text:
Gupta Empire
Chandragupta I
Licchavi
Allahabad Pillar inscription
prashasti
Harishena
Pallava
Ravi River
Brahmaputra River
Ashvamedha
Chandragupta II
Gupta calendar era
epoch
Allahabad Pillar inscription
Meghavarna
Anuradhapura Kingdom
traditional reckoning
Sri Lanka
Buddha
Wilhelm Geiger
Prabhavatigupta
Chandragupta II
A. S. Altekar
A. L. Basham
Chandragupta I
Licchavi
Eran
Allahabad Pillar
Kacha
Vishnu
Allahabad Pillar
panegyric
Harishena
Chandragupta II
Chakravartin
Ashvamedha
Nagas
Allahabad Pillar
Aryavarta
Uttar Pradesh
see below
Punjab
Shiva
bull
Pataliputra
Kanyakubja
Dakshinapatha
Odisha
Bay of Bengal
tributaries
M. G. S. Narayanan
Arthashastra
J. Dubreuil
Krishna river
Kalidasa
Raghuvamsha
Raghu
Allahabad Pillar
Aryavarta
Parivrajaka dynasty
oligarchies
Upinder Singh
Samatata
Davaka
Kamarupa
Nepala
Licchavi kingdom
Uttarakhand
Kartarpur
Guru Arjan
Malavas
Arjunayanas
Mathura region
John Allan
Yaudheyas
Madrakas
Abhiras
Udayagiri
Sanchi
Arthashastra
Narsinghpur
Narsinghgarh
Damoh district
Mongols
Dingal
Puranas
Garuda
R. C. Majumdar
Ravi River
Punjab
Brahmaputra River
Bengal
Assam
Himalayan foothills
Vindhya hills
Karnal
Bhilsa
Eran
Kanchipuram
Chenab river
J. F. Fleet
Maharashtra
Erandol
veena
John Allan
Allahabad Pillar inscription
Eran
Kolkata
Indian Museum
Eran
Vishnu
Buddhism
Anuradhapura
Meghavarna
Bodh Gaya
Brahmanical
Soma
Chandragupta II
Prithu
Raghava
divine kingship
Kubera
Varuna
Indra
Yama
Ashvamedha
Coinage
Vakataka
Chandragupta II
Smith
Bharashiva
Shalankayana
Pallava
H. C. Raychaudhuri
R. C. Majumdar
Magadha
S. K. Aiyangar
D. R. Bhandarkar
V. S. Pathak
Tumburu
Narada
veena
Brihaspati
Chandragupta II
Devichandraguptam
Ramagupta
Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta

paragraph: Samudragupta

paragraph: Samudragupta (r. c. 335/350-375 CE) was a ruler of the Gupta Empire of present-day India. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, he greatly expanded his dynasty's political power.

paragraph: The Allahabad Pillar inscription, a "prashasti" (eulogy) composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive military conquests. It suggests that he defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.

paragraph: Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice to prove his imperial sovereignty, and according to his coins, remained undefeated. His gold coins and inscriptions suggest that he was an accomplished poet, and also played music. His expansionist policy was continued by his son Chandragupta II.

paragraph: Section::::Period.

paragraph: Modern scholars variously assign the start of Samudragupta's reign from c. 319 CE to c. 350 CE.

paragraph: The inscriptions of the Gupta kings are dated in the Gupta calendar era, whose epoch is generally dated to c. 319 CE. However, the identity of the era's founder is a matter of debate, and scholars variously attribute its establishment to Chandragupta I or Samudragupta. Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is uncertain. For these reasons, the beginning of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain.

paragraph: If Samudragupta is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, his ascension can be dated to c. 319-320 CE. On the other hand, if his father Chandragupta I is regarded as the founder of the Gupta era, Samudragupta's ascension must be dated to a later date. Samudragupta was a contemporary of king Meghavarna of Anuradhapura Kingdom, but the regnal period of this king is also uncertain. According to the traditional reckoning adopted in Sri Lanka for Buddha's death, he ruled during 304-332 CE; but the modified chronology adopted by modern scholars such as Wilhelm Geiger assigns his reign to 352-379 CE. Accepting the former date would place Samudragupta's ascension to c. 320 CE; accepting the latter date would place it around c. 350 CE.

paragraph: The end of Samudragupta's reign is also uncertain. Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavatigupta is known to have married during the reign of his son Chandragupta II, in c. 380 CE (assuming c. 319 CE as the epoch of the Gupta era). Therefore, the end of Samudragupta's reign can be placed before this year.

paragraph: Various estimates of Samudragupta's regnal period include:

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. S. Altekar: c. 330-370 CE

paragraph: BULLET::::- A. L. Basham: c. 335-376 CE

paragraph: BULLET::::- S. R. Goyal: c. 350-375 CE

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tej Ram Sharma: c. 353-373 CE

paragraph: Section::::Ascension.

paragraph: Samudragupta was a son of the Gupta king Chandragupta I and queen Kumaradevi, who came from a Licchavi family. His fragmentary Eran stone inscription states that his father selected him as the successor because of his "devotion, righteous conduct, and valour". His Allahabad Pillar inscription similarly describes how Chandragupta called him a noble person in front of the courtiers, and appointed him to "protect the earth". These descriptions suggest that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king.

paragraph: According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, when Chandragupta appointed him as the next ruler, the faces of other people of "equal birth" bore a "melancholy look". One interpretation suggests that these other people were neighbouring kings, and Samudagupta's ascension to the throne was uncontested. Another theory is that these other people were Gupta princes who made a rival claim to the throne. If Chandragputa I indeed had multiple sons, it is likely that Samudragupta's background as the son of a Lichchhavi princess worked in his favour.

paragraph: The coins of a Gupta ruler named Kacha, whose identity is debated by modern scholars, describe him as "the exterminator of all kings". These coins closely resmble the coins issued by Samudragupta. According to one theory, Kacha was an earlier name of Samudragupta: the king adopted the regnal name Samudra ("Ocean"), after extending his territory up to the ocean. An alternatively theory is that Kacha was a distinct king (possibly a rival claimant to the throne) who flourished before or after Samudragupta.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.

paragraph: The Gupta inscriptions suggest that Samudragupta had a remarkable military career. The Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta states that he had brought "the whole tribe of kings" under his suzerainty, and that his enemies were terrified when they thought of him in their dreams. The inscription does not name any of the defeated kings (presumably because its primary objective was to record the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple), but it suggests that Samudragupta had subdued several kings by this time. The later Allahabad Pillar inscription, a panegyric written by Samudragupta's minister and military officer Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests. It gives the most detailed account of Samudragupta's military conquests, listing them in mainly geographical and partly chronological order. It states that Samudragupta fought a hundred battles, acquired a hundred wounds that looked like marks of glory, and earned the title "Prakrama" (valourous). The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as an "exterminator of all kings", as someone who had no equally powerful enemy, and as a person whose "fame was tasted by the waters of the four oceans".

paragraph: Modern scholars offer various opinions regarding Samudragupta's possible motivations behind his extensive military campaigns. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that Samudragupta's aim was the unification of the earth ("dharani-bandha"), which suggests that he may have aspired to become a Chakravartin (a universal ruler). The Ashvamedha performances by the Nagas, whom he defeated, may have influenced him as well. His southern expedition may have been motivated by economic considerations of controlling the trade between India and South-East Asia.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Early victories.

paragraph: The early portion of the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta "uprooted" Achyuta, Nagasena, and a ruler whose name is lost in the damaged portion of the inscription. The third name ends in "-ga", and is generally restored as Ganapati-naga, because Achyuta-nandin (presumably same as Achyuta), Nagasena, and Ganapati-naga are once again mentioned in the later part of the inscription, among the kings of Aryavarta (northern India) defeated by Samudragupta. These kings are identified as the rulers of present-day western Uttar Pradesh (see below). According to the inscription, Samudragupta reinstated these rulers after they sought his forgiveness.

paragraph: It is not clear why the names of these three kings is repeated later in the inscription. According to one theory, these three kings were vassal rulers who rebelled against Samudragupta after the death of his father. Samudragupta crushed the rebellion, and reinstated them after they sought his forgiveness. Later, these rulers rebelled once more, and Samudragupta defeated them again. Another possibility is that the author of the inscription thought it necessary to repeat these names while describing Samudragupta's later conquests in Aryavarta, simply because these kings belonged to that region.

paragraph: Samudragupta dispatched an army to capture the scion of the Kota family, whose identity is uncertain. The Kotas may have been the rulers of present-day Punjab, where coins bearing the legend "Kota", and featuring a symbol of Shiva and his bull, have been discovered.

paragraph: The inscription states that the Gupta army captured the Kota ruler, while Samudragupta himself "played" (or pleased himself) in a city called Pushpa (the name Pushpa-pura referred to Pataliputra at Samudragupta's time, although it came to be used for Kanyakubja in the later period). Modern scholars have interpreted the word "played" in various ways: According to one theory, this portion describes Samudragupta's achievements as a prince. An alternative interpretation is that Samudragupta dispatched his army on these campaigns, while he himself stayed at the capital. It is also possible that the poet intended to convey that these campaigns were minor affairs that did not require the king's direct involvement at the battlefront.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Southern conquests.

paragraph: According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta captured (and later released) the following kings of Dakshinapatha, the southern region:

paragraph: The exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars, but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India. Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of Bay of Bengal.

paragraph: The inscription states that Samudragupta later released these kings, and favoured ("anugraha") them. Most modern scholars theorize that Samudragupta reinstated these rulers as his tributaries. M. G. S. Narayanan interprets the word "anugraha" differently based on its occurrence in the "Arthashastra"; he theorizes that Samudragupta gave "protection and aid" to these kingdoms in order to secure their alliances.

paragraph: Some scholars, such as J. Dubreuil and B. V. Krishnarao, theorized that Samudragupta only advanced up to the Krishna river, and was forced to retreat without fighting a battle, when the southern kings formed a strong confederacy to oppose him. According to these scholars, the claim that Samudragupta released these kings is an attempt by Samudragupta's courtier to cover up the emperor's failure. However, there is no evidence of the southern kings forming a confederacy against Samudragupta. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that setting free a captured king is inline with the ancient Indian political ideals. For example, Kautilya defines three types of conquerors: the righteous conqueror ("dharma-vijayi"), who restores the defeated king in exchange for his acknowledgment of the conqueror's suzerainty; the coveteous conqueror ("lobha-vijayi"), who takes away the possessions of the defeated king but spares his life; and the demoniac conqueror ("asura-vijayi"), who annexes the territory of the defeated king and kills him. Such political ideals existed in the Gupta period too, as evident from Kalidasa's statement in "Raghuvamsha" that "the righteous victorious monarch (Raghu) only took away the royal glory of the lord of Mahendra who had been captured and released, but not his kingdom." Therefore, it is likely that Samudragupta acted like a righteous conqueror, and restored the defeated kings as his vassals.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mahendra of Kosala

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vyaghra-raja of Mahakantara

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mantaraja of Kurala

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mahendragiri of Pishtapura

paragraph: BULLET::::- Svamidatta of Kottura

paragraph: BULLET::::- Damana of Erandapalla

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vishnugopa of Kanchi

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nilaraja of Avamukta

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hastivarman of Vengi

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ugrasena of Palakka

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kubera of Devarashtra

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Northern conquests.

paragraph: According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta "forcibly uprooted" the following kings of Aryavarta, the northern region:

paragraph: Unlike the southern kings, the inscription does not mention the territories ruled by these kings, which suggests that their kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta empire. The inscription also mentions that Samudragupta defeated some other kings, but does not mention their names, presumably because the poet saw them as unimportant.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Rudradeva

paragraph: BULLET::::- Matila

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nagadatta

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chandravarman

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ganapatinaga

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nagasena

paragraph: BULLET::::- Achyuta-nandin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Balavarman

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Conquests in the forest region.

paragraph: According to the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Samudragupta reduced all the kings of the forest region ("atavika") to subservience. This forest region may have been located in central India: the inscriptions of the Parivrajaka dynasty, which ruled in this area, state that their ancestral kingdom was located within the 18 forest kingdoms.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Frontier kings and tribes.

paragraph: The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him. The inscription explicitly describes the five kingdoms as frontier territories: the areas controlled by the tribes were also probably located at the frontier of Samudrgupta's kingdom.

paragraph: Historian Upinder Singh theorizes that the relationship of these frontier rulers to the Gupta emperor had "certain elements of a feudatory relationship". According to historian R. C. Majumdar, it is likely that Samudragupta's conquests in Aryavarta and Dakshinapatha increased his reputation to such an extent that the frontier rulers and tribes submitted him without a fight.

paragraph: The frontier kingdoms included:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Samatata, located in the present-day Bengal.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Davaka, located in present-day Assam.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Kamarupa, located in present-day Assam.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Nepala, located in present-day Nepal. According to one theory, Nepala here refers to the Licchavi kingdom, whose rulers may have been the maternal relatives of Samudragupta.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Karttripura, probably located in the present-day Uttarakhand: the inscription appears to name frontier kingdoms in geographical order proceeding from Bengal to Assam to Nepal; Uttarakhand would be next in the sequence. A now-obsolete theory identified Karttripura with Kartarpur in present-day Punjab, but Kartarpur was established much later, in the 16th century, by Guru Arjan.

paragraph: The tribal oligarchies included:

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Malavas: During Samudragupta's period, they were probably headquartered at Karkota-nagara (present-day Nagar Fort in Rajasthan), where several thousands of their coins have been discovered.

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Arjunayanas: Their coins have been found in the Mathura region. According to numismatist John Allan, the Arjunayanas resided in the triangle connecting the present-day Delhi, Jaipur and Agra.

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Yaudheyas: They ruled the area between the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers after the Kushans. They seem to have become Samudragupta's tributaries.

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Madrakas: They are generally placed between the Ravi and the Chenab rivers.

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Abhiras: Epigraphic and literary evidence suggests that they ruled in western India during Samudragupta's period.

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Sanakanikas: They appear to have ruled the region around Udayagiri in present-day Madhya Pradesh. An inscription found at Udayagiri refers to a Sanakanika chief as a feudatory of Chandragupta II: this chief and his two predecessors are described as "Maharajas", which suggests that Samudragupta allowed the Sanakanika chiefs to rule as his governors after conquering their territory.

paragraph: BULLET::::7. Kakas: They may have been the rulers of the area around the Sanchi hill, which has been mentioned as Kakanada in ancient inscriptions.

paragraph: BULLET::::8. Prarjunas They may be identified as the Prarjunakas mentioned in the "Arthashastra", but their location is uncertain. Various theories place them in central India, including around the present-day Narsinghpur or Narsinghgarh in Madhya Pradesh.

paragraph: BULLET::::9. Kharaparikas: They may be same as the "Kharaparas" (literally "thief" or "rogue") mentioned in a 14th-century stone inscription found at Batiyagarh (or Battisgarh) in Damoh district. These Kharaparas are variously identified as an indigenous tribe or freebooters of this region.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Some later sources suggest that the Kharaparas were a foreign tribe (possibly Mongols), and the Dingal-language texts use the word "Kharapara" as a synonym for "Muslim", but such an identification is not applicable to Samudragupta's period.

paragraph: BULLET::::- There is also some speculation about the Kharaparikas being same as the Gardabhilas mentioned in the "Puranas", as the words "Khara" and "Gardabha" both mean "donkey" in Sanskrit. However, very little is known about the Gardabhilas from historical sources.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.:Relations with other rulers.

paragraph: Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending on him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens); and seeking the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories. These kings included Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shaka-Murundas

paragraph: BULLET::::- Simhala and other islands

paragraph: Section::::Extent of the empire.

paragraph: Samudragupta's empire included a core territory, located in northern India, which was directly controlled by the emperor. Besides, it comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states. Historian R. C. Majumdar theorizes that Samudragupta directly controlled an area extending from the Ravi River (Punjab) in the west to the Brahmaputra River (Bengal and Assam) in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Vindhya hills in the south. The south-western boundary of his territory roughly followed an imaginary line drawn from present-day Karnal to Bhilsa.

paragraph: In the south, Samudragupta's empire definitely included Eran in present-day Madhya Pradesh, where his inscription has been found. The Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he advanced up to Kanchipuram in the south. However, since the claims in the Allahabad Pillar inscription are from a royal eulogy, they must be treated with caution. The southern kings were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute.

paragraph: According to historian Kunal Chakrabarti, Samudragupta's military campaigns weakened the tribal republics of present-day Punjab and Rajasthan, but even these kingdoms were not under his direct suzerainty: they only paid him tribute. Samudragupta's claim of control over other kings is questionable. Historian Ashvini Agrawal notes that a gold coin of the Gadahara tribe bears the legend Samudra, which suggests that Samudragupta's control extended up to the Chenab river in the Punjab region.

paragraph: Some earlier scholars, such as J. F. Fleet believed that Samudragupta had also conquered a part of Maharashtra, based on the identification of Devarashtra with Maharashtra, and Erandapalla with Erandol, where some Gupta-era remains have been found. However, this theory is no longer considered correct.

paragraph: Section::::Coinage.

paragraph: The following types of Samudragupta's coins have been discovered:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Standard type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obverse legend: "Samara-shata-vitata-vijayo-jita-ripurajito-divam-jayati". Translation: "The unconquered one who has conquered his enemies [and] has continuously attained victories in a hundred battles, wins heaven"; Alternative translation: "The conqueror of the unconquered fortresses of his enemies, whose victory was spread in hundreds of battles, conquers heaven".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reverse legend: "Prakramah"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Archer type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Depicts Samudragupta standing fully dressed with a bow on his left hand and an arrow on his right hand.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obverse legend: "Apratiratha vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avnipatir) divam Jayati". Translation: "Unopposed by hostile chariots, conquering the earth, he conquers heaven by his good deeds".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reverse legend: "Apratirathah"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battle-axe type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obverse legend: "Kritanta-parshur-jayatyajitarajajetaji-tah". Translation: "Wielding the axe of Kritanta (the god of death), the unconquered conqueror of unconquered kings is victorious"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reverse legend: "Kritanta-parashuh"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tiger-slayer type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Depicts the king wearing turban and waist-cloth, and trampling a tiger

paragraph: BULLET::::- Legend: "Vaghra-prakramah". Translation: "Having the prowess of a tiger".

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lyrist type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Depicts Samudragupta wearing waist-cloth and seated cross-legged on a couch, playing a veena that lies on his knees.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Legend: the king's name

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ashvamedha type

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obverse legend: "Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatyahritavaji-medhah" ("the overlord of kings, who has performed the horse-sacrifice, having protected the earth, conquers the heaven") on the reverse.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Some coins have an alternative legend: "Rajadhirajah prithvim avitva divam jayatya-prativarya-viryah" ("the overlord of kings, of irresistible valour, having protected the earth, wins heaven").

paragraph: BULLET::::- Reverse legend: "Ashvamedha-prakramah" ("possessing the valour to perform the horse sacrifice")

paragraph: Numismatist John Allan believed that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents, but the later scholars have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta.

paragraph: Section::::Inscriptions.

paragraph: Two inscriptions from Samudragupta's reign have been discovered:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Allahabad Pillar inscription

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eran stone inscription

paragraph: Fleet theorized that the Allahabad Pillar inscription was posthumous, and was issued during the reign of Chandragupta II, but modern scholars disagree with this theory.

paragraph: Two other records are attributed to Samudragupta's reign, but the genuineness of these records is disputed:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nalanda inscription, dated to the regnal year 5

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gaya inscription, dated to the regnal year 9

paragraph: Both these inscriptions state that they were written at the order of the Gupta officer Gopaswamin. Like the Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II, these records describe Samudragupta as the "restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice". It seems suspicious that records issued so early in Samudragupta's reign mention this claim, which does not appear in the later Allahabad Pillar inscription. One possibility is that these records were issued during Samudragupta's reign, and were damaged after sometime, because of which they were restored during the reign of Chandragupta II.

paragraph: Section::::Inscriptions.:Eran inscription.

paragraph: The Eran Inscription of Samudragupta is presently stored in Kolkata Indian Museum. The inscription, in red sandstone, was found not far to the west of the ruined temple of the boar. It reads:

paragraph: Section::::Religion.

paragraph: Samudragputa's Eran inscription records the installation of a Vishnu idol in a temple. The Nalanda and Gaya inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta explicitly call him a devotee of Vishnu ("parama-bhagavata"), but the authenticity of these inscriptions is doubtful. He was also tolerant towards Buddhism, and permitted the construction of a Buddhist monastery commissioned by the Anuradhapura king Meghavarna at Bodh Gaya in his territory.

paragraph: The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Samudragupta was engaged in the performance of the Brahmanical ceremonies of Sattra (Soma sacrifices) and Diksha. It describes him as "the giver of many hundreds of thousands of cows". The Mathura stone inscription of his son Chandragupta II also describes him as the giver of "millions of cows and gold". It appears that Samudragupta donated these cows to the Brahmins who officiated his Sattra and Diksha ceremonies. The Eran inscription states that Samudragupta surpassed Prithu, Raghava and other legendary kings in giving gold.

paragraph: The Allahabad Pillar inscription alludes to his divine kingship, comparing him to the "Parama Purusha" (supreme being), and also with deities such as Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna, Indra, and Antaka (Yama). The Eran inscription states that he was equal to Kubera and Yama in pleasure and anger respectively. The Mathura stone inscription similarly describes him as equal to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama.

paragraph: Section::::Religion.:Ashvamedha.

paragraph: Samudragupta performed the Ashvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage section) to mark this performance. The copper-plate inscriptions of Samudragupta's granddaughter Prabhavati-gupta, who was a Vakataka queen, describe him as the performer of multiple horse sacrifices. According to one theory, Samudragupta indeed performed more than one horse sacrifices, as attested by the presence of two different legends on his Ashvamedha coins. Another theory dismisses the claim on Prabhavati-gupta's inscriptions as an exaggeration or a scribal error, since this claim does not appear on the inscriptions of Samudragupta or his successors.

paragraph: The Mathura stone inscription of Chandragupta II describes Samudragupta as "the restorer of the Ashvamedha sacrifice that had been long in abeyance" (Smith's translation). This claim also appears in the inscriptions of the subsequent Gupta kings, as well as the spurious Gaya and Nalanda inscriptions attributed to Samudragupta. However, several kings including those from Bharashiva, Vakataka, Shalankayana, and Pallava dynasties had had performed Ashvamedha in the preceding years. Different scholars have attempted to explain this anamoly in different ways: H. C. Raychaudhuri suggests that the Gupta court poet did not know about these kings. According to R. C. Majumdar, Samudragupta was the first king several centuries to perform the sacrifice in the Magadha region. Majumdar also theorizes that the Ashvamedha ceremony performed by Bharashiva, Vakataka, and other near-contemporary kings was "more of a religious nature", while Samudragupta's ceremony actually involved proving his imperial sovereignty. Similarly, scholars such as S. K. Aiyangar and D. R. Bhandarkar, theorize that unlike the other kings, Samudragupta performed a "full-fledged" Ashvamedha ceremony. Others, such as V. S. Pathak and Jagannath Agrawal, interpret the verse to mean that Samudragupta performed the horse-sacrifice that lasted for a long-time.

paragraph: The surviving verses of Samudragupta's own Allahabad Pillar inscription do not mention the Ashvamedha ceremony. According to one theory, this inscription was put up to mark the beginning of the ceremony, as the pangyerics of the sacrificer were an essential part of the Ashvamedha ceremony. It is possible that its first four lines, which are now lost, contained a reference to the ceremony.

paragraph: Section::::Personality.

paragraph: Samudragupta's coins depict him as a man of tall stature and muscular physique. The Allahabd Pillar inscription presents him as a compassionate ruler, stating that his "mind was engaged in providing relief to the low, the poor, the helpless, and the afflicted". It also mentions that he reinstated many royal families which had lost their kingdoms, including the kings defeated by him. At the same time, it states that he maintained strict administration ("prachanda shasana").

paragraph: The inscription states that Samudragupta became famous among the learned people because of his poetical works, and earned the epithet "king of poets". This suggests that he composed some poetical works, but none of these works now survive.

paragraph: The inscription also boasts that Samudragupta put to shame the celestial musician Tumburu and Narada by his lovely performances of music. Samudragupta's musical talents are also corroborated by his gold coins which depict him playing a veena.

paragraph: The inscription praises Samudragupta's wisdom and intellect, stating that he put to shame the preceptor of the Lord of the Gods (that is, Brihaspati) by his sharp intellect.

paragraph: Section::::Succession.

paragraph: The official records of the Gupta dynasty state that Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II, who was his son from queen Dattadevi. Based on a reconstruction of the partially-lost Sanskrit play "Devichandraguptam", a section of modern historians believe that Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta, who was later dethroned by Chandragupta II.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catalogue of Coins of Samudragupta

wikidata_label: Samudragupta

wikipedia_title: Samudragupta


text:
English
abstract
sculptor
Peter Hide
Rob Willms
Ryan McCourt
Newbury College (England)
Kent Institute of Art & Design
Master of Fine Arts
University of Alberta
Alberta Foundation for the Arts
North Edmonton Sculpture Workshop
Chichester Festival
Big Things
Edmonton Contemporary Artists' Society
Royal Alberta Museum
Shaw Conference Centre

categories: English emigrants to Canada,21st-century sculptors,English male sculptors,English sculptors,Metalsmiths,20th-century British sculptors,Living people,Assemblage artists

paragraph: Andrew French (sculptor)

paragraph: Andrew Michael French is an English born abstract sculptor. A one-time pupil of Peter Hide, French is best known for upright, large-scale welded sculptures made of brightly painted steel. With sculptors Mark Bellows, Bianca Khan, Rob Willms, and Ryan McCourt, Andrew French is identified as part of the "Next Generation" of Edmonton Sculpture.

paragraph: Educated at Newbury College (England), and Kent Institute of Art & Design with a BFA in Sculpture, French completed his Master of Fine Arts at the University of Alberta in 1999.

paragraph: French's 1999 sculpture "Pillar" is located on the University of Alberta campus, his sculpture "Still Life" is in the collection of the CIty of Edmonton, installed in Belgravia Art Park and his small soldered brass piece "The Abduction of St. Paul" is in the collection of the Alberta Foundation for the Arts.

paragraph: Andrew French is a co-founder of the North Edmonton Sculpture Workshop. His sculptures have been seen in a number of important exhibitions in Edmonton, including the Chichester Festival, Big Things, the Edmonton Contemporary Artists' Society, and the Alberta Centennial Sculpture Exhibition at the Royal Alberta Museum, and Sculpture by Invitation at the Shaw Conference Centre.

description: English sculptor

wikidata_label: Andrew French

wikipedia_title: Andrew French (sculptor)


text:
Mount Holyoke College
New York State College of Ceramics
Alfred University
University of Washington in Seattle

categories: People from Auburn, Maine,20th-century American artists,American artists of Japanese descent,American potters,1969 births,21st-century American women artists,University of Washington alumni,New York State College of Ceramics alumni,American ceramists,Mount Holyoke College alumni,Artists from Maine,American women ceramists,American women of Japanese descent,People from Lewiston, Maine,20th-century American women artists,Women potters,21st-century American artists,Living people

paragraph: Ayumi Horie

paragraph: Ayumi Horie (born 1969) is a Portland, Maine-based studio potter. She is recognized for her unique aesthetic as well as for her pioneering use of digital marketing and social media within contemporary ceramics. She is curator of the popular Instagram feed Pots in Action and is a 2015 United States Artist Distinguished Fellow in Craft.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Horie was raised in Lewiston/Auburn Maine by a Japanese-American family. She worked with her hands from an early age and continues to find inspiration in Maine's people, landscape, architecture, objects and history of craft. Before studying ceramics, Horie worked as a documentary photographer, shooting for weekly newspapers in Seattle. She sees a connection between her photographs of everyday life and her conceptual and formal interests as a potter. Horie holds a BA from Mount Holyoke College, a BFA in ceramics from the New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University and a MFA in ceramics from the University of Washington in Seattle.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: Horie is known for her functional pots, often featuring drawings of animals, made using a waterless throwing technique that preserves the gestural quality of clay. This "dry throwing" technique, developed while an undergraduate at Alfred, records evidence of the history of each pot's making. Fingerprints and imperfections inherent in clay such as stretching, cracking, and sagging create a sense of vulnerability and emotional connection to the user. The hand-scratched sgraffito animal drawings on her pots are inspired equally by natural history illustrations and Japanese manga. The "cuteness" of these images, heightened by the bold and playful use of color, is a way of further eliciting a sense of softness and humanity. In addition to her studio practice, Horie works collaboratively on projects that consider the relationship between ceramics and the wider community.

paragraph: Horie's work is in various collections throughout the US, including the Museum of Art and Design, New York. Her solo and two-person exhibitions include Greenwich House Pottery, New York; Red Lodge Clay Center, Red Lodge, MT; Akar Gallery, Iowa City, IA; Formargruppen, Malmo, Sweden; Lux Center for the Arts, Lincoln, NE; Kobo, Seattle, WA; Lill Street, Chicago; and Northern Clay Center, Minneapolis, MN. Her work has been featured in "T: The New York Times Style Magazine" online edition, "Design Sponge, Ceramics Monthly, Uppercase Magazine, Studio Potter, American Craft Magazine" online edition, and others.

paragraph: Section::::Community engagement.

paragraph: For Horie, pots not only create intimacy between individuals but can deepen connections to community and become agents of social change. She is the curator of the Instagram feed Pots in Action, one of the first crowdsourced projects in ceramics, featuring contributions and guest hosts from around the world. The project evolved from a personal website begun in 2005, in which she collected photographs of her pots in use in daily life and plotted them on a Google Map.

paragraph: Horie has co-organized multiple online craft-based fundraisers, beginning with Obamaware in 2008 which was the first online fundraiser of its kind and gained unprecedented response beyond the usual ceramic audience. This was followed by Handmade For Japan in 2011, which raised over $100,000 for disaster relief following the great East Japan earthquake and tsunami.

paragraph: Understanding handcraft to be a political choice that celebrates individual creativity within a society based on mass consumerism, Horie works to expand the audience for functional pottery and to showcase clay as a medium that uniquely reflects everyday human experience. Since 2002, she has participated in the Artstream Nomadic Gallery, a restored 1967 Airstream trailer that operates as a mobile alternative exhibition space and has traveled to over 150 locations. In 2009, she collaborated on a tile mapping installation at Greenwich House Pottery, which used data from the Mannahatta Project to raise ecological awareness. Begun in 2015, "Portland Brick" is a collaborative public art project that repairs the sidewalks of Portland, Maine with bricks made from local clay that are stamped with the city's histories, memories, and wishes for the future and invites further participation through live events and a website.

paragraph: Horie travels widely to lecture and give workshops on ceramics and social media, including at Alfred University, Anderson Ranch, Arizona State University, Archie Bray Foundation, Haystack Mountain School of Crafts, Penland School of Crafts, Penn State University, Pratt Institute, the Rhode Island School of Design, and Virginia Commonwealth University, and was Clay Coordinator for three years at Women's Studio Workshop. She has served on multiple boards including that of the Archie Bray Foundation, the American Craft Council and accessCeramics.org.

paragraph: Section::::Awards.

paragraph: Horie has received numerous awards and honors in the field, including:

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 United States Artist Distinguished Fellow in Craft

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 Maine Arts Commission grant for Portland Brick†

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 Kindling Fund grant for Portland Brick†

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 Portland Public Art Commission grant for Portland Brick†

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2011 Inaugural recipient, Ceramics Monthly Ceramic Artist of the Year

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 Select Prize, Ulsan International Onggi Competition, Korea

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 Skutt Purchase Award, NCECA Biennial Exhibition, Phoenix, AZ

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008 Residency, Guldagergaard International Ceramic Center, Skaelskor, Denmark

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1996-1998 Residency, Archie Bray Foundation for the Ceramic Arts

paragraph: †Award for Portland Brick, public collaboration with Elise Pepple

wikidata_label: Ayumi Horie

wikipedia_title: Ayumi Horie


text:
Arjuna Award
shooter
Yamuna Nagar
Jagadhri
Haryana
Indian Navy
Indore
Melbourne
2006 Commonwealth Games
2006 Asian Games
Doha
2008 Summer Olympics
Doha
Changwon
Master Chief Petty Officer – II
Indian Navy
2012 Summer Olympics
2014 Commonwealth Games
2018 Asian Games

categories: Shooters at the 2010 Asian Games,Asian Games silver medalists for India,Indian male sport shooters,Shooters at the 2018 Asian Games,Shooters at the 2006 Asian Games,Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games,ISSF rifle shooters,Commonwealth Games silver medallists for India,Shooters at the 2014 Commonwealth Games,1981 births,Shooters at the 2008 Summer Olympics,Sport shooters from Haryana,Olympic shooters of India,People from Yamunanagar,Asian Games bronze medalists for India,Shooters at the 2012 Summer Olympics,Shooters at the 2014 Asian Games,Living people,Commonwealth Games medallists in shooting,Medalists at the 2014 Asian Games,Asian Games competitors for India,Asian Games medalists in shooting,Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for India,Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games

paragraph: Sanjeev Rajput

paragraph: Sanjeev Rajput is an Arjuna Awardee Indian shooter from Yamuna Nagar, Haryana.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Rajput was born on 5 January 1981 to Krishan Lal of Jagadhri. He went to SD Public School Jagadhri, Haryana. At the age of 18 he joined the Indian Navy as a sailor.

paragraph: He won 03 Gold and a Silver medal at SAF Games, Islamabad, 2004. At the national Championship Oct 2004 Sanjeev Rajput proves to be a new find by winning back to back finals with two different weapons on the final day of the National Championship at Reoti Ranges, Indore.

paragraph: He won the 50m Free Rifle three-position and the 10m Air Rifle Champion of Champions events. He won a Team Gold in Commonwealth Shooting Championship, Melbourne in March 2005 in 50m Rifle 3 position event. He won the bronze medal in the Men's 50m Rifle Prone at the 2006 Commonwealth Games. He won a bronze medal in the 2006 Asian Games, Doha. He took part in 33rd National Games Guwahati from Services team and won 03 Gold and 01 Silver medal including individual Gold in 50m Rifle Prone and 3position event.

paragraph: In year 2007, he won the Olympic berth by making a New National Record of 1170/1200 in ISSF World Cup Fort Benning, USA, by breaking his own record of 1165. He won a second place in Asian Shooting Championship, Kuwait in December 2007 in 50m Rifle 3rd position and a team Bronze in the same event and a team silver in 50m Rifle Prone.

paragraph: He contested in the men's 50 m rifle prone event at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, but failed to reach the finals. He also contests in the men's 50 m rifle three positions.

paragraph: In July 2009, he won 04 Gold and 02 Silver from the SAG Shooting Championship, Dhaka. and a team Gold of Air rifle from Asian Air Gun Championship, Doha in December 2009.

paragraph: In 2010 he won a double Gold in 50m Rifle 3position event with the New Meet Record in Common Wealth Shooting Championship, Delhi and also a Silver in 10m Air rifle event. He won a silver medal in ISSF World Cup Sydney, 2010 in 10m Air Rifle. He finished 5th in 10m Air Rifle in ISSF World Cup Final in Oct 2010 in Munich, Germany. He also won a team silver in 10m Air rifle event in Asian Games Guangzhou, China. He was also Conferred with Arjuna Award in Aug 2010 and is also adjudged the Services Best Sports Person for the year 2009–2010 and was awarded the Trophy.

paragraph: In 2011, he won gold medal in world cup held in Changwon, Korea. He also made a New National Record in the same event by again breaking his own record 3rd time. By winning this gold he became the third Indian to qualify for the London Olympics. He finished 8th place at the ISSF World Cup finals in Poland in his Pet event. He also won 05 Gold and a Silver medal in the 34th National Games Ranchi, Bihar. He is also a Master Chief Petty Officer – II of Indian Navy. At the 2012 Summer Olympics Rajput could not make it to the finals of the men's 50-metre rifle three positions at the Royal Artillery Barracks.

paragraph: At the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, Sanjeev won a silver medal in the 50 m Rifle 3 positions event.

paragraph: In 2016 he won his maiden world cup medal in 50 metres rifle 3 positions event at Baku, where he ended up with a silver medal.

paragraph: In 2018 Asian Games, he won silver medal in men's 50 metres rifle 3 positions category.

description: Indian sport shooter

wikidata_label: Sanjeev Rajput

wikipedia_title: Sanjeev Rajput


text:
ajaw
Maya
Copán
Honduras
Classic
Smoke Imix
Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ
Copan River
Chichen Itza
Calakmul
Palenque
Tikal
Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat
Quirigua
Motagua River
ajaw

categories: 738 deaths,Rulers of Copán,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil

paragraph: Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil (also known by the appellation "Eighteen Rabbit"), was the 13th ajaw or ruler of the powerful Maya polity associated with the site of Copán in modern Honduras (its Classic Maya name was probably "Oxwitik"). He ruled from January 2, 695, to May 3, 738.

paragraph: Section::::History.

paragraph: Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil ascended to the throne of Copan upon the death of the 12th ruler in the line of the founder, Smoke Imix, in 695. He began his reign with the construction of the Esmeralda Structure in order to entomb the remains of Smoke Imix. This ritually terminated the adjacent ancient temple of Papagayo constructed 250 years earlier by the celebrated Ruler 2, son of Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ. He later constructed the original hieroglyphic stairway on the east side of the Esmeralda Structure. A passage on the stairway commemorates its construction 15 years after the death of Smoke Imix.

paragraph: Section::::Architecture.

paragraph: Based on the number of structures and monuments constructed during his reign, Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil is considered the greatest patron of the arts in Copan's history. This period was characterized by a deep, florid relief, which represents the culmination of the sculptural tradition of Copan.

paragraph: Section::::Architecture.:The living mountain.

paragraph: The reign of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil saw the construction of several structures, some of which were lost to erosion by the Copan River. The most impressive of these is Structure 10L-22, which represents a sacred man-made mountain. The inner chamber of 10L-22 was likely central in the performance of auto-sacrificial bloodletting rituals. The corners of the structure are decorated with stone masks, textually labeled as 'stone mountain'. The entrance was carved in the likeness of an arching Celestial Monster, representing the mouth of a cave and a symbolic entrance into the earth.

paragraph: Section::::Architecture.:Ballcourt.

paragraph: The final architectural achievement of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil was Ballcourt A-III. It is one of the most imposing in Mesoamerica, surpassed only by that of Chichen Itza. It is remarkable for the sloping benches used by players of the game, and by six macaw markers, the function of which is not completely resolved. Many of the stone macaws associated with the ballcourt wear the sign for darkness, "akbal", on their tails. The macaw is typically symbolic of the sun, so these "akbal" macaws may be symbolic of sun in the Underworld. This could make the players symbolic combatants in the battle between light and dark. The inclined benches of the ballcourt are inscribed with hieroglyphic text, one of these being the commemoration date. It was dedicated in 738, only 113 days before Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil's death.

paragraph: Section::::Sculpture.

paragraph: Between 711 and 736, Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil commissioned the construction of seven monuments. Stelas C, F, 4, H, A, B, and D (erected in that order) represent one of the greatest achievements in Classic Maya sculpture. Each stela depicts Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil in ritual pose, with a two-headed centipede bar clasped to his chest. The text of Stela A proclaims that Copan ranked with three other kingdoms, Calakmul, Palenque, and Tikal, as the four great polities of the Maya World.

paragraph: Section::::Death and aftermath.

paragraph: Section::::Death and aftermath.:Beheading.

paragraph: Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil was captured and beheaded by Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat, ruler of the small polity of Quirigua, on May 3, 738. Quirigua was a vassal of Copan, founded by a subordinate of Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ in 426. Though only about one-tenth the size of Copan, it was an important location controlling the Motagua River trade route. About 35 years into his reign, Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil presided over the accession of Kʼak Tiliw Chan Yopaat, who was to be subject to Copan's authority. In 734 on Altar M at Quirigua, Kʼak Tiliw Chan Yopaat gives himself the title "kʼuhul ajaw", thus declaring Quirigua's independence from Copan. In 738, a date given conspicuous prominence in Quirigua's monuments, Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured and beheaded Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil. This event is recorded on Quirigua's monuments as an 'ax event', referring to the beheading of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil. The only reference at Copan is on the Hieroglyphic Stairway, recording the death of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil by 'flint and shield'. There is no evidence of a large-scale battle at or around Copan during the 730's, suggesting that Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil was captured abroad.

paragraph: Section::::Death and aftermath.:Political implications.

paragraph: It is unlikely that a polity only one-tenth the size of Copan could overthrow centuries of regional hegemony by acting alone. Stela I at Quirigua states that in 736, two years before Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil's defeat and two years after the inscription declaring Quirigua's independence, Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Yopaat hosted a delegation from the polity of Calakmul, including its ruler Wamaw Kʼawiil. This suggests that Calakmul played a role in Copan's defeat, possibly even providing the armed forces necessary to overpower a polity the size of Copan. Calakmul's possible motives include control of important trade routes, but more importantly striking a blow against its rival polity Tikal, Copan's greatest ally.

paragraph: Section::::Death and aftermath.:Aftermath.

paragraph: The effects of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil's death were profound. After an era of unprecedented architectural and sculptural achievement, no new structures or monuments were erected for 18 years after Copan's defeat. Kʼakʼ Joplaj Chan Kʼawiil succeeded Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil as ruler of Copan, but his was likely under Kʼak Tiliw Chan Yopaat's jurisdiction. Inscriptions at Quirigua name Kʼak Tiliw Chan Yopaat as the 14th ruler in the line of the founder, a possible reference to him as successor of Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kawiil. At the very least, the loss of the Quirigua trade routes would have meant a substantial economic and political setback.

description: Ruler of the Maya associated with the site of Copán

wikidata_label: Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil

wikipedia_title: Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil


text:
Hebrew
Ancient Greek
Hasmonean dynasty
Judea
diplomat
1 Maccabees
Mattathias
priest
rebellion
Maccabees
Antiochus IV Epiphanes
Seleucid Empire
Eleazar Avaran
Johanan
Judas Maccabeus
Simon Thassi
courage
Battle of Elasa
Bacchides
Demetrius I Soter
famine
Jew
Jordan River
Sabbath
Nabataeans
Medeba
looted
swamp
Alcimus
High Priest
Jerusalem
Hellenistic civilization
Acra
guerrilla warfare
siege
peace treaty
prisoners of war
oath
Michmash
godless
apostate
Demetrius I Soter
Attalus II Philadelphus
Pergamon
Ptolemy VI of Egypt
Cleopatra II of Egypt
Alexander Balas
Antiochus IV Epiphanes
High Priest
Feast of Tabernacles
Teacher of Righteousness
Essenes
Wicked Priest
Cleopatra Thea
Ptolemais
strategos
Demetrius II Nicator
Apollonius Taos
Coele-Syria
mountain
plain
Jaffa
Azotus
cavalry
Dagon
village
Ekron
Battle of Antioch
Cleopatra Thea
Samaritan
toparchies
Mount Ephraim
Lod
Ramathaim-Zophim
talent
tax
Antiochus VI Dionysus
Diodotus Tryphon
Antioch
strategos
Tyre
Egypt
Ashkelon
Gaza
Beth Zur
Roman Republic
Sparta
Diodotus Tryphon
Scythopolis
Ptolemais
Simon Thassi
talents
Modi'in
Josephus
Jewish leadership
List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers

categories: 2nd-century BCE Jews,Hasmonean dynasty,2nd-century BC biblical rulers,2nd-century BC High Priests of Israel,Year of birth unknown,143 BC deaths,Maccabees,2nd-century BC clergy,2nd-century BC Hasmonean rulers

paragraph: Jonathan Apphus

paragraph: Jonathan Apphus (Hebrew: יונתן אפפוס "Yōnāṯān 'Apefūs", Ancient Greek: Ἰωνάθαν Ἀπφοῦς "Iōnáthan Apphoûs") was leader of the Hasmonean dynasty of Judea from 161 to 143 BCE. The name Apphus (Ἀπφοῦς) means "the diplomat", in allusion to a trait prominent in him (1 Maccabees ii. 5).

paragraph: Section::::Leader of the Jews.

paragraph: Jonathan Apphus was the youngest of the five sons of Mattathias. His father was a priest credited as the founding figure of the rebellion of the Maccabees against Antiochus IV Epiphanes of the Seleucid Empire. However Mattathias died in 167 BCE while the rebellion was only beginning.

paragraph: He was survived by Jonathan and his brothers Eleazar Avaran, Johanan, Judas Maccabeus, and Simon Thassi. They were sworn to continue the rebellion of their father. Judas soon became their leader and the military chief of the rebellion.

paragraph: Jonathan served under his brother and took active parts in the battles against the Seleucid forces. His reputation for courage is lesser to that of Judas but hardly questionable. His courage had been frequently tried. Judas fell in the Battle of Elasa (161/160 BCE) against Bacchides, a Seleucid general under Demetrius I Soter. Bacchides proceeded with crushing rigor against the Maccabean party while at the same time a famine broke out in the land. The Jewish rebels required a new leader and Jonathan was chosen.

paragraph: Jonathan noticed that Bacchides was trying to entrap him. He reacted by retiring with his brothers Simeon and John, and his followers to a desert region in the country east of the Jordan River. They set camp near a morass by the name of Asphar. But Bacchides followed him there and overtook them during a Sabbath. Jonathan gave all the baggage into the hands of his brother John who took a small force and headed towards the friendly Nabataeans. The plan was to secure their baggage there but the "sons of Jambri of Medeba", a hostile tribe apparently, ambushed them during their journey. John and his companions were killed and their cargo was looted. Subsequently, Jonathan was informed that one of the sons of Jambri was leading home a noble bride in great pomp, the Maccabean brothers proceeded to Medaba, ambushed the bridal procession, killed the entire party, to the number of 300, and seized all the treasure.

paragraph: Jonathan and his companions met Bacchides in battle at the River Jordan. Jonathan had encountered and had raised his hand to slay Bacchides, when the latter evaded the blow; the Jews, defeated, sought refuge by swimming through the Jordan to the eastern bank. In this battle Bacchides is reported to have lost either 1,000 or 2,000 men and he did not make another attempt to cross the river, instead returning to Jerusalem. Jonathan and his forces remained in the swamp in the country east of the Jordan. Following the death of Alcimus, High Priest in Jerusalem sometime later, Bacchides left the country.

paragraph: Section::::Turn of fate.

paragraph: However Jonathan was not idle. He continued activities against the Jews influenced by the Hellenistic civilization. Two years after the departure of Bacchides from Judea, Acra felt sufficiently threatened to contact Demetrius and request the return of Bacchides to their territory.

paragraph: Jonathan was now more experienced in guerrilla warfare, the primary tactic used by the Maccabean forces, and was constantly on guard to avoid direct confrontations with enemy forces even while continuing hostile operations. A frustrated Bacchides reportedly took out his anger on the Hellenists and reportedly killed fifty of their leaders out of frustration. Jonathan and Simeon thought it well to retreat farther, and accordingly fortified in the desert a place called Beth-hogla; there they were besieged several days by Bacchides.

paragraph: Jonathan perceived that Bacchides regretted having set out. He contacted the rival general with offers of a peace treaty and exchange of prisoners of war. Bacchides readily consented and even took an oath of nevermore making war upon Jonathan. He and his forces then vacated Judea. The victorious Jonathan now took up his residence in the old city of Michmash. From there he endeavored to clear the land of "the godless and the apostate".

paragraph: Section::::High Priest.

paragraph: Jonathan must have used this peaceful period to good advantage, for he was soon in possession of great power. An important external event brought the design of the Maccabeans to fruition. Demetrius I Soter's relations with Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon (reigned 159 - 138 BCE), Ptolemy VI of Egypt (reigned 163 - 145 BCE) and his co-ruler Cleopatra II of Egypt were deteriorating.

paragraph: They supported rival claimant to the throne Alexander Balas against him who claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and a first cousin of Demetrius.

paragraph: Demetrius was now forced to recall the garrisons of Judea, except those at Jerusalem's Akra fortress and at Beth-zur; he also made a bid for the loyalty of Jonathan, whom he permitted to recruit an army and to take the hostages kept in the Akra fortress. Jonathan gladly accepted these terms and took up residence at Jerusalem in 153 BCE. He soon began fortifying the city.

paragraph: Alexander Balas also contacted Jonathan with even more favorable terms. Including official appointment as High Priest in Jerusalem. Withdrawing his support from Demetrius and declaring allegiance to Alexander, Jonathan was the first member of his dynasty to achieve appointment as High Priest. The title was not merely nominal. Jonathan became the official leader of his people and the Hellenistic party could no longer attack him without severe consequences. On the Feast of Tabernacles of 153 BCE, Jonathan put on the High Priest's garments and officiated for the first time. It is unknown whom Jonathan displaced as High Priest, though some scholars suggest that this was the Teacher of Righteousness, later founder of the Essenes. In this theory, Jonathan is considered the "Wicked Priest".

paragraph: Jonathan had determined to side with Alexander Balas, not trusting Demetrius, who in a second letter made promises that he could hardly have kept and conceded prerogatives that were almost impossible. Demetrius subsequently lost his throne and life in 150 BCE. Alexander Balas was victorious and sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire. He was given the further honor of marriage to Cleopatra Thea, daughter of his allies Ptolemy VI and Cleopatra II.

paragraph: The wedding took place in Ptolemais in the presence of Ptolemy VI. Jonathan was invited but arrived after the wedding ceremony while celebrations continued. He appeared with presents for both kings, and was permitted to sit between them as their equal; Balas even clothed him with his own royal garment and otherwise accorded him high honor. He would not listen to the Hellenistic party that still accused Jonathan, but appointed Jonathan as strategos and "meridarch" (i.e., civil governor of a province; details not found in Josephus), and sent him back with honors to Jerusalem.

paragraph: Section::::Victory over Apollonius.

paragraph: Jonathan proved grateful. In 147 BCE, Demetrius II Nicator, a son of Demetrius I Soter, started claiming the throne against Alexander Balas. Apollonius Taos, governor of Coele-Syria was probably supporting Demetrius. But he used the opportunity to challenge Jonathan to battle, saying that the Jews might for once leave the mountains and venture out into the plain.

paragraph: Jonathan and Simeon led a force of 10,000 men against Jaffa where the forces of Apollonius lay. Not expecting an attack this early in the hostilities, Jaffa was not prepared for a siege. The gates of which were opened before the Jewish forces out of fear.

paragraph: But the victory was not yet certain. Apollonius received reinforcements from Azotus and appeared in the plain in charge of 3,000 men. They were clearly outnumbered but Apollonius was relying on his superior cavalry and forced Jonathan to engage in battle. Jonathan assaulted, captured and burned Azotus along with the resident temple of Dagon and the surrounding villages.

paragraph: In reward of his victory, Alexander Balas granted the victorious High Priest the city of Ekron along with its outlying territory. The people of Azotus vainly complained to King Ptolemy VI, who had come to make war upon his son-in-law Alexander Balas, that Jonathan had destroyed their city and temple. Jonathan peacefully met Ptolemy at Jaffa and accompanied him as far as the River Eleutherus. He then returned to Jerusalem, maintaining peace with the King of Egypt despite their support for different contenders for the Seleucid throne.

paragraph: Section::::Under Demetrius II.

paragraph: In 145 BCE, the Battle of Antioch resulted in the final defeat of Alexander Balas by the forces of his father-in-law Ptolemy VI. Ptolemy himself was however among the casualties of the battle. Demetrius II Nicator remained sole ruler of the Seleucid Empire and became the second husband of Cleopatra Thea.

paragraph: Jonathan owed no allegiance to the new King and took this opportunity to lay siege to the Seleucid fortress in Jerusalem and the symbol of Seleucid control over Judea. it was heavily garrisoned by a Seleucid force and offered asylum to Jewish Hellenists. Demetrius was very angry; he appeared with an army at Ptolemais and ordered Jonathan to come before him. Without raising the siege Jonathan, accompanied by the elders and priests, went to the king, and pacified him with presents, so that the king not only confirmed him in his office of high priest, but gave to him the three Samaritan toparchies of Mount Ephraim, Lod, and Ramathaim-Zophim. In return for a present of 300 talents the entire country was exempted from taxes, the exemption being confirmed in a letter which is preserved by I Maccabees and Josephus.

paragraph: Soon however, a new claimant to the Seleucid throne appeared in the person of the young Antiochus VI Dionysus, son of Alexander Balas and Cleopatra Thea. He was three years old at most but general Diodotus Tryphon used him to advance his own designs on the throne. In face of this new enemy, Demetrius not only promised to withdraw the garrison from Jerusalem, but also called Jonathan his ally and requested him to send troops. 3,000 of Jonathan's men protected Demetrius in his capital, Antioch, against his own subjects.

paragraph: Section::::Support for Tryphon.

paragraph: As Demetrius II did not keep his promise, Jonathan thought it better to support the new king when Diodotus Tryphon and Antiochus VI seized the capital. The latter confirmed all his rights and appointed his brother Simeon strategos of the seacoast, from the "Ladder of Tyre" to the frontier of Egypt. Jonathan and Simeon toured the region removing Demetrius II's garrisons; Ashkelon submitted voluntarily while Gaza was forcibly taken. Jonathan defeated a force of Demetrius II which invaded from the north, in the plain of Hazar, and drove them back over the Eleutherius River. Meanwhile, Simeon took the strong fortress of Beth Zur and replaced Demetrius II's garrison with his own.

paragraph: The sources report that Jonathan sought alliances with foreign peoples at this time. He renewed the treaty with the Roman Republic, and exchanged friendly messages with Sparta and other places.

paragraph: Section::::Capture by Diodotus Tryphon and death.

paragraph: In 143 BCE, Diodotus Tryphon went with an army to Judea and invited Jonathan to Scythopolis for a friendly conference, and persuaded him to dismiss his army of 40,000 men, promising to give him Ptolemais and other fortresses. Jonathan fell into the trap; he took with him to Ptolemais 1,000 men, all of whom were slain; he himself was taken prisoner.

paragraph: When Diodotus Tryphon was about to enter Judea at Hadid, he was confronted by the new Jewish leader, Simon Thassi, ready for battle. Tryphon, avoiding an engagement, demanded one hundred talents and Jonathan's two sons as hostages, in return for which he promised to liberate Jonathan. Although Simon did not trust Tryphon, he complied with the request in order that he might not be accused of the death of his brother. But Tryphon did not liberate his prisoner; angry that Simon blocked his way everywhere and that he could accomplish nothing, he executed Jonathan at Baskama, in the country east of the Jordan. Jonathan was buried by Simon at Modi'in. Nothing is known of his two captive sons. One of his daughters was the ancestress of Josephus.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jewish leadership

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers

alias:
Jonathan Maccabaeus
Gionata Maccabeo

description: Hasmodean leader

wikidata_label: Jonathan Apphus

wikipedia_title: Jonathan Apphus


text:
king of Essex
Sigeric of Essex
Mercia
Egbert of Wessex

categories: 9th-century English monarchs,9th-century deaths,8th-century births,East Saxon monarchs,8th-century English monarchs,9th-century rulers in Europe

paragraph: Sigered of Essex

paragraph: Sigered of Essex was the last king of Essex from 798 to 825. The son of Sigeric of Essex, Sigered became king when his father abdicated the throne.

paragraph: In 812 Sigered was reduced from king to duke by his Mercian overlords. In 825 he finally ceded the kingdom of Essex to Egbert of Wessex.

description: King of essex

wikidata_label: Sigered of Essex

wikipedia_title: Sigered of Essex


text:
ancient Egypt
pharaoh
22nd Dynasty
Shoshenq IV
Shoshenq V
Serapeum
stela
Pimay
Shoshenq III
Egyptian
Shoshenq I
Shoshenq IV
Apis bull
Shoshenq III
University of Montpellier
Heliopolis
dynasties

categories: Pharaohs of the Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt,778 BC deaths,8th-century BC Pharaohs,Year of birth unknown

paragraph: Pami

paragraph: Usermaatre Setepenre Pami was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 22nd Dynasty who ruled for 7 years. "Pami" in Egyptian, means "the Cat" or "He who belongs to the Cat [Bastet]."

paragraph: Section::::Identity.

paragraph: Pami's precise relationship with his immediate predecessor—Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq IV—is unknown but he is attested as the father of Shoshenq V in a Year 11 Serapeum stela dating to the latter's reign. Pami was once assumed to be Pimay, the third son of Shoshenq III who served as the "Great Chief of Ma" under his father. However, the different orthographies of their names (Pami vs. Pimay) prove that they were 2 different individuals. In addition, the name Pami translates as 'The Cat' in Egyptian whereas the name Pimay means 'The Lion.' Pami's name was mistakenly transcribed as Pimay by past historians based upon the common belief that he was Shoshenq III's son. This is now recognised to be an erroneous translation of this king's nomen/name which should rather be written as Pami. While a previous Dynasty 22 king held the title 'Great Chief of the Ma' before ascending the throne–namely Shoshenq I–Shoshenq III's son, Pimay, was a different man from king Pami because their names are different. Moreover, if Pimay did indeed outlive his father, he should have then succeeded his father as king rather than the obscure Shoshenq IV who is not attested as a son of Shoshenq III. Consequently, it seems certain that Shoshenq III outlived all of his sons through his nearly 4 decade long reign.

paragraph: While a minority of scholars hold to the traditional view that Pami was Pimay, a son of Shoshenq III by his wife Queen Djed-Bast-Es-Ankh, no archaeological evidence proves that Pami was ever a son of Shoshenq III. The different spelling and meanings of the word Pami and Pimay and the fact that Shoshenq III was actually succeeded by Shoshenq IV—rather than Pimay as was once thought—suggest rather that Pami was a son of his obscure predecessor--Shoshenq IV instead.

paragraph: Section::::Reign Length.

paragraph: Two Apis bulls were buried in Pami's own reign—one each during his Second and Sixth Year respectively. The Year 2 II Peret day 1 Serapeum stela from Pami's reign states that 26 Years passed between Year 28 of Shoshenq III–the burial of the previous Apis Bull—and Year 2 of Pami. Pami's Highest Year Date was originally thought to be his 6th Year based on his Year 6 Serapeum stela. However, in 1998, Pierre Tallet, Susanne Bickel and Marc Gabolde from the University of Montpellier published the surviving contents of a reused stone block from an enclosure wall at Heliopolis. According to the article, the block is 2 cubits (104 cm) large and likely formed the right inside side of a doorway. The block is essentially an Annal document which postdates Pami's reign and was originally part of a larger monument which catalogued the deeds of various Dynasty 22 Pharaohs. However, only the section concerning Pami's reign has survived. It chronicles this king's Yearly donations both to the gods of the Great Temple of Heliopolis and to other local deities and temples in this city. While the ending of the block is damaged, a 7th Regnal Year can be clearly seen for Pami and a brief 8th Year in the lost or erased section is possible. In any event, his Highest Year Date is now his 7th Year and Pami would have reigned for almost 7 full years based upon this document.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- dynasties

description: Egyptian pharaoh

wikidata_label: Pami

wikipedia_title: Pami


text: Parisian

text: Gothic-era

text: manuscript illuminator

text: drolleries

text: miniaturists

text: patronage

text: Giotto

text: Duccio

text: trecento

text: grisaille

text: color

text: The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux

text: Jeanne d'Évreux

text: Maestà

text: Belleville Breviary

text: breviary

text: Blanche of France

text: proto-Renaissance

categories: 1300 births,French illustrators,1334 deaths

paragraph: Jean Pucelle

paragraph: Jean Pucelle (c. 1300 – 1355), active c. 1320-1350, was a Parisian Gothic-era manuscript illuminator who excelled in the invention of drolleries as well as traditional iconography. He is considered one of the best miniaturists of the early 14th century. He worked primarily under the patronage of the royal court and is believed to have been responsible for the introduction of the "arte nuovo" of Giotto and Duccio to Northern Gothic art. His work shows a distinct influence of the Italian trecento art Duccio is credited with creating. His style is characterized by delicate figures rendered in "grisaille," accented with touches of color.

paragraph: Pucelle's most famous works include "The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux", a private prayer book done as a royal commission for the queen of France, Jeanne d'Évreux (c. 1324–28), which reflects the "Maestà" (c. 1325) by Duccio in the "Belleville Breviary". He is also credited with the Franciscan breviary believed to have once been owned by Blanche of France. His earliest documented work is believed to be the design for the great seal of the Confraternity of the Hospital of in Paris, indicating that Pucelle worked and designed in a variety of media ranging from enamels to stained glass.

paragraph: Pucelle's proto-Renaissance style is evident in "The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux", the "Belleville Breviary" and the Bible of Robert de Billyng, which all displayed such features as sculpturally modeled figures, three-dimensional treatment of space and a new form of psychological expression.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- JSTOR: "Jean Pucelle: A Re-Examination of the Evidence", Kathleen Morand, "The Burlington Magazine," June 1961

paragraph: BULLET::::- Jean Pucelle: Innovation and Collaboration in Manuscript Painting (Studies in Medieval and Early Renaissance Art History) edited by Kyunghee Pyun and Anna Russakoff (Brepols, 2013)

alias:
Jehan Pucele
Jehan Pucelle

description: French artist

wikidata_label: Jean Pucelle

wikipedia_title: Jean Pucelle


text:
Islamic history
Egypt
Islamic prophet
Muhammad
Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria
Christian
Byzantine Empire
Sassanid
Greek
Ibn Ishaq
Arabian
Tabari
Maria al-Qibtiyya
Sirin
Christian
Akhmim
Egypt
Bible
French
orientalist
Sultan
Abdülmecid
Turkey
£
Abu Bakr
Mughira ibn Shu'ba
Arabization
Greek
Byzantine empire
Christian Patriarchs
Sassanid rule
Greco-Roman
Caucasus
Patriarch of Alexandria
See of Alexandria
Heraclius
recaptured Egypt
Persian invasion
Andronicus
Benjamin I
Severus b. al-Moqaffa
Christian Arabs
Nestorian
Syriac

categories: 7th-century BC Greek people,Byzantine emperors,7th-century Islam

paragraph: Al-Muqawqis

paragraph: Al-Muqawqis (, ) is mentioned in Islamic history as a ruler of Egypt, who corresponded with the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He is often identified with Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria, who administered Egypt on behalf of the Christian Byzantine Empire. However, this identification is challenged as being based on untenable assumptions. An alternative view identifies al-Muqawqis with the Sassanid governor of Egypt. He was a Greek man and was known as Kirolos, leader of the Copts.

paragraph: Section::::Account by Muslim historians.

paragraph: Ibn Ishaq and other Muslim historians record that some time between February 628 and 632, Muhammad sent out letters to Arabian and non-Arabian leaders, including the Byzantine ruler, al-Muqawqis:

paragraph: Tabari states that the delegation was sent in Dhul-Hijja 6 A.H. (April or May 628). Ibn Saad states that the Muqawqis sent his gifts to Muhammad in 7 A.H. (after May 628). This is consistent with his assertion that Mariya bore Muhammad's son Ibrahim in late March or April 630, so Mariya had arrived in Medina before July 629.

paragraph: Section::::Letter of invitation to Islam.

paragraph: The letter that Muhammad sent to al-Muqawqis, through his emissary Hatib ibn Abi Balta'ah, and his reply are both available. The letter read:

paragraph: Al-Muqawqis ordered that the letter should be placed in an ivory casket, to be kept safely in the government treasury, and he sent the following reply:

paragraph: The two maids mentioned are Maria al-Qibtiyya and her sister Sirin.

paragraph: Muhammad's letter to Muqawqis was eventually preserved in the Christian monastery of Akhmim in Egypt. There a recluse pasted it on his Bible. The letter was written on a parchment. From there a French orientalist obtained it and sold it to Sultan Abdülmecid of Turkey, for a consideration of £ 300. The Sultan had the letter fixed in a golden frame and had it preserved in the treasury of the royal palace, along with other sacred relics. Some Muslim scholars have affirmed that the letter was written by Abu Bakr.

paragraph: Contemporary analytical historiography doubts the precise content of the letter (together with the similar letters sent to several power figures of the ancient Near East). Authenticity of the preserved samples and of the elaborate accounts by the medieval Islamic historians regarding the events surrounding the letter has also been questioned by modern historians.

paragraph: Section::::Dialog with Mughira ibn Shu'ba.

paragraph: According to another account, Al-Muqawqis also had a dialogue with Mughira ibn Shu'ba, before Mughira became a Muslim. Mughira said:

paragraph: Section::::Explanation of the name.

paragraph: The name "al-Muqawqis" is explained as an Arabization of the Greek word "Μεγαλειότατε", meaning "His Majesty", a title that was used as an enthronement in the Byzantine empire and its patriarchs. The word was subsequently used by Arabian writers for some other Christian Patriarchs in Alexandria. It is not clear, however, whether the epithet applied to all vicegerents of Egypt, including the one during the brief period of the Persian empire, Sassanid rule, or later during the Greco-Roman rule to the Patriarchs. Since the Sassanid Empire extended all the way to the Caucasus, it is possible that the Sassanid governor of Egypt was called Pikaukasos, and later on Arabians used the same epithet for succeeding governors of Egypt.

paragraph: Section::::Identification.

paragraph: Al-Muqawqis is often identified with Cyrus, Patriarch of Alexandria, who administered Egypt on behalf of the Byzantine Empire. This widely held view is challenged as being based on untenable assumptions. Considering the historical facts, the opponents of the identification, point out that:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cyrus did not succeed to the See of Alexandria until 630 AD, after Heraclius had recaptured Egypt. After the Persian invasion, "The Coptic patriarch Andronicus remained in the country, experiencing and witnessing suffering as a result of the occupation (Evetts, 1904, p. 486 ll. 8-11). His successor in 626, Benjamin I, remained in office well beyond the end of the occupation; during his time the Sassanians moderated their policy to a certain extent."

paragraph: Adherents to this criticism state that al-Muqawqis was not a Patriarch but the Persian governor during the last days of the Persian occupation of Egypt. There must have been an abundance of Alexandrine women left after the massacre. "Severus b. al-Moqaffa...also reported that in Alexandria every man between the ages of eighteen and fifty years had been brutally massacred (Evetts, 1904, pp. 485 l. 10-486 l. 3)." So from among the captive women, it seems that the Muqawqis took two Coptic sisters and sent them to Muhammad as gifts, realizing that the Byzantines were gaining ground and would soon re-take Alexandria.

paragraph: One possible reason that the Sasanian governor was kind towards Muhammad is that it is alleged that Christian Arabs assisted in Persian victory over the Byzantines, and al-Muqawqis simply wanted to reward Muhammad whom he saw as one of the Arab kings. "According to a Nestorian Syriac chronicle attributed to Elias, bishop of Merv (?), Alexandria was taken by treachery. The traitor was a Christian Arab who came from the Sassanian-controlled northeastern coast of Arabia."

description: Egyptian politician

wikidata_label: Muqawqis

wikipedia_title: Al-Muqawqis


text:
dirt track race car driver
Lebanon Valley
sprint car racing
Orange County Fair Speedway
Super DIRTcar Series
New York State Fairgrounds
Syracuse, New York
Tony Stewart
Carquest
Brett Hearn
Orange County Fair Speedway

categories: Racing drivers from New York (state),1975 births,Living people,20th-century American racing drivers

paragraph: Andy Bachetti

paragraph: Andy Bachetti, (Born December 13, 1975) also known as "The Wild Child", is a dirt track race car driver from the Northeastern United States.

paragraph: Section::::Vehicles.

paragraph: Andy currently drives the number 34 Steve Hough Motors/Bachetti's Auto Sales/Garrity Asphalt Reclaiming big block modified at Lebanon Valley. He also races in the number 34 Steve Hough Motors/Garrity Asphalt Reclaiming 358 small block car at Lebanon Valley Speedway.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Early childhood.

paragraph: He began his racing career at the young age of ten when he began racing Go-Karts. He moved onto the mini sprint car racing division using the number 57 Bachetti's Auto Sales car. Orange County Fair Speedway became known as Andy's home track in the 1990s where he won the 358 points championship multiple times.

paragraph: He then moved to Lebanon Valley Speedway in New York which became, and has remained, his new home track. Andy set the lap record at Lebanon Valley in 2004 with a time of 19.645 seconds, a record that still holds true today.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Major Races.

paragraph: Bachetti races a limited schedule of the Super DIRTcar Series, in which he won a major victory at the Utica-Rome competition. This includes his annual stop at Super Dirt Week at the New York State Fairgrounds in Syracuse, New York.

paragraph: He was involved in the Octoberfest Racing Classic in 2000 at Flamboro, placing third, and won first place at the Albany-Saratoga Speedway. Then in 2001, he placed second behind Tony Stewart in the I Love New York 358 Championship. Bachetti won another second-place victory in the Carquest 200 in 2002, behind Brett Hearn, a multiple Super DIRTcar Series winner. He won a first-place victory in the 16th Annual Octoberfest 350 for the 100-lap small block modified division in 2003, along with the Race of Kings at the Lebanon Valley Speedway. Another victory was awarded to Bachetti in 2003 at the Accord Speedway, where he won first place in the Interstate 86 Equipment 30-lap DIRT 358 modified feature. The Coors National 200 in 2004 ended with Bachetti winning first place and $10,000, with the victory marking his first win in a 200-lap race. In 2006, Andy won the points title in both the 358 and big block divisions at Lebanon Valley. In 2008, he won the points championship at the Accord Speedway, snapping a streak of championships by Rich Ricci Jr. and Mike Ricci. Then, in 2009, he once again won the 358 and big block divisions at Lebanon Valley Speedway. He also became the first person at Lebanon Valley to win two races on the same night, four years in a row.

paragraph: On 4/6/2014 Andy won the inaugural 'Hard Clay Open' 50-lap Modified race at the Orange County Fair Speedway in Middletown, NY.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Andy is married to Natalie Johnson Bachetti and lives in Sheffield, MA. They have 2 children; Blake, age 9 and Delaina, age 4. His occupation is full-time race car driver and enjoys hunting, fishing and snowmobiling

description: American racing driver

wikidata_label: Andy Bachetti

wikipedia_title: Andy Bachetti


text: 1964 Summer Olympics

text: Tokyo

text: parallel bars

text: individual all-around

text: tuberculosis

text: University of Tsukuba

text: Nihon University

text: Emperor's Medal

text: International Gymnastics Hall of Fame

text: esophageal cancer

categories: 1937 births,Deaths from cancer in Japan,Deaths from esophageal cancer,Gymnasts at the 1968 Summer Olympics,Japanese male artistic gymnasts,Olympic gold medalists for Japan,Gymnasts at the 1964 Summer Olympics,Medalists at the 1960 Summer Olympics,Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics,Recipients of the Medal with Purple Ribbon,Gymnasts at the 1960 Summer Olympics,2009 deaths,Olympic medalists in gymnastics,Olympic silver medalists for Japan,International Gymnastics Hall of Fame inductees,Olympic gymnasts of Japan,Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics

paragraph: Yukio Endo

paragraph: Section::::Olympics.

paragraph: He won gold medals with the Japanese team in three Olympics, in 1960, 1964 and 1968. At the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo he also received two individual gold medals, in "parallel bars", and in "individual all-around".

paragraph: Section::::World championships.

paragraph: Endō received six individual medals at the 1962 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, including a gold medal in "floor exercise", and Japan also won the team competition.

paragraph: He received two individual silver medals at the 1966 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, and Japan won the team competition.

paragraph: Section::::National championships.

paragraph: Endō was a four-time Japanese "all-around" champion.

paragraph: Section::::Biography and awards.

paragraph: Endo was born in a family of pharmacists, but his mother died from tuberculosis when he was nine. He studied at Akita Technical High School and than at the Tokyo University of Education (now the University of Tsukuba), graduating in 1959. He later worked as assistant instructor of physical education at Nihon University.

paragraph: He retired after the 1968 Olympics to become a gymnastics coach and eventually professor at Nihon University. He also coached the national team at the 1972 Olympics, acted as director of the Japanese Olympic Committee and was twice appointed as vice-president of the Japan Gymnastic Association. In 1996, he received the Japanese "Emperor's Medal", and in 1999 induced into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame.

paragraph: He died of esophageal cancer.

description: gymnast

wikidata_label: Yukio Endo

wikipedia_title: Yukio Endo


text:
French
Société Notre-Dame de Montréal
Montreal
layman
Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph
Religious Sister
Venerable
La Flèche
Province of Maine
seigneur
Brittany
Henry IV of France
Charles Lalemant
Society of Jesus
René Descartes
New France
Acadia
Mass
religious congregation
Holy Family
confessor
Cathedral of Notre-Dame
Paris
simple vows
Jean-Jacques Olier
Society of Saint-Sulpice
Fort Ville-Marie
Religious Sister
Native Americans
penitent
Angélique Bullion
livres
Abbé
Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve
Jeanne Mance
Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal
Laval
La Rochelle
Marguerite Bourgeoys
Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal
letters patent
King Louis XIV of France
canonization
Venerable
Pope Benedict XVI
The mystics found Ville Marie

categories: Colonists of Fort Ville-Marie,French nobility,People from La Flèche,Venerated Catholics by Pope Benedict XVI,French people of Breton descent,16th-century venerated Christians,1659 deaths,17th-century French people,1597 births,Tax collectors,Société Notre-Dame de Montréal,17th-century venerated Christians,Canadian Servants of God,Founders of Catholic religious communities

paragraph: Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière

paragraph: Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière (18 March 1597 – 6 November 1659) was a French nobleman who spent his life in serving the needs of the poor. A founder of the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal, he also helped to establish the French colony of Montreal. Although a layman, as part of that objective, he was the founder of the Congregation of the Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph, Religious Sisters dedicated to the care of the sick poor. He has been declared Venerable by the Catholic Church.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: He was born in La Flèche in the ancient Province of Maine on 18 March 1597, the younger son of Jérôme le Royer, first seigneur of La Dauversière, a local tax collector, and of Renée (or Marie) Oudin. His family originated in Brittany.

paragraph: Royer was one of the first pupils of the Jesuit Collège at La Flèche, founded in 1604 by King Henry IV of France. There he met Father Charles Lalemant, who had entered the Society of Jesus in 1607 and was ten years his senior, and also Father Paul Le Jeune, who had entered in 1613. In addition to the philosopher René Descartes, he had as fellow-students several of the great missionaries of New France, such as François Ragueneau, Claude Quentin, Charles Du Marché, and Jacques Buteux. With them, in 1614 he heard Father Énemond Massé speak of the Acadian missions, recently abandoned as a result of the English conquest.

paragraph: Upon the death of his father in the summer of 1619, Royer inherited the estate "La Dauversière", whence comes the title attached to his name, and his father's government post. He followed in his father's footsteps as a tax collector. In 1620 he married Jeanne de Baugé, with whom he had six children. Two of his sons would become priests, and both of his daughters became nuns.

paragraph: Section::::Holy Family Brotherhood.

paragraph: On 2 February 1630, while at Mass, Dauversière felt that he had heard the calling to found a religious congregation of charitable young women in La Flèche dedicated to the Holy Family and under the special protection of St. Joseph for the service of the poor and the sick, especially in France's new colony in North America. Hesitating, he confided in his confessor, the Jesuit Father Chauveau, and various other priests who all dissuaded him from carrying out his plan.

paragraph: Possessed of firm piety, even though he was unclear as to the validity of the calling he felt, Dauversière and his brother Joseph organized charitable undertakings in his small town. He began by undertaking the renovation of the old "Hôtel-Dieu" (Hostel of God), where the sick poor of the city received care. He came to know Marie de la Ferre, who shared with him her calling to care for the sick and suffering.

paragraph: In February 1635, however, while at prayer at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, Dauversière experienced another vision which convinced him to go ahead with his plan.

paragraph: Section::::The Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph.

paragraph: In May 1636, Marie de la Ferre and Anne Foureau committed themselves to lives of religious service at the Hotel-Dieu with three servants of the poor already working there. Thus began the Congregation of the Daughters Hospitallers of St. Joseph. In 1643 the first constitutions of the new congregation were approved and on 22 January 1644, Ferre and eleven companions made simple vows for one year in the Congregation of the Daughters of St. Joseph. Then they proceeded to the election of Marie de la Ferre as superior of the newly born community. The congregation gradually established houses in other French towns.

paragraph: Section::::Montreal.

paragraph: With the Parisian priest Jean-Jacques Olier, founder of the Society of Saint-Sulpice, Dauversière formed the idea of establishing at the colony of Fort Ville-Marie in New France several communities: one of priests to convert the Indians, one of Religious Sisters to nurse the sick, and another to teach the local children of the Native Americans. Olier involved some of his wealthy penitents, while Royer found support from the Baron de Fanchamp, also a native of La Flèche. Others joined in, one being Angélique Bullion, and six persons formed The Company of Montreal (). They raised between them 75,000 livres.

paragraph: The Company of Montreal was founded in Paris in 1639, notably by Dauversiere, with his friend the Baron de Fancamp and the Abbé Olier. These three were men who had become part of the movement for "montreal" and who, as a result of a near mystical vision shared nearly identically but independently by Royer and Olier, had bought the rights to the Island. Chausseau relinquished his seigneural rights in 1639 to the Intendant of the Association, Jean de Lauson, who, in turn, signed it over to Royer on 7 August 1640.

paragraph: The society sponsored Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve and Jeanne Mance, a lay woman, to go to Ville Marie with French colonists to evangelize the Native Americans, and establish a hospital, which became the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, to care for the poor, founded by Mance in 1642.

paragraph: In 1657 Mance returned to France, where she recruited three Hospitallers from a community of Hospitallers in Laval founded in 1650, Judith Moreau de Brésoles, Catherine Mace and Marie Maillet, to work at the hospital she had established. They set sail from La Rochelle for Ville-Marie on 2 July 1659. Dauversière boarded the boat before its departure to bless his spiritual daughters. A fellow traveler on that boat was Marguerite Bourgeoys, who was to play a major role in the future of the colony, founding the Congregation of Notre Dame of Montreal. The Hospitaller Sisters received letters patent from King Louis XIV of France authorizing them to take over the hospital and its operations two years after their arrival.

paragraph: Place de la Dauversière is a space for rest and relaxation that opened in Montreal in 1997.

paragraph: Section::::Death and veneration.

paragraph: Dauversière took ill when he arrived home from La Rochelle where he had traveled to see the fulfillment of his vision. He spent four months suffering increasing debilitation, until his death on 6 November of that same year. His cause for canonization was eventually begun. On 6 July 2007, he was declared Venerable by Pope Benedict XVI.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The mystics found Ville Marie

description: French nobleman, founder of Montreal and an order of nursing Sisters

wikidata_label: Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière

wikipedia_title: Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière


text:
Egyptian
pharaoh
14th Dynasty of Egypt
Second Intermediate Period
Kim Ryholt
Jürgen von Beckerath
Avaris
Nehesy
Nebsenre
Merdjefare
Turin canon
Ramesside period
A. S. Hunt
Ashmolean Museum
Gardiner
Alan Gardiner
Kim Ryholt
Manfred Bietak
Jürgen von Beckerath
Nehesy

paragraph: Sekheperenre

paragraph: Sekheperenre was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 14th Dynasty of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. According to the egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sekheperenre was the twenty-second king of the dynasty; alternatively, Jürgen von Beckerath sees him as the seventeenth ruler.

paragraph: As a king of the 14th dynasty, Sekheperenre would have reigned from Avaris over the eastern Nile Delta and possibly over the western Delta as well.

paragraph: Section::::Attestation.

paragraph: With Nehesy, Nebsenre and Merdjefare, Sekheperenre is one of only four undisputed pharaohs of the 14th dynasty to have left any attestation beyond the Turin canon, a king list compiled in the early Ramesside period. Indeed, Sekheperenre is attested by a single scarab seal bearing his name. The seal, donated by A. S. Hunt and of unknown provenance, is currently in the Ashmolean Museum.

paragraph: Section::::Chronological position.

paragraph: Sekheperenre's relative position in the 14th dynasty is somewhat secured by the Turin canon, which mentions him in column 9, line 16 (Gardiner entry 8.16). According to the latest reading of the king list by Ryholt, Sekheperenre reigned 2 months and 1 to 5 days. In the previous authoritative study of the Turin canon, Alan Gardiner had read Sekheperenre's reign length as 2 years, but Ryholt established that the number of years attributed to Sekheperenre by the canon was nil. Sekheperenre was preceded by a king whose name is partially lost "[...]re" and succeeded by Djedkherewre.

paragraph: The seal has a coil pattern, common in the twelfth to fourteenth dynasties and seal typology may be used to provide supporting evidence for the position and dating of Sekheperenre.

paragraph: At the opposite, Sekheperenre's absolute chronological position is debated. According to Egyptologists Kim Ryholt and Darrell Baker, Sekheperenre was the twenty-second king of the 14th dynasty. Ryholt's reconstruction of the early 14th dynasty is controversial however and other specialists, such as Manfred Bietak and Jürgen von Beckerath, believe that the dynasty started shortly before Nehesy c. 1710 BC rather than c. 1805 BC as proposed by Ryholt. In this case, Sekheperenre would only be the seventeenth king of the dynasty.

description: Egyptian pharaoh

wikidata_label: Sekheperenre

wikipedia_title: Sekheperenre


text:
Haarlem
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Jeroen
Michael
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formula racing
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Dutch Renault Clio Cup
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Riley Motorsports
Sebring
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wikipedia_title:
Haarlem
Netherlands
Auto racing
NASCAR Whelen Euro Series
Ford Mustang
Jeroen Bleekemolen
Michael Bleekemolen
Formula One
RAM Racing
ATS (wheels)
Formula racing
Sports car racing
Touring car racing
Renault Clio Cup
American Le Mans Series
Porsche 911 GT3
Rolex Sports Car Series
Riley Technologies
12 Hours of Sebring
Petit Le Mans
2013 Petit Le Mans

categories: People from Haarlem,1978 births,Formula Ford drivers,Porsche Supercup drivers,American Le Mans Series drivers,24 Hours of Spa drivers,Living people,ADAC GT Masters drivers,Dutch racing drivers,United SportsCar Championship drivers,FIA GT Championship drivers,24 Hours of Daytona drivers

paragraph: Sebastiaan Bleekemolen

paragraph: Sebastiaan Bleekemolen (born 9 August 1978 in Haarlem) is a Dutch racing driver that currently competes in the NASCAR Whelen Euro Series, driving for the family-owned Team Bleekemolen in the No. 69 Ford Mustang in the Elite 1 class. His brother Jeroen and father Michael are also racing drivers. His father is a former Formula One driver, who has competed with RAM and ATS. Sebastiaan won the Benelux and Dutch Formula Ford 1800 championships in 1996, but decided early in his career formula racing was not his thing and already started driving sports cars and touring cars from 1997.

paragraph: Since 2002 he has been very successful in sports car racing and touring car racing. He became the Dutch Renault Clio Cup champion three times, winning the championship in 2002, 2004 and 2011. He won the Dutch Winter Endurance championship in 2003-04 and in 2009-10.

paragraph: Since 2010 he participated in the American Le Mans Series. He has always driven a Porsche 911 GT3 Cup in the GTC class, but with three different teams. Since the merger of the American Le Mans Series and the Rolex Sports Car Series, which became the IMSA Tudor United SportsCar Championship, he drives a SRT Viper GT3-R with Riley Motorsports in the GTD class together with his brother and Ben Keating.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete Porsche Supercup results.

paragraph: Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.br

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete American Le Mans Series results.

paragraph: Not eligible for points. Bleekemolen was the third driver of the car and third drivers were only able to score points in Sebring and Road Atlanta. At the 2013 Petit Le Mans Bleekemolen was the fourth driver and was not able to score points.

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete United SportsCar Championship results.

paragraph: Did not complete sufficient laps in order to score points.br

paragraph: Section::::Racing record.:Complete NASCAR results.:Whelen Euro Series – Elite 1.

paragraph: Season still in progress.

description: Dutch racing driver

wikidata_label: Sebastiaan Bleekemolen

wikipedia_title: Sebastiaan Bleekemolen