text: Warsaw

text: Brussels

text: Polish

text: philosopher of law

text: Brussels

text: argumentation

text: Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca

text: Warsaw

text: Antwerp

text: Belgium

text: Université Libre de Bruxelles

text: Gottlob Frege

text: aegis

text: logical positivism

text: empiricist

text: politics

text: ethics

text: Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca

text: rhetoric

text: argument

text: journalism

text: argumentation

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: Humanist Manifesto II

text: Francqui Prize

text: metaphysics

text: truth

text: relativism

text: Jean-Paul Sartre

text: skepticism

text: positivism

text: Brunetto Latini

text: Jean Paulhan

text: Aristotle

text: syllogism

text: dialectics

text: rhetorical reason

text: New Rhetoric

text: Frege

text: mathematics

text: formal logic

text: ethos

text: Plato

text: Plotinus

text: Socrates

text: Metaphor

text: democracy

text: Jürgen Habermas

text: Henry Johnstone Jr.

text: Michael Leff

text: Brian Vickers

text: argumentation theory

text: social psychology

text: political geography

text: Jürgen Habermas

text: theory of truth

text: audience

text: de facto

text: Henry Johnstone Jr.

text: audience

text: persuasive

text: argument

text: empirical

text: reasonableness

text: moral standard

text: Hans-Georg Gadamer

text: Truth and Method

text: Fela Perelman

text: Frank, D. A.

text: Bolduc, M. K.

text: Gross, A. G.

text: State University of New York Press

text: P. Bizzell

text: B. Herzberg

text: Bedford Books

text: University of Notre Dame Press

text: Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles

text: Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence

text: Dalloz

text: Vrin

text: Presses Universitaires de France

text: J. Petrie

text: Humanities Press

text: D. Reidel

text: W. Kluback

text: New rhetorics movement

text: Alan G. Gross

text: Arnold, C.

text: Dearin, R. D.

text: Lanham

text: University Press of America

text: Golden, J. L.

text: Pilotta, J. J.

text: Maneli, M.

text: Kluwer

text: Ray, J. W.

text: Les archives Perelman

text: Perelman photo archive

text: Chapter on Perelman from "Readings in contemporary rhetoric"

text: Reading notes for the new rhetoric

text: The role of audience in Chaim Perelman's new rhetoric

text: Chaim Perelman and philosophy of education

text: Natural law and natural rights (in the Dictionary of the history of ideas)

categories: Polish Jews,Polish philosophers,Belgian people of Polish-Jewish descent,Belgian Jews,Rhetoricians,Philosophers of law,1912 births,People from Brussels,Belgian scientists,Philosophers of education,Jewish philosophers,Belgian philosophers,Belgian academics,Jewish scientists,Polish scientists,Polish academics,1984 deaths,Polish logicians,Lawyers from Warsaw,Free University of Brussels alumni,Belgian logicians

paragraph: Chaïm Perelman

paragraph: Chaïm Perelman (20 May 1912, Warsaw – 22 January 1984, Brussels) was a Polish-born philosopher of law, who studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. He was among the most important argumentation theorists of the twentieth century. His chief work is the "Traité de l'argumentation – la nouvelle rhétorique" (1958), with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, translated into English as "The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation", by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver (1969).

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: Perelman and his family emigrated from Warsaw to Antwerp, Belgium in 1925. He began his undergraduate studies at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, where he would remain for the duration of his career. He earned a doctorate in law in 1934, and after completing a dissertation on the philosopher and mathematician Gottlob Frege, earned a second doctorate in 1938. In the same year, Perelman was appointed lecturer at Brussels in the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters. By the end of the war, he became the youngest full professor in the history of that university.

paragraph: Perelman's initial research in law and philosophy was carried out under the aegis of logical positivism. In 1944, he completed an empiricist study of justice and concluded that since applications of the law always involve value judgments – and since values cannot be subjected to the rigors of logic – the foundations of justice must be arbitrary. Upon completing the study, Perelman considered its conclusion untenable since value judgments form an integral part of all practical reasoning and decision making, and to claim that these judgments lack any logical basis was to deny the rational foundations of philosophy, law, politics, and ethics.

paragraph: As a result of his empiricist study of justice, Perelman rejected positivism in favour of regressive philosophies that provided a rationale for value judgments. In 1948, he met Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, who had also attended the Université Libre de Bruxelles, and began collaborating on a project that would eventually establish ancient rhetoric as the foundation for a logic of value judgments.

paragraph: In 1958, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca published their study of informal reasoning as "Traité de l'argumentation: la nouvelle rhétorique". Undertaken in the spirit of Fregian observation and synthesis, the work analyzed a wide range of actual arguments from the realms of philosophy, law, politics, ethics, and journalism. The result was a theory of argumentation that was grounded in considerations of value and audience and that outlined points of departure and general techniques for argument.

paragraph: In 1962, Perelman was invited by Henry W. Johnstone and Robert Oliver to take a position at Pennsylvania State University as a distinguished visiting professor. The collaboration between Johnstone and Perelman in particular, which had begun prior to the publication of "la nouvelle rhétorique", proved fruitful. Johnstone created the influential journal "Philosophy and Rhetoric", and Perelman became established in the United States as a leading argumentation theorist.

paragraph: Throughout the next two decades, Perelman continued publishing works related to or derived from the "New rhetoric". He also made significant contributions to studies in law as director of the National Center for Research in Logic at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, and through continued publications on legal philosophy and argument. In 1973 he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II.

paragraph: In recognition of his academic and civic accomplishments, Perelman was appointed to the baronage by the Belgian legislature in December 1983. In 1962 Chaïm Perelman was awarded the Francqui Prize for Human Sciences. He died at his home in Brussels from a heart attack on 22 January 1985.

paragraph: Section::::Perelmanian philosophy.

paragraph: After completing , Perelman rejected the usefulness of logical positivism beyond its applications to pure science. In published five years later, he further outlined the limits of first philosophies or metaphysics. Because these approaches relied on a series of self-evident and mutually supporting axioms, any perceived error would disable the entire philosophy and its claims to reveal universal and absolute truths. Prevalent alternatives, especially the relativism of Jean-Paul Sartre, were also untenable for Perelman since the absolutes of metaphysics were merely replaced in these approaches by absolute skepticism.

paragraph: During his research with Olbrechts-Tyteca, Perelman would develop a philosophy that avoided the absolutes of both positivism and radical relativism. After encountering an excerpt of Brunetto Latini in the appendix of Jean Paulhan’s , Perelman began researching ancient Greco-Latin approaches to argumentation. He found that while a specific logic of value judgments had never been established, an approach to the problem was apparent in the works of Aristotle. In the "Posterior analytics", Aristotle establishes the principles of demonstration or analytics, which rely on the accepted premises and necessary conclusions of the syllogism. In the "Topics" and elsewhere, Aristotle opposes the demonstrative approach to dialectics, or rhetorical reasoning, which relies on premises that are acceptable in a given situation and are thus contingent. With Aristotle's distinctions, Perelman was able to perceive the contradiction of first philosophies: while claiming to reveal universal and absolute truths according to demonstrative methods, philosophy was in reality more concerned with persuading specific audiences to accept its claims. For Perelman, then, a viable philosophy – capable of establishing aspects of being and inducing reasonable action – must be constructed according to probabilities and must be able to withstand impositions of value and other contingencies stemming from its reception by particular audiences. Perelman’s approach, which he termed regressive philosophy, thus sought to incorporate socially constructed truths and to remain amenable to changes should those truths be modified.

paragraph: While rhetoric and argumentation provided the core of Perelman’s philosophy, his regressive approach also shaped his treatise on non-formal argumentation. In the conclusion of the , Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca state that in opposition to the absolutes common in philosophy, their project acknowledges that "men and groups of men adhere to opinions of all sorts with a variable intensity" and that "these beliefs are not always self-evident, and they rarely deal with clear and distinct ideas." To uncover the logic that governs these beliefs and ideas, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca rely on a regressive philosophy that accounts for the variability of particular situations and particular values. Perelman would employ this same approach in future developments of the New Rhetoric and in subsequent writings on law and justice.

paragraph: Section::::The New Rhetoric.

paragraph: Section::::The New Rhetoric.:Overview.

paragraph: Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca began research on the logic of non-formal arguments in 1948. Following Frege’s comprehensive approach to the study of mathematics, they collected a wide range of writing from academic, professional, religious, and popular realms to devise and apply their theory. After encountering Latini and "rediscovering" the Greco-Latin rhetorical tradition, both the project and its philosophical basis took a definitive shape. Perelman hypothesized that the rationale governing non-formal argument could be derived from the principles of rhetorical theory and from considerations of audience and values in particular. These considerations in turn affected the specific structure of arguments, including the bases of agreement and the availability of specific appeals. Perelman's analysis also produced an overview of the various techniques apparent across the diverse group of arguments collected in the course of research.

paragraph: The following discussion of the "New rhetoric" is organized according to the three sections of the book, and covers the major concepts contained in each.

paragraph: Section::::The New Rhetoric.:The framework of argumentation.

paragraph: The "New Rhetoric" is founded on the idea that "since argumentation aims at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, it is, in its entirety, relative to the audience to be influenced" (1969, p. 19). Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca rely in particular for their theory of argumentation on the twin concepts of universal and particular audiences: while every argument is directed to a specific individual or group, the orator decides what information and what approaches will achieve the greatest adherence according to an ideal audience. This ideal, Perelman explains, can be embodied, for example, "in God, in all reasonable and competent men, in the man deliberating or in an elite" (2001, p. 1393). Like particular audiences, then, the universal audience is never fixed or absolute but depends on the orator, the content and goals of the argument, and the particular audience to whom the argument is addressed. These considerations determine what information constitutes "facts" and "reasonableness" and thus help to determine the universal audience that, in turn, shapes the orator's approach.

paragraph: The adherence of an audience is also determined by the orator's use of values, a further key concept of the "New Rhetoric". Perelman's treatment of value and his view of epideictic rhetoric sets his approach apart from that of the ancients and of Aristotle in particular. Aristotle's division of rhetoric into three genres – forensic, deliberative, and epideictic – is largely motivated by the judgments required for each: forensic or legal arguments require verdicts on past action, deliberative or political rhetoric seeks judgment on future action, and epideictic or ceremonial rhetoric concerns values associated with praise or blame and seeks no specific decisions. For Aristotle, the epideictic genre was of limited importance in the civic realm since it did not concern facts or policies. Perelman, in contrast, believes not only that epideictic rhetoric warrants more attention, but that the values normally limited to that genre are in fact central to all argumentation. "Epideictic oratory, " Perelman argues, "has significance and importance for argumentation because it strengthens the disposition toward action by increasing adherence to the values it lauds" (1969, p. 50). These values, moreover, are central to the persuasiveness of arguments in all rhetorical genres since the orator always attempts to "establish a sense of communion centered around particular values recognized by the audience" (1969, p. 51).

paragraph: Section::::The New Rhetoric.:The starting points of argumentation.

paragraph: All argumentation, according to Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, must proceed from a point of agreement; contentious matters in particular cannot be introduced until sufficient agreement on prior or related issues has already been established. The bases of agreement are divided into two categories: the first deals with facts, truths, and presumptions; the second with values, hierarchies, and "loci of the preferable".

paragraph: Both facts and truths are normally established prior to argument; these are aspects of reality that would be agreed to, for instance, by the universal audience as conceived by the orator. Neither facts nor truths provide opportunity for dispute; as Perelman explains, "if we presuppose the coherence of reality and of our truths taken as a whole, there cannot be any conflict between facts and truths on which we would be called to make a decision" (2001, p. 1394). Presumptions, like facts and truths, need not be defended. Should the argument require opposing presumptions, however, the orator may overturn previous opinion by proving an opposite case.

paragraph: Values, both concrete and abstract, may also constitute starting points, although none should be treated as universal. Establishing and reinforcing common values is necessary, according to Perelman, because they influence action and determine acceptable behaviour (2001, p. 1394). Values, moreover, are normally arranged in hierarchies that can also serve as starting points for argument. An audience will value both justice and utility, for example, but an argument may require a determination of preference between the two. Like values, hierarchies can be abstract or concrete; they may also be homogeneous, in the case of degrees, or heterogeneous, in the example of honesty and truthfulness. Both values and hierarchies can be justified by the final point of agreement, which Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca term "loci of the preferable". These "loci" or commonplaces are derived from the third book of Aristotle's "Topics" and allow agreement according to the determination of which, between two "loci", is more preferred. Thus, an argument may begin from the determination that an intrinsic quality, such as health, is preferred over a contingent quality, such as beauty.

paragraph: The final aspect of argument starting points discussed in the "New rhetoric" is the creation of "presence. " From the body of ideas that are agreed upon by a given audience, the orator may choose to emphasize or lend presence to certain elements while deemphasizing others. As Perelman explains, "things present, things near to us in space and time, act directly on our sensibility, " yet if things distant – from the past or future – are more relevant to the argument, they may be lent presence through specific rhetorical figures, such as "hypotyposis" or "anaphora" (2001, p. 1395). All points of agreement, moreover, may be distinguished as primary or secondary according to the purpose of the argument and the composition of the particular audience. This is accomplished, Perelman notes, by linguistic categories that allow the orator to mount arguments "under the guise of a descriptive narrative" (ibid).

paragraph: Section::::The New Rhetoric.:Argument techniques.

paragraph: Because non-formal argument is concerned with the adherence of an audience – rather than the mere demonstration of propositions proper to formal logic – the orator must ensure that the audience adheres to each successive element of an argument. Perelman outlines two ways the orator may achieve this acceptance or adherence: the first involves associations according to quasi-logical arguments, appeals to reality, and arguments that establish the real; the second approach responds to incompatible opinions through the dissociation of concepts.

paragraph: Quasi-logical arguments, Perelman explains, are "similar to the formal structures of logic and mathematics" (2001, p. 1396). Definition is a common quasi-logical approach that is used not only for establishing the meaning of a term but also for emphasizing certain features of an object for persuasive purposes. Other quasi-logical arguments include relations of division, arguments of reciprocity, and arguments of probability. While these techniques appear to share the qualities of formal demonstrations, Perelman notes that for all quasi-logical approaches, "complementary, nonformal hypotheses are necessary to render the argument compelling" (2001, p. 1398).

paragraph: The remaining associative techniques involve appealing to reality and establishing the real. Arguments of the former category can be further divided into those conveying succession and those dealing with coexistence. Relations of succession include causes and effects, such as the consequences of a particular action, or means and ends, such as the projected outcome of an event or process. Relations of coexistence, on the other hand, associate a person or essence to a specific act, and include arguments from authority. Like appeals to the real, arguments that establish the structure of reality can be divided into two categories: arguments from example or model, and arguments by analogy. The former rely on generalizations derived from a single situation, in the case of example, or on the conformation of a single situation to an accepted practice or ethos, in the case of models. Appeals to the real that rely on analogy are common and, according to Perelman, are "typical to Plato, Plotinus, and all those who establish hierarchies within reality" (2001, p. 1399). These appeals establish the relation between two terms by noting their similarity to another, more familiar set of terms; for example, "truth is to Socrates what gold is to a miser. " Metaphor, another common aspect of argumentation, is a form of condensed analogy.

paragraph: When orators seek to reconcile incompatible opinions, they may gain adherence by a dissociation of concepts. The final technique discussed by Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca is a common approach in metaphysics that opposes appearances to reality. As Perelman explains, reality is normally perceived "through appearances that are taken as signs referring to it. When, however, appearances are incompatible – an oar in water looks broken but feels straight to the touch – we must admit...that some appearances are illusory and may lead us to error regarding the real" (2001, p. 1400). This recognition in turn fosters a conception of reality by which appearances may be judged; those aspects conforming to the real are considered valuable, while those not consistent with reality are dismissed as illusive. The dissociation of ideas can be extended to any realm where the tenets of an argument are incompatible with accepted opinion; "real democracy, " for instance, can be opposed to "apparent democracy, or formal or nominal democracy, or quasi-democracy" (ibid. ). In the process of this opposition, adherence to "real democracy" is achieved not on the basis of its merit as an idea, but rather through the devaluation of opposing terms.

paragraph: Section::::Responses to Perelman and the New Rhetoric.

paragraph: The most common criticisms of the "New Rhetoric" focus on Perelman's concept of a universal audience. Prominent criticisms by Jürgen Habermas, Henry Johnstone Jr., and John Ray challenge the practicality and applicability of Perelman's concept. In response, Perelman and Crosswhite both offer support for the concept of the universal audience. The work has been translated, in whole or in part, into nine languages and has been described variously as "groundbreaking," by J. Robert Cox, a "bombshell," by Michael Leff, and as "one of the most influential modern formulations of rhetorical theory," by Brian Vickers. The "New Rhetoric" and its later developments have been foundational for argumentation theory in the last thirty years, and Perelman's work has influenced studies ranging from justice and reason to social psychology and political geography.

paragraph: Crosswhite discusses Jürgen Habermas’s theory of truth in relation to the concept of a universal audience. However, when he tries to distinguish between rational consensus and de facto consensus (or truth from agreement), there is limited relevance to the "ideal speech situation." Because the universal audience requires there to be equality for all speakers, ideas, and audience members, it is not a realistic representation of a situation that would ever occur and thus the idea of a universal audience is not practical.

paragraph: Perelman's theory of a universal audience includes reasonable people of all time, thus removing the argument or speech out of the context of history. Perelman's theory requires the speaker to understand universal values and ideals throughout history. Henry Johnstone Jr., argues the philosophical and cultural changes over time are sometimes so great, that arguments cannot be universally effective and understood. Simply due to the differences in circumstance, it is impossible for a universal audience to exist. People of a certain time and place, the particular audience, are the limits of persuasive capacities.

paragraph: John Ray critiques the concept of a universal audience as irrelevant because it lacks structure and content. Ray claims a universal audience is disorganized because it is different for each speaker based on his or her purpose. While the construction of a universal audience does require setting aside "all the particular, local features of the audience and consider only those features of the audience one considers universal," the concept of a universal audience will vary based on the motives, goals, and experiences of the speaker. When abiding by the universal audience, it is difficult to construct a persuasive argument, as the speaker must use general and vague language to be cognizant of all the audience-members values and ideals. Ray is concerned that when forced to follow such constraints, the speaker will not only fail to be persuasive, but will also fail to remain valid in specific situations.

paragraph: James Crosswhite addresses concerns about the validity of universal claims in formal argument. One way to construct this universal audience is to discover its universal character. The speaker must set aside any conflicting ideas or values, but because this process of creating a universal audience is specific to the circumstances, it can yield different and conflicting ideals as universal. Perelman makes the distinction that when creating a universal audience you should only eliminate conflicting concepts and values that are relevant. Additionally, because the idea of a universal audience itself is empirical, the speaker forms the imagined universal audience based on past experiences and pre-existing notions of how the universal audience should be defined.

paragraph: While the concept of the universal audience has been criticized for trying to create complete agreement, Perelman claims its main purpose is to steer the speakers towards reasonableness. And in regards to validity of arguments formed around the universal audience, the creation of a universal audience is a tool and constraint for the speaker. It is meant to be a moral standard when addressing any audience, but will still allow for persuasion and specificity.

paragraph: Section::::Influence.

paragraph: The German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer cites Perelman's work on rhetoric as an influence on the hermeneutical philosophy he presented in "Truth and Method".

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: He married Fela Perelman in 1935.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frank, D. A. (2003). After the new rhetoric. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 89(3), 253-66.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Frank, D. A. & Bolduc, M. K. (2003). Chaim Perelman's 'First philosophies and regressive philosophy': Commentary and translation. "Philosophy and Rhetoric", 36(3), 177-88.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gross, A. G. (1999). A theory of rhetorical audience: Reflections on Chaim Perelman. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 85, 203-11.

paragraph: BULLET::::- __________. (2000). Rhetoric as a technique and a mode of truth: Reflections on Chaim Perelman. "Philosophy and Rhetoric", 33(4), 319-35.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gross, A. G., & Dearin, R. D. (2003). "Chaim Perelman". Albany: State University of New York Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perelman, C. (2003). First philosophies and regressive philosophy. "Philosophy and Rhetoric", 36(3), 189-206.

paragraph: BULLET::::- __________. (2001). The new rhetoric: A theory of practical reasoning. In P. Bizzell and B. Herzberg (Eds. ), "The rhetorical tradition" (pp. 1384–1409): New York: Bedford Books.

paragraph: BULLET::::- __________. (1984). The new rhetoric and the rhetoricians: Remembrances and comments. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 70(2), 188-96.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perelman, C. and Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1969). "The new rhetoric: A treatise on argumentation". (John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, Trans. ). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: "Selected French bibliography"

paragraph: Articles

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1948). Le problème du bon choix. "Revue de l’Institut de Sociologie", 3, 383-98.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1949). Philosophies premières et philosophie régressive. "Dialectica", 3, 175-91.

paragraph: Books

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1963). "Justice et raison". Bruxelles: Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1968). "Droit, morale et philosophie". Paris: Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1969). "Le Champ de l'argumentation". Bruxelles: Presses Universitaires de Bruxelles.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1976). "Logique juridique". Paris: Dalloz.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1977). "L'Empire rhétorique". Paris: Vrin.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1984). "Le Raisonnable et le déraisonnable en droit". Paris: Librairie Générale de Droit et de Jurisprudence.

paragraph: With Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1950). Logique et rhétorique. "Revue philosophique", 140, 1-35.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1952). "Rhétorique et philosophie: Pour une théorie de l'argumentation en philosophie". Paris: Presses Universitaires de France

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1958). "Traité de l'argumentation: La nouvelle rhétorique". Paris: Presses Universitaires de France

paragraph: "Selected English bibliography"

paragraph: Articles

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1955). How do we apply reason to values? "Journal of Philosophy", 52, 797-802.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1968). Rhetoric and philosophy. "Philosophy and Rhetoric", 1, 15-24.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1984). The new rhetoric and the rhetoricians: Remembrances and comments. "The Quarterly Journal of Speech", 70(2), 188-96.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (2003). First philosophies and regressive philosophy. "Philosophy and Rhetoric", 36(3), 189-206.

paragraph: Books

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1963). "The idea of justice and the problem of argument". (J. Petrie, Trans. ). New York: Humanities Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1979). "The new rhetoric and the humanities: Essays on rhetoric and its applications". Dordrecht: D. Reidel.

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1982). "The realm of rhetoric". (W. Kluback, Trans. ). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

paragraph: With Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca

paragraph: BULLET::::- (1969). "The new rhetoric: A treatise on argumentation". (J. Wilkinson and P. Weaver, Trans. ). Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- New rhetorics movement

paragraph: Section::::Sources and further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alan G. Gross, Ray D. Dearin: "Chaim Perelman." SUNY Press, 2003, .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Arnold, C. (1970). Perelman's new rhetoric. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 55, 87-92.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dearin, R. D. (1989). "The new rhetoric of Chaim Perelman: Statement and response." Lanham: University Press of America.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ____________(1969). The philosophical basis of Chaim Perleman's theory of rhetoric. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 55, 213-24.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Golden, J. L. and Pilotta, J. J., Eds. (1986). "Practical reasoning in human affairs: Studies in honor of Chaim Perelman". Boston: D. Reidel.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maneli, M. (1994). "Perelman's new rhetoric as philosophy and methodology for the next century." Boston: Kluwer.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ray, J. W. (1978). Perelman's universal audience. "Quarterly Journal of Speech", 64, 361-75.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Les archives Perelman, Free University of Brussels

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perelman photo archive, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sonja K. Foss, Karen A. Foss, and Robert Trapp, "Chapter on Perelman from "Readings in contemporary rhetoric""

paragraph: BULLET::::- Adam Kissel, "Reading notes for the new rhetoric"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Richard Long, "The role of audience in Chaim Perelman's new rhetoric"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Renato José de Oliveira, "Chaim Perelman and philosophy of education"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chaim Perelman and Paul Foriers, "Natural law and natural rights (in the Dictionary of the history of ideas)"

description: philosopher of law

wikidata_label: Chaïm Perelman

wikipedia_title: Chaïm Perelman


text: Bulbucata

text: Giurgiu County

text: Mogoșoaia

text: Romania

text: theologian

text: Bucharest

text: Chișinău

text: racist

text: ideologue

text: fascist

text: antisemite

text: Gândirea

text: nationalist

text: Orthodox Christian

text: Gândirea

text: Ramuri

text: România Nouă

text: Cuvântul

text: Sfarmă-Piatră

text: Calendarul

text: Gospels

text: racial hierarchies

text: Iron Guard

text: King

text: Carol II

text: ethnocratic state

text: corporatist system

text: member of

text: Romanian Academy

text: Ph.D.

text: University of Vienna

text: Ion Antonescu

text: occupied Romania

text: Communist Romania

text: Văcăreşti

text: Aiud

text: the Holocaust

categories: Romanian philosophers,20th-century Romanian poets,University of Vienna alumni,Romanian newspaper founders,Eastern Orthodoxy and far-right politics,20th-century Romanian male writers,Titular members of the Romanian Academy,Romanian essayists,Members of the Romanian Cabinet,People from Giurgiu County,Romanian male poets,Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church,Romanian magazine editors,Romanian newspaper editors,National Christian Party politicians,National-Christian Defense League politicians,1972 deaths,20th-century essayists,1889 births,Romanian magazine founders,Romanian fascists,Gândirea

paragraph: Nichifor Crainic

paragraph: Nichifor Crainic (; pseudonym of Ion Dobre ; 22 December 1889, Bulbucata, Giurgiu County – 20 August 1972, Mogoșoaia) was a Romanian writer, editor, philosopher, poet and theologian famed for his traditionalist activities. Crainic was also a professor of theology at the Bucharest Theological Seminary and the Chișinău Faculty of Theology. He was an important racist ideologue, and a far-right politician. He was one of the main Romanian fascist and antisemite ideologues.

paragraph: Crainic was a contributor of poetry to the modernist magazine "Gândirea". After become disenfranchised with the publication progressive views, rather than disassociate with the magazine he became increasingly intertwined in leadership positions in order to de-modernize it. At the end of a series of intellectual sparing within the publication itself, Crainic managed to wrest control of the magazine and institute a sea-change in editorial character supporting mystical Orthodoxy.

paragraph: He developed an ideology given the name "Gândirism" (from "gând" – "thought"), a nationalist and neo-Orthodox Christian social and cultural trend. He edited the "Gândirea" magazine, and collaborated with numerous other publications such as "Ramuri", "România Nouă", "Cuvântul", and "Sfarmă-Piatră". He was also the editor in chief of the newspaper "Calendarul".

paragraph: Nichifor Crainic became a leading pro-Fascist figure in the political turmoil of the late 1930s, openly praising Mussolini and Hitler. He was an ideologue of antisemitism, although his prejudice was a defense of the Gospels rather than a vision of racial hierarchies. His beliefs were a major influence on the Iron Guard legionary movement, although Crainic viewed himself as a supporter of the legionnaires' rival King Carol II. In a 1938 essay, he theoretised the ""ethnocratic state"" as applied to Romania:

paragraph: A fulfilment of ethnocracy was to be achieved through the means of a monarch-led corporatist system:

paragraph: In 1940 he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy. He studied theology at the Seminary in Bucharest, and received his Ph.D. diploma from the University of Vienna.

paragraph: He was appointed Minister of Propaganda for the Ion Antonescu regime.

paragraph: After the Soviet army defeated the Germans and occupied Romania, Crainic went into hiding. A trial was conducted in his absence and he was found guilty of crimes against the people. He was eventually caught and imprisoned by the authorities of Communist Romania in 1947, and spent 15 years in Văcăreşti and Aiud prisons. He was expelled from the Academy by the Communist regime.

paragraph: Between 1962 and 1968 he was the editor of the Communist propaganda magazine "Glasul Patriei" ("The Voice of the Motherland")—a magazine published in Romania by the Romanian Communist regime but sold only abroad, which they used as a tool to try to influence the Romanian intellectual émigrés to be patriotic and not work against the Communist Romania.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roland Clark (2012): Nationalism and orthodoxy: Nichifor Crainic and the political culture of the extreme right in 1930s Romania, Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 40:1, 107-126

paragraph: BULLET::::- Peter F. Sugar, "Eastern European Nationalism in the Twentieth Century", University Press of America, 1995 (includes transcript of Crainic's essay)

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Report of the International Committee for the Study of Holocaust in Romania (on the Romanian Presidency site) - a review of the several Anti-Semitic doctrines, including Crainic's, that contributed to genocide of the Holocaust.

description: Romanian writer

wikidata_label: Nichifor Crainic

wikipedia_title: Nichifor Crainic


text: Empire of Nicaea

text: Byzantine Emperor

text: Palaiologan

text: Byzantine Empire

text: Fall of Constantinople

text: Latin Empire

text: restored Byzantine Empire

text: Byzantine army

text: navy

text: University of Constantinople

text: Paliologian Renaissance

text: Bulgarians

text: Byzantine civil war

text: Epirus

text: Serbian Empire

text: Anatolian beyliks

text: Osman

text: Ottoman Empire

text: Mehmed II

text: megas domestikos

text: Andronikos Palaiologos

text: Theodora Angelina Palaiologina

text: Alexios III Angelos

text: Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina

text: capture of Constantinople

text: Fourth Crusade

text: Nikephoros Tarchaneiotes

text: Melnik

text: Serres

text: John III Vatatzes

text: trial by ordeal

text: Metropolitan

text: Phokas

text: Philadelphia

text: megas konostaulos

text: Nicaea

text: Sangarios River

text: Seljuk Sultanate of Rum

text: Kaykaus II

text: Theodore II Doukas Laskaris

text: George Mouzalon

text: John IV Doukas Laskaris

text: megas doux

text: "despotēs"

text: Nymphaion

text: William of Villehardouin

text: Prince of Achaea

text: Michael II Komnenos Doukas

text: Epirus

text: Battle of Pelagonia

text: an unsuccessful attempt

text: Baldwin II

text: Treaty of Nymphaeum

text: Genoa

text: Alexios Strategopoulos

text: Andronikos II Palaiologos

text: Latin West

text: John IV

text: Arsenios Autoreianos

text: excommunicated

text: Joseph I

text: Pope Urban IV

text: Theodora

text: Anna

text: ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwūs

text: Seljuk Turks

text: Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman

text: Mongols

text: Seljuk

text: mercenaries

text: Morea

text: Principality of Achaea

text: Prinitza

text: Battle of Settepozzi

text: Makryplagi

text: Tatars

text: Bulgars

text: Nogai Khan

text: Raniero Zeno

text: Mamluk

text: Baibars

text: Berke

text: Mongol

text: Kipchak Khanate

text: Battle of Benevento

text: Charles of Anjou

text: Conradin

text: Battle of Tagliacozzo

text: Latin Empire

text: Treaty of Viterbo

text: Baldwin II of Constantinople

text: William II Villehardouin

text: Pope Clement IV

text: Nicephorus Gregoras

text: Turkmen

text: Bithynia

text: John Palaiologos

text: Maeander

text: Cayster

text: Strobilos

text: Caria

text: Louis IX

text: Tunisian crusade

text: Trapani

text: Gregory X

text: John Bekkos

text: Second Council of Lyons

text: golden bull

text: Andronikos

text: Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene

text: Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas

text: John the Bastard

text: Antioch on the Maeander

text: Tralles

text: Nyssa

text: Neopatras

text: anathematized

text: Hagia Sophia

text: civil war in Bulgaria

text: Ivaylo

text: Ivan Asen III

text: Devina

text: Thrace

text: Bulgarian Empire

text: Thessaly

text: Battle of Neopatras

text: Battle of Demetrias

text: Hugh of Sully

text: besieged Berat

text: Michael Tarchaneiotes

text: Pope Martin IV

text: Marino Sanudo

text: Golden Horde

text: Rudolph of Habsburg

text: Peter III of Aragon

text: Constance

text: John of Procida

text: Sicilian Vespers

text: Messina

text: Benedetto Zaccaria

text: Crete

text: Anatolia

text: Theodora Palaiologina

text: John III Doukas Vatatzes

text: Emperor of Nicaea

text: Irene Palaiologina

text: Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria

text: Andronikos II Palaiologos

text: Byzantine emperor

text: Demetrios/Michael Komnenos Doukas

text: Michael II of Epirus

text: Constantine Palaiologos

text: David VI of Georgia

text: Eudokia Palaiologina

text: John II of Trebizond

text: Theodore Palaiologos

text: Nogai Khan

text: Golden Horde

text: Maria Palaiologina

text: Abaqa Khan

text: Ilkhan

text: Persia

text: List of Byzantine emperors

text: Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium

categories: People excommunicated by the Catholic Church,Roman Catholic monarchs,Megaloi doukes,Palaiologos dynasty,Byzantine regents,1282 deaths,Emperors of Nicaea,People excommunicated by the Greek Orthodox Church,Despots (court title),1223 births,Michael VIII Palaiologos,Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars,Eastern Orthodox monarchs,13th-century Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Michael VIII Palaiologos

paragraph: Michael VIII Palaiologos or Palaeologus (, "Mikhaēl VIII Palaiologos"; 1223 – 11 December 1282) reigned as the co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea from 1259 to 1261, and as Byzantine Emperor from 1261 until his death. Michael VIII was the founder of the Palaiologan dynasty that would rule the Byzantine Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. He recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire in 1261 and transformed the Empire of Nicaea into a restored Byzantine Empire.

paragraph: His reign would see considerable recovery of Byzantine power, including the enlargement of the Byzantine army and navy. It would also include the reconstruction of the city of Constantinople, and the increase of its population. He reestablished the University of Constantinople, which would lead to what is regarded as the Paliologian Renaissance during the 14th and 15th centuries. It would also be at this time that the focus of the Byzantine military shifted to the Balkans, against the Bulgarians, leaving the Anatolian frontier neglected. His successors would also not fix this issue, and the Byzantine civil war made this situation much worse, draining the empire's strength, economy, and resources. These internal conflicts lead to the permanent losses of important provinces such as Epirus to the Serbian Empire. Eventually, the consequences of these conflicts would allow for the Anatolian beyliks to rise in power, most notably the one of Osman, later called the Ottoman Empire. His successors would conquer more parts of the empire, until finally the city of Constantinople itself in 1453, under the leadership of Mehmed II.

paragraph: Section::::Road to the throne.

paragraph: Michael VIII Palaiologos was the son of the "megas domestikos" Andronikos Palaiologos by Theodora Angelina Palaiologina, the granddaughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos and Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina. According to Deno John Geanakoplos, Michael's ancestry could be traced back to all three imperial houses that ruled the empire in the centuries before the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade. His mother does not appear to have played a significant role in his early life; at least for a time he was brought up by his elder sister Martha, the wife of "megas domestikos" Nikephoros Tarchaneiotes, although she was only ten years older than he.

paragraph: Michael rose to distinction at an early age, serving as the governor of the Thracian towns of Melnik and Serres under the command of his father Andronikos. However, in the autumn of 1253 Michael was accused before the Emperor John III Vatatzes of plotting against the throne. The only way Michael was allowed to prove his innocence was through trial by ordeal, holding a red-hot iron. When the Emperor ordered him to take hold of the red-hot metal, the young Michael answered (to use Geanakoplos' words) "with the astuteness that was to characterize his later career as Emperor": if the Metropolitan Phokas of Philadelphia, who evidently supported this proposal, could take the iron from the altar with his own hands and place it in Michael's, he would gladly receive it in faith that the truth would be revealed.

paragraph: Although Michael avoided punishment, and afterwards was married to the Emperor's granddaughter and appointed "megas konostaulos" of the Latin mercenaries in the employment of the emperors of Nicaea, he was still mistrusted. Following the death of John Vatatzes, Michael crossed the Sangarios River with a few close friends and took service with the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. From late 1256 to 1258 he served as commander of the Christian mercenaries fighting for Sultan Kaykaus II; in that later year the Emperor Theodore II Doukas Laskaris recalled Michael, and after both exchanged oaths of loyalty and guarantees of safety, Michael returned to the service of the Emperor.

paragraph: A few days after the death of Emperor Theodore Laskaris in 1258, Michael Palaiologos instigated a coup against the influential bureaucrat George Mouzalon, seizing from him the guardianship of the eight-year-old Emperor John IV Doukas Laskaris. Michael was invested with the titles of "megas doux" and, in November 1258, of "despotēs". On 1 January 1259 Michael VIII Palaiologos was proclaimed co-emperor at Nymphaion.

paragraph: Section::::Constantinople.

paragraph: In 1259 Michael VIII defeated the alliance of William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and Michael II Komnenos Doukas of Epirus at the Battle of Pelagonia. According to Geanakoplos, "[i]n the period immediately preceding the Nicene reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 no event was of greater importance than Michael Palaeologus' victory at Pelagonia." This not only neutralized, for the immediate time, the possibility of an attack from enemies on his Western borders, but also improved Michael's legitimacy by showing him as a competent leader.

paragraph: Despite this brilliant victory, only one event could remove the stigma of usurper completely from the eyes of his subjects — recovery of Constantinople itself. In 1260 Michael personally led an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city. Rumors of reinforcements for the beleaguered city forced Michael to sign a one-year truce with the Latin Emperor Baldwin II that August. Realizing that he needed a navy to effectively besiege Constantinople, Michael concluded the Treaty of Nymphaeum with Genoa in March of the following year. Genoese help proved to be unneeded when Michael VIII's general Alexios Strategopoulos captured Constantinople from Baldwin II through treachery on 25 July 1261.

paragraph: News of the captured city first reached Michael's sister Eulogia, who awoke her brother at dawn. He was not convinced until a messenger arrived from Strategopoulos bearing the crown and sword Baldwin had abandoned in his flight from his palace. Michael VIII entered the city on 15 August and had himself crowned together with his infant son Andronikos II Palaiologos. Once in control of Constantinople, Michael abolished all Latin customs and reinstated most Byzantine ceremonies and institutions as they had existed before the Fourth Crusade. He repopulated the capital, building its population from when he took power to by the end of his reign, and restored damaged churches, monasteries, and public buildings. He was acutely aware of the danger posed by the possibility that the Latin West, particularly his neighbors in Italy, would unite against him and attempt the restoration of Latin rule in Constantinople.

paragraph: In December John IV, who had been left behind at Nicaea, was blinded and relegated to a monastery. After rendering him ineligible for the throne, Michael VIII quickly married off John's sisters to two Italians and a Bulgarian noble, so their descendants could not threaten his own children's claim to the imperial succession. Although Michael tried to keep the blinding of John a secret, the news eventually leaked out and Patriarch Arsenios Autoreianos excommunicated Michael VIII. This ban was not lifted until six years later (1268) on the appointment of patriarch Joseph I.

paragraph: Section::::Diplomacy and conquest.

paragraph: In the words of Geanaklopos, "With the fall of Constantinople, the papacy suffered not only a loss of political prestige but severe damage to its spiritual authority as well. For the Greeks had now effectively reasserted their right to a church divorced from Rome. Thus it became the task of each of the six successive popes of Michael's reign to accomplish the return of the schismatics to the Roman fold." Michael was aware of the immense influence the Curia had in the West, so he immediately dispatched an embassy to Pope Urban IV consisting of two envoys; upon reaching Italy, the men were seized and one was flayed alive, while the other succeeded in escaping back to friendlier territories.

paragraph: Michael also approached Manfred of Sicily to achieve some kind of accord. In the summer of 1262, Michael offered to divorce his wife Theodora and marry Manfred's sister Anna. This offer failed spectacularly: not only did Anna reject his proposal, Theodora turned to Patriarch Arsenios for help. The Patriarch confronted the emperor and pressured him to abandon his plans. Michael yielded and sent Anna back to her brother with gifts. This gesture helped to secure the release of his general Alexios Strategopoulos.

paragraph: It was around this time that Michael was presented with a dangerous distraction: ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwūs, who had been deposed as Sultan of the Seljuk Turks by a coalition led by the Pervane Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman, arrived seeking help from his old friend. But as Claude Cahen notes, he "was to be cruelly disappointed." Michael favored the Mongols of Iran, who supported ʿIzz ad-Dīn's enemy the Pervane, against those of Russia. Further, he could not risk a war on his Asian frontier while Western Europe, infinitely more dangerous, was opposed to him. Cahen believes that either ʿIzz ad-Dīn became an embarrassment, or perhaps the former Sultan "indulged in too open of criticism"; in either case, ʿIzz ad-Dīn was imprisoned. Mongol troops from Russia eventually freed him, and carried him off to the Crimea where he lived out his life.

paragraph: A series of military setbacks followed. In 1263 Michael sent men, including Seljuk mercenaries, to Morea with the goal of conquering the Principality of Achaea, but this expedition failed in a surprise rout at Prinitza. Later that year a mixed fleet of 48 imperial and Genoese ships was defeated by a smaller Venetian force at the Battle of Settepozzi. The following year, the imperial forces in Morea were again defeated at Makryplagi after the Seljuk mercenaries, who had not been paid, changed sides. The nadir of Michael's disasters came in the Spring of 1265, when an army of Tatars and Bulgars under Nogai Khan ravaging Thrace ambushed Michael Palaeologos when he was returning to Constantinople accompanied by only a few troops. Deserted by even his own officers, who fled to save their own lives, Michael was able to escape by crossing the Ganos Mountains and reaching the Marmora coast, where he happened upon two Latin ships. He quickly boarded the vessels, and two days later safely arrived at Constantinople. "Thus did Michael survive one of the narrowest escapes of his career," notes Geanakoplos.

paragraph: The military advantages Michael enjoyed after capturing Constantinople had evaporated, but he would demonstrate his diplomatic skills to successfully recover from these drawbacks. After Settepozzi, Michael VIII dismissed the 60 Genoese galleys that he had hired earlier and began a rapprochement with Venice. Michael secretly negotiated a treaty with the Venetians to grant terms similar to those in the case of Nymphaeum, but Doge Raniero Zeno failed to ratify the agreement. He also signed a treaty in 1263 with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars and Berke, the Mongol Khan of Kipchak Khanate.

paragraph: Section::::Michael and Charles of Anjou.

paragraph: The Battle of Benevento on 26 February 1266 brought forth a new challenger to Michael, one with whom he would struggle for the rest of his life: Charles of Anjou. Michael, as Geanaklopos emphasizes, "from 1266 until shortly before his death in 1282 ... was constrained to devote almost complete attention to the defeat of Charles, the fulfillment of whose ambition would have brought about the destruction of the Byzantine Empire and reimposition of Latin rule in Constantinople." Charles strengthened his hold on the kingdom of Sicily by defeating Conradin at the Battle of Tagliacozzo on 23 August 1268. And looking for help to restore the Latin Empire, on May 1267, Charles concluded the Treaty of Viterbo with the exiled Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II Villehardouin under the guidance of Pope Clement IV.

paragraph: In many ways Michael and Charles were alike. Geanakoplos quotes Nicephorus Gregoras's comparison of the two men at length:

paragraph: Michael was also faced with a challenge on his Asian frontier. Although the peace treaty with the Seljuk Turks continued to be honored by both parties, nomadic Turkmen had begun to infiltrate the Byzantine territories, and because of Michael's preoccupation with his Western foes, there was no organized response to this threat. Speros Vryonis also points out that due to his treatment of John IV Laskaris, "there resulted an outright alienation from Constantinople of large segments of Greek society in Bithynia and elsewhere." In 1269 Michael sent his brother the "despotes" John Palaiologos into the southern part of Byzantine Anatolia to clear the Maeander and Cayster valleys of Turkmen; their response was to fall back before the Byzantine army, and when he was eventually recalled to face foes in Europe, the Turkmen pushed back and resumed their conquests and settlement. Thus by 1269, the cities of Trachia Studia and Strobilos on the Carian coast were firmly Turkish possessions.

paragraph: Michael's response to the Treaty of Viterbo was to attempt to weaken papal support for it; if the Pope was convinced Charles of Anjou's invasion was a just and holy war, then the forces Michael could call on could not prevent its success. Michael returned to negotiating a union of the churches with Pope Clement IV, which he had allowed to but the latter's death in November 1268 put an end to this approach. According to Geanakoplos, only a lack of resources prevented Charles from immediately launching an attack against Michael. Looking for some restraint on Charles, Michael made a shrewd appeal to the leading ruler of the West, King Louis IX of France, and elder brother of Charles. Louis was more interested in a crusade against Muslims controlling the Holy Land than a schismatic Christian, so he convinced Charles to accompany him on his Tunisian crusade in 1270. So when King Louis died 24 August 1270, Charles came into control of the French forces; after negotiating a peace with the Emir of Tunis, Charles sailed with his troops to the port of Trapani in Sicily, at last able to attack Byzantium unblocked by any man. At this point a miracle saved Michael: a violent storm arose 22 November that practically demolished the entire fleet. "To the Greeks of Byzantium," writes Geanakoplos, "it must have seemed as if the Virgin, their protector, had saved them from disaster."

paragraph: After a three year interregnum, during which Charles of Anjou attempted to sway the election, a new Pope was elected, Gregory X. When Michael restarted talks of union, Gregory proved to be less accommodating and negotiated from a position of strength. Michael attempted to reason with Patriarch Joseph and the synod of the importance of agreeing to this union, and that the principle of "oikonomia" (which Geanakoplos suggests is best translated here as "considerations of self-interest") required them to accede to papal demands. But despite a propaganda campaign over the Winter of 1274–1275, Michael was forced to depose Patriarch Joseph and replace him with his own supporter John Bekkos in order to obtain a grudging consent to the union.

paragraph: Section::::Council of Lyons and after.

paragraph: Byzantine envoys presented themselves at the Second Council of Lyons 24 June 1274, where they presented a letter from the Emperor, sealed with the imperial golden bull, and two others from his son Andronikos and the Byzantine clergy. On the fourth session of the Council the formal act of union was performed. The letters were read, and for the first time in two centuries representatives of the major Eastern and Western branches of Christianity were again in communion.

paragraph: Michael VIII achieved an important advantage by this union, for now he gained legitimacy both for possessing Constantinople and for his claims to the lands occupied by Western invaders. Further, his antagonist Charles could not rely on the power of the pope calling for a crusade against his realm. Lastly, Pope Gregory was very favorable to Michael's proposal for a crusade against the Turks to restore the ancient Christian cities of Anatolia; however with Gregory's death (January, 1276), these plans remained nothing more than talk.

paragraph: More disappointments followed as news of the Council filtered through the former Byzantine territories. While the union was opposed at all levels of society, it was especially opposed by the greater populace, led by the monks and the adherents of the deposed Patriarch Arsenios, known as the Arsenites. One of the chief anti-unionist leaders was Michael's own sister Eulogia (aka Irene), who fled to the court of her daughter Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene, Tsarina of the Bulgars, from where she intrigued unsuccessfully against Michael. More serious was the opposition of the sons of Michael of Epirus, Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas and his half-brother John the Bastard: they posed as the defenders of Orthodoxy and gave support to the anti-unionists fleeing Constantinople. Michael at first responded with comparative leniency, hoping to win the anti-unionists through persuasion, but eventually the virulence of the protests led him to resort to force. Many anti-unionists were blinded or exiled. Two prominent monks, Meletios and Ignatios, were punished: the first had his tongue cut out, the second was blinded. Even imperial officials were harshly treated, and the death penalty was decreed even for simply reading or possessing pamphlets directed against the Emperor. "From the intensity of these disorders, tantamount almost to civil wars," concludes Geanakoplos, "it might appear that too great a price had been paid for the sake of union."

paragraph: The religious situation only worsened for Michael. The Arsenite party found widespread support amongst the discontented in the Anatolian provinces, and Michael responded there with similar viciousness: according to Vryonis, "These elements were either removed from the armies or else, alienated, they deserted to the Turks". Another attempt to clear the encroaching Turkmen from the Meaender valley in 1278 found limited success, but Antioch on the Maeander was irretrievably lost as were Tralles and Nyssa four years later.

paragraph: On 1 May 1277, John the Bastard convoked a synod at Neopatras that anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope as heretics. In response, a synod was convoked at the Hagia Sophia on 16 July where both Nikephoros and John were anathematized in return. John called a final synod at Neopatras in December 1277, where an anti-unionist council of eight bishops, a few abbots, and one hundred monks, again anathematized the Emperor, Patriarch, and Pope.

paragraph: Michael's achievements on the battlefield were more positive, although still mixed. He tried to take advantage of a civil war in Bulgaria in the late 1270s, but the Byzantine armies suffered several major defeats at the hands of the peasant Emperor Ivaylo. The Emperor managed to temporarily impose his son-in-law Ivan Asen III on the Bulgarian throne, but after the Byzantine defeat at Devina he had to flee. However, Michael VIII later managed to conquer the Bulgarian portion of Thrace, while the internal situation of the Bulgarian Empire remained unstable. In 1275, Michael VIII sent an army against Thessaly and fleet of 73 ships to harass the Latin states in Greece. The army was crushingly defeated at the Battle of Neopatras, but the fleet won a similarly comprehensive victory at the Battle of Demetrias.

paragraph: Last was his victory over Charles of Anjou in western Greece. Charles' general Hugh of Sully with 8,000 men (including 2,000 cavalry) captured Butrinto in 1280 and besieged Berat. A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes arrived in March 1281: Hugh of Sully was ambushed and captured, and his army put to flight. Geanaklopos considers that most scholars do not appreciate fully the importance of this victory: "this victory marked the complete failure of the attempt to launch a land expedition against the capital. Thus ... Charles had to shift his strategy to a sea attack against Constantinople".

paragraph: Section::::Sicilian Vespers.

paragraph: On 22 February 1281 a new Pope was selected, Pope Martin IV, a Frenchman Geanaklopos describes as "blindly subservient" to Charles of Anjou. Once again, Charles had no clear brake on his ambitions to conquer Constantinople, and he moved swiftly to prepare for this new offensive. One early move was taken by Pope Martin, who on 18 October 1281 excommunicated Michael without any warning or provocation, thus disrupting the union of Lyons.

paragraph: Charles had prepared a military force far larger than Michael could muster. According to Marino Sanudo, Charles had 100 ships in Sicily, and 300 more in Naples, Provence, and his Greek territories, which were to carry no less than 8,000 cavalrymen. Geanakoplos cites surviving documents that attest to the supplies Charles had accumulated. One Angevin rescript, dated 28 October 1281, lists a collection of tools to be gathered for the expedition, which includes "two thousand iron mattocks, three thousand iron stakes, sledges for smashing rocks, ropes, iron shovels, axes, and kettles for boiling pitch." Another orders the delivery of "four thousand iron stakes that are under construction in Venice." A third consists of instructions to a Pisan merchant for 2,500 shields of various sizes, all to be emblazoned with his royal emblem of lilies. Allied with Charles were a long list of powers. Besides having ties of kinship with the Kings of France and Hungary, the rulers of the Serbs and Bulgars were his allies, as well as the rulers of Epirus and dissidents of the Byzantine Empire, and the leading naval power of Europe, Venice.

paragraph: Obviously Michael sought allies against Charles of Anjou, but they were few. Donald Nicol lists the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, who would "loan him ships", and the Tatars of the Golden Horde in South Russia who "could keep an eye on the Bulgarians. His ambassadors visited the court of Roman-German King Rudolph of Habsburg, but he was aloof. King Peter III of Aragon proved more welcoming, for he had his own reasons to hate Charles. According to Geanakoplos, Peter's wife Constance was the daughter of Manfred, and for this reason Peter considered Charles a usurper and Sicily the rightful property of Constance. Peter welcomed refugees from Sicily, most notably John of Procida, whom he made secretary of the royal chancery. Yet Aragon was at the other end of the Mediterranean, far from Michael.

paragraph: Before Charles of Anjou could start for Constantinople, however, the Sicilian Vespers rebellion struck, on 30 March 1282. Charles sent four ships to handle the revolt, but when the rebels took control of Messina, he ordered the men and materiel assembled for use against Michael to besiege that city; meanwhile seventy Angevin ships at the arsenal of Messina were destroyed. Eventually Charles lifted the siege, and Peter of Aragon landed in Sicily to reclaim the island for his wife. Beginning with Pope Martin's bull dated 18 November 1282, wherein he again excommunicated Michael—as well as Peter of Aragon, John of Procida, and Michael's emissary Benedetto Zaccaria—as the author of the conspiracy that led to the Sicilian Vespers, Michael has been seen as the instigator. Geanakoplos, while admitting that Michael was in contact with the leaders of the revolt beforehand, asserts "that Michael Palaeologus, on his part, had nothing to do with the incident at the church of Santo Spirito is beyond question."

paragraph: Furthermore, Michael VIII was instrumental in instigating revolts in Crete against the Venetians, the most famous of which was led by the Hortatzoi brothers Georgios and Theodore of Mesi in Rethymnon, with a duration of six years, causing most significant harm to the Venetian occupants and economic interests of Venice. Michael VIII had aimed to eventually bring Venice, an ally of Charles of Anjou, to the table of negotiations, as he did, at his court in Constantinople.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: In reconstituting the Byzantine Empire Michael VIII restored the old administration without endeavouring to correct its failures. In recovering Constantinople and investing in the defence of his European provinces, Michael VIII began to denude the Anatolian frontier of its troops and was forced to lower their pay or cancel their tax exemptions. This policy led to the gradual collapse of the frontier, which was infiltrated by Turkish bands even before the death of Michael VIII in Pachomios village, Thrace in December 1282. The Palaiologan dynasty he established ruled the Byzantine Empire for almost two centuries, longer than any other in Roman history. Also, during his reign there was a temporary naval revival in which the Byzantine navy consisted of 80 ships.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: In 1253, Michael VIII Palaiologos married Theodora Palaiologina, a grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes, Emperor of Nicaea. Orphaned in childhood, she was raised by her great-uncle John III, who was said to have "loved her like a daughter", and who arranged for her marriage to Michael. Their children were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Manuel Palaiologos (c. 1255–before 1259)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Irene Palaiologina (c. 1256–before 1328), who married emperor Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andronikos II Palaiologos (1259–1332), Byzantine emperor

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anna Palaiologina (c. 1260–1299/1300), who married Demetrios/Michael Komnenos Doukas, third son of Michael II of Epirus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Constantine Palaiologos (1261–1306), who married Eirene Raoulaina his second cousin

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodora Palaiologina, who married King David VI of Georgia

paragraph: BULLET::::- Eudokia Palaiologina, who married Emperor John II of Trebizond

paragraph: BULLET::::- Theodore Palaiologos (c. 1263 – after 1310)

paragraph: By a mistress, a Diplovatatzina, Michael VIII also had two illegitimate daughters:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Euphrosyne Palaiologina, who married Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria Palaiologina, who married Abaqa Khan of Ilkhanid Persia

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine emperors

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Geanakoplos, Deno J., "Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West" (Harvard University Press, 1959)

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Charanis, Peter. "The Jews in the Byzantine Empire under the First Palaeologi." "Speculum", 22 (1947), 75–77.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harris, Jonathan, "Byzantium and the Crusades" (Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Heath, Ian, "Byzantine Armies, AD 1118–1461" (Osprey Publishing, 1995).

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium" (Oxford University Press, 1991)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vannier, J-F. "Les premiers Paléologues" (Etudes prosopographiques), 1989

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coinage featuring Michael VIII Palaiologos

alias: Μιχαήλ Η΄ Παλαιολόγος

alias: Emperor of the East Michael VIII Palaeologus

description: Founder of the Palaiologan dynasty

wikidata_label: Michael VIII Palaiologos

wikipedia_title: Michael VIII Palaiologos


text:
Latin
Dutch
deacon
Brethren of the Common Life
Devotio Moderna
Hanse
Deventer
Bishopric of Utrecht
Aachen
University of Paris
scholastic
philosophy
theology
nominalist
Canon law
medicine
astronomy
magic
Hebrew
Cologne
prebend
Utrecht
Aachen
prior
Charterhouse
Arnhem
deacon
Zwolle
Kampen
Amsterdam
Haarlem
Gouda
Leiden
Delft
Zutphen
Thomas à Kempis
concubinage
synod
heresy
simony
Jesus
orders
Pope Urban VI
John Ruysbroeck
Brussels
Canons Regular of St. Augustine
Brethren of the Common Life
plague
Florence Radewyns
Florens Radewyns
The Imitation of Christ
Thomas à Kempis
Florens Radewyns
Hendrik Mande
Thomas à Kempis

wikipedia_title:
Latin
Dutch people
Deacon
Brethren of the Common Life
Devotio Moderna
Hanseatic League
Deventer
Bishopric of Utrecht
Aachen
University of Paris
Scholasticism
Philosophy
Theology
Nominalism
Canon law of the Catholic Church
Medicine
Astronomy
Magic (supernatural)
Hebrew language
Cologne
Prebendary
Utrecht
Aachen
Prior
Carthusians
Arnhem
Deacon
Zwolle
Kampen, Overijssel
Amsterdam
Haarlem
Gouda, South Holland
Leiden
Delft
Zutphen
Thomas à Kempis
Concubinage
Synod
Heresy
Simony
Jesus
Holy orders
Pope Urban VI
John of Ruusbroec
Brussels
Canons regular
Brethren of the Common Life
Black Death
Florens Radewyns
Florens Radewyns
The Imitation of Christ
Thomas à Kempis
Florens Radewyns
Hendrik Mande
Thomas à Kempis

categories: 1384 deaths,Scholastic philosophers,Dutch Roman Catholic clergy,Dutch Renaissance humanists,Roman Catholic deacons,14th-century Christian clergy,1340 births,People from Deventer,Roman Catholic mystics,Devotio Moderna,Dutch Roman Catholic theologians,14th-century deaths from plague (disease),Founders of Catholic religious communities

paragraph: Geert Groote

paragraph: Gerard Groote (October 1340 – 20 August 1384), otherwise "Gerrit" or "Gerhard Groet", in Latin "Gerardus Magnus", was a Dutch Roman Catholic deacon, who was a popular preacher and the founder of the Brethren of the Common Life. He was a key figure in the Devotio Moderna movement.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Birth and education.

paragraph: He was born in the Hanseatic city Deventer in the Bishopric of Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He studied at Aachen, then went to the University of Paris when only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology at the Sorbonne under a pupil of William of Occam's, from whom he imbibed the nominalist conception of philosophy; in addition he studied Canon law, medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358. In 1362 he was appointed teacher at the Deventer chapter school. In 1366 his admiring countrymen sent him to Avignon on a secret mission to Pope Urban V.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Religious life.

paragraph: Soon after Groote settled in Cologne, teaching philosophy and theology, and was granted a prebend in Utrecht and another in Aachen. The life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place in 1374, appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerous illness and partly to the influence of a fellow student, Henry de Calcar, the learned and pious prior of the Charterhouse at Munnikhuizen (Monnikenhuizen) near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity of his life.

paragraph: In 1374 Groote turned his family home in Deventer into a shelter for poor women and lived for several years as a guest of a Carthusian monastery. In 1379, having received ordination as a deacon, he became a missionary preacher throughout the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his labors not only in the city of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle, Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden, Delft, Zutphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to Thomas à Kempis the people left their business and their meals to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the crowds that flocked together wherever he came.

paragraph: The bishop of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy, simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that Groote emitted a "Publica Protestatio", in which he declared that Jesus was the great subject of his discourses, that in all of them he believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid judgment of the Roman Church.

paragraph: The bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not in priestly orders, and an appeal to Pope Urban VI was without effect. There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it was only a few months before Groote's death, or else it must have been removed by the bishop, for Groote seems to have preached in public in the last year of his life.

paragraph: At some period (perhaps 1381, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days' duration to the famous mystic John Ruysbroeck, prior of the Augustinian canons at Groenendaal near Brussels; during this visit was formed Groote's attraction for the rule and life of the Augustinian canons which was destined to bear notable fruit. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order and Groote resolved that they should be Canons Regular of St. Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groote died before a foundation could be made.

paragraph: The initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groote's life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his other creation, the society of Brethren of the Common Life. He died of the plague at Deventer, which he had contracted while nursing the sick, in 1384 at the age of 44.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:The Brethren of the Common Life.

paragraph: Young men especially flocked to him in great numbers. Some of these he sent to his schools, others he occupied at transcribing good books, to all he taught thorough Christian piety. Groote and Florence Radewyns, his favourite disciple, founded at Zwolle the Brethren of the Common Life. In 1387 a site was secured at Windesheim, some north of Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became the cradle of the Windesheim Congregation of canons regular embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the 15th century by all the religious orders in Germany. Henceforth his communities, which were spreading rapidly through the Netherlands, Lower Germany, and Westphalia, claimed and received all his attention. He contemplated organizing his clerics into a community of canons regular, but it was left to Radewyns, his successor, to realize this plan at Windesheim two years later.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Devotio Moderna.

paragraph: A movement known as the Modern Devotion (Devotio Moderna) was founded in the Netherlands by Groote and Florens Radewyns, in the late fourteenth century. For Grote the pivotal point is the search for inner peace, which results from the denial of one's own self and is to be achieved by "ardour" and "silence". This is the heart of the "New Devotion", the "Devotio moderna". Solitary meditation on Christ’s Passion and redemption, on one’s own death, the Last Judgment, heaven, and hell was essential.

paragraph: In the course of the 15th century, the Modern Devotion found adherents throughout the Netherlands and Germany. Its precepts were further disseminated in texts such as "The Imitation of Christ" by Thomas à Kempis, which reached an increasingly literate public. In this context small works of art such as diptychs that provided a focus for private worship enjoyed wide popularity.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Geert Groote College is located in Amsterdam.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Florens Radewyns

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hendrik Mande

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- This work in turn cites:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Thomas à Kempis, "Vita Gerardi Magni" (English translation by J. P. Arthur, "The Founders of the New Devotion", 1905)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Chronicon Windeshemense" of Johann Busch (ed. K Grube, 1886).

paragraph: An account, based on the "Britannica" sources, is in S. Kettlewell, "Thomas à Kempis and the Brothers of Common Life" (1882), i. c. 5; and a shorter account in F. R. Cruise, "Thomas à Kempis", 1887, pt. ii. A sketch, with an account of Groote's writings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzog-Hauck, "Realencyklopädie" (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groote's theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in his day, and that the attempts to make him a reformer before the Reformation are unhistorical.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of the Christian Church - CCEL

description: Dutch Renaissance humanist and mystic

wikidata_label: Geert Groote

wikipedia_title: Geert Groote


text:
baseball
Major League Baseball
catcher
Philadelphia Quakers
Philadelphia Athletics
Detroit Wolverines
Pittsburgh Alleghenys
Kansas City Cowboys
suicide
morphine
Parkville, Missouri
Peoria, Illinois
Philadelphia Quakers
National League
range factor
Detroit Wolverines
Charlie Bennett
Kansas City Cowboys
Fort Scott, Kansas

wikipedia_title: Philadelphia Athletics (American Association)

categories: St. Paul Apostles players,Drug-related suicides in Missouri,Augusta Browns players,Major League Baseball catchers,Baseball players who committed suicide,1889 deaths,Kansas City Cowboys (minor league) players,Philadelphia Athletics (AA) players,Baseball players from Missouri,Detroit Wolverines players,19th-century baseball players,Philadelphia Quakers players,Kansas City Cowboys (NL) players,1860 births,Pittsburgh Alleghenys players

paragraph: Frank Ringo

paragraph: Frank C. Ringo (October 12, 1860 – April 12, 1889) was a professional baseball player whose career lasted from 1880 to 1888. He played four seasons of Major League Baseball as a catcher for the Philadelphia Quakers (1883–84), Philadelphia Athletics (1884), Detroit Wolverines (1885), Pittsburgh Alleghenys (1885–86), and Kansas City Cowboys (1886). He committed suicide by morphine overdose in April 1889 at age 28. His suicide is the earliest by a major league baseball player to be recorded in the "Baseball Almanac".

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: Ringo was born in Parkville, Missouri, in 1860. Ringo began his professional baseball career in 1880 playing for Kansas City. He also played minor league baseball in Peoria, Illinois.

paragraph: Section::::Major League Baseball.

paragraph: Section::::Major League Baseball.:Philadelphia.

paragraph: When the Peoria baseball club folded, Ringo signed with the Philadelphia Quakers. He made his major league debut on May 1, 1883, at age 22. During the 1883 season, he appeared in 60 games for the Quakers, 39 as a catcher, 11 as an outfielder, six as a shortstop, five as a third baseman and two as a second baseman. He compiled a .190 batting average with 10 doubles, a triple and 12 RBIs in 221 at bats. Despite his poor offensive showing, Ringo displayed impressive defensive capabilities behind the plate. In only 39 games as a catcher, Ringo managed to rank fourth among the National League's catchers with six double plays turned and fifth among the league's catchers with a 6.10 range factor.

paragraph: Ringo began the 1884 season with the Quakers and compiled a .132 batting average with two doubles and six RBIs in 91 at bats. He appeared in 26 games with the 1884 Quakers, all as a catcher. In August 1884, Ringo was released by the Quakers and signed as a free agent by the Philadelphia Athletics of the American Association. He appeared in only two games for the Quakers and had no hits in six at bats.

paragraph: Section::::Major League Baseball.:Detroit.

paragraph: In 1885, Ringo signed with the Detroit Wolverines as a backup to catcher Charlie Bennett. Ringo appeared in 17 games for the Wolverines, including eight games each at catcher and third base. He compiled a career high .246 batting average in 65 at bats for Detroit. However, he was released by the Wolverines and fined $100 for what the "Sporting News" described as "lushing."

paragraph: Section::::Major League Baseball.:Pittsburgh.

paragraph: After his release from Detroit, Ringo reportedly "dropped out of public notice altogether." In early September 1885, the "Sporting Life" reported that he had "finally pulled himself together" and had recently been catching and playing creditable first and second base for Augusta. He next played with the Pittsburgh Alleghenies of the American Association at the end of the 1885 season. He appeared in a total of 18 games, nine each at catcher and first base, for Pittsburgh during the 1885 and 1886 seasons. He compiled a .182 batting average for Pittsburgh in 1885 and increased his average to .214 in 1886.

paragraph: Section::::Major League Baseball.:Kansas City.

paragraph: Ringo concluded his major league career appearing in 16 games, 13 at catcher, for the Kansas City Cowboys in 1886. He compiled a .232 batting average with seven doubles and seven RBIs in 56 at bats for the Cowboys.

paragraph: Section::::Later years.

paragraph: During the 1887 season, Ringo remained with the Kansas City baseball club, though it had joined the Western League and was no longer a major league club. Ringo compiled a career high .382 batting average in 1887. He appeared 67 games, showing versatility with appearances at catcher (35 games), outfield (12 games), second base (11 games), shortstop (nine games), first base (three games) and third base (two games).

paragraph: Ringo played his last professional baseball games in 1888 as a member of the St. Paul Apostles of the Western Association. He appeared in 32 games and compiled a .262 batting average. According to a report in a St. Paul newspaper, Ringo was perceived there as "an excellent catcher and hard hitter, and on and off the ball field was a bright and companionable gentleman." During his off-seasons, Ringo worked as a traveling salesman for a firm in Kansas City.

paragraph: Section::::Final weeks.

paragraph: On January 1, 1889, Ringo was married to Emma Williams of Fort Scott, Kansas. After a lengthy period of battling problems with alcohol, Ringo had reportedly stopped drinking in the late summer or fall of 1888. In late January, the "Sporting Life" reported that Ringo was in Kansas City "without an engagement for next season." The newspaper further noted that Ringo had played well in 1888 and opined: "He is a good man when he keeps straight, and he has kept straight for a long time now. Here's a chance for some team to secure a good, hard-working catcher." He signed to catch for the Kansas City baseball club and reported to training camp in the middle of March. For several months prior to reporting to training camp, it was reported that Ringo "had not touched whisky, of which he is inordinately fond."

paragraph: Shortly after training camp began in March 1889, Ringo resumed drinking and had been on a "terrible spree" for two weeks before his death. On the afternoon of April 11, 1889, Ringo ingested 40 grains of morphine at his mother's residence at 1214 Virginia Avenue in Kansas City. It was reported that the morphine was his second attempt at suicide, and his actions were motivated by feelings of mortification and shame at being unable to free himself from alcohol. According to one newspaper account, the suicide was "deliberately planned and carefully executed", and the drug had hours to take its effect before Ringo's condition was discovered. A doctor was called and at 10:30 p.m., Ringo was declared to be in dangerous condition. He died at 9 a.m. the next day in the presence of his family.

paragraph: Ringo's suicide is the earliest by a major league baseball player to be recorded in the "Baseball Almanac". He was buried at Elmwood Cemetery in Kansas City.

description: American baseball player

wikidata_label: Frank Ringo

wikipedia_title: Frank Ringo


text:
stamp dealer
cut-out
covers
addressograph
Norwood
Herbert L'Estrange Ewen
W.H. Bertram Poole
postal stationery
Fiscal Philatelic Society

wikipedia_title:
Stamp dealer
Cut-out (philately)
Cover (philately)
Addressograph
Upper Norwood
Herbert L'Estrange Ewen
Bertram William Henry Poole
Postal stationery
Fiscal Philatelic Society

paragraph: Oswald Marsh

paragraph: Oswald Marsh (26 October 1880 – 4 August 1951) was a London stamp dealer who specialised in cut-outs. Many Marsh covers have addresses created using addressograph plates. Oswald Marsh was not related to Victor Marsh.

paragraph: Section::::Stamp dealing.

paragraph: Born in Belfast, into a Quaker family, his father Joseph Chandler Marsh, born in Surrey, was an architect practicing in Belfast. Marsh moved to London around 1900 where he had several addresses in the suburb of Norwood. He also briefly had offices at 1 Exeter Street, London W1, around 1914. Marsh appears to have started his stamp business some time after 1900. He is thanked in the preface to Herbert L'Estrange Ewen's "Priced Catalogue of the Unadhesive Postage Stamps of the UK 1840-1905" which was published in 1905 and was well established enough to publish a book by W.H. Bertram Poole in 1906. Marsh and Ewen must have been well known to each other as Norwood stamp dealers who both had an interest in "unadhesive stamps", or cut-outs as they are now known.

paragraph: Marsh specialised in British and Commonwealth stamps, controls, and cut-outs from British postal stationery which adorned much of his outgoing mail. He also ran a new issue service.

paragraph: Section::::Organised philately.

paragraph: Marsh was a life member of the Fiscal Philatelic Society.

paragraph: Section::::Books and journals.

paragraph: Marsh produced several journals, including "Marsh's Monthly Offers" from 1910, "Marsh's Weekly Circular" (1908 to 1921) which was renamed "Marsh's Weekly Philatelist" in 1914 and "Marsh's Colonial Philatelist" from 1928.

paragraph: As publisher, Marsh also produced "The Postage Stamps of the Seychelles" by W.H. Bertram Poole in 1906 and Sam Buckley's "Marginal Varieties of the Edwardian Stamps of Great Britain, 1902-1912" in 1912.

paragraph: Marsh also acquired the business of Errington & Martin, trade binders and producers of stamp albums.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Marsh continued in business until his death in 1951, after which it was taken over by his son Herbert and daughter. The stock was eventually dispersed through a series of sales continuing up to 2008.

paragraph: Oswald's obituary was published in "The Philatelic Journal", July/September 1951, p. 66.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Oswald Marsh's Priced Catalogue of King George Controls". Norwood, 1918.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile at Who Was Who in British Philately. Archive here

description: British stamp dealer

wikidata_label: Oswald Marsh

wikipedia_title: Oswald Marsh


text: Upper Mississippi Valley

text: Darcey

text: Burgundy

text: New France

text: Jesuit

text: Wisconsin

text: Simon-François Daumont de Saint-Lusson

text: Jean Talon

text: Ottawa

text: Amikwa

text: Illinois

text: Lake Superior

text: Louis XIV

text: Quebec

text: Green Bay, Wisconsin

text: Fox tribe

text: Sioux

text: Chippewa

text: Mississippi River

text: Sioux

text: Fort Saint Antoine

text: Detroit

text: Montreal

text: Onondaga

text: Onondaga

text: Cayuga

text: Oneida

text: Haudenosaunee

text: Wisconsin River

text: Louis de la Porte de Louvigny

text: Michilimackinac

text: Miami

text: Miami

text: Sauk

text: Menominee

text: Potawatomi

text: Fox

text: Montreal

text: Iroquois

text: Mascouten

text: Miami tribe

text: Bécancour

text: Great Peace of Montreal

text: Bécancour

text: Perrot State Park

text: Trempealeau

text: Louise Phelps Kellogg

text: Perrot, Nicolas

text: Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

categories: 1644 births,French explorers of North America,French translators,1717 deaths,Canadian fur traders,People of New France,People from Centre-du-Québec,French diplomats,Explorers of the United States,Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)

paragraph: Nicolas Perrot

paragraph: Nicolas Perrot (c.1644–1717), a French explorer, fur trader, and diplomat, was one of the first European men to travel in the Upper Mississippi Valley, in what is now Wisconsin and Minnesota.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Nicolas Perrot was born in France between 1641 and 1644, perhaps at Darcey in Burgundy, where his father was lieutenant of justice.

paragraph: Perrot traveled to New France around 1660 with the Jesuit missionaries. He journeyed with several to the Western Great Lakes, where they intended to preach to the Native Americans, reaching present-day Wisconsin in 1665. He earned the friendship of the natives by swapping furs for guns, allowing the group to defend themselves on an equal footing against their enemies. He was nicknamed the "trafficker of iron", or "iron legs".

paragraph: In 1667 he formed a fur trading company with three settlers in Montreal. On August 12, 1667, he returned to the Green Bay region. In 1670, he was enlisted as a translator for Simon-François Daumont de Saint-Lusson, a military officer and deputy of Jean Talon, who had been sent "to lay claim to the land of the Ottawa, Amikwa, Illinois, and of other nations discovered or to be discovered in North America contiguous and adjacent to Lake Superior(), the great inland sea, including all its length and breadth, and including the resources therein, for Louis XIV" at what was called "The Pageant of the Sault".

paragraph: Afterward, he married Madeleine Raclot. He was given a land grant on the river Saint-Michel in present-day Quebec. By the 1681 census he and Madeleine had six children. They had a total of eleven altogether.

paragraph: Perrot's relationship with and influence over the tribes of the west was drawn on again during the 1680s. In 1684, he participated in the peacekeeping mission of the Governor Lefebvre de La Barre and succeeded in bringing the warriors of several nations together to sign a peace treaty. In the spring of 1685 he was appointed Commandant-in-Chief of Bais Des Puants (present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin) and the neighboring regions when war broke out between the Fox tribe and the Sioux and Chippewa tribes. He worked hard to bring about peace, and was successful, at least for a time. After this, Perrot traveled to the northern waters of the Mississippi River, in the territory of the Sioux, where he built Fort Saint Antoine, now in Minnesota.

paragraph: In the spring of 1687 he was in the region of Detroit taking part in an expedition. A fire broke out at the Jesuit mission at Bais De Puants, and 40,000 livres worth of his furs were destroyed. Perrot was financially ruined. He returned to Montreal, where in the spring of 1688 he served as an interpreter for the treaty between Governor and Onondaga chief Otreouti, who promised the neutrality of the Onondaga, Cayuga, and Oneida of the Five Nations of the "Haudenosaunee" or Iroquois League in confrontations with the French. In 1689 he built Fort Saint-Pierre at the mouth of the Wisconsin River, and established peace among area tribes.

paragraph: In 1690, he and Louis de la Porte de Louvigny led a vital supply convoy from Montreal to Michilimackinac. Their success in breaking the Iroquois blockade of the Ottawa River and in resupplying the western Indians loyal to the French may have saved New France from the Five Nations. In subsequent years he was involved in the discovery of lead mines brought to his attention by Miami chiefs.

paragraph: In 1695 Perrot brought the Miami, Sauk, Menominee, Potawatomi and Fox chiefs to Montreal at the governor’s request, regarding war with the Iroquois. Perrot returned west where his concern was to maintain unity and peace among them in their efforts against the Iroquois. However, there was danger, and on two occasions he was almost sent to be burned at the stake by the Mascouten and the Miami tribe.

paragraph: Perrot settled on his land grant at Bécancour. The Indian chiefs whom he had known saw him for the last time in 1701 at the Great Peace of Montreal. He still served as interpreter, but this period of his life was marked by financial difficulties and harassment from creditors. He asked the authorities for a compensation he said was due to him, and a pension in consideration of services long provided, but was not satisfied. He was involved in court cases involving lawsuits filed by and against him. He also wrote his memoirs, which became valuable to later historians.

paragraph: Nicolas Perrot died on the 13th of August 1717 at about the age of 74. He was buried the next day in the church at Bécancour. Nine of his eleven children outlived him. His wife died in 1724.

paragraph: Perrot State Park, near the confluence of the Trempealeau and Mississippi Rivers in Wisconsin, is named after him.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Adventures of Nicolas Perrot, by La Potherie, 1665-1670" in Louise Phelps Kellogg (ed.) "Early Narratives of the Northwest 1634-1699". Scribner's, 1917, pp. 73–92.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Laforest, Thomas J., and Jeffrey M. LaRochelle. "Our French-Canadian Ancestors". Palm Harbor, Fla: LISI Press, 1999.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perreault, Robert. "Les familles PERREAULT du Québec, Vol 1; Le Groupe de Nicolas Perrot et de Madeleine Raclos".

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Perrot, Nicolas biography at the "Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Association of Descendants of Nicolas Perrot

paragraph: BULLET::::- Nicolas Perrot: French Fur Trade in Wisconsin | Wisconsin Historical Society

description: French explorer, diplomat and fur trader

wikidata_label: Nicolas Perrot

wikipedia_title: Nicolas Perrot


text: High Priest of Amun at Thebes

text: Ancient Egypt

text: Isetemkheb D

text: Menkheperre

text: High Priest of Amun at Thebes

text: Nesikhons

text: Smendes II

text: Isetemkheb D

text: Psusennes II

text: Henuttawy

text: Nesitanebetashru

text: Deir el-Bahri

text: Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

text: Theban

text: Ahmose I

text: Amenhotep I

text: Thutmose I

text: Thutmose II

text: Thutmose III

text: Ramesses I

text: Seti I

text: Ramesses II

text: Ramesses IX

text: JEA

text: JEA

text: Pinudjem II, accessed July 23, 2006

categories: 10th-century BC clergy,Ancient Egyptian mummies,Theban High Priests of Amun,People of the Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt

paragraph: Pinedjem II

paragraph: Pinedjem II was a High Priest of Amun at Thebes in Ancient Egypt from 990 BC to 969 BC and was the "de facto" ruler of the south of the country. He was married to his sister Isetemkheb D (both children of Menkheperre, the High Priest of Amun at Thebes, by Isetemkheb) and also to his niece Nesikhons, the daughter of his brother Smendes II. He succeeded Smendes II, who had a short rule.

paragraph: His children by Isetemkheb D were:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Psusennes II

paragraph: BULLET::::- Harweben, a Chantress of Amun; buried at Bab el-Gasus

paragraph: BULLET::::- (?) Henuttawy, God's Wife of Amun

paragraph: By Neskhons he had four children: two sons, Tjanefer and Masaharta, and two daughters, Itawy and Nesitanebetashru.

paragraph: When Pinedjem II died, his mummy, along with those of his wives and at least one daughter,Nesitanebetashru, were interred in tomb DB320 at Deir el-Bahri, above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. Subsequently, the mummies of other previous Theban-based rulers, including the much earlier 18th- and 19th-dynasty pharaohs Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX were gathered together and also laid in this tomb, which was revealed in 1881. This was done to prevent their remains from being robbed as their graves have been looted by many ancient tomb raiders.

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Battiscombe Gunn, The Decree of Amonrasonther for Neskhons, JEA 41 (1955), 83-95

paragraph: BULLET::::- J.-M. Kruchten, Le grand texte oraculaire de Djéhoutymose, intendant du domaine d’Amon sous le pontificat de Pinedjem II, MRE 5, 1986.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andrzej Niwiński, The Wives of Pinudjem II -a topic for discussion, JEA 74 (1988), 226-230

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- High Priests of Amun 1080 - 775 (Thebes), accessed July 23, 2006

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pinudjem II, accessed July 23, 2006

description: Egyptian high priest of Amun

wikidata_label: Pinedjem II

wikipedia_title: Pinedjem II


text:
Koper
breaststroke
swimmer
Slovenia
2008 European SC Championships
Rijeka
2008 Summer Olympics
Beijing
PR China
Profile

categories: Mediterranean Games bronze medalists for Slovenia,European Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming,Olympic swimmers of Slovenia,Male breaststroke swimmers,Slovenian male swimmers,1983 births,Swimmers at the 2008 Summer Olympics,Competitors at the 2005 Mediterranean Games,Living people,Sportspeople from Koper

paragraph: Matjaž Markič

paragraph: Matjaž Markič (born 12 January 1983 in Koper) is a male breaststroke swimmer from Slovenia, who won the gold medal in the men's 50 m breaststroke event at the 2008 European SC Championships in Rijeka. He represented his native country at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, PR China, finishing in 24th place in the men's 100 m breaststroke.

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paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile

description: swimmer

wikidata_label: Matjaž Markič

wikipedia_title: Matjaž Markič