IOC president (1952–1972).:Munich 1972.

paragraph: At the same IOC session in August 1972 in Munich at which the Rhodesians were excluded, the IOC elected Killanin as Brundage's successor, to take office after the Games. Brundage cast a blank ballot in the vote which selected the Irishman, considering him an intellectual lightweight without the force of character needed to hold the Olympic movement together.

paragraph: Brundage hoped that the Munich Games would take the sting out of his defeat over the Rhodesian issue. Munich was one of his favorite cities, and the "heitere Spiele" (cheerful Games) were designed to efface memories of 1936 and Berlin in the eyes of the world. They initially seemed to be doing so, as athletic feats, like those of gymnast Olga Korbut and swimmer Mark Spitz captivated viewers. In the early morning of September 5, 1972, Palestinian terrorists from the organization Black September entered the Olympic Village and took 11 Israelis hostage, demanding freedom for hundreds of Palestinians held in Israeli custody. Brundage, once informed, rushed to the Olympic Village, where he conferred with German and Bavarian state officials through the day, playing what Guttmann describes as a modest role in the discussions. German officials moved the hostages and their captors to Fürstenfeldbruck Air Base, where German police and troops tried a rescue late that evening. The attempt was bungled; the nine remaining hostages (two had been murdered earlier) and three of their captors were killed.

paragraph: Even before the ill-fated rescue attempt, IOC officials began conferring. Killanin and other officials were in Kiel for the yacht racing; they hurried back to Munich. Just before 4 pm, Brundage called off the remainder of the day's events, and announced a memorial service honoring those who had already died for the following morning. Many Olympic leaders were critical of Brundage for his participation in the discussions with the government, feeling that this should have been left for the authorities and the local organizing committee, but all supported the memorial service, which was held the following day in the Olympic Stadium. There, before the audience in the stadium and the millions watching on television, Brundage offered what Guttmann called "the credo of his life":

paragraph: The crowd in the stadium responded to Brundage's statement with loud applause; according to "Stars & Stripes", "Brundage's statement that 'the games must go on' took much of the heavy gloom away which has permeated Munich since early Tuesday [September 5, the day of the attack]." Killanin, after his own retirement as IOC president, stated that "I believe Brundage was right to continue and that his stubborn determination saved the Olympic Movement one more time" but that Brundage's mention of the Rhodesian question was, while not inappropriate, at least better left for another time. According to future IOC vice president Dick Pound, the insertion of the Rhodesian issue into the speech "was universally condemned, and Brundage left office under a cloud of criticism that effectively undermined a lifetime of well-intentioned work in the Olympic movement". Brundage subsequently issued a statement that he did not mean to imply the decision to exclude the Rhodesians, which he stated was "purely a matter of sport", was comparable to the murder of the Israelis. According to Alfred Senn in his history of the Olympics, the decision to continue the games "sat poorly with many observers"; sportswriter Red Smith of "The New York Times" was among the critics:

paragraph: Section::::Retirement and death.

paragraph: Brundage retired as IOC president after the 1972 Summer Games. There were differing accounts of Brundage's state of mind during his retirement. IOC director Berlioux stated that Brundage would come to the Château de Vidy and take telephone calls or look at correspondence while he waited for Lord Killanin to turn to him for help. According to Berlioux, Brundage sometimes called her from Geneva and asked her to go there. The two would spend hours wandering the streets, saying little. Brundage's longtime factotum, Frederick Ruegsegger, described a different, tranquil, Brundage, whom he compared to an abdicated Japanese emperor.

paragraph: His wife of nearly half a century, Elizabeth, to whom he had not been faithful, died in 1971. Brundage had once jested that his ambition was to wed a German princess. In June 1973, this came to pass when he married Princess Mariann Charlotte Katharina Stefanie von Reuss (1936–2003), daughter of Heinrich XXXVII, Prince of Reuss-Köstritz. Von Reuss had worked as an interpreter during the Munich Games; she stated that she had met Brundage in 1955, when she was 19. When Brundage was asked by reporters about the 48-year difference in their ages, Brundage responded that he was young for his age and she mature for hers, and instead of 85 years to 37, it should be thought of as more like 55 to 46. Ruegsegger refused to be best man and stated after Brundage's death that the couple had dissipated much of Brundage's fortune through free spending, though Guttmann notes that some of those purchases were of real estate, which could be deemed investments.

paragraph: In January 1974, Brundage underwent surgery for cataracts and glaucoma. The necessary arrangements had initially been made by Brundage's protégé, Spanish IOC member Juan Antonio Samaranch, who would become IOC president in 1980. At the last moment, Brundage cancelled the plans, choosing to have the surgery in Munich, near the home he had purchased in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, site of the 1936 Winter Olympics. After a month and a half, Brundage was discharged from the hospital, though whether the surgery had improved his vision was disputed, with Mariann Brundage stating that it did and Ruegsegger stating the contrary. Now frail, at age 87 he went with his wife on a final tour of the Far East. Despite the efforts of Olympic officials on his behalf, he was not given an invitation to mainland China, source of much of the art he loved. In April 1975, Brundage entered the hospital at Garmisch-Partenkirchen with flu and a severe cough. He died there on May 8, 1975, of heart failure.

paragraph: In his will, Brundage provided for his wife and for Ruegsegger, as well as making several charitable bequests. He left his papers and memorabilia to the University of Illinois; he had already given it $350,000 to fund scholarships for students interested in competing in sports who do not receive an athletic scholarship.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life and business career.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life and business career.:Relationships.

paragraph: At age 40 in 1927, Brundage married his first wife, Elizabeth Dunlap, who was the daughter of a Chicago banker. She was a trained soprano, which was a talent that she exhibited to people who visited the Brundage home. She had a strong interest in classical music. This interest might not have been fully shared by her husband, who said that a performance of Wagner's "Die Walküre" "started at 7 o'clock, at 10:00 pm I looked at my watch and it registered exactly 8 o'clock". Elizabeth died at age 81 in 1971.

paragraph: In 1973, Brundage married Princess Mariann Charlotte Katharina Stefanie von Reusshad. He had no children with either of his two wives. During his first marriage, however, Brundage fathered two sons out of wedlock with his Finnish mistress, Lilian Dresden. His affair with Dresden was one of many. The children were born in 1951 and 1952, at precisely the time that Brundage was being considered for the presidency of the IOC. Though he privately acknowledged paternity, Brundage took great pains to conceal the existence of these children; he was concerned that the truth about his extra-marital relationships might damage his chances of election. He requested that his name be kept off the birth certificates. Brundage visited his two sons periodically in the 1950s, visits that tailed off to telephone calls in the 1960s and nothing in his final years. He did establish a trust fund for the boys' education and start in life, but after his death, unnamed in his will, they sued and won a small settlement of $62,500 each out of his $19 million estate.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life and business career.:Construction executive.

paragraph: After its founding in 1915, a large source of the Avery Brundage Company's business was wartime government contracts. Brundage, who applied for a commission in the Army Ordnance Corps but was rejected, in the postwar period became a member of the Construction Division Association, composed of men who had built facilities for the military, and later became its president from 1926 to 1928.

paragraph: In the 1920s, Brundage and his company became very active in constructing high-rise apartment buildings in Chicago. He used rapid construction methods, allowing clients to begin realizing income from their investments quickly—the Sheridan-Brompton Apartments (1924) overlooking Lincoln Park, were built in five months, allowing the start of $40,000 in monthly rental income, offsetting a monthly mortgage payment of $15,000. Often, the Brundage Company was involved in the ownership of the apartments: 3800 Sheridan Road (1927), a 17-story building costing $3,180,000, was owned by a company which had as its president and treasurer Chester Brundage, Avery's younger brother. It was constructed in eight months, through the Chicago winter, using an onsite concrete mixing plant. This temporary structure also provided office space for the construction. Another source of income for Brundage and his company was hotel construction, for which he was often paid in part with stock in the new facility. One president of an engineering firm specializing in large structures called Brundage's methods on the Shoreham Hotel "progressive, snappy, [and] up-to-date" and "straightforward and honest".

paragraph: In 1923, Brundage constructed a massive assembly plant on Torrence Avenue on Chicago's South Side for the Ford Motor Company. At $4 million in cost and bringing under one roof, it was the largest industrial plant built by Brundage. Constructed in ten months, the new facility helped meet the national demand for Model T cars in the 1920s, and in 1950, produced 154,244 vehicles. A plant for Hubbard & Co. was erected in 125 days despite an unusually harsh Chicago winter. Despite later statements from Brundage that he avoided public works due to corruption, he built the 23rd Street viaduct as part of the South Shore Development project; Brundage's viaduct extended Chicago's shoreline into Lake Michigan at a cost of two million dollars. By 1925, the Avery Brundage Company was acclaimed for speed, innovation and quality, and had a payroll of $50,000 a week.

paragraph: Although the start of the Depression in 1929 was a major setback for Brundage, he rebuilt his wealth by investments in real estate, also accepting interests in buildings he had constructed in lieu of payments the owners were unable to make. He later stated that "you didn't have to be a wizard" in order to "buy stocks and bonds in depressed corporations for a few cents on the dollar—and then wait. I was just a little lucky." According to historian and archivist Maynard Brichford, Brundage "emerged from the difficult depression years with a substantial annual income, a good reputation, and excellent investments". His foresight resulted in a fortune which by 1960 was estimated at $25,000,000.

paragraph: A major Brundage investment was Chicago's La Salle Hotel, which had been built in 1908. Located in the heart of The Loop and the city's financial district, Brundage first leased it in 1940, later purchasing it. When the hotel was seriously damaged by fire in 1946, Brundage spent about $2.5 million remodeling and modernizing it. As Brundage made a home there during his time as IOC president, the hotel became famous in international sports as his residence. He sold the hotel in 1970, but later reclaimed it when the purchaser failed to make required payments.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life and business career.:Art collector and benefactor.

paragraph: Brundage's interest in Asian art stemmed from a visit he made to an exhibition of Chinese art at the Royal Academy in London in early 1936, after the Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Brundage stated of the experience, "We [his first wife Elizabeth and himself] spent a week at the exhibition and I came away so enamored with Chinese art that I've been broke ever since." He did not begin active collecting until after the Brundages' two-week visit to Japan in April 1939, where they visited Yokohama, Kyoto, Osaka, Nara and Nikko. They followed up Japan with visits to Shanghai and Hong Kong, but due to the war between Japan and China, were unable to explore further on Avery Brundage's only visit to mainland China—this disappointment bothered him his whole life.

paragraph: On his return to the United States after the June 1939 IOC session in London, Brundage systematically set about becoming a major collector of Asian art. The unsettled conditions caused wealthy Chinese to sell family heirlooms, and prices were depressed, making it an opportune moment to collect. He bought many books on Asian art, stating in an interview that a "major library is an indispensable tool". After the US entered World War II, stock owned by Japanese dealers in the United States was impounded; Brundage was able to purchase the best items. Dealers found him willing to spend money, but knowledgeable and a hard bargainer. Brundage rarely was fooled by forgeries, and was undeterred by the few he did buy, noting that in Asian art, fake pieces were often a thousand years old. In his 1948 article on Brundage for "Life", Butterfield noted that "his collection is regarded as one of the largest and most important in private hands in this country".

paragraph: Brundage engaged the French scholar René-Yvon Lefebvre d'Argencé, then teaching at the University of California, as full-time curator of his collection and advisor on acquisitions. The two men made a deal—no piece would be purchased unless both men agreed. They built a collection of jade which ranged from the neolithic period to the modern era; and hundreds of Chinese, Japanese and Korean bronzes, mostly Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The painter whom Brundage admired the most was Huizong, 12th-century Chinese emperor of the Song dynasty; the collector never was able to obtain any of his work. Brundage several times bought pieces smuggled out of their lands of origin to restore them there. When Brundage sold a piece, it was most likely because he no longer favored it artistically, rather than to realize a profit. In 1954, a financial statement prepared for Brundage listed the value of his collection as more than $1 million. In 1960, Robert Shaplen, in his article on Brundage for "The New Yorker", noted that Brundage, during his travels as IOC president, always found time to visit art dealers, and stated that the collection was valued at $15 million.

paragraph: By the late 1950s, Brundage was increasingly concerned about what to do with his collection. His homes in Chicago and California were so overwhelmed with art that priceless artifacts were kept in shoeboxes under beds. In 1959, Brundage agreed to give part of his collection to the city of San Francisco. The following year city voters passed a bond issue of $2,725,000 to house the donation. The result was the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, which opened in 1966 in Golden Gate Park, initially sharing space with the M. H. de Young Memorial Museum before moving to its own facility near the Civic Center in 2003. Brundage made another major donation in 1969 (despite a fire which destroyed many pieces at his California home, "La Piñeta" near Santa Barbara in 1964), and left the remainder of his collection to the museum in his will. Today, the museum has 7,700 pieces from Brundage among the 17,000-plus objects which make up its collection.

paragraph: Brundage connected the world of art and that of amateur sports in his own mind. In a speech to the IOC session in Tokyo in 1958, he discussed netsuke, used at one time by Japanese to anchor items hung from kimono sashes, and of which he owned several thousand; he held two in his hands as he spoke. He told the members that a netsuke was at one time carefully carved by the man who wore it, building "something of himself into the design", and although a class of professional netsuke makers arose later, whose work might have been more technically adept, it was, "ordinarily cold, stiff, and without imagination. ... Missing was the element of the amateur carver, which causes these netsuke to be esteemed so much higher by the collector than the commercial product carved for money." Brundage later commented about his speech, "Here was the difference between amateurism and professionalism spelled out in a netsuke."

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Retrospective news coverage has sometimes judged Brundage harshly: in May 2012, "The Independent" dubbed him "The ancient IOC emperor, anti-Semite and Nazi sympathiser bent on insulating the Games from the meddlesome tentacles of the real world." "The Orange County Register" stated that Brundage's "racism and anti-Semitism are well documented", and the New York "Daily News" averred that Brundage "admired Hitler and infamously replaced two Jewish sprinters on the 4-by-100 relay team because it could have further embarrassed Hitler if they won".

paragraph: Brundage left an uncertain legacy. Guttmann notes that in the 1960s, Brundage may have been better-known as an art collector than for his sports activities, and "there are those who maintain that he will be remembered not for his career in sports but for his jades and bronzes." Andrew Leigh, a Member of the Australian House of Representatives, criticizes Brundage for expelling the two athletes in Mexico City, calling him "a man who'd had no difficulty with the Nazi salute being used in the 1936 Olympics". Dick Pound believes Brundage to have been one of the IOC's great presidents, along with de Coubertin and Samaranch, but concedes that by the end of his term, Brundage was out of touch with the world of sports. While Pound credits Brundage with holding the Olympic movement together in a period when it was beset by many challenges, he notes that this might not be fully appreciated by those who remember Brundage for the final years of his term, and for Munich.

paragraph: Alfred Senn suggests that Brundage remained too long as IOC president:

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Books

paragraph: Other sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Article reprint (from a press kit style folder in the Avery Brundage Collection, University of Illinois). Page numbers are for the reprint, not the original article.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Avery Brundage Collection at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

paragraph: BULLET::::- I.N.A.: Avery Brundage in opening ceremony, Grenoble, 1968

paragraph: BULLET::::- Transcript of Brundage press conference from 1970

paragraph: BULLET::::- Avery Brundage's complicated Olympic legacy

description: US-American sports executive, president of the International Olympic Committee between 1952–1972

wikidata_label: Avery Brundage

wikipedia_title: Avery Brundage


text:
courtesy name
Tang Dynasty
Xuanwu Gate Incident
Emperor Taizong
Illig Qaghan
Tujue
Lingyan Pavilion
Wang Shichong
Tang Dynasty
Li Shimin
Li Jiancheng
Tujue
Li Jing
Illig Qaghan
Lingyan Pavilion
Luo Yi
Youzhou
Wagang Army
Goguryeo
Yeon Gaesomun
Northern Qi
Ministry of Revenue
Zhang Da'an
Emperor Gaozong
Imperial Academy
Wu Zetian
Imperial Academy
Yi Xing

categories: Tang dynasty people,Transition from Sui to Tang,Tang dynasty generals,594 births,Tang dynasty

paragraph: Zhang Gongjin

paragraph: Zhang Gongjin (594 - 632), courtesy name Hongshen, titled Duke of Tan, was an official and general during the Tang Dynasty of China. He played an important role in the Xuanwu Gate Incident in 626 which helped Emperor Taizong obtained the crown. He was a key general of Tang Dynasty during the campaign against Illig Qaghan of Tujue. Because of his contributions, he was listed as one of 24 founding officials of Tang Dynasty honored on the Lingyan Pavilion.

paragraph: Section::::In history.

paragraph: Zhang Gongjin was originally a low-ranked official under the warlord Wang Shichong. In 618, Zhang submitted to Tang Dynasty and became a follower of Li Shimin, the then Prince of Qin, who was in a rivalry against the crowned prince Li Jiancheng for the potential chance of becoming the next emperor. In 626, Li Shimin ambushed and killed Li Jiancheng at Xuanwu Gate. During this incident, Zhang Gongjin played a big role in stopping Li Jiancheng's reinforcement forces led by Feng Li, Xue Wanche and Xie Shufang from breaking through the Xuanwu Gate. Li Shimin soon became the new emperor (Emperor Taizong) after the incident.

paragraph: During Emperor Taizong's reign, Zhang Gongjin was a military commander guarding Daizhou, an important city in the north of Tang empire. He managed to keep Daizhou safe during invasions of Tujue people. In 629, the steppe in the north, home of Tujue tribes, suffered from a serious winter storm. Zhang Gongjin thus suggested to launch a counter attack against Tujue. He listed five reasons why Tang should launch this attack. Emperor Taizong took his advise and sent out six troops, all under Li Jing's command, to attack Tujue. Zhang Gongjin was the vice chief commander under Li Jing during this campaign. The Illig Qaghan was captured by Tang dynasty in the following year, which marked the collapse of the Eastern Turkic Khanate. Because of his contributions in this campaign, Zhang was given the title Duke of Zou. He was then appointed to be the military commander of Xiangzhou. During his time in Xiangzhou, he gained reputation as a good governor.

paragraph: Zhang Gongjin died in Xiangzhou in 632. In 639, Emperor Taizong promoted his title to be Duke of Tan. In 643, he was listed on the Lingyan Pavilion.

paragraph: Section::::In folk legends.

paragraph: In folk legends, Zhang Gongjin was a low-ranked officer under Luo Yi, the general guarding Youzhou in Sui Dynasty. Later, he joined the peasant uprising and became a leader of Wagang Army. After Wagang Army disbanded, Zhang Gongjin submitted to Tang Dynasty and became a general. During the war against Goguryeo, Zhang Gongjin was killed by the Korean general Yeon Gaesomun in the battle.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Grandfather:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Ganzhi: A mid-ranked governor in Northern Qi dynasty

paragraph: Father:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Shiru: Duke of Dingyuan County (Retroactively recognized by Tang dynasty)

paragraph: Sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Daxiang: Vice minister of Ministry of Revenue

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Dasu: A local governor of Huaizhou, and a historian

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Da'an: Chancellor during Emperor Gaozong's reign

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Daya: Died in a young age

paragraph: Daughter:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Wuliang

paragraph: Grandsons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Chen: A county-level governor in Shandong

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Fei: A teaching staff at Imperial Academy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Xu: A low-ranked local governor in Dingzhou

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Xuan: A mid-ranked officer in the central court during Wu Zetian's reign

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Qia: General of Left Jinwu Guard Army

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Shui: A top scholar at Imperial Academy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Jun: A mid-ranked officer

paragraph: Notable Great Grandsons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zhang Hui: A prefecture-level governor

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yi Xing (Zhang Sui): One of best-known Buddhists, scientists and mathematicians in ancient China.

description: Tang dynasty person CBDB = 13751

wikidata_label: Zhang Gongjin

wikipedia_title: Zhang Gongjin


text: Realist

text: Buenos Aires

text: Accademia Albertina

text: Turin

text: Giacomo Grosso

text: pastel

text: Italy

text: Umberto I

text: Palazzo Quirinale

text: southside

text: Panic of 1890

text: National Museum of Fine Art

text: Universal Exposition of 1904

text: St. Louis

text: Berlin State Museums

text: Egyptian

text: Chaldea

text: Greek

text: Eduardo Sívori

text: University of Buenos Aires

text: Argentine Centennial

text: National University Art Institute

text: La Recoleta Cemetery

text: obras

categories: 19th-century Argentine painters,Burials at La Recoleta Cemetery,1927 deaths,Argentine people of Basque descent,University of Buenos Aires faculty,1866 births,Artists from Buenos Aires,Realist painters

paragraph: Ernesto de la Cárcova

paragraph: Ernesto de la Cárcova y Arrotea (March 3, 1866 – December 28, 1927) was an Argentine painter of the Realist school.

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: Ernesto de la Cárcova was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1866. Taking an early interest in the canvas, he studied at the local Society for the Stimulus of Fine Arts under painter Francisco Romero. He attended the prestigious Accademia Albertina in Turin, where he was trained by painter Giacomo Grosso.

paragraph: At the 31st Turin Fine Arts Exposition in 1890, he presented "The Head of An Old Man", a pastel drawing he sold to the King of Italy, Umberto I, for display at the Palazzo Quirinale in Rome. Returning to Argentina, he completed his best-known work, "Without Bread or Work", in 1893. Set in Buenos Aires' industrial southside during the severe recession that followed the Panic of 1890, the work is today displayed in the National Museum of Fine Art.

paragraph: Gaining increasing renown, he was invited to direct the Argentine Artists' Fellowship Program in Paris in 1902 and received a gold medal for his work at the Universal Exposition of 1904 in St. Louis (United States). During his stay in Europe, he took an interest in sculpture, purchasing a number of reproductions of works in the Berlin State Museums collections, including those of a number of ancient Egyptian, Chaldean, and Greek busts and bronzes. Returning to Buenos Aires, he displayed a number of these works at the Buenos Aires Centennial Exposition in 1910 and was invited into the National Fine Arts Academy by its founder, fellow Realist painter Eduardo Sívori.

paragraph: He accepted a professorship at the University of Buenos Aires and, continuing to participate in international events, he garnered a silver medal at a 1916 Paris Arts Exposition. De la Cárcova's designs were chosen to represent the Argentine Centennial as the official medal, and as the great seal of the University of Buenos Aires in 1921. Founder of the School Superior of Fine Arts in 1923., an institution that absorbed Sívori's academy. The school is today part of the National University Art Institute, Argentina's foremost institution of its type.

paragraph: Professor de la Cárcova bequeathed his collection of German sculptures for the creation of the Museum of Reproductions and Comparative Sculpture, which was named in his honor following his death in 1927. He was buried in La Recoleta Cemetery.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes: obras de Ernesto de la Cárcova

paragraph: BULLET::::- Museo Castagnino: obras de Ernesto de la Cárcova

paragraph: BULLET::::- obras

paragraph: BULLET::::- Universidad Nacional de las Artes: Museo de Calcos y Escultura Comparada Ernesto de la Cárcova

description: Argentine artist

wikidata_label: Ernesto de la Cárcova

wikipedia_title: Ernesto de la Cárcova


text:
French
Burgundian
noble
France
Semur-en-Brionnais
Viscount
Brioude
pilgrimage
relic
Saint Benedict
Perrecy-les-Forges
Christian
Benedictine
Abbey of Cluny
Pope Benedict VIII
Robert I, Duke of Burgundy
Hildebert de Lavardin
Auxerre
tympanum
Semur-en-Auxois
poison
namesake town
seat of Dalmas' power
Duke of Burgundy
Henry I
Héliette de Semur
Robert I of Burgundy
Cluniac
Holy Trinity
Marcigny
Geoffroy III de Semur
Guînes
prior
Catholic
Saint
Hugh of Cluny
monk
Middle Ages
Morvan
Larochemillay
Saint Hugh
Cluny
Auxerre
Montaigu
Saint-Germain d'Auxerre
Baron
Bourbonnais
Vitry-en-Charollais
Briennon
La Motte-Saint-Jean

paragraph: Dalmas I of Semur

paragraph: Dalmas I of Semur (French: "Dalmace I de Semur," Born ° 980/985 - died 1040) was a Burgundian nobleman in medieval France.

paragraph: He was the eldest son of Geoffroy I of Semur (c. 942 - c. 1000), lord of Semur-en-Brionnais, and his first wife, a daughter of Dalmace II, Viscount of Brioude (c. 935/950 - 985).

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: He had one brother, Renaud de Semur (° 981/985 - died 1040 or later)and four half-brothers:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Geoffroy II of Semur (° 987 - † 1037), known as "Geoffroy I de Donzy" who married Adelaide de Guînes. He was said to have suffered from a mental illness, but recovered during a pilgrimage to visit the relics of Saint Benedict at the priory of Perrecy-les-Forges. He was the father of Raingarde de Semur

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lambert of Semur (° 990 - † 1065 in Toulouse)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thibaut de Semur, count of Chalon

paragraph: BULLET::::- Blanche (° ~1015 - † ?), in 1940,married Étienne II, vicomte de Thiern,Vicomte of Thiern (° 1020 - † 1060)

paragraph: Includes a child known as Geoffroy I de Donzy's:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hervé de Donzy (° 1010 - † 1055), married a née ... of Donzy (°? - † 1017)

paragraph: His contemporaries thought him a man of great qualities, and dubbed him "the Great." By all accounts, he held a passion for justice and was a fervent Christian. Unlike many of the local nobles, he refused to participate in the plundering of the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny. This looting was condemned by Pope Benedict VIII, who excommunicated many of the vandals.

paragraph: Section::::Murder.

paragraph: His son-in-law, Robert I, Duke of Burgundy killed him in a dispute, the cause of which is uncertain. Robert was known to be a violent man of explosive temper. It is unclear what method was used to kill Dalmas, but Hildebert de Lavardin, a contemporary, reported that the duke killed his father-in-law ""propia manu,"" which has led some historians to suppose Dalmas lost his life in battle over the territory around Auxerre. However, given that Dalmas's son Josserand was killed by "two of the Duke's soldiers" while trying to break up a fight, it seems the scene of the murder may have been more intimate. It has been theorized based on figures on the tympanum on the gates of Notre-Dame de Semur-en-Auxois, realized sometime after 1250, that Dalmas was poisoned during a banquet attended by his son-in-law. This church in a namesake town, almost 170 kilometers from the seat of Dalmas' power, was funded by Duke Robert I to assuage his guilt and atone for killing his wife's (and the local bishop's) father.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and children.

paragraph: About 1013, he married Aramburga of Burgundy, countess of Vergy, the daughter of the Duke of Burgundy, Henry I.

paragraph: With Aramburga, he had ten children, among whom figure most prominently:

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1. Héliette de Semur, also known as Helie, and sometimes mistakenly called Elvie or Hermengarde.(born about 1015 in Semur - died after 1055). In 1032, she married Robert I of Burgundy who would murder her father. Thereafter, she entered the Cluniac convent of the Holy Trinity at Marcigny.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2. Geoffroy III de Semur (born 1018/1025 - died c. 1090), 5th Count of Semur, married Alice de Guînes (c. 1030), daughter of Baldwin I, Count of Guînes. He would retire from court to the same priory as his sister, along with one of his sons and three of his daughters. He would eventually be named Holy Trinity's prior.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 3. The much-celebrated Catholic Saint Hugh of Cluny (May 13, 1024 – April 28, 1109), one of the most powerful monks of the Middle Ages.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 4. André de Semur, who was granted territory in the Morvan in 1063 by his brother Geoffroy, who created him Lord of Larochemillay.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 5. Josserand de Semur (died 1048), killed by two of Burgundian soldiers as he tried to intervene in the dispute between his father and the Duke. His killer, filled with remorse, escaped justice by confessing to Saint Hugh at Cluny, who pardoned him and admitted him to join the monastic order.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 6. Dalmas II of Semur (died 1136 in Auxerre), called "The Younger," Lord of the Montaigu branch of Oyé and Trémont. He is often cited in the charters of this older brother Geoffroy. He had two children with an unnamed wife, Renaud de Semur, who would succeed his father as Lord Montaigu, and Hugh of Montaigu, who would become the abbot of the priory of Saint-Germain d'Auxerre, then bishop of Auxerre.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 7. Adelaide of Semur (born c. 1055), wife of Baron Dalmas of Châtel-Montagne in Bourbonnais. Her dowry included the fiefdom of Vitry-en-Charollais and some large parcels near Briennon, much of which she donated to the Holy Trinity Priory when she joined the convent with the consent of her son Pierre de Châtel.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 8. Matilda of Semur, called "Mahaut" (born c. 1030), who married Guichard de Bourbon-Lancy, Lord of La Motte-Saint-Jean. Once widowed, she joined the Holy Trinity Priory at Marcigny.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 9. & 10. Cecilia and Evelle, about whom little is known.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 11. Hermengarde of Semur , first prioress of Marcigny in 1061.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Renaud of Semur (vers 1016-? av. 1040), married to Adele of Bar (about 1010-1053), countess of Bar-sur-Aube.

description: medieval Burgundian nobleman

wikidata_label: Dalmas I of Semur

wikipedia_title: Dalmas I of Semur


text: diplomat

text: Germany

text: Holy See

text: Moscow

text: Letter of Credence

text: President of Russia

text: Vladimir Putin

categories: German diplomats,1946 births,Living people,Ambassadors of Germany to Russia

paragraph: Walter Jürgen Schmid

paragraph: Walter Jürgen Schmid (born 1946) is a German diplomat and the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Federal Republic of Germany to the Holy See.

paragraph: He has been ambassador with residence in Moscow since July 2005, and he presented his Letter of Credence to then-President of Russia Vladimir Putin on 8 November 2005.

description: German diplomat

wikidata_label: Walter Jürgen Schmid

wikipedia_title: Walter Jürgen Schmid


text: South Korea

text: Seoul National University

text: Chun Doo-hwan

text: Gwangju Massacre

text: waterboarding

text: June Democracy Movement

text: June Struggle

categories: Korean torture victims,1964 births,South Korean democracy activists,1987 deaths,People from Busan

paragraph: Bak Jongcheol

paragraph: Bak Jongcheol (April 1, 1965 – January 14, 1987) was South Korean democracy movement activist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: In the 1980s, as president of the student council in the linguistics department of Seoul National University, he was one of activists in universities struggling against Chun Doo-hwan's dictatorship and the aftermath of the 1980 Gwangju Massacre. Detained during an investigation into such activities, Park refused to confess the whereabouts of one of his fellow activists. During the interrogation, authorities used waterboarding techniques to torture him, eventually leading to his death on 14 January.

paragraph: Information surrounding the events of Bak Jong-cheol's death was initially suppressed. His death by torture helped spark the June Democracy Movement of 1987; it was subject of the movie "".

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- June Struggle

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Martyr for Democracy Bak Jongcheol Memorial Association

description: South Korean social activist

wikidata_label: Bak Jongcheol

wikipedia_title: Bak Jongcheol