text:
Achaemenid Empire
Persia
satrap
Alexander the Great
Persepolis
Bessus
Ostanes
Sisygambis
Artaxerxes II Mnemon
Cadusii
satrap of Armenia
Arses
Artaxerxes III
Diodorus of Sicily
vizier
Bagoas
Artaxerxes III
satrap
Khabash
Philip II of Macedon
League of Corinth
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Second Persian War
Asia Minor
Parmenion
Attalus
Troy
Maiandros river
Hegemon
League of Corinth
Wars of Alexander the Great
Battle of the Granicus
Agesilaus II
rebellion
Megalopolis
Battle of Issus
Arrian
Battle of Gaugamela
Ecbatana
Babylon
Susa
Persepolis
Battle of Gaugamela
Alexander the Great
Erbil
Iraq
Bactria
Bessus
Curtius'
Satibarzanes
Stateira
Bessus
companion
Bagoas
A detailed biography of Darius
A genealogy of Darius
Pothos.org: Darius III (Codomannus)

categories: Alexander the Great,Shahnameh characters,Pharaohs of the Achaemenid dynasty of Egypt,People in the Deuterocanonical books,4th-century BC Pharaohs,4th-century BC rulers,380s BC births,Deaths by javelin,4th-century BC Babylonian kings,4th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire,Monarchs of Persia,330 BC deaths,4th-century BC Iranian people,4th-century BC murdered monarchs,Murdered Persian monarchs,Achaemenid satraps of Armenia,Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt,Kings of the Achaemenid Empire

paragraph: Darius III

paragraph: Darius III (c. 380 – July 330 BC), originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted "Darius" as a dynastic name.

paragraph: His empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects.

paragraph: In 334 BC, Alexander the Great began his invasion of the Persian Empire and subsequently defeated the Persians in a number of battles before looting and destroying their capital, Persepolis, by fire in 330 BC. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexander's control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius. Before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by his cousin Satrap Bessus.

paragraph: Section::::Early reign.

paragraph: Artashata was the son of Arsames, son of Ostanes; and Sisygambis, daughter of Artaxerxes II Mnemon. He had distinguished himself in a combat of champions in a war against the Cadusii and was serving at the time as a royal courier. However, prior to being appointed as a royal courier, he had served as a satrap of Armenia. He may have been promoted from his satrapy to the postal service after the ascension of Arses, for he is referred to as one of the king's "friends" at court after that occasion.

paragraph: In 336 BC, he took the throne at the age of 43 after the death of Artaxerxes III and Arses. According to Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily, Artashata was installed by the vizier Bagoas, after the latter had poisoned the king Artaxerxes III and subsequently his sons, including Arses, who had succeeded him on the throne. Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor. Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldn't be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself. The new king found himself in control of an unstable empire, large portions of which were governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects, such as Khabash in Egypt. Compared to his ancestors and his fellow heirs who had since perished, Darius had a distinct lack of experience ruling an empire, and a lack of any previous ambition to do so. Darius was a ruler of entirely average stamp, without the striking talents and qualities which the administration of a vast empire required during that period of crisis.

paragraph: Section::::Conflict with the Greeks.

paragraph: Section::::Conflict with the Greeks.:Philip's campaign.

paragraph: In 336 BC Philip II of Macedon was authorized by the League of Corinth as its Hegemon to initiate a sacred war of vengeance against the Persians for desecrating and burning the Athenian temples during the Second Persian War, over a century before. He sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. After they took the Greek cities of Asia from Troy to the Maiandros river, Philip was assassinated and his campaign was suspended while his heir consolidated his control of Macedonia and the rest of Greece.

paragraph: Section::::Conflict with the Greeks.:Alexander's campaign.

paragraph: In the spring of 334 BC, Philip's heir, Alexander, who had himself been confirmed as Hegemon by the League of Corinth, invaded Asia Minor at the head of an army of Macedonian and other Greek soldiers. This invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. Darius never showed up for the battle, because there was no reason for him to suppose that Alexander intended to conquer the whole of Asia, and Darius may well have supposed that the satraps of the ‘lower’ satrapies could deal with the crisis, so he instead decided to remain at home in Persepolis and let his satraps handle it. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus II, the Persians had pinned him in Asia Minor while fomenting rebellion in Greece. Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis.

paragraph: Darius did not actually take the field against Alexander’s army until a year and a half after Granicus, at the Battle of Issus in 333 BC. His forces outnumbered Alexander's soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. It is told by Arrian that at the Battle of Issus the moment the Persian left went to pieces under Alexander’s attack and Darius, in his war-chariot, saw that it was cut off, he incontinently fled – indeed, he led the race for safety. On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, and his royal mantle, all of which were later picked up by Alexander. Greek sources such as Diodorus Siculus' "Library of History" and Justin's "Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum" recount that Darius fled out of fear at the Battle of Issus and again two years later at the Battle of Gaugamela despite commanding a larger force in a defensive position each time. At the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexander's forces. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’s headquarters and take Darius’s family as prisoners in the process. Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia.

paragraph: Circumstances were more in Darius’s favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. He had a good number of troops who had been organized on the battlefield properly, he had the support of the armies of several of his satraps, and the ground on the battlefield was almost perfectly even, so as not to impede movement of his scythed chariots. Despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled. Another source accounts that when Darius perceived the fierce attack of Alexander, as at Issus he turned his chariot around, and was the first to flee, once again abandoning all of his soldiers and his property to be taken by Alexander. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never again raise an imperial army. Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise a third army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa, and the Persian capital at Persepolis. Darius reportedly offered all of his empire west of the Euphrates River to Alexander in exchange for peace several times, each time denied by Alexander against the advice of his senior commanders. Alexander could have declared victory after the capture of Persepolis, but he instead decided to pursue Darius.

paragraph: The Battle of Gaugamela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia in 331 BC, took place approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Erbil, Iraq. After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. However, somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela."

paragraph: Section::::Flight, imprisonment and death.

paragraph: Darius did attempt to restore his once great army after his defeat at the hands of Alexander, but he failed to raise a force comparable to that which had fought at Gaugamela, partly because the defeat had undermined his authority, and also because Alexander’s liberal policy, for instance in Babylonia and in Persis, offered an acceptable alternative to Persian policies.

paragraph: When at Ecbatana, Darius learned of Alexander's approaching army, he decided to retreat to Bactria where he could better use his cavalry and mercenary forces on the more even ground of the plains of Asia. He led his army through the Caspian Gates, the main road through the mountains that would work to slow a following army. Persian forces became increasingly demoralized with the constant threat of a surprise attack from Alexander, leading to many desertions and eventually a coup led by Bessus, a satrap, and Nabarzanes, who managed all audiences with the King and was in charge of the palace guard. The two men suggested to Darius that the army regroup under Bessus and that power would be transferred back to the King once Alexander was defeated. Darius obviously did not accept this plan and his conspirators became more anxious to remove him for his successive failures against Alexander and his forces. Patron, a Greek mercenary, encouraged Darius to accept a bodyguard of Greek mercenaries rather than his usual Persian guard to protect him from Bessus and Nabarzanes, but the King could not accept for political reasons and grew accustomed to his fate. Bessus and Nabarzanes eventually bound Darius and threw him in an ox-cart while they ordered the Persian forces to continue on. According to Curtius' "History of Alexander", at this point Alexander and a small, mobile force arrived and threw the Persians into a panic, leading Bessus and two other conspirators, Satibarzanes and Barsaentes, to wound the king with their javelins and leave him to die.

paragraph: A Macedonian soldier found Darius either dead or dying in the wagon shortly thereafter—a disappointment to Alexander, who wanted to capture Darius alive. Alexander saw Darius’s dead body in the wagon, and took the signet ring off the dead king’s finger. Afterwards he sent Darius’s body back to Persepolis, gave him a magnificent funeral and ordered that he be buried, like all his royal predecessors, in the royal tombs. Darius’s tomb has not yet been discovered. Alexander eventually married Darius' daughter Stateira at Susa in 324 BC.

paragraph: With the old king defeated and given a proper burial, Alexander's rulership of Persia became official. This led to Darius being regarded by some historians as cowardly and inefficient, as under his rulership, the entirety of the Persian Empire fell to a foreign invader. After killing Darius, Bessus took the regal name Artaxerxes V and began calling himself the King of Asia. He was subsequently captured by Alexander, tortured, and executed. Another of Darius' generals ingratiated himself to Alexander by giving the conqueror Darius' favored companion, Bagoas.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Prevas, John. "Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-fated Journey across Asia". Da Capo Press, 2004.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- A detailed biography of Darius

paragraph: BULLET::::- A genealogy of Darius

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pothos.org: Darius III (Codomannus)

description: King of the Achaemenid Empire

wikidata_label: Darius III

wikipedia_title: Darius III


text:
emperor
Japan
Emperor Go-Komatsu
Emperor Go-Hanazono
Northern Pretender
Emperor Sukō
kanji
Empress Shōtoku
Emperor Kōnin
Go-Komatsu
Cloistered Emperor
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu
Hino
Daïri
Go-Komatsu
Ashikaga Yoshimochi
Emperor Go-Komatsu
daïri
Cloistered Emperor
Ashikaga Yoshimochi
Ise Shrine
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Mount Fuji
Suruga province
Oei Invasion
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Ashikaga Yoshikatsu
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Nihon Ōdai Ichiran
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Emperor Go-Hanazono
Fushimi-ku, Kyoto
Emperor of Japan
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Sadaijin
Udaijin
Nadaijin
Dainagon
era name
nengō
Ōei
Shōchō
Ponsonby-Fane
"The Imperial House of Japan."
OCLC 194887
"Studies in Shinto and Shrines."
Titsingh, Isaac.
Nihon Odai Ichiran
"Annales des empereurs du Japon."
OCLC 5850691
Emperor of Japan
List of Emperors of Japan
Imperial cult

categories: 1401 births,Japanese emperors,1428 deaths

paragraph: Emperor Shōkō

paragraph: Emperor Shōkō (称光天皇 "Shōkō-tennō") (May 12, 1401 – August 30, 1428) was the 101st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1412 through 1428.

paragraph: Section::::Genealogy.

paragraph: His personal name was Mihito (initially written as 躬仁, and later written as 実仁).

paragraph: He was the eldest son of Emperor Go-Komatsu. His mother was Hinonishi Motoko (日野西資子), daughter of Hino Sukekuni (日野資国). He had no children of his own, and was succeeded by his third cousin, Emperor Go-Hanazono, great-grandson of the Northern Pretender Emperor Sukō.

paragraph: The name ""Shōkō"" (称光) was formed by taking one "kanji" from the names of the 48th and 49th imperial rulers Empress Shōtoku (称徳) and Emperor Kōnin (光仁).

paragraph: Section::::Genealogy.:Issue.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady-in-waiting: Fujiwara (Hino) Mitsuko (藤原（日野）光子), Hino Katsumitsu’s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naishi: Minamoto (Itsutsuji) Tomoko (源（五辻）朝子), Itsutsuji Tomonaka’s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- daughter: (b.1418)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Naishi: Takakura Nagafuji’s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Court Lady: Iyo no Tsubone (伊予局), Jimyoin Motochika’s daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- daughter: (b.1426)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Court Lady: Kii no Tsubone（紀伊局), Kamo Tomo’s daughter

paragraph: Section::::Events of Shōkō's life.

paragraph: He reigned from October 5, 1412 until his death on August 30, 1428.

paragraph: Shōkō became emperor upon the abdication of his father, Go-Komatsu in "Ōei" 18, in the 10th month (October 5, 1412). His actual coronation date was two years later.

paragraph: The "retired" Go-Komatsu ruled as a Cloistered Emperor during Shōkō's reign.

paragraph: Shōkō was connected to Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and the Hino clan through his mother's side.

paragraph: Shōkō"-tennō" was only 12 years old when he assumed the role of formal head of the "Daïri"; but "Go-Komatsu"-in"" had direction of the court [and] the Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi was charged with the general superintendence of affairs."

paragraph: BULLET::::- October 5, 1412 ("Ōei 18, on the 18th day of the 9th month"): Emperor Shōkō was made the new sovereign upon the abdication of his father, Emperor Go-Komatsu; and the succession (‘‘senso’’) was received.

paragraph: Shōkō was only 12 years old when he began living in the daïri; but Go-Komatsu, as a Cloistered Emperor still retained direction of the court and the Shōgun was charged with the general superintendence of affairs.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1413 ("Ōei 20"): Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi fell ill, and so he sent an ambassador to the Ise Shrine to pray for the return of his health.

paragraph: BULLET::::- January 29, 1415 ("Ōei 21, on the 19th day of the 12th month"): Enthronement of Emperor Shōkō was two years after the "senso" was received. At this point, Emperor Shōkō is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’).

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1418 ("Ōei 25"): Ashikaga Yoshimochi ordered Asama Shrine, at the base of Mount Fuji in Suruga province, to be re-built.

paragraph: BULLET::::- July 18, 1419 ("Ōei 26, on the 26th day of the 6th month"): Oei Invasion. Korea invaded Tsushima Province.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1423 ("Ōei 30, 2nd month"): Shōgun Yoshimochi retired in favor of his son, Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, who was 17 years old.

paragraph: BULLET::::- March 17, 1425 ("Ōei 32, on the 27th day of the 2nd month"): Shōgun Yoshikatsu died at the age of 19 years, having administered the empire for only three years.

paragraph: BULLET::::- February 3, 1428 ("Shōchō 1, 18th day of the 1st month"): Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimochi, having taken power again after the death of his son, died himself at the age of 43.

paragraph: BULLET::::- August 30, 1428 ("Shōchō 1, 20th day of the 7th month"): Emperor Shōkō died at the age of 27."Nihon Ōdai Ichiran" suggests a cause of death by explaining: ""Ce prince, s'occupait de magie et du culte de démons, mens une vie pure, et observa rigoureusement l'abstinence et le jeùne."" ("This prince, who occupied himself with magic and the cult of demons, led a pure life, and rigorously observed abstinence and fasting.")

paragraph: Shōkō had no heirs of his own; and for this reason, Emperor Go-Komatsu selected Shōkō's third cousin for Shōkō to adopt as heir. This cousin would accede to the Chrysanthemum Throne at age 10 as Emperor Go-Hanazono on September 7, 1428 ("Shōchō 1, 29th day of the 7th month"): Emperor Go-Hanazono accedes to the throne at age 10.

paragraph: He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb at Fukakusa no kita no "Misasagi" (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto.

paragraph: Section::::Events of Shōkō's life.:Kugyō.

paragraph: "Kugyō" (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the court's actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal, the hierarchic organization persisted.

paragraph: In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Shōkō's reign, this apex of the "Daijō-kan included:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sadaijin"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Udaijin"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nadaijin"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Dainagon"

paragraph: Section::::Eras of Shōkō's reign.

paragraph: The years of Shōkō's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō".

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ōei" (1394–1428)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Shōchō" (1428–1429)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). "The Imperial House of Japan." Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887

paragraph: BULLET::::- ___________. (1962). "Studies in Shinto and Shrines." Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). "Nihon Odai Ichiran"; ou, "Annales des empereurs du Japon." Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Emperor of Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Emperors of Japan

paragraph: BULLET::::- Imperial cult

alias:
称光天皇
Shōkō-tennō
Emperor Shōkō
Shoko
Emperor Shoko
Shoukou

description: emperor of Japan

wikidata_label: Shōkō

wikipedia_title: Emperor Shōkō


text: Old Persian

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text: Persian king

text: Achaemenid Empire

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text: Ionian Revolt

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text: Plataea

text: Miltiades

text: Xerxes

text: Arsames

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text: Achaemenes

text: Atossa

text: Cyrus

text: Xerxes

text: Achaemenes

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text: Hyperantes

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text: Otanes

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text: Artobazanes

text: Ariabignes

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text: Atossa

text: Battle of Marathon

text: embalmed

text: Atossa

text: Xerxes I

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text: Arthur M. Sackler Museum

text: Washington, DC

text: satrapies

text: satrap

text: tribute

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text: Euboic

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text: Anatolia

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text: Nile

text: Darius Canal

text: Zaqāzīq

text: Suez

text: Red Sea

text: Mediterranean

text: monuments

text: Aryandes

text: Babylon

text: a new palace complex

text: Artaxerxes I

text: Louvre

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text: Cyrus the Great

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text: Darius the Mede

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text: Tomb of Darius I

categories: Darius I,5th-century BC Babylonian kings,5th-century BC Pharaohs,6th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire,5th-century BC Kings of the Achaemenid Empire,Dhul-Qarnayn,6th-century BC Pharaohs,6th-century BC Babylonian kings,Ezra–Nehemiah

paragraph: Darius the Great

paragraph: Darius the Great or Darius I (Old Persian: , New Persian: "Dāryuš"; ; c. 550–486 BCE) was the fourth Persian king of the Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its peak, when it included much of West Asia, the Caucasus, parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, and Paeonia), most of the Black Sea coastal regions, parts of the North Caucasus, Central Asia, as far as the Indus Valley in the far east and portions of north and northeast Africa including Egypt (Mudrâya), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan.

paragraph: Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing Gaumata, a claimed usurper. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time. A major event in Darius's life was his expedition to punish Athens and Eretria for their aid in the Ionian Revolt and subjugate Greece. Although ultimately ending in failure at the Battle of Marathon, Darius succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace, expansion of the empire through the conquest of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos and the sacking of the city of Eretria.

paragraph: Darius organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weights and measures. Through these changes, the empire was centralized and unified. Darius also worked on construction projects throughout the empire, focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved to record his conquests, an important testimony of the Old Persian language.

paragraph: Darius is mentioned in the biblical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah.

paragraph: Section::::Etymology.

paragraph: and are the Latin forms of the Greek "Dareîos" (), itself from Old Persian "Dārayauš" (; "d-a-r-y-uš"), which is a shortened form of "Dārayavaʰuš" (, "d-a-r-y-v-u-š"). The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite "Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš", Babylonian "Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš", Aramaic "drywhwš" (), and possibly the longer Greek form "Dareiaîos" (). The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)", which can be seen by the first part "dāraya", meaning "holder", and the adverb "vau", meaning "goodness".

paragraph: Section::::Primary sources.

paragraph: At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great. Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of Ahura Mazda, the Zoroastrian god. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period. In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms:

paragraph: Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of "The Histories", provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes and Rhodugune in 550 BCE. Hystaspes was a leading figure of authority in Persia, which was the homeland of the Persians. The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE. According to Herodotus, Hystaspes was the satrap of Persis, although most historians state that this is an error. Also according to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time", had served as a spearman ("doryphoros") in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King; this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court.

paragraph: Before Cyrus and his army crossed the Aras River to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle. However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned. Darius did not seem to have any treasonous thoughts as Cambyses II ascended the throne peacefully; and, through promotion, Darius was eventually elevated to be Cambyses's personal lancer.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.:Accession.

paragraph: There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Many modern historians believe that Gaumata was in fact the true heir Bardiya, with the historical account being altered by Darius to make the "coup d'état" appear more legitimate.

paragraph: Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya. The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya". No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati.

paragraph: Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic ("Isonomia") was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles.

paragraph: To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius's horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence. In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom."

paragraph: According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning.

paragraph: Section::::Early reign.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Early revolts

paragraph: Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out. Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa. After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended. While in Babylonia, Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria, a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius, and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts. Following this, revolts broke out in Persis, the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia, followed by in Media, Parthia, Assyria, and Egypt. By 522 BCE, there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil. Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace, Darius had a loyal army, led by close confidants and nobles (including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata). With their support, Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year. In Darius's words, he had killed a total of eight "lying kings" through the quelling of revolutions. Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elimination of Intaphernes

paragraph: One of the significant events of Darius's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes, one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch. The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased, except when he was with his wife. One evening, Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius, but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius had retired for the night. Becoming enraged and insulted, Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers. While leaving the palace, he took the bridle from his horse, and tied the two officers together. The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them. Darius began to fear for his own safety; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt. He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen, asking them if they approved of Intaphernes's actions. They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes's actions, stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.:Egyptian campaign.

paragraph: After securing his authority over the entire empire, Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire.

paragraph: Through another series of campaigns, Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire, when it stretched from parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia) in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.:Invasion of Indus Valley.

paragraph: In 516 BCE, Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia, Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern-day Pakistan. Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.:Babylonian revolt.

paragraph: After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the empire, suppressing each revolt individually. The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts. Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him, which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon. At Babylon, Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out. Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels, including the famous saying "Oh yes, you will capture our city, when mules shall have foals." For a year and a half, Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city, though he attempted many tricks and strategies—even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Darius's favour when, according to the story, a mule owned by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Darius's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels.

paragraph: During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.:European Scythian campaign.

paragraph: The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes, speaking an Iranian language (Scythian languages) who had invaded Media, killed Cyrus in battle, revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black Sea.

paragraph: Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe, even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians. Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC, where the Scythians evaded Darius's army, using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside, by blocking wells, intercepting convoys, destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius's army. Seeking to fight with the Scythians, Darius's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands, where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage. In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them. Until then, they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose. Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians, Darius' campaign was so far relatively successful. As presented by Herodotus, the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies. This gave Darius the initiative. As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper, he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land. While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands, he captured the large fortified city of the Budini, one of the allies of the Scythians, and burnt it.

paragraph: Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus, where he built "eight great forts, some eight miles distant from each other", no doubt as a frontier defence. In his "Histories", Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day. After chasing the Scythians for a month, Darius's army was suffering losses due to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about losing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace. He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces.

paragraph: Section::::Military campaigns.:Persian invasion of Greece.

paragraph: Darius's European expedition was a major event in his reign, which began with the invasion of Thrace. Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean, Paeonia, while Macedonia submitted voluntarily, after the demand of earth and water, becoming a vassal kingdom. He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace, returning to Sardis to spend the winter. The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE. Nonetheless, there were certain Greeks who were pro-Persian, although these were largely based in Athens. To improve Greek-Persian relations, Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him. These Greeks served as soldiers, artisans, statesmen and mariners for Darius. However, the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states.

paragraph: When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt, Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis. Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands, as well as the re-subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BC under Mardonius. Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained autonomy. Mardonius' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom. These military actions, coming as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia, were the beginning of the First Persian invasion of (mainland) Greece. At the same time, anti-Persian parties gained more power in Athens, and pro-Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta. Darius responded by sending troops led by his son-in-law across the Hellespont. However, a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia. Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria, Darius assembled another army of 20,000 men under his Admiral, Datis, and his nephew Artaphernes, who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon. In 490 BCE, at the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army, with 9,000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans and 10,000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades.

paragraph: The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command, instead of his generals; however, before the preparations were complete, Darius died, thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames. Both men belonged to the Achaemenid tribe and were still alive when Darius ascended the throne. Darius justifies his ascension to the throne with his lineage. He claimed he could trace his ancestors back to Achaemenes, even though he was only distantly related. With this in mind, Darius married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes. He also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had two sons, Arsames and Gobryas. Darius married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya, with whom he had a son, Ariomardus. Furthermore, Darius married Phratagune, with whom he had two sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married another woman of the nobility, Phaidyme, the daughter of Otanes. It is unknown if he had any children with her. Before these royal marriages, Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lance carrier Gobryas from an early marriage, with whom he had three sons, Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes. Any daughters he had with her are not known. Although Artobazanes was Darius's first-born, Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her the most of all his wives.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon, Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek-city states; this time, he, not Datis, would command the imperial armies. Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt. This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army. Soon after, Darius died. In October 486 BCE, the body of Darius was embalmed and entombed in the rock-cut sepulchre that had been prepared for him several years earlier.

paragraph: Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I; however, prior to Xerxes's accession, he contested the succession with his elder half-brother Artobarzanes, Darius's eldest son who was born to his commoner first wife before Darius rose to power.

paragraph: In 1923 German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts of the cuneiform inscriptions on Darius's tomb where he records his ancestry for posterity, “parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra”, meaning, “a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of Aryan family (Inscription at Naqsh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis, Iran). They are currently housed in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

paragraph: Section::::Government.

paragraph: Section::::Government.:Organization.

paragraph: Early in his reign, Darius wanted to reorganize the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses. To do this, Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies (or "archi") which were each assigned to a satrap ("archon") and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay. A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land. Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents.

paragraph: Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent. Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent. The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents.

paragraph: The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families. These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of these provinces were divided into sub-provinces with their own governors which were chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap. To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap. To ensure that one person did not gain too much power, each satrap had a secretary who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius, a treasurer who safeguarded provincial revenues and a garrison commander who was responsible for the troops. Additionally, royal inspectors who were the "eyes and ears" of Darius completed further checks on each satrap.

paragraph: The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and Memphis having branches. Darius chose Aramaic as a common language, which soon spread throughout the empire. However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians, which was called Aryan script which was only used for official inscriptions.

paragraph: Section::::Government.:Economy.

paragraph: Darius introduced a new universal currency, the daric, sometime before 500 BCE. Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire. The Daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire, in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe. There were two types of darics, a gold daric and a silver daric. Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. To further improve trade, Darius built the Royal Road, a postal system and Phoenician-based commercial shipping.

paragraph: The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land, livestock and marketplaces. This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed. The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands. This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms. One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons, based in the Babylonian city of Nippur. These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients.

paragraph: In an effort to further improve trade, Darius built canals, underground waterways and a powerful navy. He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places.

paragraph: Section::::Government.:Religion.

paragraph: While there is no absolute consensus about the adherence of the kings before Darius, such as Cyrus and Cambyses, it is well established that Darius was an adherent of Zoroastrianism or at least a firm believer in Ahura Mazda. As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription, Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire. Darius had dualistic philosophical convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj, the enemy of Asha. Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha, Ahura Mazda supported him. In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements, he presents himself as a devout believer, perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world.

paragraph: In the lands that were conquered by his empire, Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show. He supported faiths and religions that were "alien" as long as the adherents were submissive and peaceable, sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes. He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus, was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas, and supported Elamite priests. He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god, Amun.

paragraph: Section::::Government.:Construction.

paragraph: During Darius's Greek expedition, he had begun construction projects in Susa, Egypt and Persepolis. He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal (Darius Canal) which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez. To open this canal, he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE, where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration. Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean. On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason. When Darius returned to Persis, he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished.

paragraph: Additionally, Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa, Babylon, Egypt, and Persepolis. In Susa, Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city. An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I, but was rebuilt. Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain, the majority of them in the Louvre. In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great. A palace was also built during the reign of Darius, with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius.

paragraph: In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed. Even though Darius was a Zoroastrian, he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities. Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects. These deportees enhanced the empire's economy and improved inter-cultural relations. At the time of Darius's death construction projects were still under way. Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father's projects by erecting new buildings of his own.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Darius the Mede

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tachara

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tomb of Darius I

alias:
Darius I
Darius the Great
Dārayavahuš
Darius I Hystaspes
داريوش
King of Persia Darius I
Dāryūsh
Darayavaush
koning van Perzië Darius I
Dāriyūsh
re di Persia Darius I
King of Persia Darius the Great
Dareios

description: 3rd king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550–486 BC)

enwikiquote_title: Darius I of Persia

wikidata_label: Darius I of Persia

wikipedia_title: Darius the Great


text:
exponent of Jewish law
Cairo
Portuguese Inquisition
David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra
Musta'arabi Jews
nagid
Abraham de Castro
Levi ibn Habib
Safed
Joseph Karo
Korei ha-Dorot
Chaim Joseph David Azulai
anno mundi
Shulhan Arukh
Jacob Hagis
Yemen
Thessaloniki
halachic
Moses Isserles
"`Erekh Leḥem"
Questions & Responsa "Ohalei Yaakov"
"Toldot Yaakov"

categories: 1525 births,Early Acharonim,16th-century rabbis,Chief rabbis,1610 deaths,Egyptian rabbis

paragraph: Yaakov de Castro

paragraph: Yaakov de Castro (), alternative spelling: Yaakov Costaro (1525–1610), was a rabbinic scholar, judge and exponent of Jewish law in Cairo, Egypt. A descendant of Jews who fled Portugal during the time of the Portuguese Inquisition, his family eventually came to settle in Egypt. A student of the illustrious "Radbaz" (Rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra), he is considered the last Chief Rabbi of Egypt to hold sway over the entire Jewish community in Egypt, mostly Musta'arabi Jews, after the abolishment of the office of nagid, and whose halachic rulings were widespread across the land. He was a nephew (not a son, as had been believed) of the master of the mint for the Ottoman Sultan in Cairo, Abraham de Castro.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: In his youth, he studied under the tutelage of Rabbi Levi ibn Habib in Jerusalem. Later, in Egypt, Rabbi Yaakov de Castro served as a judge in the rabbinic court of Cairo, known as "Old Egypt". In 1570, he visited Safed in the land of Israel, where he was the honored guest in the home of Rabbi Joseph Karo, who held him in great esteem. He describes this visit by saying that he saw Rabbi Joseph Karo practise in accordance with the first opinion that he brings down in one of the topics addressed in his seminal work, the "Shulhan Arukh".

paragraph: The author of "Korei ha-Dorot" mentions that during Rabbi Yaakov de Castro’s visit to Safed he died there. The author of "Ṭov Miṣrayyim", however, refutes this claim, saying that Rabbi de Castro returned to Egypt and there died, citing evidence from his own writings (Responsa) where Rabbi de Castro describes his encounter with Rabbi Joseph Karo, author of the "Shulhan Arukh", while in Safed, and that he had composed a second book (a commentary on the "Shulhan Arukh") after he had completed his Responsa, and that both books were written in Egypt. Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai, in his work "Shem ha-Gedolim", takes the same position, citing the grandson of Rabbi de Castro who claims that the Rabbi died in Egypt in [5]370 anno mundi (1610 CE), and that his signature was appended to a court document as late as 1606.

paragraph: His published works include a compendium of Questions & Responsa entitled "Ohalei Yaakov", and a commentary on the Shulhan Arukh entitled "`Erekh Leḥem". He also wrote a commentary on the Tractate "Betzah" (Yom Ṭov), which was published post-mortem under the name "Toldot Yaakov" (Jerusalem 1865), a book entitled "Hilkot Nazirut", and a number of similar writings on Talmudic subjects, published by Jacob Hagis in his "Halakot Ketanot", Venice, 1704, as well as other manuscripts which were either unpublished or are no longer extant. Some of the questions addressed to the Rabbi came from Jewish communities in distant places, such as Yemen, and Thessaloniki. Rabbi Castro's Responsa are a primary source for knowledge of the Jewish community in Egypt during those years.

paragraph: Section::::Manner of adjudication.

paragraph: Rabbi Yaakov de Castro's impact was so profound that, in Egypt, they would follow the "halachic" rulings of Rabbi Castro even in those places where he disagreed with the "Shulhan Arukh". It has been noted that many of his rulings in "`Erekh Leḥem" coincide with the commentary (gloss) on the "Shulhan Arukh" written by Rabbi Moses Isserles, although Rabbi Castro most-likely never saw his writings. Rabbi Castro composed his commentary on the "Shulhan Arukh" before Rabbi Moses Isserles' gloss was sent to the publishers.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "`Erekh Leḥem", by Rabbi Yaakov Castro

paragraph: BULLET::::- Questions & Responsa "Ohalei Yaakov", by Rabbi Yaakov Castro

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Toldot Yaakov", a Commentary on the Tractate "Betzah", by Rabbi Yaakov Castro

wikidata_label: Yaakov de Castro

wikipedia_title: Yaakov de Castro


text:
Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah
Nepal
Rajendra Bikram Shah
smallpox
Royal Ark

categories: 1816 deaths,Nepalese queens consort,1798 births,Deaths from smallpox

paragraph: Gorakshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi

paragraph: Gorakshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi (1798–16 December 1816) was the Queen of Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah, King of Nepal. She was the mother of Rajendra Bikram Shah. She died of smallpox.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal Ark

wikidata_label: Gorakshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi

wikipedia_title: Gorakshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi


text:
Königsberg
theologian
University of Königsberg
Immanuel Kant
Socinians
Polish Brethren
Antitrinitarians

categories: 18th-century German Protestant theologians,Modern philosophers,German male non-fiction writers,German philosophers,1716 births,1785 deaths

paragraph: Friedrich Samuel Bock

paragraph: Friedrich Samuel Bock (Königsberg 20 May 1716 – Königsberg 30 September 1785) was a German philosopher and theologian.

paragraph: In 1753 he was appointed first professor of Greek, then theology at the University of Königsberg, though he resigned both positions in 1770 due to the University's failure to pay a salary, plus the onerous duty that the professor of Greek had to lecture on the whole of the New Testament annually.

paragraph: He retained his previous position as university librarian, in all for twenty-seven years. It was in this position that Bock is associated with Immanuel Kant who was his assistant. At this period the library, or "Schloßbibliothek", was situated in two rooms in the castle.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Historia Antitrinitarianorum" 1776. This enlarged work is the sum of a lifetime of interest in the theology of the Socinians. Bock's doctoral dissertation and also inaugural address for his theology position concerned the Polish Brethren. These were initially collected together and published as a history of Antitrinitarians in 1754.

description: German philosopher and theologian

wikidata_label: Friedrich Samuel Bock

wikipedia_title: Friedrich Samuel Bock


text: Gdańsk

text: Neumünster

text: Nazi

text: Amt Rosenberg

text: German Unitarian Religious Community

text: SA

text: Bernhard Kummer

text: University of Jena

text: Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte

text: Alfred Rosenberg

text: August Schirmer

text: Erich Fried

text: Schleswig-Holstein

text: Albert Schweitzer

text: anti-authoritarian education

text: Armed Forces University

text: Plön

text: Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte

text: Bernhard Achterberg

text: Hans-Dietrich Kahl

text: Eberhard Achterberg

text: German National Library

categories: Nazi Party members,1910 births,German scholars,1983 deaths,German Unitarians

paragraph: Eberhard Achterberg

paragraph: Eberhard Achterberg (9 January 1910 in Oliva, West Prussia, now part of Gdańsk, Poland – 11 August 1983 in Neumünster) was a religious scholar, a journalist, a high-ranking Nazi official in the Amt Rosenberg and later a leading member of the German Unitarian Religious Community and school and university teacher.

paragraph: Section::::Life and career.

paragraph: Eberhard Achterberg joined the National Socialist German Workers' Party in February 1930, and was also in the SA. From 1934 to 1936 he contributed to Bernhard Kummer's journal "Nordische Stimmen". In 1935, his "Germanische Religion im Streit der Gegenwart" was published.

paragraph: He received his doctorate in 1940 from the University of Jena with a dissertation entitled "Glück und Schicksal im germanischen Lebensgefühl. Eine Untersuchung über Art, Vorkommen und Bedeutung der altnordischen Worte für Glück und Schicksal in den Islendinga sögur". At the end of that year he became acting editor of "Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte", published by Alfred Rosenberg, which described itself as the "central political and cultural periodical of the NSDAP". From July 1941, he was editor in chief. Rosenberg placed Achterberg in his department, the "Amt Rosenberg', whose official mission was to oversee all intellectual and ideological training and education in the Nazi Party. From March 1942 to January 1943, he headed the division for "Issues concerning Jews and Freemasons" ("Juden- und Freimaurerfragen") on behalf of August Schirmer.

paragraph: Achterberg never denied his Nazi past and openly described himself as having been "there and in favour". He wrote in 1983, in a letter to Erich Fried:

paragraph: Half a century has gone by since our "seizure of power". Still the puzzling over how it could have come about. Now, those of us who were active in it at the time, we have to continue to keep silent; we may not say what motivated us at the time, what things looked like in the [Weimar] Republic. No one wants our contribution to the clarification of what was happening before 1933. They always only wish to listen to the witnesses who were all already "against it" at the time. However, this perforce yields an inaccurate picture and therefore in my view does not contribute to guarding against future dangers. And the new indications are frightening. I don't see the danger in the "neo-Nazis"; I see it with great concern in the growing xenophobia, in the still active demonisation of Communism that goes back to the Nazis, in the popular support for the death penalty, in the opposition to liberalisation of criminal penalties, criminal law and sexuality (legal articles § 218 and § 175). I see a danger in the increasing use of force by "the powers that be" against citizens, in discrimination against the peace movement and limitation of fundamental rights. Because I was active and involved at that time based on my convictions, for that reason I [will] speak out [saying] that such a development must not repeat itself.

paragraph: After the Second World War, Achterberg lived with his family in Schleswig-Holstein. He based his journalistic work for the German Unitarians on a new approach which was strongly influenced by Albert Schweitzer. Achterberg had an important influence on Unitarian thought in Germany and was an "outstanding exponent" of Unitarianism, and for 14 years was the editor of the periodical "Glaube und Tat—Deutsch-unitarische Blätter" (now "unitarische blätter"), where he primarily concerned himself with issues raising questions about value orientation, anti-authoritarian education, social policy and personal interactions. Later, he was the spokesman for the public body Deutsche Unitarier Religionsgemeinschaft for the state of Schleswig-Holstein.

paragraph: He lost a teaching position in German and philosophy at the Armed Forces University in Hamburg when one of his sons refused military service. In the 1970s he taught at the vocational college in Plön.

paragraph: In 1983, shortly before his death, Achterberg was elected "Head of the Spiritual Council" of the German Unitarians. He died of a heart attack.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Der deutsche Osten—Aufgabe und Verpflichtung". "Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte" volume 12 issue 130, Jan. 1941, pp. 14–20.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Not Gottes". "Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte" volume 13 issues 152/53, Nov./Dec. 1942.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Quo vadis, Frankreich?" "Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte" Jan. 1943, pp. 55–58.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Gegenkräfte in der Kunst". "Nationalsozialistische Monatshefte" volume 14 issues 155/56, 1943.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Meister Eckhart". "Glaube und Tat" issue 7, 1960.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Glaube im Atomzeitalter". "Glaube und Tat" issue 6, 1962.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Der Mensch als Ganzheit und Einheit". Begegnung 2. Hameln: Soltsien, 1964.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Albert Schweitzer. Ein Leben in der Zeitenwende". Leitblider, Gestalten und Ideen 2. Hameln: Soltsien, 1968.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Arbeit für den Frieden als religiöser Auftrag". "Glaube und Tat" issue 12, 1971.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Erziehung zur Zärtlichkeit". "Wirklichkeit und Wahrheit" issue 2, 1977.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Wertvorstellungen als Orientierungshilfe im menschlichen Miteinander". "unitarische blätter" issue 6, 1980.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Größe und Grenzen eines religiösen Humanismus". "Der Humanist" 8 (1982)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Die Kraft die uns trägt. Suche nach Sinn in einer bedrohten Welt". Munich: Deutsche Unitarier, 1985. (posthumous collection of writings from 1952 on, ed. Bernhard Achterberg and Christel Schmidt)

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: Hans-Dietrich Kahl. "Eberhard Achterberg, 9 January 1910 – 11 August 1983". "unitarische blätter für ganzheitliche Religion und Kultur" issue 2, 2010, pp. 91–97.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eberhard Achterberg at the German National Library

description: German Nazi scholar, journalist, Unitarian

wikidata_label: Eberhard Achterberg

wikipedia_title: Eberhard Achterberg


text:
James II of Aragon
Monastery of Pedralbes
Poor Clares
Pere II Ramon Montcada i d’Abarca
Elisenda de Pinos
Peter IV of Aragon
bishop of Huesca
Girona
Peter II of Aragon
Maria of Cyprus
Tarragona
Berga
Burriana
Tortosa
Morella
Torroella de Montgri
Pals
Seròs
Mequinensa
Blanche of Anjou
royal palace
Barcelona
Poor Clares
Penedès
Cerdanyola
Montcada
Pedralbes
monastery in Pedralbes
Consell de Cent
Ferrer Bassa
Serra brothers
Saint Eulalia
Cathedral in Barcelona
Maria of Navarre
Peter IV of Aragon
Constance of Aragon
James III of Mallorca
Catalan Gothic
Barcelona City Council
Sarrià
Reina Elisenda
L6
Barcelona Metro

categories: Aragonese queen consorts,1292 births,Countesses of Barcelona,1364 deaths,Sardinian queens consort

paragraph: Elisenda of Montcada

paragraph: Elisenda de Montcada (c. 1292 – 19 June 1364) was queen consort of Aragon as the fourth and last spouse of James II of Aragon. She served as Regent or "Queen-Lieutenant" of Aragon during the absence of her spouse from 1324 until 1327.

paragraph: She was a daughter of Pere II Ramon de Montcada and Elisenda de Pinos. She and James II founded the Monastery of Pedralbes, a Franciscan convent of the Poor Clares. After James II's death in 1327, Elisenda lived adjacent to the monastery for the remaining 37 years of her life.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Elisenda de Montcada was believed to have been born in Aitona, the daughter of Pere II Ramon Montcada i d’Abarca, Baron of Aitona, and Elisenda de Pinos. She belonged to the lineage of Montcada, one of the most noble families of Catalonia, close with the monarchy. Elisenda had three brothers: Ot, heir to Aitona and a godfather of the future Peter IV of Aragon; Gastó, bishop of Huesca and later of Girona; and Guillem Ramón. Elisenda's great-grandmother was Constance, Lady of Aitona, an illegitimate daughter of Peter II of Aragon, making her and her husband second cousins once removed.

paragraph: Section::::Queen and regent.

paragraph: After James II was a widower by his third wife, Maria of Cyprus, he hurried to contract a new marriage. Just a month after the death of the unhappy queen, he went to obtain a dispensation of consanguinity in the third or fourth grade to arrange new nuptials. The king did not indicate the name of the chosen, but it was Elisenda of Montcada. The monarch seemed very animated with the idea and openly hastened the proceedings that were taken.

paragraph: Her marriage to James II took place in Tarragona on 25 December 1322. The king endowed the bride with income from Berga, Burriana, Tortosa, Morella, Torroella de Montgri, and Pals, and her brother Ot with the locations of Seròs and Mequinensa. She was 30 and he, who was widowed in 1319/1322, was about 55. She thus became stepmother to James' ten children by his second marriage to Blanche of Anjou; they had no children of their own. She favored the grandson of James II, the future Peter the Ceremonious.

paragraph: They settled in the royal palace in Barcelona and led a relatively quiet life. She intervened in the affairs of state, giving advice as the other queens had done. The queen was described as mature, educated, beautiful, and very pious, and the day to day at the royal court as cordial, despite the rigidity and severity of James himself. From 1324, she acted as regent during his absence from Aragon. The marriage lasted for five years before James died in November 1327.

paragraph: Jesus Ernest Martinez Ferrando wrote:

paragraph: "Elisenda, for her feminine qualities, for her exquisite religiosity, was the best sedative that the monarch could find in the bitterness of his last years; dialogue with the devoted wife sweetened their hours of spiritual and physical ordeal; it can be said that Elisenda helped James II to die well. As death approached - as observed in the mentioned biography – it was established between the two spouses 'a mutual religious delight'".

paragraph: The new queen chose Barcelona and its Palau Reial Major as her usual residence, even though Tortosa was in the midst of her dowry and its castle was the residence of her predecessors, the queens Blanca of Anjou and Maria of Cyprus, for extended periods. Because they had no children and the king soon became ill, Elisenda devoted her life to her religious practices and the exercise of charity.

paragraph: Section::::Construction of the Monastery of Pedralbes.

paragraph: Elisenda eventually became interested in the foundation of a monastery of the Order of the Poor Clares around Barcelona. Once she expressed this desire, the king hurried to please her, even though there was already Vilafranca del Penedès, a monastery of Poor Clares founded by Blanca of Anjou, his second wife. He only placed one condition – that the monastery was to be erected in honor of the mother of God. At first it was designated to be located at the site of Valldaura, between Cerdanyola and Montcada, but then it was decided on a place called Pedralbes due to the amount of white stone extracted from an existing quarry.

paragraph: In 1326 work began on the monastery in Pedralbes; the management and construction advanced rapidly. Perhaps James II sensed his death and wanted the mystical enthusiasm of his wife to become a reality as soon as possible.[Citation needed] After a year the basic structure of the monastery was done: they could use the cloister, and the church and housing for the nuns were almost finished as well. On 3 May 1327 fourteen nuns entered the monastery and they elected the first abbess, Sobirana d’Olzet.

paragraph: In a will which he wrote just a few months before his death, the king ratified, among other things, donations on income made to his wife. In addition he left her the gold crown that he had purchased at the time of the wedding and many other jewels, fine fabrics and tablecloths and dishes crafted with gold and silver.

paragraph: Elisenda was widowed in November 1327. She ordered a small palace to be built next to, but completely separate from, the monastery. She lived there for the remaining 37 years of her life. Although she was never a nun, Elisenda was endowed with broad powers over the internal workings of the monastery. She participated actively in the decision making of the religious community and put special emphasis on obtaining several privileges for the monastery. For example, it was under the direct protection of the city of Barcelona through the "Consell de Cent", the managing body of the city, which was committed to defend the monastery in the event of danger. It was also her intention was to have Pedralbes be the most favored monastery so it would not face economic difficulty after she died, quite common in the female monasteries. During these years royal donations nearly drowned the Franciscan spirit of the convent life.

paragraph: Elisenda managed the construction of the buildings and their ornamentation. Painters, like Ferrer Bassa and the Serra brothers, were contracted to beautify the monastery. Elisenda also promoted the paintings in the chapel of St. Michael, which were ordered by the abbess Francesca Saportella, her niece.

paragraph: Although she stayed at the monastery, she did participate in some official regnal events, such as the transfer of the remains of Saint Eulalia to the Cathedral in Barcelona, when she accompanied Maria of Navarre, wife of Peter IV of Aragon, and Constance of Aragon, wife of James III of Mallorca.

paragraph: Section::::Death and burial.

paragraph: Elisenda's will was issued on 11 April 1364 and she died on 19 July of that year. She bequeathed everything to the monastery as her primary heir, except for some goods destined for institutions, relatives, or acquaintances. She requested that they raze the palace where she lived, which was done immediately. The inventory that was made of her room demonstrates the simplicity in which she lived, despite the jewels and fine fabrics that she gifted.

paragraph: The tomb of the Queen is a magnificent work of Catalan Gothic that artistically represents the double life of this woman. The bifrontal tomb is located along a wall that separates the church from the cloister, with unique presentations on each side. From the church, Elisenda is portrayed as a queen wearing her crown, and from the cloister she is dressed as an austere widow or nun.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: The Monastery of Pedralbes is Elisenda's most significant legacy. It is a national monument, and is open to the public.

paragraph: Elisenda's portrait is part of the Gallery of Illustrious Catalans at the Barcelona City Council.

paragraph: Passeig de Reina Elisenda de Montcada is a street named after her in the Sarrià neighborhood of Barcelona, as is the associated Reina Elisenda station of line L6 of the Barcelona Metro. The station is 0.7 km northeast of the monastery.

description: Queen consort of Aragon

wikidata_label: Elisenda of Montcada

wikipedia_title: Elisenda of Montcada


text:
Australian country music
country music
Toowoomba
Tex Morton
Harry Torrani
EMI Records
country music
Queensland
World War II
Captain Cook
Australian Roll of Renown
Country Music Hands of Fame
Parkinsons Disease
Lake Macquarie
Stan Coster
Tex Morton
Gordon Parsons
Buddy Williams
Tribute to Shirley Thoms
Country Music Roll Of Renown

categories: 20th-century Australian singers,1999 deaths,Yodelers,Australian female singers,Australian country singers,1925 births

paragraph: Shirley Thoms

paragraph: Shirley Thoms-Bystrynski (12 January 1925 – 1 July 1999), was an Australian country music singer and pioneer of Australia's country music industry. She was known as "Australia's Yodelling Sweetheart".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Thoms was born in 1925, in Toowoomba, Queensland and was raised in a family of seven children. She began her career singing and yodelling songs by Tex Morton and Harry Torrani, and won a Bundaberg talent quest with Torrani's "Mockingbird Yodel". In 1941, aged 16, with what is now EMI Records she became the first female solo act to record country music in Australia, as well as the first Queenslander to be featured on disc. This first batch of songs included ""Faithful Old Dog". She went on to tour Australia and New Zealand, entertaining the troops during World War II and writing songs. Thoms became known by the title of "Australia's Yodelling Sweetheart". She later toured with Sole Bros Circus and met her first husband John Sole. The couple had a son, Peter and Thoms stepped away from show business, however John Sole died prematurely. In 1970, Thoms came out of retirement to appear on the Captain Cook Bicentenary Show in the Tamworth Town Hall and briefly revived her career with album releases in 1970 and 1972.

paragraph: Her most popular and best selling recordings were "The Faithful Old Dog", "Where The Golden Wattle Blooms" and "Yodelling In The Moonlight".

paragraph: Section::::Honours.

paragraph: She was elevated to the Australian Roll of Renown in 1980 (only the fifth artist to be so honoured and the first woman). She was also inducted into the Country Music Hands of Fame in that same year.

paragraph: After suffering from Parkinsons Disease and a heart condition, she died in 1999, at Summerland Point, Lake Macquarie, NSW, aged 74.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: There is a collection of bronze busts in Bicentennial Park, Tamworth that includes Shirley Thoms, Stan Coster, Tex Morton, Gordon Parsons, Barry Thornton and Buddy Williams.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tribute to Shirley Thoms and Citation on the Country Music Roll Of Renown.

description: Australian singer

wikidata_label: Shirley Thoms

wikipedia_title: Shirley Thoms


text:
Paraguay
Venezuela
Cerro Porteño
Sportivo Luqueño
Club Nacional
Barrio Obrero (Asunción)
Deportivo Galicia
Deportivo Italia
Estudiantes de Mérida FC
Copa de Venezuela
Cerro Porteño
Sergio Goycochea
Faryd Aly Mondragón
Cerro Porteño
Jose Luis Chilavert
Sportivo Luqueño
Justo Villar
Sol de America
Club Libertad
Ever Hugo Almeida
Roberto Fernandez
Diego Barreto
Roberto Junior Fernández
Justo Villar
Jose Luis Chilavert
Danilo Aceval
Aldo Bobadilla
Sergio Goycochea
Ezequiel Medrán
Hilario Navarro
Faryd Aly Mondragón
Deportivo Galicia
Deportivo Italia
Estudiantes de Mérida FC

categories: 1941 births,Paraguay international footballers,Estudiantes de Mérida players,Paraguayan expatriate footballers,Deportivo Italia players,Expatriate footballers in Venezuela,People from Luque,Sportivo Luqueño players,Club Nacional footballers,Living people,Association football goalkeepers,Paraguayan footballers

paragraph: Modesto Sandoval

paragraph: Modesto Sandoval (born 12 February 1941) is a Paraguayan former soccer goalkeeper who was one of the best of his own country in his early years, and then in Venezuela being local champion various times. He now lives in Luque and he is the goalkeeper trainer in the Club Cerro Porteño.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: He initiated his career in the Club Sportivo Luqueño from 1960 to 1964 having a lot of spectacular saves when he played for the inferiors and a good future for his career. After his great reputation in Luque he was sent to the Club Nacional neighbourhood of Barrio Obrero (Asunción) from 1965 to 1968.

paragraph: Then he passed to Venezuela in the Club Deportivo Galicia from 1969 to 1972 where he won his first title. After his good saves and unmatchable skills he was bought and transferred to the Deportivo Italia where he just played on the year of 1973 and won his second title. And his last and most successful club was in the Estudiantes de Mérida FC from 1974 to 1979 where he was once more champion at the Copa de Venezuela in 1975.

paragraph: Section::::After Pro career.

paragraph: After his professional career Sandoval trained a lot of notable goalkeepers in different clubs. Right now he still trains goalkeepers and works in Cerro Porteño. The most notable are Sergio Goycochea, Faryd Aly Mondragón both in Cerro Porteño, Jose Luis Chilavert in Sportivo Luqueño and Justo Villar in Sol de America and in the Club Libertad. And Sandoval is the only trainer that until now formed and trained in youth the three national team goalkeepers of Paraguay. Justo Villar, Aldo Bobadilla, and Diego Barreto. Another notable experience of Sandoval was in the qualifying round for the 1982 Spain soccer world cup where he trained Ever Hugo Almeida, Roberto Fernandez, and Manuel Battaglia.

paragraph: "Goalkeepers he formed from youth:"

paragraph: Paraguay

paragraph: BULLET::::- Diego Barreto

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roberto Junior Fernández

paragraph: BULLET::::- Justo Villar

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jose Luis Chilavert

paragraph: BULLET::::- Danilo Aceval

paragraph: BULLET::::- Aldo Bobadilla

paragraph: "Goalkeepers he trained:"

paragraph: Argentina

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sergio Goycochea

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ezequiel Medrán

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hilario Navarro

paragraph: Colombia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Faryd Aly Mondragón

paragraph: Section::::Titles.

paragraph: Champion with the Deportivo Galicia in 1969, Deportivo Italia in 1972,and Estudiantes de Mérida FC in 1975.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::-

paragraph: BULLET::::-

paragraph: BULLET::::-

paragraph: BULLET::::-

description: Paraguayan footballer

wikidata_label: Modesto Sandoval

wikipedia_title: Modesto Sandoval


text:
Italian unification
Belfiore martyrs
Vigo di Legnago
Mantua
Revolutions of 1848
First Italian War of Independence
Governolo
battle of Novara
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Roman Republic
Villa Doria Pamphilj
Austrian Empire
Luigi Castellazzo
Belfiore
Francis Joseph I of Austria
Josef Radetzky
Karl Grünne

categories: 1853 deaths,Italian people of the Italian unification,1821 births,People executed by hanging

paragraph: Pietro Frattini

paragraph: Pietro Domenico Frattini (1 December 1821 – 19 March 1853) was a supporter of Italian unification and one of the Belfiore martyrs.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He was born in Vigo di Legnago, but moved to Mantua at the age of 15, and was converted to the Republican ideas of Mazzini by the Revolutions of 1848. He was one of the first people to join the Guardia Civica formed in the province. During the First Italian War of Independence he took part in the first battle of Governolo. After the battle of Novara he joined Giuseppe Garibaldi in his defence of the Roman Republic and was seriously injured during the clashes at the Villa Doria Pamphilj.

paragraph: Following the Austrian Empire's amnesty in October 1849, Frattini returned to Mantua and quickly joined the Mantuan Insurrectional Committee, hiding its secret press in his home and bringing supporters of unification to Mantua from other cities in Italy. He and the other Belfiore martyrs were incriminated by Luigi Castellazzo's confession, arrested on 26 October 1852 and condemned to hang for high treason. The execution took place at Belfiore on 19 March 1853, one hour before the announcement of an amnesty for Francis Joseph I of Austria's birthday. The precise instructions to Josef Radetzky for the executions forbade him from delaying them - they had been personally set by Francis Joseph with advice from his main counsellor Karl Grünne..

wikidata_label: Pietro Frattini

wikipedia_title: Pietro Frattini


text:
Vienna
Baden bei Wien
uhlan
Archduke Stephen
Archduchess Sophie
Archduke Franz Joseph
Austrian Empire
Sardinian War
Order of St Stephen
gendarmerie
Order of the Golden Fleece
Herrenhaus
Crown Prince Rudolf
Stéphanie
Dobersberg

paragraph: Karl Ludwig von Grünne

paragraph: Karl Ludwig Grünne, Count of (Graf von) Pinchard (25 August 1808, Vienna - 15 June 1884, Baden bei Wien) was an Austro-Hungarian general.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: The only son of Philipp Ferdinand von Grünne (1762-1854), he joined his father's uhlan regiment in 1828. He rose to major in 1838 and colonel and head of Archduke Stephen's court in 1843. He was a favourite of Archduchess Sophie and was thus a strong influence on the young Archduke Franz Joseph. He was appointed to the Austrian Empire's privy council in 1847 and in August the following year became obersthofmeister to Franz Joseph. On 19 October 1848 he was made a major general and when Franz Joseph became emperor on 2 December the same year, he made Grünne his chief adjutant and head of his military chancellery.

paragraph: On 12 July 1850 he was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal. After Austro-Hungary was defeated in the 1859 Sardinian War, the people and the army mainly placed the blame on Grünne. The emperor wrote him a handwritten letter on 20 October 1859 dismissing him from his post as chief adjutant but making him a colonel and a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Stephen. Grünne also successfully petitioned the emperor to retain his role as captain of the gendarmerie guards. He gained promotion to Cavalry General on 22 November 1864 and on 23 August 1865 was put in command of No. 1 Uhlan Regiment.

paragraph: In 1865 he was made a Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece and he also held the post of colonel-equerry until 3 November 1875, on which date he retired from it due to poor health. He spent the summer months of his retirement in Baden bei Wien in complete seclusion. In 1883 he was made a member of the Empire's Herrenhaus, but missed several meetings, again due to his health. He was still held in high esteem by the royal family and was visited at home by Franz Joseph, his son Crown Prince Rudolf and Rudolf's wife Stéphanie.

paragraph: In his later years he separated from his wife Caroline, Countess of Trauttmansdorff-Weinsberg, whom he had married in 1831, by private arrangement rather than by a legal decision. They had three daughters and two sons - Philip became a lieutenant and Rudolph a colonel. Grünne's funeral was held in the Frauenkirche, Maria die Glorreiche in Baden bei Wien (then the court church) and his body was then buried in the family vault at Dobersberg on 19 June 1884.

description: Austrian military personnel

wikidata_label: Karl Ludwig von Grünne

wikipedia_title: Karl Ludwig von Grünne


text:
condottiero
Montone
Città di Castello
Florence

paragraph: Paolo Vitelli (condottiero)

paragraph: Paolo Vitelli (1461 - 1 October 1499) was an Italian knight and condottiero as well as lord of Montone. He was born in Città di Castello and died in Florence.

description: Italian condottiero

wikidata_label: Paolo Vitelli

wikipedia_title: Paolo Vitelli (condottiero)


text:
condottiero
Città di Castello
Vitelli
Camillo
count of Montone
Angela de' Rossi
Rossi di Parma
pope Leo X
pope Clement VII
Naples

paragraph: Vitello Vitelli

paragraph: Vitello Vitelli (1480 - May 1528) was an Italian knight and condottiero. Born in Città di Castello and belonging to the Vitelli family, he was the son of Camillo. He became count of Montone and is notable as the first husband of Angela de' Rossi, member of the Rossi di Parma family. He had excellent military abilities and was one of the favourites of pope Leo X and pope Clement VII. He died in Naples

description: Italian condottiero

wikidata_label: Vitello Vitelli

wikipedia_title: Vitello Vitelli


text:
Troilo I de' Rossi
Bianca Riario
San Secondo Parmense
Vitello Vitelli
Alessandro Vitelli
Vitelli
Città di Castello

paragraph: Angela de' Rossi

paragraph: Angela Paola de' Rossi (1506 - 11 November 1573) was an Italian noblewoman. She was born to Troilo I de' Rossi and Bianca Riario in San Secondo Parmense. Her first husband was Vitello Vitelli and her second was Alessandro Vitelli, both from the Vitelli family. She died in Città di Castello.

wikidata_label: Angela de' Rossi

wikipedia_title: Angela de' Rossi


text:
condottiero
San Secondo
Giovanni Rossi
Louis XII of France
duchy of Milan
Ludovico il Moro
Sforza
Bertrando
florin
Filippo Maria
Rocca dei Rossi
Bernardo
Guido de' Rossi
Pier Maria II
Bianca Riario
Girolamo Riario
Giovanni dalle Bande Nere
pope Sixtus IV
pope Julius II
Pietro Maria
Camilla Gonzaga
Giovanni Gonzaga
Vescovato
Gian Girolamo
bishop of Pavia
Angela
Vitello Vitelli
Alessandro Vitelli
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
Camilla
Girolamo Pallavicino
Cortemaggiore
Giovanni dalle Bande Nere
Giulio Cesare

paragraph: Troilo I de' Rossi

paragraph: Troilo I de' Rossi (c. 1462 - 3 June 1521) was an Italian condottiero and the first marquess of San Secondo.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: A son of Giovanni Rossi "il Diseredato" and Angela Scotti Douglas, , he was born in San Secondo. He took part in Louis XII of France's conquest of the duchy of Milan in 1500, during which many lands taken from his grandfather by Ludovico il Moro and ending up in the hands of members of the Sforza family were restored to him. However, it proved impossible to restore to him all the lands his family had controlled in the time of Pier Maria II and it was possibly as compensation for this fact that Louis made him marquess of San Secondo on 15 August 1502. Louis also made him a senator of Milan in 1505 and allowed him to accept the inheritance left him by his uncle Bertrando in 1502 in return for a payment of 8000 florins and the promise never to rehabilitate his cousin Filippo Maria, Troilo's bitter rival and the designated heir of Pier Maria II.

paragraph: He restored the Rocca dei Rossi at San Secondo, rebuilding its bastions and towers, which had been demolished during the war with the Sforza, and expanding the defensive perimeter. He died there in June 1521, leaving the marquisate weak - his heirs were still in their minority and so the Rossi of Corniglio tried to take advantage of the situation with a force led by Filippo Maria and Bernardo, descendents of Guido de' Rossi, the son Pier Maria II had chosen to succeed himself.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and issue.

paragraph: In 1503 he married countess Bianca Riario, daughter of Girolamo Riario, lord of Imola and sister of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, pope Sixtus IV's nephew and pope Julius II's cousin. They had nine children:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Costanza (1503–?), married Girolamo degli Albizzi di Firenze;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pietro Maria (1504–1547), 2nd marquess of San Secondo, married Camilla Gonzaga, daughter of Giovanni Gonzaga, lord of Vescovato;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gian Girolamo (1505–1564), bishop of Pavia;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Angela (1506–1573), married Vitello Vitelli and later Alessandro Vitelli;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Bertrando (1508–1527), soldier in the army of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alessandro (1512-?), deaf and dumb, soldier;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ettore (1515–1555), apostolic protonotary

paragraph: BULLET::::- Camilla (1516–1543), married Girolamo Pallavicino, marquess of Cortemaggiore; also became the lover of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere;

paragraph: BULLET::::- Giulio Cesare (1519–1554), married Maddalena Sanseverino (?-1551), countess of Cajazzo and Colorno, daughter of Roberto Ambrogio Sanseverino, count of Cajazzo.

description: italian Condottiere, Marques von San Secondo

wikidata_label: Troilo I de' Rossi

wikipedia_title: Troilo I de' Rossi