text: philosopher

text: Spring and Autumn period

text: Confucianism

text: Hundred Schools of Thought

text: Legalists

text: Qin dynasty

text: Han

text: Chu

text: Neo-Confucianism

text: New Confucianism (Modern Neo-Confucianism)

text: Chinese classic texts

text: Five Classics

text: Aphorism

text: Analects

text: ancestor veneration

text: Golden Rule

text: Daoism

text: Latin

text: Mandarin Chinese

text: Jesuit missionaries to China

text: Old Chinese

text: Qufu

text: China

text: kings

text: Zhou

text: Lu

text: Kong He

text: His ancestry

text: dukes of Song

text: Shang dynasty

text: Six Arts

text: shi

text: mourned for three years

text: Lu

text: three aristocratic families

text: Qi state

text: Zhong You

text: Zuozhuan

text: Qi state

text: Zuozhuan

text: Shiji

text: Shiji

text: Qi state

text: principality states

text: Wey

text: Song

text: Zheng

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text: Qi

text: Chen

text: Cai

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text: Ji Kangzi

text: disciples

text: Five Classics

text: Ji Kangzi

text: Kong Lin cemetery

text: Qufu

text: afterlife

text: Heaven

text: souls

text: Analects

text: Chinese character

text: formalist

text: Book of Odes

text: virtue ethics

text: allusion

text: innuendo

text: tautology

text: humanism

text: Golden Rule

text: Silver Rule

text: lǐ

text: righteousness

text: self-interest

text: lǐ

text: Rén

text: Arthur Waley

text: empathy

text: natural morality

text: James Legge

text: Great Learning

text: duty

text: Legalism

text: Mandate of Heaven

text: conservatism

text: perfection

text: democracy

text: Athenian

text: truth

text: honesty

text: facial expression

text: Zisi

text: dogma

text: Mencius

text: Xun Zi

text: Mencius

text: Xun Zi

text: Legalism

text: Qin state

text: Li Si

text: Qin dynasty

text: Qin Shi Huang

text: Zhou Dynasty

text: Han

text: Tang

text: Wudi

text: Mohism

text: Laozi

text: Buddhist

text: Southern and Northern Dynasties

text: Ming Dynasty

text: Yuan Dynasty

text: Song dynasty

text: Zhu Xi

text: Daoism

text: Buddhism

text: Neo-Confucianism

text: Jesuit missionaries

text: Ming dynasty

text: Michele Ruggieri

text: Salerno

text: Matteo Ricci

text: Prospero Intorcetta

text: Philippe Couplet

text: Confucian works

text: Chinese history

text: François Noël

text: ClementXI

text: Chinese veneration of ancestors

text: Confucius

text: did not constitute idolatry

text: Prague

text: collected works

text: Mencius

text: Deists

text: Enlightenment

text: Western civilization

text: New Confucianism

text: Cultural Revolution

text: Communist Party of China

text: Qing Dynasty

text: Chinese cultural sphere

text: Ahmadiyya Muslim Community

text: Divine Prophet

text: Lao-Tzu

text: Asteroid 7853

text: Warring States period

text: Han dynasty

text: Sima Qian

text: Records of the Grand Historian

text: Kongzi Jiayu

text: Analects

text: Mencius

text: Zigong

text: Lu

text: Wey

text: Qin

text: Chen

text: Qi

text: Cai

text: Chu

text: Song

text: Gongye Chang

text: Yan Hui

text: Zilu

text: Wey

text: Han Dynasty

text: Laozi

text: Han dynasty

text: Marquis of Haihun

text: Confucius Temples

text: Hongwu Emperor

text: Ming dynasty

text: temple

text: Qufu

text: Tang dynasty

text: Wu Daozi

text: Frieze

text: Supreme Court of the United States

text: "Confucius" (1940)

text: "Confucius" (2010)

text: Chow Yun-fat

text: Qufu

text: Han dynasty

text: Records of the Grand Historian

text: Buddha

text: Laozi

text: temples

text: feudalist

text: aristocracy

text: Kuomintang

text: Father's Day

text: Christmas Day

text: South Korea

text: Seokjeon Daeje

text: Confucian academies

text: Sungkyunkwan

text: marquis

text: Gaozu

text: Han dynasty

text: duke

text: Tang dynasty

text: Qing dynasty

text: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang

text: Emperor Renzong of Song

text: Duke Yansheng

text: Southern Song dynasty

text: Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

text: Yuan dynasty

text: Hanlin Academy

text: 五經博士

text: Toghon Temür

text: Yuan dynasty

text: Goryeo Dynasty

text: Princess Noguk

text: Gongmin

text: hanja

text: Changwon

text: South Gyeongsang Province

text: aristocratic rank

text: Joseon Dynasty

text: Jeongjo

text: Gokbu Gong clan

text: Qufu

text: Shandong Province

text: Gong Yoo

text: Gong Hyo-jin

text: Gongchan

text: Minzy

text: Nationalist Government

text: Kung Te-cheng

text: Sacrificial Official to Confucius

text: Kung Tsui-chang

text: H. H. Kung

text: Premier of the Republic of China

text: 孔令傑

text: Debra Paget

text: Qufu

text: Chinese Civil War

text: Bryan Sykes

text: Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee

text: Clements, Jonathan

text: Creel, Herrlee Glessner

text: Philip J. Ivanhoe

text: Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects

text: The Dao of Kongzi

text: Confucian Analects

text: Core philosophical passages

categories: Education theory,Social critics,Philosophers of culture,Founders of religions,479 BC deaths,551 BC births,6th-century BC Chinese people,Gong clan of Qufu,Social commentators,Philosophers of law,Educators from Shandong,5th-century BC historians,Epistemologists,Deified Chinese people,Aphorists,Classical humanists,Chinese logicians,Philosophers of education,Founders of philosophical traditions,Social philosophers,5th-century BC Chinese people,Moral philosophers,Confucius,Chinese political philosophers,Guqin players,Politicians from Jining,Philosophers from Lu (state),Philosophers of ethics and morality,Chinese ethicists,Zhou dynasty historians,6th-century BC philosophers,Cultural critics,Confucianism,Zhou dynasty politicians,People from Qufu,Historians from Shandong,5th-century BC philosophers

paragraph: Confucius

paragraph: Confucius ( ; 551–479 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period.

paragraph: The philosophy of Confucius, also known as Confucianism, emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism, and later New Confucianism (Modern Neo-Confucianism).

paragraph: Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the "Analects", but only many years after his death.

paragraph: Confucius's principles have commonality with Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, recommending family as a basis for ideal government. He espoused the well-known principle "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself", the Golden Rule. He is also a traditional deity in Daoism.

paragraph: Confucius is widely considered as one of the most important and influential individuals in shaping human history. His teaching and philosophy greatly impacted people around the world and remains influential today.

paragraph: Section::::Name.

paragraph: The name "Confucius" is a Latinized form of the Mandarin Chinese "Kǒng Fūzǐ" (, meaning "Master Kǒng"), and was coined in the late 16th century by the early Jesuit missionaries to China. Confucius's clan name was "Kǒng" (; Old Chinese: ), and his given name was "Qiū" (; OC: ). His "capping name", given upon reaching adulthood and by which he would have been known to all but his older family members, was "Zhòngní" (), the "Zhòng" indicating that he was the second son in his family.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early life.

paragraph: It is thought that Confucius was born on September 28, 551BC, in the district of Zou () near present-day Qufu, China. The area was notionally controlled by the kings of Zhou but effectively independent under the local lords of Lu. His father Kong He (or Shuliang He) was an elderly commandant of the local Lu garrison. His ancestry traced back through the dukes of Song to the Shang dynasty which had preceded the Zhou. Traditional accounts of Confucius's life relate that Kong He's grandfather had migrated the family from Song to Lu.

paragraph: Kong He died when Confucius was three years old, and Confucius was raised by his mother Yan Zhengzai () in poverty. His mother would later die at less than 40 years of age. At age 19 he married Qiguan (亓官), and a year later the couple had their first child, Kong Li (孔鯉). Qiguan and Confucius would later have two daughters together, one of whom is thought to have died as a child.

paragraph: Confucius was educated at schools for commoners, where he studied and learned the Six Arts.

paragraph: Confucius was born into the class of "shi" (士), between the aristocracy and the common people. He is said to have worked in various government jobs during his early 20s, and as a bookkeeper and a caretaker of sheep and horses, using the proceeds to give his mother a proper burial. When his mother died, Confucius (aged 23) is said to have mourned for three years, as was the tradition.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Political career.

paragraph: In Confucius's time, the state of Lu was headed by a ruling ducal house. Under the duke were three aristocratic families, whose heads bore the title of viscount and held hereditary positions in the Lu bureaucracy. The Ji family held the position "Minister over the Masses", who was also the "Prime Minister"; the Meng family held the position "Minister of Works"; and the Shu family held the position "Minister of War". In the winter of 505 BC, Yang Hu—a retainer of the Ji family—rose up in rebellion and seized power from the Ji family. However, by the summer of 501 BC, the three hereditary families had succeeded in expelling Yang Hu from Lu. By then, Confucius had built up a considerable reputation through his teachings, while the families came to see the value of proper conduct and righteousness, so they could achieve loyalty to a legitimate government. Thus, that year (501 BC), Confucius came to be appointed to the minor position of governor of a town. Eventually, he rose to the position of Minister of Crime.

paragraph: Confucius desired to return the authority of the state to the duke by dismantling the fortifications of the city—strongholds belonging to the three families. This way, he could establish a centralized government. However, Confucius relied solely on diplomacy as he had no military authority himself. In 500 BC, Hou Fan—the governor of Hou—revolted against his lord of the Shu family. Although the Meng and Shu families unsuccessfully besieged Hou, a loyalist official rose up with the people of Hou and forced Hou Fan to flee to the Qi state. The situation may have been in favor for Confucius as this likely made it possible for Confucius and his disciples to convince the aristocratic families to dismantle the fortifications of their cities. Eventually, after a year and a half, Confucius and his disciples succeeded in convincing the Shu family to raze the walls of Hou, the Ji family in razing the walls of Bi, and the Meng family in razing the walls of Cheng. First, the Shu family led an army towards their city Hou and tore down its walls in 498 BC.

paragraph: Soon thereafter, Gongshan Furao (also known as Gongshan Buniu), a retainer of the Ji family, revolted and took control of the forces at Bi. He immediately launched an attack and entered the capital Lu. Earlier, Gongshan had approached Confucius to join him, which Confucius considered as he wanted the opportunity to put his principles into practice but he gave up on the idea in the end. Confucius disapproved the use of a violent revolution by principle, even though the Ji family dominated the Lu state by force for generations and had exiled the previous duke. Creel (1949) states that, unlike the rebel Yang Hu before him, Gongshan may have sought to destroy the three hereditary families and restore the power of the duke. However, Dubs (1946) is of the view that Gongshan was encouraged by Viscount Ji Huan to invade the Lu capital in an attempt to avoid dismantling the Bi fortified walls. Whatever the situation may have been, Gongshan was considered an upright man who continued to defend the state of Lu, even after he was forced to flee.

paragraph: During the revolt by Gongshan, Zhong You had managed to keep the duke and the three viscounts together at the court. Zhong You was one of the disciples of Confucius and Confucius had arranged for him to be given the position of governor by the Ji family. When Confucius heard of the raid, he requested that Viscount Ji Huan allow the duke and his court to retreat to a stronghold on his palace grounds. Thereafter, the heads of the three families and the duke retreated to the Ji's palace complex and ascended the Wuzi Terrace. Confucius ordered two officers to lead an assault against the rebels. At least one of the two officers was a retainer of the Ji family, but they were unable to refuse the orders while in the presence of the duke, viscounts, and court. The rebels were pursued and defeated at Gu. Immediately after the revolt was defeated, the Ji family razed the Bi city walls to the ground.

paragraph: The attackers retreated after realizing that they would have to become rebels against the state and their lord. Through Confucius' actions, the Bi officials had inadvertently revolted against their own lord, thus forcing Viscount Ji Huan's hand in having to dismantle the walls of Bi (as it could have harbored such rebels) or confess to instigating the event by going against proper conduct and righteousness as an official. Dubs (1949) suggests that the incident brought to light Confucius' foresight, practical political ability, and insight into human character.

paragraph: When it was time to dismantle the city walls of the Meng family, the governor was reluctant to have his city walls torn down and convinced the head of the Meng family not to do so. The "Zuozhuan" recalls that the governor advised against razing the walls to the ground as he said that it made Cheng vulnerable to the Qi state and cause the destruction of the Meng family. Even though Viscount Meng Yi gave his word not to interfere with an attempt, he went back on his earlier promise to dismantle the walls.

paragraph: Later in 498 BC, Duke Ding personally went with an army to lay siege to Cheng in an attempt to raze its walls to the ground, but he did not succeed. Thus, Confucius could not achieve the idealistic reforms that he wanted including restoration of the legitimate rule of the duke. He had made powerful enemies within the state, especially with Viscount Ji Huan, due to his successes so far. According to accounts in the "Zuozhuan" and "Shiji", Confucius departed his homeland in 497 BC after his support for the failed attempt of dismantling the fortified city walls of the powerful Ji, Meng, and Shu families. He left the state of Lu without resigning, remaining in self-exile and unable to return as long as Viscount Ji Huan was alive.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Exile.

paragraph: The "Shiji" stated that the neighboring Qi state was worried that Lu was becoming too powerful while Confucius was involved in the government of the Lu state. According to this account, Qi decided to sabotage Lu's reforms by sending 100 good horses and 80 beautiful dancing girls to the duke of Lu. The duke indulged himself in pleasure and did not attend to official duties for three days. Confucius was disappointed and resolved to leave Lu and seek better opportunities, yet to leave at once would expose the misbehavior of the duke and therefore bring public humiliation to the ruler Confucius was serving. Confucius therefore waited for the duke to make a lesser mistake. Soon after, the duke neglected to send to Confucius a portion of the sacrificial meat that was his due according to custom, and Confucius seized upon this pretext to leave both his post and the Lu state.

paragraph: After Confucius's resignation, he began a long journey or set of journeys around the principality states of north-east and central China including Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai (and a failed attempt to go to Jin). At the courts of these states, he expounded his political beliefs but did not see them implemented.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Return home.

paragraph: According to the "Zuozhuan", Confucius returned home to his native Lu when he was 68, after he was invited to do so by Ji Kangzi, the chief minister of Lu. The "Analects" depict him spending his last years teaching 72 or 77 disciples and transmitting the old wisdom via a set of texts called the Five Classics.

paragraph: During his return, Confucius sometimes acted as an advisor to several government officials in Lu, including Ji Kangzi, on matters including governance and crime.

paragraph: Burdened by the loss of both his son and his favorite disciples, he died at the age of 71 or 72. He died from natural causes. Confucius was buried in Kong Lin cemetery which lies in the historical part of Qufu in the Shandong Province. The original tomb erected there in memory of Confucius on the bank of the Sishui River had the shape of an axe. In addition, it has a raised brick platform at the front of the memorial for offerings such as sandalwood incense and fruit.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.

paragraph: Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, many argue that its values are secular and that it is, therefore, less a religion than a secular morality. Proponents argue, however, that despite the secular nature of Confucianism's teachings, it is based on a worldview that is religious. Confucianism discusses elements of the afterlife and views concerning Heaven, but it is relatively unconcerned with some spiritual matters often considered essential to religious thought, such as the nature of souls. However, Confucius is said to have believed in astrology, saying: "Heaven sends down its good or evil symbols and wise men act accordingly".

paragraph: In the "Analects", Confucius presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing". He puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study, and it is the Chinese character for study () that opens the text. Far from trying to build a systematic or formalist theory, he wanted his disciples to master and internalize older classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events (as recorded in the "Annals") or the past expressions of commoners' feelings and noblemen's reflections (as in the poems of the "Book of Odes").

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Ethics.

paragraph: One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology. His teachings require examination and context to be understood. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

paragraph: By not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrates that the sage values human beings over property; readers are led to reflect on whether their response would follow Confucius's and to pursue self-improvement if it would not have. Confucius serves not as an all-powerful deity or a universally true set of abstract principles, but rather the ultimate model for others. For these reasons, according to many commentators, Confucius's teachings may be considered a Chinese example of humanism.

paragraph: One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule, sometimes called the "Silver Rule" owing to its negative form:

paragraph: Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of knowledge. Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption, and virtuous action without sincerity is not true righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one's own sake; the superior person loves learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.

paragraph: The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in "lǐ" () is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: (a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, (b) social and political institutions, and (c) the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that "lǐ" originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of "lǐ" through the actions of sage leaders in human history. His discussions of "lǐ" seem to redefine the term to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society, rather than those simply conforming with canonical standards of ceremony.

paragraph: In the early Confucian tradition, "lǐ" was doing the proper thing at the proper time, balancing between maintaining existing norms to perpetuate an ethical social fabric, and violating them in order to accomplish ethical good. Training in the "lǐ" of past sages cultivates in people virtues that include ethical judgment about when "lǐ" must be adapted in light of situational contexts.

paragraph: In Confucianism, the concept of "li" is closely related to "yì" (), which is based upon the idea of reciprocity. "Yì" can be translated as righteousness, though it may simply mean what is ethically best to do in a certain context. The term contrasts with action done out of self-interest. While pursuing one's own self-interest is not necessarily bad, one would be a better, more righteous person if one's life was based upon following a path designed to enhance the greater good. Thus an outcome of "yì" is doing the right thing for the right reason.

paragraph: Just as action according to "lǐ" should be adapted to conform to the aspiration of adhering to "yì", so "yì" is linked to the core value of "rén" ()."Rén" consists of 5 basic virtues: seriousness, generosity, sincerity, diligence and kindness. "Rén" is the virtue of perfectly fulfilling one's responsibilities toward others, most often translated as "benevolence" or "humaneness"; translator Arthur Waley calls it "Goodness" (with a capital "G"), and other translations that have been put forth include "authoritativeness" and "selflessness." Confucius's moral system was based upon empathy and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To develop one's spontaneous responses of "rén" so that these could guide action intuitively was even better than living by the rules of "yì". Confucius asserts that virtue is a mean between extremes. For example, the properly generous person gives the right amount—not too much and not too little.

paragraph: Section::::Philosophy.:Politics.

paragraph: Confucius's political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" ("lǐ") and people's natural morality, and "not" by using bribery and coercion. He explained that this is one of the most important analects: "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of the shame, and moreover will become good." (Translated by James Legge) in the Great Learning (). This "sense of shame" is an internalisation of duty, where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in Legalism.

paragraph: Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven () that could unify the "world" (, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Because his vision of personal and social perfections was framed as a revival of the ordered society of earlier times, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of conservatism, but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and perhaps twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: a revival of a unified royal state, whose rulers would succeed to power on the basis of their moral merits instead of lineage. These would be rulers devoted to their people, striving for personal and social perfection, and such a ruler would spread his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.

paragraph: Confucius did not believe in the concept of "democracy", which is itself an Athenian concept unknown in ancient China, but could be interpreted by Confucius's principles recommending against individuals electing their own political leaders to govern them, or that anyone is capable of self-government. He expressed fears that the masses lacked the intellect to make decisions for themselves, and that, in his view, since not everyone is created equal, not everyone has a right of self-government.

paragraph: While he supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler is to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must advise their superiors if the superiors are considered to be taking a course of action that is wrong. Confucius believed in ruling by example, if you lead correctly, orders by force or punishment are not necessary.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Confucius's teachings were later turned into an elaborate set of rules and practices by his numerous disciples and followers, who organized his teachings into the Analects. Confucius's disciples and his only grandson, Zisi, continued his philosophical school after his death. These efforts spread Confucian ideals to students who then became officials in many of the royal courts in China, thereby giving Confucianism the first wide-scale test of its dogma.

paragraph: Two of Confucius's most famous later followers emphasized radically different aspects of his teachings. In the centuries after his death, Mencius () and Xun Zi () both composed important teachings elaborating in different ways on the fundamental ideas associated with Confucius. Mencius (4th century BC) articulated the innate goodness in human beings as a source of the ethical intuitions that guide people towards "rén", "yì", and "lǐ", while Xun Zi (3rd century BC) underscored the realistic and materialistic aspects of Confucian thought, stressing that morality was inculcated in society through tradition and in individuals through training. In time, their writings, together with the "Analects" and other core texts came to constitute the philosophical corpus of Confucianism.

paragraph: This realignment in Confucian thought was parallel to the development of Legalism, which saw filial piety as self-interest and not a useful tool for a ruler to create an effective state. A disagreement between these two political philosophies came to a head in 223 BC when the Qin state conquered all of China. Li Si, Prime Minister of the Qin dynasty, convinced Qin Shi Huang to abandon the Confucians' recommendation of awarding fiefs akin to the Zhou Dynasty before them which he saw as being against to the Legalist idea of centralizing the state around the ruler. When the Confucian advisers pressed their point, Li Si had many Confucian scholars killed and their books burned—considered a huge blow to the philosophy and Chinese scholarship.

paragraph: Under the succeeding Han and Tang dynasties, Confucian ideas gained even more widespread prominence. Under Wudi, the works of Confucius were made the official imperial philosophy and required reading for civil service examinations in 140 BC which was continued nearly unbroken until the end of the 19th century. As Mohism lost support by the time of the Han, the main philosophical contenders were Legalism, which Confucian thought somewhat absorbed, the teachings of Laozi, whose focus on more spiritual ideas kept it from direct conflict with Confucianism, and the new Buddhist religion, which gained acceptance during the Southern and Northern Dynasties era. Both Confucian ideas and Confucian-trained officials were relied upon in the Ming Dynasty and even the Yuan Dynasty, although Kublai Khan distrusted handing over provincial control to them.

paragraph: During the Song dynasty, the scholar Zhu Xi (AD 1130–1200) added ideas from Daoism and Buddhism into Confucianism. In his life, Zhu Xi was largely ignored, but not long after his death, his ideas became the new orthodox view of what Confucian texts actually meant. Modern historians view Zhu Xi as having created something rather different and call his way of thinking "Neo-Confucianism". Neo-Confucianism held sway in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam until the 19th century.

paragraph: The works of Confucius were first translated into European languages by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century during the late Ming dynasty. The first known effort was by Michele Ruggieri, who returned to Italy in 1588 and carried on his translations while residing in Salerno. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and a team of Jesuits—Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet, and two others—published a translation of several Confucian works and an overview of Chinese history in Paris in 1687. François Noël, after failing to persuade ClementXI that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius did not constitute idolatry, completed the Confucian canon at Prague in 1711, with more scholarly treatments of the other works and the first translation of the collected works of Mencius. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Western civilization.

paragraph: In the modern era Confucian movements, such as New Confucianism, still exist, but during the Cultural Revolution, Confucianism was frequently attacked by leading figures in the Communist Party of China. This was partially a continuation of the condemnations of Confucianism by intellectuals and activists in the early 20th century as a cause of the ethnocentric close-mindedness and refusal of the Qing Dynasty to modernize that led to the tragedies that befell China in the 19th century.

paragraph: Confucius's works are studied by scholars in many other Asian countries, particularly those in the Chinese cultural sphere, such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Many of those countries still hold the traditional memorial ceremony every year.

paragraph: The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes Confucius was a Divine Prophet of God, as were Lao-Tzu and other eminent Chinese personages.

paragraph: In modern times, Asteroid 7853, "Confucius", was named after the Chinese thinker.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Disciples.

paragraph: Confucius began teaching after he turned 30, and taught more than 3,000 students in his life, about 70 of whom were considered outstanding. His disciples and the early Confucian community they formed became the most influential intellectual force in the Warring States period. The Han dynasty historian Sima Qian dedicated a chapter in his "Records of the Grand Historian" to the biographies of Confucius's disciples, accounting for the influence they exerted in their time and afterward. Sima Qian recorded the names of 77 disciples in his collective biography, while "Kongzi Jiayu", another early source, records 76, not completely overlapping. The two sources together yield the names of 96 disciples. 22 of them are mentioned in the "Analects", while the "Mencius" records 24.

paragraph: Confucius did not charge any tuition, and only requested a symbolic gift of a bundle of dried meat from any prospective student. According to his disciple Zigong, his master treated students like doctors treated patients and did not turn anybody away. Most of them came from Lu, Confucius's home state, with 43 recorded, but he accepted students from all over China, with six from the state of Wey (such as Zigong), three from Qin, two each from Chen and Qi, and one each from Cai, Chu, and Song. Confucius considered his students' personal background irrelevant, and accepted noblemen, commoners, and even former criminals such as Yan Zhuoju and Gongye Chang. His disciples from richer families would pay a sum commensurate with their wealth which was considered a ritual donation.

paragraph: Confucius's favorite disciple was Yan Hui, most probably one of the most impoverished of them all. Sima Niu, in contrast to Yan Hui, was from a hereditary noble family hailing from the Song state. Under Confucius's teachings, the disciples became well-learned in the principles and methods of government. He often engaged in discussion and debate with his students and gave high importance to their studies in history, poetry, and ritual. Confucius advocated loyalty to principle rather than to individual acumen, in which reform was to be achieved by persuasion rather than violence. Even though Confucius denounced them for their practices, the aristocracy was likely attracted to the idea of having trustworthy officials who were studied in morals as the circumstances of the time made it desirable. In fact, the disciple Zilu even died defending his ruler in Wey.

paragraph: Yang Hu, who was a subordinate of the Ji family, had dominated the Lu government from 505 to 502 and even attempted a coup, which narrowly failed. As a likely consequence, it was after that that the first disciples of Confucius were appointed to government positions. A few of Confucius's disciples went on to attain official positions of some importance, some of which were arranged by Confucius. By the time Confucius was 50 years old, the Ji family had consolidated their power in the Lu state over the ruling ducal house. Even though the Ji family had practices with which Confucius disagreed and disapproved, they nonetheless gave Confucius's disciples many opportunities for employment. Confucius continued to remind his disciples to stay true to their principles and renounced those who did not, all the while being openly critical of the Ji family.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Visual portraits.

paragraph: No contemporary painting or sculpture of Confucius survives, and it was only during the Han Dynasty that he was portrayed visually. Carvings often depict his legendary meeting with Laozi. Since that time there have been many portraits of Confucius as the ideal philosopher. The oldest known portrait of Confucius has been unearthed in the tomb of the Han dynasty ruler Marquis of Haihun (died 59 BC). The picture was painted on the wooden frame to a polished bronze mirror.

paragraph: In former times, it was customary to have a portrait in Confucius Temples; however, during the reign of Hongwu Emperor (Taizu) of the Ming dynasty, it was decided that the only proper portrait of Confucius should be in the temple in his home town, Qufu in Shandong. In other temples, Confucius is represented by a memorial tablet. In 2006, the China Confucius Foundation commissioned a standard portrait of Confucius based on the Tang dynasty portrait by Wu Daozi.

paragraph: The South Wall Frieze in the courtroom of the Supreme Court of the United States depicts Confucius as a teacher of harmony, learning, and virtue.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Fictional portrayals.

paragraph: There have been two film adaptations of Confucius' life: "Confucius" (1940) starring Tang Huaiqiu, and "Confucius" (2010) starring Chow Yun-fat.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Memorials.

paragraph: Soon after Confucius's death, Qufu, his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. The Han dynasty "Records of the Grand Historian" records that it had already become a place of pilgrimage for ministers. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In Sinic cultures, there are many temples where representations of the Buddha, Laozi, and Confucius are found together. There are also many temples dedicated to him, which have been used for Confucian ceremonies.

paragraph: Followers of Confucianism have a tradition of holding spectacular memorial ceremonies of Confucius () every year, using ceremonies that supposedly derived from Zhou Li () as recorded by Confucius, on the date of Confucius's birth. In the 20th century, this tradition was interrupted for several decades in mainland China, where the official stance of the Communist Party and the State was that Confucius and Confucianism represented reactionary feudalist beliefs which held that the subservience of the people to the aristocracy is a part of the natural order. All such ceremonies and rites were therefore banned. Only after the 1990s did the ceremony resume. As it is now considered a veneration of Chinese history and tradition, even Communist Party members may be found in attendance.

paragraph: In Taiwan, where the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) strongly promoted Confucian beliefs in ethics and behavior, the tradition of the memorial ceremony of Confucius (祭孔) is supported by the government and has continued without interruption. While not a national holiday, it does appear on all printed calendars, much as Father's Day or Christmas Day do in the Western world.

paragraph: In South Korea, a grand-scale memorial ceremony called Seokjeon Daeje is held twice a year on Confucius's birthday and the anniversary of his death, at Confucian academies across the country and Sungkyunkwan in Seoul.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.:Descendants.

paragraph: Confucius's descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts. They were honored with the rank of a marquis 35 times since Gaozu of the Han dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of duke 42 times from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang first bestowed the title of "Duke Wenxuan" on Kong Suizhi of the 35th generation. In 1055, Emperor Renzong of Song first bestowed the title of "Duke Yansheng" on Kong Zongyuan of the 46th generation.

paragraph: During the Southern Song dynasty, the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou in Zhejiang, while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until the Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, one in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan-dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch remained in Quzhou where they live to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. The Hanlin Academy rank of Wujing boshi 五經博士 was awarded to the southern branch at Quzhou by a Ming Emperor while the northern branch at Qufu held the title Duke Yansheng. The leader of the southern branch is 孔祥楷 Kong Xiangkai.

paragraph: In 1351, during the reign of Emperor Toghon Temür of the Yuan dynasty, 93rd-generation descendant Kong Huan (孔浣)'s 2nd son Kong Shao (孔昭) moved from China to Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, and was received courteously by Princess Noguk (the Mongolian-born wife of the future king Gongmin). After being naturalized as a Korean citizen, he changed the hanja of his name from "昭" to "紹" (both pronounced "so" in Korean), married a Korean woman and bore a son (Gong Yeo (), 1329–1397), therefore establishing the Changwon Gong clan (), whose ancestral seat was located in Changwon, South Gyeongsang Province.

paragraph: The clan then received an aristocratic rank during the succeeding Joseon Dynasty. In 1794, during the reign of King Jeongjo, the clan then changed its name to Gokbu Gong clan () in honor of Confucius's birthplace Qufu (), Shandong Province.Famous descendants include actors such as Gong Yoo (real name Gong Ji-cheol (공지철)) & Gong Hyo-jin (공효진); and artists such as male idol group B1A4 member Gongchan (real name Gong Chan-sik (공찬식)), singer-songwriter Minzy (real name Gong Min-ji (공민지)), as well as her great-aunt traditional folk dancer (공옥진).

paragraph: Despite repeated dynastic change in China, the title of Duke Yansheng was bestowed upon successive generations of descendants until it was abolished by the Nationalist Government in 1935. The last holder of the title, Kung Te-cheng of the 77th generation, was appointed Sacrificial Official to Confucius. Kung Te-cheng died in October 2008, and his son, Kung Wei-yi, the 78th lineal descendant, had died in 1989. Kung Te-cheng's grandson, Kung Tsui-chang, the 79th lineal descendant, was born in 1975; his great-grandson, Kung Yu-jen, the 80th lineal descendant, was born in Taipei on January 1, 2006. Te-cheng's sister, Kong Demao, lives in mainland China and has written a book about her experiences growing up at the family estate in Qufu. Another sister, Kong Deqi, died as a young woman. Many descendants of Confucius still live in Qufu today.

paragraph: A descendant of Confucius, H. H. Kung was the Premier of the Republic of China. One of his sons, Kong Lingjie 孔令傑 married Debra Paget who gave birth to Gregory Kung (孔德基).

paragraph: Confucius's family, the Kongs, have the longest recorded extant pedigree in the world today. The father-to-son family tree, now in its 83rd generation, has been recorded since the death of Confucius. According to the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee, he has 2 million known and registered descendants, and there are an estimated 3 million in all. Of these, several tens of thousands live outside of China. In the 14th century, a Kong descendant went to Korea, where an estimated 34,000 descendants of Confucius live today. One of the main lineages fled from the Kong ancestral home in Qufu during the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s and eventually settled in Taiwan. There are also branches of the Kong family who have converted to Islam after marrying Muslim women, in Dachuan in Gansu province in the 1800s, and in 1715 in Xuanwei city in Yunnan province. Many of the Muslim Confucius descendants are descended from the marriage of Ma Jiaga (马甲尕), a Muslim woman, and Kong Yanrong (孔彦嵘), 59th generation descendant of Confucius in the year 1480 and are found among the Hui and Dongxiang peoples. The new genealogy includes the Muslims. Kong Dejun (孔德軍) is a prominent Islamic scholar and Arabist from Qinghai province and a 77th generation descendant of Confucius.

paragraph: Because of the huge interest in the Confucius family tree, there was a project in China to test the DNA of known family members of the collateral branches in mainland China. Among other things, this would allow scientists to identify a common Y chromosome in male descendants of Confucius. If the descent were truly unbroken, father-to-son, since Confucius's lifetime, the males in the family would all have the same Y chromosome as their direct male ancestor, with slight mutations due to the passage of time. The aim of the genetic test was the help members of collateral branches in China who lost their genealogical records to prove their descent. However, in 2009, many of the collateral branches decided not to agree to DNA testing. Bryan Sykes, professor of genetics at Oxford University, understands this decision: "The Confucius family tree has an enormous cultural significance," he said. "It's not just a scientific question." The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree. The main branch of the family which fled to Taiwan was never involved in the proposed DNA test at all.

paragraph: In 2013 a DNA test performed on multiple different families who claimed descent from Confucius found that they shared the same Y chromosome as reported by Fudan University.

paragraph: The fifth and most recent edition of the Confucius genealogy was printed by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC). It was unveiled in a ceremony at Qufu on September 24, 2009. Women are now included for the first time.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Section::::References.:Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Further reading

paragraph: BULLET::::- Clements, Jonathan (2008). "Confucius: A Biography". Stroud, Gloucestershire, England: Sutton Publishing. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Confucius (1997). "Lun yu", (in English "The Analects of Confucius"). Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York: W.W. Norton. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Confucius (2003). "Confucius: Analects – With Selections from Traditional Commentaries". Translated by E. Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (Original work published c. 551–479 BC) .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1949). "Confucius and the Chinese Way". New York: Harper.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). "Confucianism: An Overview". In Encyclopedia" of Religion" (Vol. C, pp. 1890–1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference

paragraph: BULLET::::- Van Norden, B.W., ed. (2001). "Confucius and the Analects: New Essays". New York: Oxford University Press. .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Van Norden, B.W., trans. (2006). "Mengzi", in Philip J. Ivanhoe & B.W. Van Norden, "Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy". 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. .

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Dao of Kongzi, introduction to the thought of Confucius.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Confucian Analects (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Core philosophical passages in the "Analects of Confucius".

alias:
Kungfutse
Zhongni
Confucio
Konfuzius
Kong Fuzi
Kongqiu
Kong Qiu
K'ung-fu-tzu
K'ung-tzu
Kongzi
K'ung Fu-tse
Kung Fu Tzu
Kung Fu-tse
Kongfuzi

description: Chinese teacher, editor, politician and philosopher

enwikiquote_title: Confucius

wikidata_label: Confucius

wikipedia_title: Confucius


text:
chess
grandmaster
British
Norwich
Sax
Tarjan
Canterbury
Cambridge University
Tony Miles
Teesside
World Junior Chess Championship
Alexander Beliavsky
Larry Christiansen
British Chess Championship
George Botterill
Chess Olympiad
Nice
Walter Browne
Haifa
International Master
International Grandmaster
Kavalek
Karpov
Gligorić
Mestel
Quinteros
Hort
Vršac
Smederevska Palanka
Beersheba
Viktor Korchnoi
Candidates
Boris Spassky
Robert Hübner
Lev Polugaevsky
opening
Raymond Keene
algebraic
Bent Larsen
Nigel Short
Turover

wikipedia_title:
Chess
Grandmaster (chess)
Great Britain
Norwich
Gyula Sax
James Tarjan
Canterbury
University of Cambridge
Tony Miles
Teesside
World Junior Chess Championship
Alexander Beliavsky
Larry Christiansen
British Chess Championship
George Botterill
Chess Olympiad
Nice
Walter Browne
Haifa
FIDE titles
Grandmaster (chess)
Lubomir Kavalek
Anatoly Karpov
Svetozar Gligorić
Jonathan Mestel
Miguel Quinteros
Vlastimil Hort
Vršac
Smederevska Palanka
Beersheba
Viktor Korchnoi
Candidates Tournament
Boris Spassky
Robert Hübner
Lev Polugaevsky
Chess opening
Raymond Keene
Algebraic notation (chess)
Bent Larsen
Nigel Short
Isador Samuel Turover

categories: Chess grandmasters,British chess writers,English non-fiction writers,1953 births,Living people,English chess players

paragraph: Michael Stean

paragraph: Michael Francis Stean (born 4 September 1953) is an English chess grandmaster, an author of chess books and a tax accountant.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and junior career.

paragraph: Stean was born on 4 September 1953 in London. He learned to play chess before the age of five, developing a promising talent that led to junior honours, including the London under-14 and British under-16 titles.

paragraph: There was more progress in 1971, when he placed third at a junior event in Norwich (behind Sax and Tarjan, two other young players with bright futures). By 1973, he was able to top a tournament in Canterbury (ahead of Adorjan) and speculation began to grow that England had another potential runner in the race to become the country's first grandmaster. Fellow contenders were Ray Keene, whom Stean knew from Cambridge University and Tony Miles, who ultimately took the accolade. 1973 was also the year when Stean entered the (Teesside) World Junior Chess Championship and finished third behind Miles and tournament victor Alexander Beliavsky (ahead of Larry Christiansen). Curiously, both Stean and Miles defeated Beliavsky, but couldn't match his ruthlessness in dispatching inferior opposition.

paragraph: Section::::Young grandmaster.

paragraph: Domestically, he was a joint winner of the British Chess Championship in 1974, but lost the play-off to George Botterill. In the first of his five Chess Olympiads at Nice in 1974, he won the prize for best game of the Olympiad, for his effort against Walter Browne. His next Olympiad was even more of a success; individual gold and team bronze medals at Haifa 1976. His performances in these events never resulted in a score of less than 50%.

paragraph: International Master and International Grandmaster titles were awarded in 1975 and 1977 respectively. In international tournaments, he competed successfully at Montilla 1976 (2nd= with Kavalek and Calvo after Karpov), Montilla 1977 (3rd after Gligorić and Kavalek), London 1977 (2nd= with Mestel and Quinteros after Hort), Vršac 1979 (1st), Smederevska Palanka 1980 (1st) and Beersheba 1982 (1st).

paragraph: During this period, Stean frequently had to put aside his own playing ambitions, as he was engaged as one of Viktor Korchnoi's team of seconds for world championship campaigns in 1977-78 and 1980-81. In many respects, the partnerships that developed were reasonably successful; Korchnoi brushed aside some powerful rival Candidates like Boris Spassky, Robert Hübner and Lev Polugaevsky en route to his two finals with Karpov. Stean's role was mostly involved with opening preparation and he and Korchnoi became good friends. There were however some well-documented divisions in the camp, with fellow second Raymond Keene standing accused of treating his book writing and journalistic duties as a first priority.

paragraph: Section::::Writing and beyond.

paragraph: While playing chess, he wrote two books - "Sicilian Najdorf" (Batsford, 1976) and "Simple Chess" (Faber, 1978). Both books were well received and the latter has become known as a chess classic, remaining in print many years later (reprinted algebraic edition - Dover, 2003). "Simple Chess" concentrates on the simple positional ideas and strategies that present themselves in popular openings and shows how they might be developed with the aid of sample games. Most effectively, the reader is not overburdened with distracting analysis or lengthy continuations. He also contributed a lengthy introduction to Bent Larsen's book about the 1978 World Championship.

paragraph: In 1982, at the age of 29 and more or less in his chess playing prime, Michael Stean retired from chess to become a tax accountant; a decision he does not appear to have regretted, as there has been no attempted return to chess in subsequent years.

paragraph: Stean served for a while as the manager of Nigel Short.

paragraph: Section::::Notable game.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stean-Browne, 1-0, Nice Olympiad 1974, Sicilian Najdorf - The game that won Stean the Turover Prize for 'best game' of the 1974 Olympiad.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Raymundo contra Mundum article

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Stean's team event records at Olimpbase

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stean's games at Chessgames.com

description: British chess grandmaster

wikidata_label: Michael Stean

wikipedia_title: Michael Stean


text: Frank Sinatra

text: Dean Martin

text: John Garfield

text: Elvis Presley

text: Jeff Chandler

text: James Cagney

text: George Raft

text: Tony Curtis

text: Kirk Douglas

text: Henry Miller

text: Mack Gray

text: great-uncle

text: Jon Abrahams

text: Flesh and Fury

text: Hollywood or Bust

text: The Great Impostor

text: The Ladies Man

text: Ada

text: The Comancheros

text: The Errand Boy

text: Sergeants 3

text: Kid Galahad

text: Taras Bulba

text: Who's Got the Action?

text: 40 Pounds of Trouble

text: Bye Bye Birdie

text: Irma la Douce

text: Toys in the Attic

text: Who's Minding the Store?

text: 4 for Texas

text: Robin and the 7 Hoods

text: Kiss Me, Stupid

text: Von Ryan's Express

text: Harlow

text: Boeing Boeing

text: Our Man Flint

text: The Silencers

text: The Last of the Secret Agents?

text: Murderers' Row

text: Good Times

text: The Ambushers

text: Bandolero!

text: 5 Card Stud

text: The Legend of Lylah Clare

text: The Killing of Sister George

text: The Wrecking Crew

text: Airport

text: Escape from the Planet of the Apes

text: Something Big

categories: Male actors from New York City,1912 births,American stunt performers,American male boxers,American male film actors,20th-century American male actors,1971 deaths,Sportspeople from Brooklyn

paragraph: Joe Gray (actor)

paragraph: Joe Gray (May 5, 1912 – March 15, 1971) was an American boxer, actor, and stuntman.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Gray made appearances in over 110 films in numerous uncredited roles, including 10 of Frank Sinatra's films and 32 of Dean Martin's films. He was a technical adviser on boxing films for John Garfield, Elvis Presley, Jeff Chandler, James Cagney, George Raft, Tony Curtis, and Kirk Douglas, among others.

paragraph: As a boxer, he compiled a professional boxing record of 8-3-2 with 3 knockout wins. In his private life he was a close friend of the writer Henry Miller. After Gray's death, Miller dedicated a chapter of his 1973 book, "My Bike and Other Friends", to Gray.

paragraph: Gray was the brother of Mack Gray and uncle of the artist Martin Abrahams and great-uncle of actor Jon Abrahams. Gray died in Mexico while on location making a film in Durango. He was 58 years old.

paragraph: Section::::Selected filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Flesh and Fury" (1952)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hollywood or Bust" (1956) - Gambler

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Great Impostor" (1961) - Federal Prison Inmate (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Ladies Man" (1961) - Man on Date (scenes deleted)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ada" (1961) - Reporter (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Comancheros" (1961) - Party Guest (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Errand Boy" (1961) - Minor Role (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sergeants 3" (1962) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kid Galahad" (1962) - Trainer (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Taras Bulba" (1962) - Soldier (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Who's Got the Action?" (1962) - Pool Player (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "40 Pounds of Trouble" (1962) - Gambler (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bye Bye Birdie" (1963) - TV Director (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Irma la Douce" (1963) - Bar Gangster (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Toys in the Attic" (1963) - Man at Bar (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Who's Minding the Store?" (1963) - Herman, the Shoplifter (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "4 for Texas" (1963) - Cowboy (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "What a Way to Go!" (1964) - Patron (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Robin and the 7 Hoods" (1964) - Hood (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kiss Me, Stupid" (1964) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "None But the Brave" (1965) - Soldier (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Von Ryan's Express" (1965) - Prisoner (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Harlow" (1965) - Director (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Boeing Boeing" (1965) - Bit Role (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Our Man Flint" (1966) - Security Guard (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Silencers" (1966) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Last of the Secret Agents?" (1966) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Murderers' Row" (1966) - Guard (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Good Times" (1967) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Ambushers" (1967) - Man (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "How to Save a Marriage and Ruin Your Life" (1968) - Cab Driver (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bandolero!" (1968) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "5 Card Stud" (1968) - Cowhand (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Legend of Lylah Clare" (1968) - Minor Role (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Killing of Sister George" (1968) - Party Guest (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Wrecking Crew" (1968) - Minor Role (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Che!" (1969) - (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Airport" (1970) - Antonio Piace - Passenger (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Escape from the Planet of the Apes" (1971) - Bodyguard (uncredited)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Something Big" (1971) - (uncredited)

description: American actor and stuntman

wikidata_label: Joe Gray

wikipedia_title: Joe Gray (actor)


text: anarchist

text: esperantist

text: Esperanto

text: Japanese

text: measles

text: blind

text: Peter Kropotkin

text: Siam

text: Moulmein

text: Bolshevik

text: Harbin

text: Beijing

text: China

text: Lu Xun

text: Chukotka

text: Nizhni Novgorod

text: Kushka

text: Tashkent

categories: 1952 deaths,Russian educators,Writers of Esperanto literature,Russian writers,Blind people from Russia,1890 births

paragraph: Vasili Eroshenko

paragraph: Vasili Yakovlevich Eroshenko ( ) (12 January 1890 – 23 December 1952) was a blind, anarchist(ref ?)writer, translator, esperantist, linguist, poet and teacher. He wrote in Esperanto and Japanese.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: At the age of four, he contracted measles and as a result, became blind.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: From 1907 to 1914 he worked as a violinist for the Moscow orchestra for the blind. Around this time he studied Esperanto, as well as English. He travelled to Britain in 1912 and studied in a school for the blind. There he met the anarchist Peter Kropotkin, who must have influenced his anarchistic views. Later he went back to Moscow via Paris and resumed his work in the orchestra. There he began studying the Japanese language.

paragraph: In April 1914 Eroshenko, due to contacts with the Japanese Esperantists, left for Japan. He studied massage in a school center for the blind in Tokyo, after learning their reputation in the practice. There he promoted Esperanto among the blind students. His first novels, in Japanese, were published there. After two years he went to Siam and tried to establish a school for the blind. But owing to the bureaucrats he did not succeed. He went to Burma, in Moulmein, and established a school for the blind.

paragraph: In November 1917, upon learning about the Russian Revolution, he went to India and hoped to return to Russia from there. Unfortunately he was arrested in Calcutta, as a Russian Bolshevik. In 1918 he went back to Burma and continued his work in Moulmein.

paragraph: In hopes of returning to Russia for the second attempt he went back to India. British authorities then forbade him exit to his country and was placed under house arrest in Calcutta. He escaped arrest and went to Bombay, but later was caught and sent back to Calcutta. He provoked his departure from India. Under arrest he was boarded in a warship to be deported to Japan. He escaped from the ship when in Shanghai and from there successfully returned to Russia.

paragraph: During the summer of 1919, he went back to Japan through Shanghai. With a good grasp on the Japanese language, Eroshenko wrote numerous children stories in that language and became famous among the Japanese literary community. In May 1921, due to active participation in socialist protests and his participation in the second convention of the Japanese Socialist Party, Eroshenko was beaten up by the police and was arrested. A month later he was deported, and went to Vladivostok, Soviet Union.

paragraph: From 1921 to 1923, Eroshenko went to China and lived in Harbin for more or less three months, then stayed in Beijing, China, where he taught Esperanto. From October 1921 to February 1922 he worked for the Institute of Languages in Shanghai. He was in contact with the Chinese writer Lu Xun, who translated a play and a collection of fairytales by Eroshenko in Chinese. Eroshenko features in Lu's short story 'The Comedy of the Ducks'. He gave lectures to a university and a teacher’s training school for women in Beijing on Russian literature and other themes.

paragraph: In 1922, he participated in the 15th Esperanto Congress in Helsinki, Finland.

paragraph: In 1923 Eroshenko left China and spend his remaining time in Europe.

paragraph: In 1924 he participated in the 16th Esperanto Congress in Paris and the congress of blind Esperantists in Vienna.

paragraph: From 1924 to 1927 he worked as a translator in the Communist University of the Toilers of the East. He translated works of Marx, Engels and Lenin into Japanese.

paragraph: In 1929-1930 he traveled to Chukotka and established a school for blind children. Due to the low number of enrollees this venture did not succeed.

paragraph: From 1930 to 1932 he worked in a school for blind brush-makers in Nizhni Novgorod as a teacher in mathematics, Braille and the Russian language. A year later he went back to Moscow to work as proof reader in a printing house.

paragraph: In 1935 he founded the first school for blind children in Kushka, Turkmenistan, where he remained until 1945. In 1946-1948 he worked as an English language instructor in a school for the blind children in Moscow. In 1949-1951 he lived and worked in an evening school for the blind in Tashkent. In 1952 he went back to Obukhivka, his birthplace, and worked on his last book. He died on 23 December and was buried in a country cemetery.

alias:
Vasilij Erošenko
Vasilij Jakovlevič Erošenko

description: anarchist writer, Esperantist, linguist and teacher

wikidata_label: Vasili Eroshenko

wikipedia_title: Vasili Eroshenko


text:
Tasmania
Formula 5000
Australian Drivers' Championship
Elfin MR5
Repco
Holden
McLaren M23
Leyland
New Zealand Grand Prix
1973
Tasman Series
Australian Grand Prix
sports sedan
Toby Lee Sports Sedan Series
Chrysler Valiant Charger
Chevrolet Camaro
Kevin Bartlett
Hardie-Ferodo 1000
Bathurst
350ci V8

categories: Racing drivers from Tasmania,Living people,Tasman Series drivers,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: John McCormack (racing driver)

paragraph: John McCormack is a former Australian racing driver. Originally from Tasmania, McCormack became one of the leading Formula 5000 racers in Australia during the 1970s.

paragraph: McCormack won the Australian Drivers' Championship three times, driving an Elfin MR5 Repco Holden in 1973, an Elfin MR6 Repco Holden in 1975 and a McLaren M23-Leyland in 1977. He also won consecutive New Zealand Grand Prix in 1973 and 1974. McCormack was competitive in the Tasman Series and Australian Grand Prix his best results being second in both events. Most of McCormack's major wins were under the banner of the Ansett Team Elfin.

paragraph: As well as open-wheelers McCormack drove sports sedans, winning the 1974 Toby Lee Sports Sedan Series driving his highly modified Chrysler Valiant Charger-Repco Holden V8 which underneath the Charger shell had specifications virtually identical to those of his Formula 5000 car.

paragraph: In 1979 McCormack was one of the first drivers to race a Chevrolet Camaro (filling in for fellow F5000 racer Kevin Bartlett who was nursing a broken leg) at the Hardie-Ferodo 1000 at Bathurst. After numerous problems with the big Chev during practice, McCormack and co-driver Bob Forbes started 60th (out of 63), and were a DNF after just 62 laps when the 350ci V8 failed.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Motor Racing Annual 1972 - page 40

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Competition Yearbook 1974 - pages 59– 60

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Competition Yearbook 1975 - pages 46, 146

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Competition Yearbook 1976 - pages 117-119

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Competition Yearbook 1977 - page 85

paragraph: BULLET::::- Australian Competition Yearbook 1978 - pages 85, 110

description: Australian racing driver

wikidata_label: John McCormack

wikipedia_title: John McCormack (racing driver)


text: frontiersman

text: fur trapper

text: grizzly bear

text: Pennsylvania

text: Scots-Irish

text: watershed

text: Upper Missouri River

text: Montana

text: the Dakotas

text: Platte River

text: Nebraska

text: Man in the Wilderness

text: The Revenant

text: Fort Kiowa, South Dakota

text: General Ashley's expedition

text: The Port Folio

text: literary piece

text: James Hall

text: Scranton, Pennsylvania

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: Jean Lafitte

text: Galveston, Texas

text: Pawnee

text: St. Louis, Missouri

text: William Henry Ashley

text: fur-trading

text: mountain men

text: James Beckwourth

text: David Jackson

text: William Sublette

text: Jim Bridger

text: Thomas Fitzpatrick

text: Jedediah Smith

text: Ashley's Hundred

text: Arikara

text: Fort Kiowa

text: Andrew Henry

text: Yellowstone River

text: Grand River

text: Shadehill Reservoir

text: Perkins County, South Dakota

text: grizzly bear

text: Green River

text: Arikara

text: Jim Bridger

text: Fort Kiowa

text: gangrene

text: maggot

text: eat the dead infected flesh

text: Thunder Butte

text: Cheyenne River

text: Fort Henry

text: Andrew Henry

text: Bighorn River

text: Fort Atkinson

text: Powder River

text: Platte River

text: skin boats

text: Arikara

text: Fort Union

text: Williston, North Dakota

text: Yellowstone River

text: Arikara

text: Shadehill Reservoir

text: Perkins County, South Dakota

text: Grand River

text: Cycle of the West

text: John G. Neihardt

text: Frederick Manfred

text: Lord Grizzly

text: National Book Award

text: syndicated

text: television series

text: Death Valley Days

text: British

text: John Alderson

text: Morgan Woodward

text: Thomas Fitzpatrick

text: Victor French

text: Tris Coffin

text: Major

text: Andrew Henry

text: Man in the Wilderness

text: Richard Harris

text: John Huston

text: Apache Blood

text: John Myers Myers

text: University of Nebraska Press

text: Roger Zelazny

text: Gerald Hausman

text: John Colter

text: Jim Bridger

text: Tom Fitzpatrick

text: The Wandering Hill

text: Larry McMurtry

text: Of Monsters and Men

text: Michael Punke

text: The Revenant

text: The Dollop

text: History Channel

text: Lemmon, SD

text: Leonardo DiCaprio

text: The Revenant

text: Alejandro González Iñárritu

text: Academy Award

text: Academy Award for Best Actor

text: World of Warcraft

text: John Myers Myers

text: The Song of Hugh Glass

text: A Cycle of the West

text: Map

categories: 1833 deaths,Animal attack victims,Murdered explorers,American fur traders,Bear attack victims,American explorers,Mountain men,American frontier,Place of birth missing,1780s births,American people of Scotch-Irish descent

paragraph: Hugh Glass

paragraph: Hugh Glass ( 1783 – 1833) was an American frontiersman, fur trapper, trader, hunter, and explorer. He is best known for his story of survival and retribution after being left for dead by companions when he was mauled by a grizzly bear.

paragraph: Born in Pennsylvania to Scots-Irish parents, Glass became an explorer of the watershed of the Upper Missouri River, in present-day Montana, the Dakotas, and the Platte River area of Nebraska. His life story has been adapted into two feature-length films: "Man in the Wilderness" (1971) and "The Revenant" (2015). They both portray the survival struggle of Glass, who (in the best historical accounts) crawled and stumbled to Fort Kiowa, South Dakota after being abandoned without supplies or weapons by fellow explorers and fur traders during General Ashley's expedition of 1823.

paragraph: Another version of the story was told in an episode of Death Valley Days entitled 'Hugh Glass Meets a Bear'. Release date March 24, 1966.

paragraph: Despite the story's popularity, its accuracy has been disputed. It was first recorded in 1825 in "The Port Folio", a Philadelphia literary journal, as a literary piece and later picked up by various newspapers. Although originally published anonymously, it was later revealed to be the work of James Hall, brother of "The Port Folio"s editor. There is no writing from Hugh Glass himself to corroborate the veracity of it. Also, it is likely to have been embellished over the years as a legend.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Glass was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania. His life before the famous bear attack is largely unverifiable, and his frontier story contained numerous embellishments. He was reported to have been captured by pirates under the command of Gulf of Mexico chief Jean Lafitte off the coast of Texas in 1816, and was forced to become a pirate for up to two years. Glass allegedly escaped by swimming to shore near what is present-day Galveston, Texas. He was later rumored to have been captured by the Pawnee tribe, with whom he lived for several years. Glass traveled to St. Louis, Missouri in 1821, accompanying several Pawnee delegates invited to meet with U.S. authorities.

paragraph: Section::::General Ashley's 1823 expedition.

paragraph: In 1822, many men responded to an advertisement in the "Missouri Gazette and Public Advertiser" placed by General William Henry Ashley, which called for a corps of 100 men to "ascend the river Missouri" as part of a fur-trading venture. Many of them, who later earned reputations as famous mountain men, also joined the enterprise, including James Beckwourth, John S. Fitzgerald, David Jackson, William Sublette, Jim Bridger, Thomas Fitzpatrick, and Jedediah Smith. These men and others would later be known as "Ashley's Hundred". Glass, however, did not join Ashley's company until the next year, when he ascended the Missouri River with Ashley. In June 1823 they met up with many of the men that had joined in 1822, and were attacked by Arikara warriors. Glass was apparently shot in the leg and the survivors retreated downstream and sent for help.

paragraph: Glass wrote a letter to the parents of John S. Gardner, killed on June 2, 1823:

paragraph: Section::::Grizzly bear mauling.

paragraph: Glass and the rest of the Ashley Party eventually returned to Fort Kiowa to regroup for the trip west. Andrew Henry, Ashley's partner, had joined the group, and he along with Glass and several others set out overland to the Yellowstone River. Near the forks of the Grand River, near present-day Shadehill Reservoir, Perkins County, South Dakota, while scouting for game for the expedition larder, Glass surprised and disturbed a grizzly bear with two cubs. The bear charged, picked him up, bit and lacerated his flesh, severely wounded him, and forced him to the ground. Glass nevertheless managed to kill the bear with help from his trapping party, but was left badly mauled. The men were convinced Glass would not survive his injuries; nevertheless, they carried Glass on a litter for two days, but doing so greatly slowed the pace of the group's travel.

paragraph: Henry asked for two volunteers to stay with Glass until he died and then bury him. John S. Fitzgerald (not to be confused with Thomas Fitzpatrick, who had separated from the Henry party with Jedediah Smith to find an overland trail to the Green River country) and a man later identified as "Bridges" stepped forward, and as the rest of the party moved on, began digging his grave. Later, claiming that they were interrupted by attacking Arikara, the pair grabbed the rifle, knife, and other equipment belonging to Glass and took flight. Fitzgerald and "Bridges" later caught up with the party and incorrectly reported to Ashley that Glass had died. There is a debate whether Bridges was actually famed mountain man Jim Bridger.

paragraph: Despite his injuries Glass regained consciousness, but found himself abandoned without weapons or equipment. He had festering wounds, a broken leg, and deep cuts on his back that exposed his bare ribs. Glass lay mutilated and alone, more than 200 miles (320 km) from the nearest American settlement at Fort Kiowa, on the Missouri River. Glass set the bone of his own leg, wrapped himself in the bear hide his companions had placed over him as a shroud, and began crawling back to Fort Kiowa. To prevent gangrene, Glass allowed maggots to eat the dead infected flesh in his wounds.

paragraph: Using Thunder Butte as a navigational landmark, Glass crawled overland south toward the Cheyenne River where he fashioned a crude raft and floated downstream to Fort Kiowa. The journey took him six weeks. He survived mostly on wild berries and roots.

paragraph: Section::::Pursuit of Fitzgerald and Bridges.

paragraph: After recovering from his wounds, Glass set out again to find Fitzgerald and "Bridges". He eventually traveled to Fort Henry on the Yellowstone River but found it deserted. A note indicated that Andrew Henry and company had relocated to a new camp at the mouth of the Bighorn River. Arriving there, Glass found "Bridges", but apparently forgave him because of his youth, and then re-enlisted with Ashley's company.

paragraph: Glass later learned that Fitzgerald had joined the army and was stationed at Fort Atkinson in present-day Nebraska. Glass reportedly spared Fitzgerald's life because he would be killed by the army captain for killing a soldier of the United States Army. However, the captain asked Fitzgerald to return the stolen rifle to Glass, and before departing Glass warned Fitzgerald never to leave the army, or he would still kill him. According to Yount's story, Glass also obtained $300 as compensation.

paragraph: Section::::Further explorations for General Ashley in 1824.

paragraph: In the period intervening, between finding "Bridges" and finding Fitzgerald, Glass and four others were dispatched in February 1824 with mail for Fort Atkinson. They traveled up the Powder River, then across to the Platte River. There they constructed skin boats and traveled down the Platte River to the lower end of the Black Hills. Glass and his party discovered a settlement of 38 lodges of Arikara. Their leader, who was known by Glass, declared the tribe to be friendly and invited them in so the men went ashore. While smoking with him in his lodge, Glass noticed their equipment being taken by the residents and realized it was a trap. The men quickly fled but two were killed by the pursuing war party. Glass managed to hide behind some rocks until the Arikara gave up their search, but was separated from the two other survivors. He was relieved to find his knife and flint in his shot pouch and traveled to Fort Kiowa, surviving off the land.

paragraph: Glass returned to the frontier as a trapper and fur trader. He was later employed as a hunter for the U.S. Army garrison at Fort Union, near Williston, North Dakota.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Glass was killed along with two of his fellow trappers in early spring of 1833 on the Yellowstone River in an attack by the Arikara.

paragraph: A monument to Glass now stands near the site of his mauling on the southern shore of the present-day Shadehill Reservoir in Perkins County, South Dakota, at the forks of the Grand River. Nearby, the Hugh Glass Lakeside Use Area is a free Forest Service campground and picnic area.

paragraph: Section::::In the media.

paragraph: Glass' life has been recounted in numerous books and dramas.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Song of Hugh Glass" (1915) is the second part of the sequence of epic poems, "Cycle of the West", by John G. Neihardt.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Western writer Frederick Manfred penned "Lord Grizzly" (1954), an account of Glass' ordeal nominated for a National Book Award.

paragraph: BULLET::::- In the 1966 episode "Hugh Glass Meets the Bear" of the syndicated television series, "Death Valley Days", the British actor John Alderson played the part of Glass. Morgan Woodward was cast as trapper Thomas Fitzpatrick, Victor French as Louis Baptiste, and Tris Coffin as Major Andrew Henry.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The film "Man in the Wilderness" (1971) is loosely based on Glass. It stars Richard Harris as Zachary Bass and John Huston as Captain Henry.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dewitt Lee played Sam Glass in a film called "Apache Blood" (1975), a story loosely based on that of Glass.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Author John Myers Myers wrote "The Saga of Hugh Glass: Pirate, Pawnee, and Mountain Man," a historical account published by the University of Nebraska Press in 1976.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roger Zelazny and Gerald Hausman meshed the stories of John Colter and Glass in the 1994 novel "Wilderness".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hugh Glass, Jim Bridger and Tom Fitzpatrick appear in "The Wandering Hill: Volume 2 of the Berrybender Narratives" by Larry McMurtry (New York, Simon & Schuster, 2003). The novel begins with the return of Glass from his bear mauling and his attempt to settle the score with Fitzpatrick and Bridger.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The song "Six Weeks" by Of Monsters and Men is "inspired by the true tale of American frontiersman Hugh Glass, seemingly left for dead after killing a bear that attacked him."

paragraph: BULLET::::- Michael Punke's 2002 novel, "The Revenant", is a fictional retelling of Glass's encounter with the bear and search for revenge.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A 2014 episode of podcast The Dollop features Glass as its main subject of discussion.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The May 27, 2015, episode of the History Channel's "Monument Guys", "Tesla and the Unbreakable Glass," features the construction of a Glass sculpture.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sculptor John Lopez unveils a life-size welded sculpture of Hugh Glass being attacked by a Grizzly at the inaugural "Hugh Glass Rendezvous" held on the site that the actual mauling took place in 1823. The sculpture is permanently on display at the Grand River Museum in Lemmon, SD.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leonardo DiCaprio played a largely fictionalized version of Glass in the 2015 film "The Revenant", directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu. The film is based in part on Punke's novel and was met with critical acclaim. It earned 12 Academy Award nominations and won three. For his portrayal of Glass, DiCaprio won the Academy Award for Best Actor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hugh Glass appears in "World of Warcraft" as a deranged merchant in Grizzly Hills alongside his "pet" bear Griselda.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: The Saga of Hugh Glass, Pirate, Pawnee, and Mountain Man, a book by John Myers Myers, University of Nebraska Press, 1976

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jon T. Coleman. "Here Lies Hugh Glass: A Mountain Man, a Bear, and the Rise of the American Nation" (2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hugh Glass", Bruce Bradley (1999)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Lord Grizzly", Fredrick Manfred (1954)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Saga of Hugh Glass: Pirate, Pawnee and Mountain Man", John Myers Myers (1976)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hugh Glass, Mountain Man", Robert M. McClung (1990)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Song of Hugh Glass" (part of "A Cycle of the West"), John G. Neihardt (1915)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Hugh Glass: The Irishman who inspired the "Revenant"", "Irish Examiner" newspaper

paragraph: BULLET::::- Map covering the area of the Hugh Glass monument in Perkins County, SD. Take Forest Service Road 5622, marked by the road sign as "Hugh Glass Road."

description: American fur trapper and frontiersman

wikidata_label: Hugh Glass

wikipedia_title: Hugh Glass


text:
John Minton
John Gielgud
Macbeth
Wyndham Lewis
The Human Age
Constant Lambert
William Golding
Gerald Gould
Barbara Ayrton
Hertha Marks Ayrton
Heatherley School of Fine Art
St John's Wood Art School
Eugène Berman
John Minton
Republican
Spanish Civil War
The Brains Trust
Minotaur
Daedalus
Holt, Rinehart and Winston
fine art
Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery
Tate Gallery
National Portrait Gallery
Museum of Modern Art
Fry Art Gallery
Examples of Ayrton's art
Tate Gallery Collection; Letter
Biographical notes
index entry

categories: Alumni of St John's Wood School of Art,20th-century English novelists,English male sculptors,English male novelists,20th-century British male writers,Modern artists,English sculptors,20th-century British sculptors,Artists from London,20th-century British printmakers,Alumni of the Heatherley School of Fine Art,1921 births,English printmakers,English broadcasters,English male painters,British people of Polish-Jewish descent,1975 deaths,20th-century English painters,People from St Pancras, London

paragraph: Michael Ayrton

paragraph: Michael Ayrton (20 February 1921 – 16 November 1975) was an English artist and writer, renowned as a painter, printmaker, sculptor and designer, and also as a critic, broadcaster and novelist. His varied output of sculptures, illustrations, poems and stories reveals an obsession with flight, myths, mirrors and mazes.

paragraph: He was also a stage and costume designer, working with John Minton on the 1942 John Gielgud production of Macbeth at the age of nineteen, and a book designer and illustrator for Wyndham Lewis's "The Human Age" trilogy. An exhibition, 'Word and Image' (National Book League 1971), explored Lewis's and Ayrton's literary and artistic connections. He also collaborated with Constant Lambert and William Golding.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: Ayrton was born Michael Ayrton Gould, son of the writer Gerald Gould and the Labour politician Barbara Ayrton, and took his mother's maiden name professionally. His maternal grandmother was the electrical engineer and inventor, Hertha Marks Ayrton. In his teens during the 1930s he studied art at Heatherley School of Fine Art and St John's Wood Art School, then in Paris under Eugène Berman, where he shared a studio with John Minton. He travelled to Spain and attempted to enlist on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, but was rejected for being under-age.

paragraph: In the 1940s, Ayrton participated in the BBC's popular radio programme "The Brains Trust".

paragraph: Beginning in 1961, Michael Ayrton wrote and created many works associated with the myths of the Minotaur and Daedalus, the legendary inventor and maze builder, including bronze sculpture and the pseudo-autobiographical novel "The Maze Maker" (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967). He also wrote and illustrated "Tittivulus Or The Verbiage Collector", an account of the efforts of a minor devil to collect idle words. He was the author of several non-fiction works on fine art, including "Aspects of British Art" (Collins, 1947).

paragraph: He died in 1975.

paragraph: In 1977, Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery organised a major retrospective exhibition of his work which subsequently went on tour.

paragraph: His work is in several important collections including the Tate Gallery, London, National Portrait Gallery, London, Museum of Modern Art, New York, Fry Art Gallery, Essex.

paragraph: Section::::Selected writings.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1946: "British Drawing". London: Collins ASIN B00149X1DM

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1947: "Aspects of British Art". London: Collins

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1953: "Tittivulus or The verbiage collector". London: Max Reinhardt

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1962: "The Testament of Daedalus". London: Methuen. Reprinted 1991, with a foreword by Rex Warner: London: Robin Clark, 1991.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1967: "The Maze Maker: a novel". New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1972: "Fabrications". London: Secker & Warburg. / New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1973

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- James Laver, "Paintings by Michael Ayrton" (1948. Grey Walls Press, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- C. P. Snow, "Michael Ayrton Drawings and Sculpture" (1962)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cannon-Brookes, Peter, "Michael Ayrton: an illustrated commentary" (1978. Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter Tucker, 'The book illustrations of Michael Ayrton', in "The Private Library"; 3rd series, 9:1 (1986 Spring), p. 2-52

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hopkins, Justine "Michael Ayrton: a biography" (1994. Deutsch, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nyenhuis, Jacob E., "Myth and the Creative Process: Michael Ayrton and the myth of Daedalus, the Maze Maker" (2003. Wayne State University Press, Detroit)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Examples of Ayrton's art

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tate Gallery Collection; Letter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biographical notes; J. C. Leissring Collection

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" index entry

alias:
Michael Gould
G. Michael Ayrton
Michael Ayrton I
Michael I Ayrton
מיכאל איירטון

description: sculptor

wikidata_label: Michael Ayrton

wikipedia_title: Michael Ayrton


text:
Brazilian
religious
preacher
Canudos
War of Canudos
Quixeramobim
cattle
sertão
semi-arid
Brazilian Northeast
vengeance
honour
alcoholism
Latin
French
Portuguese
mathematics
geography
history
sales
teacher
lawyer
mysticism
Santa Quitéria
Jesus Christ
pilgrim
preacher
Catholic Church
peasant
farm
police
Itapicuru
Fortaleza
church
Sergipe
cemeteries
dam
drought
hunger
thirst
cannibalism
religious fanaticism
saint
Messiah
apostate
slavery
Dom Pedro II
agriculture
coffee
cotton
tobacco
sugarcane
Brazilian economy
military coup
Republic
grant of God
separation
antichrist
Masseté
Bahia
Monte Santo
Vaza-Barris River
communist
division of labour
marriage
liquor
prostitution
crime
indigenous people
jagunço
Juazeiro
lumber
Capuchin friars
monarchist
sedition
siege
praying
fasting
dysentery
atrocities
Salvador
Raimundo Nina Rodrigues
Escola Bahiana de Medicina
Euclides da Cunha
Os Sertões
The War of the End of the World
Spanish
Mario Vargas Llosa
Georgian
Guram Dochanashvili

categories: 1897 deaths,Brazilian abolitionists,Brazilian Roman Catholics,Deaths from dysentery,1830 births,Roman Catholic mystics,Brazilian monarchists

paragraph: Antônio Conselheiro

paragraph: Antônio Conselheiro, in English "Anthony the Counselor", real name Antônio Vicente Mendes Maciel (March 13, 1830 – September 22, 1897) was a Brazilian religious leader, preacher, and founder of the village of Canudos, the scene of the War of Canudos (1896–1897), a civil rebellion against the central government which was brutally stamped out with the loss of more than 15,000 lives.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Born at Quixeramobim, Antônio Maciel was the son of Maria Joaquina de Jesus and Vicente Mendes Maciel, a rugged family of cattle breeders in the sertão ("backlands"), the semi-arid zone of the Brazilian Northeast. His infancy was marked by a bloody feud with the powerful family of the Araújos, causing many deaths in both families, following the tragic cycle of vengeance and honour which were so common in these regions. After the death of his mother in 1834, his father married again, and Antônio and his two sisters suffered with the father's alcoholism and maltreatment by their stepmother. Antônio went to study with his grandfather, Manoel Antônio Ferreira Nobre, who was a teacher in Quixeramobim. He developed well as a serious, quiet and hard-working pupil, studying Latin, French, Portuguese, mathematics, geography and history. In 1855 his father died and he assumed the family's business, striving to get his sisters married. In 1857, Antônio himself married Brasilina Laurentina de Lima and began working as a salesman, teacher and lay counselor (poorman's lawyer). Already with two children, he was betrayed by his wife in 1861, and disillusioned and depressed, he separated from them and retired to a farm, working as a rural teacher, and devoting himself more and more to Christian mysticism. Moving again to Santa Quitéria, Ceará, he had a third child, a son named Joaquim Aprígio, after a brief affair with a local artist named Joana Imaginária. He was restless, however, and started to wander around the country, from 1865 to 1869, and then from 1871 and afterwards.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The counsellor.

paragraph: He was tall and thin, with long black hair and beard, always dressed in a rough blue tunic, a straw hat and leather sandals, carrying a necklace with a wooden cross, Antônio Maciel cut an impressive figure, reminding people of Jesus Christ. Gradually he became a pilgrim, an itinerant benefactor and counsellor of the poor, as well a pious preacher and religious leader. He was called alternatively by the simple people of the region as "Antônio Conselheiro", "Santo Antônio dos Mares", "Santo Antônio Aparecido" or "Bom Jesus Conselheiro", and began to attract not only admirers, but fanatical followers, who started travelling with him.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Trouble with law and Church.

paragraph: In 1874, Antônio Conselheiro began to attract the attention of authorities and the Catholic Church, due to his preaching to the oppressed and poor peasants and common folk of small villages and farms. In 1876 he was arrested by the police in Itapicuru, Bahia, under the suspicion of being a wanted criminal. After being identified, he was sent by ship to Fortaleza. He was severely beaten, his hair and beard were cut and he was sent back for trial to his city of origin, Quixeramobim. The local judge, however, released Antônio Conselheiro due to the absence of any criminal charges against him. Antônio returned immediately to Bahia and restarted his wandering and preaching. He vowed to construct 21 churches and proceeded to do so in 12 cities in the backlands of the provinces of Bahia and Sergipe, as well as cemeteries and small dams.

paragraph: In 1877, one of the periodical catastrophic droughts began in the Northeast. It would be two years long and kill more than 300,000 peasants by hunger and thirst, creating havoc with the predominantly semi-arid agrarian economy of the region. Many villages were entirely abandoned and instances of cannibalism even occurred. Antônio Conselheiro and his followers did what they could to diminish the extreme suffering of the poor people, adding more and more admirers and followers to his group. The sense of an impending end of the world and that the only salvation could come through religion were strong incentives to the surge of religious fanaticism. Conselheiro was widely regarded as a saint and a Messiah. Due to his increasing criticism of the official Church, and his open preachings in the small churches of the backlands, in 1882 the Archbishop of Bahia issued an order forbidding priests to allow him access to the flocks and characterising Antônio Conselheiro as an apostate and as a madman.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The abolition of slavery and the proclamation of the Republic.

paragraph: In 1888 and 1889, Brazil went through the most revolutionary and far-reaching social, economic and political changes of its history since the discovery in 1500. On May 13, 1888, slavery was abolished by the ruling Emperor, Dom Pedro II, by an act signed by his daughter, Princess Isabel. More than five million black people were suddenly out of work, abandoned the farms and swelled enormously the rural and urban ranks of extremely poor inhabitants. Tens of thousands of farmers went broke and agriculture almost stopped for a while, particularly for cash crops which required intensive labor, such as coffee, cotton, tobacco and sugarcane, the mainstays of the Brazilian economy at the time. On November 15, 1889, the Emperor was deposed by a military coup and the Republic was proclaimed, further adding instability and strife to the already torn-up country.

paragraph: All this was important to the make-up of Canudos. Antônio Conselheiro was strongly against slavery, and had preached and written about it, incurring in the wrath of farmers and authorities. The number of his flocks increased dramatically, and it is estimated that over 80% were former slaves. In addition, he considered that monarchy was a grant of God, and that the Republic, with its separation between Church and State, was morally wrong and would wreck the country and family, a kind of new antichrist. Again he stepped up public criticism and rallied the social movement around these flags. General nervousness of farmers, priests and government increased to hysterical fear.

paragraph: Finally, in 1893, violence erupted. Protesting against taxes levied by the new Republican government in Masseté, state of Bahia, "Conselhistas" (as Antônio Conselheiro's organized following was named) were attacked by a small police force and retaliated.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Canudos.

paragraph: Antônio Conselheiro decided then to retreat and to establish in 1893 a permanent place for his growing band of now quasi-insurrectionaries. Near the city of Monte Santo, in the Northeast tip of Bahia, he founded the village of Bello Monte ("Fair Hill"), in an area named Canudos. It was set in an abandoned farm amid several mountain ranges, near the Vaza-Barris River.

paragraph: In Canudos, Antônio Conselheiro, aided by a local government by committee, composed by 12 "apostles", or elders, established a communist-like social system, with division of labour and produce, common property, abolition of civil marriage and of the official currency, prohibition of taverns, liquor and prostitution, rigid control over crimes and mandatory religious activities. He also gave a measure of personal freedom from injustice and oppression by landlords and governmental authorities. The fame of Canudos spread rapidly throughout the Northeast, as being a promised land of "milk and honey". Former black slaves, uprooted indigenous people and impoverished and landless mestizos started to come in droves to Canudos. By one year later, Canudos already had 8,000 new residents; by 1895 its population had grown to more than 30,000 and more than 5,000 dwellings. Two churches and one school were also built and commerce and agriculture became more organised.

paragraph: The massive presence of such kinds of people started to cause much fear and trouble in the region, since many of the new residents were not-so-peaceful "jagunços" (hired armed men who worked for farmers), leading to appeals to the government for repression and control. Fearing an invasion of the city of Juazeiro by the "Conselhistas", who had a dispute with a lumber merchant, its mayor appealed hysterically to the provincial government. A visit by two Capuchin friars to Canudos was insufficient to calm the population and one of them mistakenly accused Antônio Conselheiro of trying to raise a monarchist sedition.

paragraph: All was set for the start of military aggression against the largely peaceful settlement.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Death.

paragraph: During the military siege that ensued, Antônio Conselheiro, anguished by the death, hunger and suffering of his followers, spent his time praying and severe fasting. He was no military leader. Due to his severe fasting, he died at the age 67, on September 22, 1897, probably of dysentery. His death was the beginning of Canudos' defeat, which eventually brought about the brutal death of probably more than 50% of the city's inhabitants during the military operations and ensuing atrocities committed against civilians by the victors.

paragraph: The corpse of Antônio Conselheiro was located, disinterred and identified by military surgeons, his head was cut off and sent to Salvador, both as a proof and as a war spoil. It was examined by the noted forensic medicine expert, Dr. Raimundo Nina Rodrigues, and placed in permanent exhibition in the museum of the Escola Bahiana de Medicina (Medical School of Bahia), where it was destroyed in a fire in May 1905.

paragraph: Section::::Literature.

paragraph: Besides his written preachings, Antônio Conselheiro left only one religious treatise, written in May 1895 and titled "Apontamentos dos Preceitos da Divina Lei de Nosso Senhor Jesus Cristo, para a Salvação dos Homens" ("Annotations on the Precepts of Our Lord Jesus Christ's Divine Law for the Salvation of Men").

paragraph: The story of Antônio Conselheiro and the War of Canudos has been dramatized in Euclides da Cunha's "Rebellion in the Backlands" ("Os Sertões"). He is also portrayed in "The War of the End of the World", a novel in Spanish by the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa. The story of Antônio Maciel, and the founding of, and war on, Canudos is also told in the novel "The First Garment", by Georgian writer Guram Dochanashvili. The Scottish author R. B. Cunninghame Graham wrote "A Brazilian Mystic: Being the Life and Miracles of Antonio Conselheiro".

paragraph: Section::::Quotation.

paragraph: ""...a thousand flocks shall run from the seacoast to the backlands; and then the backlands will turn into seacoast and the seacoast into backlands."" (""...há de vir rebanhos mil correndo do centro da Praia para o sertão então o sertão virará Praia e a Praia virará sertão."")

description: Brazilian preacher

wikidata_label: Antônio Conselheiro

wikipedia_title: Antônio Conselheiro