text:
Rome
Pope
Council of Sutri
Alberic III
Count of Tusculum
pope
Benedict IX
Benedict VIII
Sylvester III
Henry III
Council of Sutri
Pope Clement II
Pope Gregory VII
Archpriest
St. John by the Latin Gate
Pope Benedict IX
Theophylacti
Tusculum
St. Peter Damian
Bishop of Sabina
Pope Sylvester III
Pope Gregory VII
Henry III
Alps
Italy
Sutri
simony
bishop of Bamberg
Pope Clement II
Cluny
Pope Leo IX
List of popes
Encyclopædia Britannica

categories: Simony,Popes,Year of birth unknown,1048 deaths,Italian popes

paragraph: Pope Gregory VI

paragraph: Pope Gregory VI (; died 1048), born John Gratian in Rome (), was Pope from 1 May 1045 until his abdication at the Council of Sutri on 20 December 1046.

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Theophylactus of Tusculum was twenty years old when, in 1032, his father, Alberic III, Count of Tusculum, purchased his election as pope through some well-placed bribes. The young man took the name Benedict IX, after his uncle, Benedict VIII. Factional strife increased and in September 1044 members of the Roman nobility ousted Benedict and, in January 1045, replaced him with their own candidate, the bishop of Sabina, who took the name Sylvester III.

paragraph: The following March, Benedict was able to return and sent Sylvester back to his diocese. Shortly thereafter, Benedict approached his godfather, Gratian, and indicating that he wished to marry, offered to resign, provided he were reimbursed for his election expenses. Desirous of seeing Rome free of Benedict, Gratian agreed, and by May was recognized as Benedict's successor under the name Gregory VI.

paragraph: Benedict then had second thoughts and again laid claim to the papal throne. Supporters of Sylvester, however, had not given up his claim. With three parties claiming the papacy and controlling their respective parts of the city, influential members of both the clergy and the laity asked the Henry III, King of the Germans to intervene. Henry expected to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, but preferred it be done by a pope whose legitimacy was not in question. Henry crossed the Alps and, in December 1046, convened the Council of Sutri, which deposed Benedict and Sylvester. Gregory agreed to resign; and the Bishop of Bamberg was installed as Pope Clement II.

paragraph: Gregory's chaplain was Hildebrand, who later became Pope Gregory VII.

paragraph: Section::::Early career.

paragraph: Gratian, the Archpriest of St. John by the Latin Gate, was a man of great reputation for uprightness of character. He was also the godfather of Pope Benedict IX, who, at the age of twenty, was foisted on the papacy by his powerful family, the Theophylacti, counts of Tusculum.

paragraph: Benedict IX, wishing to marry and vacate the position into which he had been thrust by his family, consulted his godfather as to whether he could resign the pontificate. When he was convinced that he might do so, he offered to give up the papacy into the hands of his godfather if he would reimburse him for his election expenses. Desirous of ridding the See of Rome of such an unworthy pontiff, John Gratian paid him the money and was recognized as Pope in his stead.

paragraph: Section::::Papacy.

paragraph: The accession of Gratian, who took the name Gregory VI, did not bring peace, though it was hailed with joy even by such a strict upholder of the right as St. Peter Damian. When Benedict IX left the city after selling the papacy, there was already another aspirant to the See of Peter in the field. John, Bishop of Sabina, had been hailed as Pope Sylvester III by the faction of the nobility that had driven Benedict IX from Rome in 1044, and had then installed him in his place. Though Benedict IX soon returned, and forced Sylvester III to retire to his See of Sabina, Sylvester never gave up his claims to the papal throne, and through his political allies contrived apparently to keep some hold on a portion of Rome.

paragraph: To complicate matters, Benedict IX, unable to obtain the bride on whom he had set his heart, soon repented his resignation, claimed the papacy again, and in his turn is thought to have succeeded in acquiring dominion over a part of the city.

paragraph: With an empty exchequer and a clergy that had largely lost the savour of righteousness, Gregory VI was confronted by an almost hopeless task. Nevertheless, with the aid of his "capellanus" or chaplain, Hildebrand, destined to be Pope Gregory VII, he tried to bring about civil and religious order. He strove to effect the latter by means of letters and councils, and the former by force of arms. But the factions of his rivals were too strong to be put down, and the confusion only increased.

paragraph: Convinced that nothing could meet the challenges facing the Church except imperial intervention, a number of influential clergy and laity separated themselves from communion with Gregory VI or either of his two rivals and implored Emperor Henry III to cross the Alps and restore order. Henry III responded to these pleas by descending into Italy in the autumn of 1046.

paragraph: Strong in the conviction of his innocence, Gregory VI went north to meet him. He was received by Henry III with all the honour due to a Pope, and in accordance with the royal request, summoned a council to meet at Sutri.

paragraph: Of his rivals, Sylvester III alone presented himself at the synod, which was opened on 20 December 1046. Both his claim to the papacy and that of Benedict IX were soon disposed of. Deprived of all clerical rank and considered a usurper from the beginning, Sylvester III was condemned to be confined in a monastery for the rest of his life.

paragraph: Gregory VI was accused of purchasing the papacy and freely admitted it; however, he disputed that this act, given the circumstances, constituted the crime of simony. However, the bishops of the synod impressed upon Gratian that this act was indeed simoniacal, regardless of his virtuous motivations for it, and called upon him to resign. Gregory VI, seeing that little choice was left to him, complied of his own accord and laid down his office.

paragraph: Gregory VI was succeeded in the papacy by the German bishop of Bamberg, Suidger, who took the name Pope Clement II.

paragraph: Gregory VI himself was taken by the Emperor to Germany in May 1047, where he died in 1048, probably at Cologne.

paragraph: Gregory VI was accompanied by Hildebrand, who remained with him until his death. After about a year in Cluny, Hildebrand returned to Rome in January 1049 with the new Pope Leo IX (Bruno of Toul), successor of Popes Clement II and Damasus II. And when Hildebrand himself was elected Pope in 1073, he deliberately chose for himself the title Pope Gregory VII in order to proclaim his firm and loyal belief in the legitimacy of Gratian as Pope Gregory VI.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of popes

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 9th edition (1880s) of the "Encyclopædia Britannica"

alias:
Pope Gregory VI
John Gratian
Giovanni Graziano
John de Gratiano
Johannes Gratianus
Gregorius VI

description: Pope from 1045 to 1046

wikidata_label: Gregory VI

wikipedia_title: Pope Gregory VI


text:
pope
Investiture Controversy
Concordat of Worms
Truce of God
William I, Count of Burgundy
Arduin of Ivrea
Humbert II, Count of Savoy
Renier I of Montferrat
Odo I, Duke of Burgundy
Raymond
Urraca
León
Alfonso VII of León
Archbishop of Besançon
Archbishop of Vienne
archbishop
papal legate
Pope Paschal II
Holy Roman Emperor
Henry V
Pope Gregory VII
Gregorian Reform
lay investiture
heretical
excommunication
Pope Gelasius II
Gaeta
Abbey of Cluny
Strasbourg
Rheims
Louis VI of France
Henry I of England
Robert II, Duke of Normandy
simony
antipope Gregory VIII
Sutri
Kingdom of Naples
Salerno
Sicut Judaeis
Pope Gregory I
Würzburg
Lambert
Concordat of Worms
Truce of God
indulgence
Roman Campagna
See of Vienne
See of Arles
Santa Maria in Cosmedin
Concordat of Worms
First Council of the Lateran

categories: Diplomats of the Holy See,12th-century French people,Anscarids,11th-century births,French popes,Investiture Controversy,Year of birth unknown,Popes,12th-century Roman Catholic archbishops,People from Doubs,Pope Callixtus II,1124 deaths,11th-century French people,Archbishops of Vienne

paragraph: Pope Callixtus II

paragraph: Pope Callixtus II or Callistus II (c. 1065 – 13 December 1124), born Guy of Burgundy, was pope of the western Christian church from 1 February 1119 to his death in 1124. His pontificate was shaped by the Investiture Controversy, which he was able to settle through the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

paragraph: As son of William I, Count of Burgundy, Guy was a member of and connected to the highest nobility in Europe. He became Archbishop of Vienne and served as papal legate to France. He attended the Lateran Synod of 1112. He was elected pope at Cluny in 1119. The following year, prompted by attacks on Jews, he issued the bull "Sicut Judaeis" which forbade Christians, on pain of excommunication, from forcing Jews to convert, from harming them, from taking their property, from disturbing the celebration of their festivals, and from interfering with their cemeteries. In March 1123, Calixtus II convened the First Lateran Council which passed several disciplinary decrees, such as those against simony and concubinage among the clergy, and violators of the Truce of God.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early life.

paragraph: Born the fourth son of William I, Count of Burgundy, one of the wealthiest rulers in Europe, Guy was a member of the highest aristocracy in Europe. His family was part of a network of noble alliances. He was a cousin of Arduin of Ivrea, the King of Italy. One sister, Gisela, was married to Humbert II, Count of Savoy, and then to Renier I of Montferrat; another sister, Maud, was the wife of Odo I, Duke of Burgundy. A further sister Clementia married Robert II Count of Flanders. His brother Raymond was married to Urraca, the heiress of León, and fathered the future King Alfonso VII of León. His brother Hugh was an Archbishop of Besançon.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Archbishop of Vienne.

paragraph: Guy first appears in contemporary records when he became the Archbishop of Vienne in 1088. He held strong pro-Papal views about the Investiture Controversy. As archbishop, he was appointed papal legate to France by Pope Paschal II during the time that Paschal was induced under pressure from Holy Roman Emperor Henry V to issue the "Privilegium" of 1111, by which he yielded much of the papal prerogatives that had been so forcefully claimed by Pope Gregory VII in the Gregorian Reforms. These concessions were received with violent opposition and nowhere more so than in France, where the opposition was led by Guy, who was present at the Lateran Synod of 1112.

paragraph: On his return to France, he immediately convened an assembly of French and Burgundian bishops at Vienne, where the imperial claim to a traditional lay investiture of the clergy was denounced as heretical and a sentence of excommunication was now pronounced against Henry V on the grounds that he had extorted the "Privilegium" from Paschal II by means of violence. These decrees were sent to Paschal II with a request for a confirmation, which they received on 20 October 1112.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Papacy.

paragraph: Guy was later, apparently, created cardinal by Pope Paschal, though the latter does not seem to have been quite pleased with his zeal in his attacks upon Henry V. During the violent confrontations between Henry V and Paschal II's successor, Pope Gelasius II, the Pope was forced to flee from Rome, first to Gaeta, where he was crowned, then to the Abbey of Cluny, where he died on 29 January 1119.

paragraph: Archbishop Guy de Bourgogne of Vienne, France, who was not a cardinal, was elected at Cluny on 2 February 1119. Nine cardinals took part in the election. Most of the other cardinals were in Rome. He was crowned at Vienne on 9 February 1119, as Calixtus II.

paragraph: At the outset, it appeared that the new Pope was willing to negotiate with Henry V, who received the papal embassy at Strasbourg, and withdrew his support from the antipope he had proclaimed at Rome. It was agreed that pope and emperor should meet at the Château de Mousson, near Rheims, and in October the new Pope opened the council at Rheims attended by Louis VI of France with most of the barons of France and more than four hundred bishops and abbots. Henry V arrived for his personal conference at Mousson — not alone, as had been anticipated, but with an army of over thirty thousand men. Calixtus II, fearing that force was likely to be used to extract prejudicial concessions, remained at Rheims. There, Calixtus II busied himself ineffectively with attempting a reconciliation between the brothers Henry I of England and Robert II, Duke of Normandy, and the council dealt with disciplinary regulations and decrees against lay investiture, simony, and clerical concubines. Since there was no compromise coming from Henry V, it was determined on 30 October 1119 that the Emperor and his antipope should be solemnly excommunicated.

paragraph: Returning to Italy, where antipope Gregory VIII was supported in Rome by imperial forces and Italian allies of the emperor, Calixtus II managed to gain the upper hand amid clear demonstrations of popular support. The Imperial candidate was obliged to flee to the fortress of Sutri, where he was taken prisoner through the intervention of Norman support from the Kingdom of Naples. He was transferred from prison to prison first near Salerno, and afterwards at the fortress of Fumo. The imperial allies in Rome soon disbanded.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Sicut Judaeis.

paragraph: In 1120 Calixtus II issued the papal bull "Sicut Judaeis" (Latin: "As the Jews") setting out the official position of the papacy regarding the treatment of Jews. It was prompted by the First Crusade, during which over five thousand Jews were slaughtered in Europe. The bull was intended to protect Jews and echoed the position of Pope Gregory I that Jews were entitled to "enjoy their lawful liberty." The bull forbade Christians, on pain of excommunication, from forcing Jews to convert, from harming them, from taking their property, from disturbing the celebration of their festivals, and from interfering with their cemeteries.

paragraph: It was reaffirmed by popes Alexander III, Celestine III (1191-1198), Innocent III (1199), Honorius III (1216), Gregory IX (1235), Innocent IV (1246), Alexander IV (1255), Urban IV (1262), Gregory X (1272 & 1274), Nicholas III, Martin IV (1281), Honorius IV (1285-1287), Nicholas IV (1288–92), Clement VI (1348), Urban V (1365), Boniface IX (1389), Martin V (1422), and Nicholas V (1447).

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Concordat of Worms.

paragraph: Having established his power in Italy, the Pope resolved to re-open negotiations with Henry V on the question of investiture. Henry V was anxious to put an end to a controversy which had reduced imperial authority in Germany — terminally so, as it appeared in the long run. An embassy of three cardinals was sent by Calixtus II to Germany, and negotiations for a permanent settlement of the investiture struggle were begun in October 1121 at Würzburg, where it was agreed that a general truce should be proclaimed in Germany, that the Church should have free use of its possessions, and that the lands of those in rebellion should be restored. These decrees were communicated to Calixtus II, who despatched the legate Lambert to assist at the synod that had been convoked at Worms, where, on 23 September 1122, the agreement known as the Concordat of Worms was concluded. On his side the Emperor abandoned his claim to investiture with ring and crosier, and granted freedom of election to episcopal sees. On the papal side, it was conceded that the bishops should receive investiture with the sceptre, that the episcopal elections should be held in the presence of the Emperor or his representatives, that in case of disputed elections the Emperor should, after the decision of the metropolitan and the suffragan bishops, confirm the rightfully elected candidate, and lastly, that the imperial investiture of the temporal properties connected to the sees should take place in Germany before the consecration. In Burgundy and in Italy the imperial investiture would take place after the consecration ceremony, while in the Papal States the pope alone had the right of investiture, without any interference on the part of the Emperor. As a result of this Concordat, the Emperor still retained in his hands the controlling influence in the election of the bishops in Germany, though he had abandoned much in regard to episcopal elections in Italy and Burgundy.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:First Lateran Council.

paragraph: To secure the confirmation of this Concordat of Worms, Calixtus II convened the First Lateran Council on 18 March 1123. It solemnly confirmed the Concordat and passed several disciplinary decrees, such as those against simony and concubinage among the clergy. Decrees were also passed against violators of the Truce of God, church-robbers, and forgers of ecclesiastical documents. The indulgences already granted to the crusaders were renewed, and the jurisdiction of the bishops over the clergy, both secular and regular, was more clearly defined.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Later life and death.

paragraph: Calixtus II devoted his last few years to re-establishing papal control over the Roman Campagna and establishing the primacy of his See of Vienne over the See of Arles, an ancient conflict. He rebuilt the church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin in Rome.

paragraph: Calixtus died on 13 December 1124.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Concordat of Worms

paragraph: BULLET::::- First Council of the Lateran

alias:
Guy de Burgundy
Pope Callixtus II

description: Pope from 1119 to 1124

wikidata_label: Callixtus II

wikipedia_title: Pope Callixtus II


text: Pope

text: Decretales

text: Papal Inquisition

text: Pope Lucius III

text: papal bull

text: Ad abolendam

text: Pope Honorius III

text: Pope Gregory VII

text: Pope Innocent III

text: Papal supremacy

text: Anagni

text: Cardinal-Deacon

text: Sant'Eustachio

text: Cardinal Bishop of Ostia e Velletri

text: Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals

text: Cardinal Protector

text: Franciscans

text: Cardinal Bishop of Ostia

text: Isabella of Angoulême

text: papal election

text: Parens scientiarum

text: University of Paris strike of 1229

text: university scholars of Paris

text: Papal Inquisition

text: heresy

text: Lucius III

text: Dominicans

text: Franciscan

text: "Nova Compilatio decretalium"

text: Mainz

text: Early Middle Ages

text: Decretum

text: Gratian

text: 1234 Decretals

text: Talmud

text: Judgment Day

text: Frederick II

text: Christian

text: liberalism

text: Nicholas Donin

text: Saint Dominic

text: Clare of Assisi

text: Order of Our Lady of Mercy

text: canonized

text: Elisabeth of Hungary

text: Dominic

text: Anthony of Padua

text: Francis of Assisi

text: Santa Maria del Popolo

text: Northern Crusades

text: Orthodox

text: Slavic peoples

text: Eastern Europe

text: Pskov Republic

text: Novgorod Republic

text: Papacy

text: Livonian Brothers of the Sword

text: Finland

text: Pagan

text: Finnish-Novgorodian wars

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Frederick II

text: Sixth Crusade

text: excommunication

text: Holy Land

text: Jerusalem

text: Lombard League

text: Papal States

text: heretic

text: anathema

text: trying to capture or sink

text: Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg

text: Regensburg

text: Pope Innocent IV

text: crusade

text: Regulæ Juris

text: Vox in Rama

text: Cardinals created by Gregory IX

text: "Catholic Encyclopedia":

categories: People of the Northern Crusades,Deans of the College of Cardinals,People from Anagni,Christians of the Prussian Crusade,12th-century births,Popes,13th-century Roman Catholic bishops,1241 deaths,Cardinal-nephews,Cardinal-bishops of Ostia,People of the Stedinger Crusade,Pope Gregory IX,Christians of the Sixth Crusade,Italian popes

paragraph: Pope Gregory IX

paragraph: Pope Gregory IX (; born Ugolino di Conti; c. 1145 or before 1170 – 22 August 1241) was Pope from 19 March 1227 to his death in 1241. He is known for issuing the "Decretales" and instituting the Papal Inquisition in response to the failures of the episcopal inquisitions established during the time of Pope Lucius III through his papal bull "Ad abolendam" issued in 1184.

paragraph: The successor of Pope Honorius III, he fully inherited the traditions of Pope Gregory VII and of his own cousin Pope Innocent III and zealously continued their policy of Papal supremacy.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Ugolino (Hugh) was born in Anagni. The date of his birth varies in sources between c. 1145 and 1170. He received his education at the Universities of Paris and Bologna.

paragraph: He was created Cardinal-Deacon of the church of Sant'Eustachio by his cousin Innocent III in December 1198. In 1206 he was promoted to the rank of Cardinal Bishop of Ostia e Velletri. He became Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in 1218 or 1219. Upon the special request of Saint Francis, in 1220, Pope Honorius III appointed him Cardinal Protector of the order of the Franciscans.

paragraph: As Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, he cultivated a wide range of acquaintances, among them the Queen of England, Isabella of Angoulême.

paragraph: Section::::Papacy.

paragraph: Gregory IX was elevated to the papacy in the papal election of 1227. He took the name "Gregory" because he formally assumed the papal office at the monastery of Saint Gregory ad Septem Solia.

paragraph: Gregory's Bull "Parens scientiarum" of 1231, after the University of Paris strike of 1229, resolved differences between the unruly university scholars of Paris and the local authorities. His solution was in the manner of a true follower of Innocent III: he issued what in retrospect has been viewed as the "magna carta" of the University, assuming direct control by extending papal patronage: his Bull allowed future suspension of lectures over a flexible range of provocations, from "monstrous injury or offense" to squabbles over "the right to assess the rents of lodgings".

paragraph: In 1233 Gregory IX established the Papal Inquisition to regularize the persecution of heresy. The Papal Inquisition was intended as replacing the often chaotic and violent episcopal inquisitions which had been established by Lucius III in 1184. Gregory's aim was to bring order and legality to the process of dealing with heresy, since there had been tendencies by mobs of townspeople to burn alleged heretics without much of a trial. In 1231 Pope Gregory IX appointed a number of Papal Inquisitors ("Inquisitores haereticae pravitatis"), mostly Dominicans and Franciscans, for the various regions of France, Italy and parts of Germany. The aim was to introduce due process and objective investigation into the beliefs of those accused to the often erratic and unjust persecution of heresy on the part of local ecclesiastical and secular jurisdictions.

paragraph: Gregory was a remarkably skillful and learned lawyer. He caused to be prepared "Nova Compilatio decretalium", which was promulgated in numerous copies in 1234 (first printed at Mainz in 1473). This "New Compilation of Decretals" was the culmination of a long process of systematising the mass of pronouncements that had accumulated since the Early Middle Ages, a process that had been under way since the first half of the 12th century and had come to fruition in the "Decretum", compiled and edited by the papally commissioned legist Gratian and published in 1140. The supplement completed the work, which provided the foundation for papal legal theory.

paragraph: In the 1234 Decretals, he invested the doctrine of "perpetua servitus iudaeorum" – perpetual servitude of the Jews – with the force of canonical law. According to this, the followers of the Talmud would have to remain in a condition of political servitude until Judgment Day. The doctrine then found its way into the doctrine of "servitus camerae imperialis", or servitude immediately subject to the Emperor's authority, promulgated by Frederick II. The Jews were thus suppressed from having direct influence over the political process and the life of Christian states into the 19th century with the rise of liberalism.

paragraph: In 1239, under the influence of Nicholas Donin, a Jewish convert to Christianity, Gregory ordered that all copies of the Jewish Talmud be confiscated. Following a public disputation between Christians and Jewish theologians, this culminated in a mass burning of some 12,000 handwritten Talmudic manuscripts on 12 June 1242, in Paris.

paragraph: Gregory was a supporter of the mendicant orders which he saw as an excellent means for counteracting by voluntary poverty the love of luxury and splendour which was possessing many ecclesiastics. He was a friend of Saint Dominic as well as Clare of Assisi. On 17 January 1235, he approved the Order of Our Lady of Mercy for the redemption of captives. He appointed ten cardinals and canonized Saints Elisabeth of Hungary, Dominic, Anthony of Padua, and Francis of Assisi, of whom he had been a personal friend and early patron. He transformed a chapel to Our Lady in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome.

paragraph: Gregory IX endorsed the Northern Crusades and attempts to bring Orthodox Slavic peoples in Eastern Europe (particularly Pskov Republic and the Novgorod Republic) under Papacy's fold. In 1232, Gregory IX requested the Livonian Brothers of the Sword to send troops to protect Finland, whose semi-Pagan people were fighting against the Novgorod Republic in the Finnish-Novgorodian wars; however, there is no known information if any ever arrived to assist.

paragraph: Section::::Struggle with Frederick II.

paragraph: At the coronation of Frederick II in Rome, 22 November 1220, the emperor made a vow to embark for the Holy Land in August 1221. Gregory IX began his pontificate by suspending the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, for dilatoriness in carrying out the promised Sixth Crusade. Frederick II appealed to the sovereigns of Europe complaining of his treatment. The suspension was followed by excommunication and threats of deposition, as deeper rifts appeared. Frederick II went to the Holy Land and in fact managed to take possession of Jerusalem. Gregory IX distrusted the emperor, since Rainald, the imperial Governor of Spoleto, had invaded the Pontifical States during the emperor's absence. In June 1229, Frederick II returned from the Holy Land, routed the papal army which Gregory IX had sent to invade Sicily, and made new overtures of peace to the pope.

paragraph: Gregory IX and Frederick came to a truce, but when Frederick defeated the Lombard League in 1239, the possibility that he might dominate all of Italy, surrounding the Papal States, became a very real threat. A new outbreak of hostilities led to a fresh excommunication of the emperor in 1239 and to a prolonged war. Gregory denounced Frederick II as a heretic and summoned a council at Rome to give point to his anathema. Frederick responded by trying to capture or sink as many ships carrying prelates to the synod as he could. Eberhard II von Truchsees, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg, in 1241 at the Council of Regensburg declared that Gregory IX was "that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, 'I am God, I cannot err'." He argued that the Pope was the "little horn" of Daniel 7:8:

paragraph: A little horn has grown up with eyes and mouth speaking great things, which is reducing three of these kingdoms—i.e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany—to subserviency, is persecuting the people of Christ and the saints of God with intolerable opposition, is confounding things human and divine, and is attempting things unutterable, execrable.

paragraph: The struggle was only terminated by the death of Gregory IX on 22 August 1241. He died before events could reach their climax; it was his successor Pope Innocent IV who declared a crusade in 1245 that would finish the Hohenstaufen threat.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Regulæ Juris

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vox in Rama"

paragraph: BULLET::::- Cardinals created by Gregory IX

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Catholic Encyclopedia": Pope Gregory IX

paragraph: Section::::Further studies.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pietro Balan, "Storia di Gregorio IX e suoi tempi" 3 volumes (Modena 1873).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Joseph Felten, "Papst Gregor IX". (Freiburg i.B. 1886).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Guido Levi, "Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d' Ostia e Ottaviano degli Ubaldini" (Roma 1890).

paragraph: BULLET::::- Iben Fonnesberg‐Schmidt, "The Popes and the Baltic Crusades 1147–1254" (Leiden, Brill. 2007) (The Northern World, 26).

alias:
Pope Gregory IX
Di Segni Ugolino
Ugolino Di Segni
papež Řehoř IX.
Hugo of Segni
Ugolino Ostia
Ugolino of Segni
Ugolino de' Conti di Segni
Hugues di Segna
Hugolinus di Segna
Ugolino de Segni
Hugolin de' Conti de Segni
pape Grégoire IX
Ugolino  von  Segni
papa Gregorio IX
Ugo of Segni
Ugolino, Bishop of Ostia
Hugo ze Segni
Ugolino di Conti
Gregor IX
Hugolin di Segna
Ugolino ze Segni
Ugolino di Segni
Bishop of Ostia Ugolino
Gregorius PP. IX
Ugolino  d'  Ostia
Ugolino DiSegni
Ugolino  di  Segni
Ugolino, Bishop of Ostia and Velletri
Hugolino of Segni
Papa Gregorius IX
Ugolino dei conti di Segni
pape Gregoire IX

description: 178th Pope

enwikiquote_title: Pope Gregory IX

wikidata_label: Gregory IX

wikipedia_title: Pope Gregory IX


text: American

text: prelate

text: Roman Catholic Church

text: bishop

text: Diocese of Great Falls-Billings

text: Montana

text: Elkhart

text: Indiana

text: Indiana University

text: St. Gregory's College Seminary

text: Cincinnati

text: Ohio

text: Bachelor of Arts degree

text: philosophy

text: Mount St. Mary's Seminary of the West

text: Master's of Divinity

text: Master's in Theology

text: ordained

text: priesthood

text: pastoral

text: Archdiocese of Anchorage

text: Alaska

text: Bishop of Juneau

text: Pope John Paul II

text: episcopal consecration

text: Archbishop Francis Hurley

text: Michael Kaniecki

text: SJ

text: William Skylstad

text: co-consecrators

text: Chairman

text: Apostolic Administrator

text: Fairbanks

text: Donald Joseph Kettler

text: Pope Benedict XVI

text: Archbishop John Vlazny

text: Subcommittee on Catholic Home Missions

text: Catholic Church hierarchy

text: Catholic Church in the United States

text: Official site of the Holy See

categories: Catholics from Ohio,1948 births,Indiana University alumni,American Roman Catholic bishops,Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cincinnati,Religious leaders from Montana,20th-century Roman Catholic bishops,Roman Catholic bishops of Juneau,The Athenaeum of Ohio alumni,Catholics from Indiana,Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Anchorage,21st-century Roman Catholic bishops,Catholics from Montana,People from Elkhart, Indiana,Religious leaders from Alaska,Catholics from Alaska,Roman Catholic bishops of Great Falls–Billings,Living people

paragraph: Michael William Warfel

paragraph: Michael William Warfel (born September 16, 1948) is an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church serving as the bishop of the Diocese of Great Falls-Billings, Montana.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Michael Warfel was born in Elkhart, Indiana, and studied at Indiana University; St. Gregory's College Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio, from where he obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy; Mount St. Mary's Seminary of the West, earning his Master's of Divinity; and St. Michael's College, Colchester, Vermont, earning his Master's in Theology. He was ordained to the priesthood on April 26, 1980. He then performed pastoral work in the Archdiocese of Anchorage, Alaska.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Bishop of Juneau.

paragraph: On November 19, 1996, Warfel was appointed the fourth Bishop of Juneau by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal consecration on the following December 17 from Archbishop Francis Hurley, with Bishops Michael Kaniecki, SJ, and William Skylstad serving as co-consecrators. Warfel was Chairman of the Committee on Evangelization within the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops from 1999 to 2002. He was later named Apostolic Administrator of Fairbanks on October 23, 2001, resigning upon the appointment of Donald Joseph Kettler on June 7, 2002.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Bishop of Great Falls-Billings.

paragraph: Pope Benedict XVI named him the seventh Bishop of Great Falls-Billings, Montana on November 20, 2007. He was formally installed in his new post by Archbishop John Vlazny on January 16, 2008.

paragraph: Within the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Warfel also serves as chairman of the Subcommittee on Catholic Home Missions, and as a member of the administrative committee for the USCCB.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Church hierarchy

paragraph: BULLET::::- Catholic Church in the United States

paragraph: BULLET::::- Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Catholic bishops of the United States

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roman Catholic Diocese of Great Falls–Billings Official Site

paragraph: BULLET::::- Official site of the Holy See

description: Catholic bishop

wikidata_label: Michael William Warfel

wikipedia_title: Michael William Warfel


text:
Mori Nagayoshi
Mori Ranmaru
Asakura clan
Battle of Nagakute
Mori Nagayoshi
Mori Ranmaru
Mori Tadamasa

categories: Samurai,Deified Japanese people,1523 births,1570 deaths,Japanese warriors killed in battle

paragraph: Mori Yoshinari

paragraph: Yoshinari was the father of the samurai Mori Nagayoshi and Mori Ranmaru. After Yoshinari died fighting against the Asakura clan, Nagayoshi took over the leadership of the clan, but he later died in the Battle of Nagakute in 1584.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mori Nagayoshi (1558-1584)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mori Ranmaru (1565-1582)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mori Tadamasa

description: samurai

wikidata_label: Mori Yoshinari

wikipedia_title: Mori Yoshinari


text: Victorian era

text: baritone

text: Gilbert and Sullivan

text: D'Oyly Carte Opera Company

text: J. C. Williamson

text: D'Oyly Carte Opera Company

text: The Mikado

text: Boston

text: Austria

text: Trial by Jury

text: Savoy Theatre

text: Ruddygore

text: understudy

text: Richard Temple

text: The Pirates of Penzance

text: The Mikado

text: comic opera

text: Mrs. Jarramie's Genie

text: Frank Desprez

text: Alfred Cellier

text: Francois

text: upholsterer

text: Richard Cholmondeley

text: Tower of London

text: Savoy opera

text: The Yeomen of the Guard

text: The Gondoliers

text: Prince John

text: Arthur Sullivan

text: Ivanhoe

text: La Basoche

text: Royal English Opera House

text: F. Osmond Carr

text: Prince of Wales's Theatre

text: J. C. Williamson

text: Ma mie Rosette

text: Nellie Stewart

text: Melbourne

text: Iolanthe

text: The Gondoliers

text: The Rose of Persia

text: Florodora

text: A Trip to Chinatown

text: Charles Kenningham

text: Boccaccio

text: Melbourne

text: Internet Movie Database

text: 1909 photo of Brownlow

categories: 19th-century British opera singers,1861 births,Gilbert and Sullivan performers,1919 deaths,English operatic baritones,19th-century English singers,19th-century English musicians

paragraph: Wallace Brownlow

paragraph: Wallace Brownlow (1861 – September 1919) was an opera singer and actor of the Victorian era best known for baritone roles in the operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, first with the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company in the UK and on tour, and later with J. C. Williamson in Australia. He also appeared in other stage roles in London, New York, and elsewhere, and made some silent films in America.

paragraph: Section::::D'Oyly Carte Opera Company.

paragraph: Brownlow joined a D'Oyly Carte Opera Company touring company in 1884 and was assigned to the chorus. He travelled to the United States in 1885 in the chorus of "The Mikado" with D'Oyly Carte's first American "Mikado" company in New York City and Boston. He next toured Germany and Austria with D'Oyly Carte in 1886. During this tour, Brownlow appeared as the Foreman of the Jury in "Trial by Jury", his first principal role. He first appeared at the Savoy Theatre in London in the chorus in the original 1887 production of "Ruddygore". As the understudy to Richard Temple, Brownlow played the character of Sir Roderick Murgatroyd in August 1887.

paragraph: Brownlow continued in the chorus at the Savoy Theatre during the first London revivals of "H.M.S. Pinafore", "The Pirates of Penzance", and "The Mikado". A one-act comic opera, "Mrs. Jarramie's Genie", written by Frank Desprez and composed by Alfred Cellier and his brother Francois was the curtain raiser for these revivals, and Brownlow appeared as the retired upholsterer, Harrington Jarramie.

paragraph: Brownlow created the role of Sir Richard Cholmondeley, the Lieutenant of the Tower of London in the next Savoy opera, "The Yeomen of the Guard", in 1888 at the Savoy Theatre. Coincidentally, his father had been Drill Master of the Yeomen of the Queen's Body Guard. He next created the role of Luiz in "The Gondoliers", which he played from the opera's premiere in December 1889 until April 1891. Brownlow left the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company to play Prince John in Arthur Sullivan's grand opera "Ivanhoe" and as the Duc de Longueville in "La Basoche" at the Royal English Opera House. He next played in a number of comic operas in London through 1893, including the role of William in "Blue-Eyed Susan", composed by F. Osmond Carr, at the Prince of Wales's Theatre in 1892.

paragraph: Section::::Australia, US, and later years.

paragraph: Brownlow then travelled to Australia to work for J. C. Williamson, appearing in the 1894 production of "Ma mie Rosette", with Nellie Stewart and in an 1895 revival of "H.M.S. Pinafore" in Sydney. In 1900, he appeared in both Sydney and Melbourne in "H.M.S. Pinafore", "The Pirates of Penzance", "Iolanthe", and "The Gondoliers" as Giuseppe. In 1900 he also played The Sultan in Arthur Sullivan's "The Rose of Persia" and played Abercoed in "Florodora". He also played the title role in "The Mikado" and appeared in "A Trip to Chinatown". In 1902, Brownlow was injured by falling through a door and recovered substantial damages.

paragraph: Brownlow's alcoholism contributed to his failure in a venture managing a hotel in Western Australia. Stewart wrote in her memoirs of Brownlow's great success with Australian audiences, the "ease and grace and dash" that he brought to his roles, his huge popularity with the women who pursued him, and of his weakness for alcohol that led to his unhappy end. While living in Australia, Brownlow wrote the lyrics for several songs, including those to the ballad "Without Thy Love", the music to which was written by fellow D'Oyly Carte artiste Charles Kenningham.

paragraph: Brownlow then went to the United States, where he appeared in several Broadway productions of comic operas, including "Love's Lottery" in 1904, appearing as Sergeant Bob Trivet, "Girofle-Girsofla" from January to February 1905, and in "Boccaccio" in March 1905. Later, theatrical manager Hugh McIntosh found Brownlow in California, where he had gone to act in silent films, including the 1913 movie "The Hoyden's Awakening", now living in dereliction, and brought him back to Australia under contract, but he soon "lapsed into his old habit".

paragraph: Brownlow committed suicide in the Carlton Gardens, Melbourne, Australia in September 1919.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- on the Internet Movie Database

paragraph: BULLET::::- Brownlow at the "Memories of the D'Oyly Carte" website, with a link to photos

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1909 photo of Brownlow

description: British opera singer and actor

wikidata_label: Wallace Brownlow

wikipedia_title: Wallace Brownlow


text:
Ethiopian
Cardinal
Archbishop of Addis Abeba
Ethiopian Catholic Church
Ethiopia
Asmara
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore
Milan
priest
Addis Ababa University
auxiliary bishop
Cardinal-Priest
Santissimo Nome di Maria in Via Latina
consistory
Pope John Paul II
Adis Abeba
Fetha Nagast

categories: Ethiopian Roman Catholics,Ethiopian Catholic Archbishops of Addis Abeba,2003 deaths,Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II,1921 births,20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops

paragraph: Paulos Tzadua

paragraph: Paulos Tzadua (25 August 1921–11 December 2003) was the first Ethiopian Cardinal. He served as Archbishop of Addis Abeba and was the head of the Ethiopian Catholic Church from 1977 to 1998.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Paulos Tzadua was born on 25 August 1921 in Addifini, Ethiopia. He studied in the Italian High School of Asmara and later he earned a degree in law at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore of Milan. Paulos Tzadua was ordained priest on 12 March 1944 and served for five years in missions in Ethiopia. He continued his studies in Asmara and later in Milan and in 1960 he became the secretary to the archbishop of Addis Abeba. From 1961 to 1973 he taught at the Addis Ababa University.

paragraph: On 1 March 1973 he was chosen as auxiliary bishop of Addis Abeba and was consecrated bishop on 20 May 1973 by Archbishop Asrate Mariam Yemmeru. On 24 February 1977 he succeeded to Archbishop Asrate Yemmeru as Ethiopian Catholic Archbishop of Addis Abeba. He was created Cardinal-Priest of Santissimo Nome di Maria in Via Latina in the consistory of 25 May 1985, being the first Ethiopian Cardinal.

paragraph: At 77, Paulos Tzadua retired as head of the Archdiocese of Addis Abeba on 11 September 1998. He died in Rome on 11 December 2003, and his funeral were officiated by Pope John Paul II. He was buried in Adis Abeba.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: As scholar Paulos Tzadua is known for his translation in English (1968) and edition of the Fetha Nagast and for his studies on the Ethiopic Liturgy.

description: Cardinal; Ethiopian Catholic Archbishop of Addis Abeba

wikidata_label: Paulos Tzadua

wikipedia_title: Paulos Tzadua


text: German

text: Weimar years

text: after 1945

text: Hanover

text: war

text: rivet-warmer and rivet-presser

text: carbon monoxide

text: Metal Workers' Union

text: non-smoker

text: vegetarian

text: Hanomag

text: Weimar period

text: Wall Street Crash

text: Germany

text: self-education

text: SPD

text: Reichstag ("national parliament")

text: July 1932 election

text: Communists

text: war tanks

text: Braunschweig

text: Hanover

text: SAPD

text: SPD

text: Communists (KPD)

text: right-wing populists

text: SPD

text: SPD

text: Germany's first republic

text: Nazi nightmare

text: Peretz Naftali

text: Rudolf Hilferding

text: 1929 market crash

text: economic depression

text: the Reichstag

text: National Socialist

text: take-over

text: Regime change

text: rapid transition

text: one-

text: party

text: dictatorship

text: SAPD

text: resistance to tyranny

text: communist

text: Eduard Wald

text: National Socialist take-over

text: immediate aftermath

text: Reichstag fire

text: end of the 1939-45 war

text: Hanover

text: return of

text: war

text: Frankfurt

text: Frankfurter Zeitung

text: war

text: Hanover

text: destructive

text: British

text: American

text: bombing

text: German disaster between 1933 and 1945

text: Hanover

text: war

text: capitalist

text: Social Democrats

text: Kurt Schumacher

text: Hanover

text: Neuengamme concentration camp

text: the state of Lower Saxony

text: Hanover

text: economic democracy

text: co-decision

text: co-determination

text: economic democracy

text: co-determination

text: social philosophical vision

text: capitalism

text: West Germans

text: IG Metall

text: DGB

text: ISK

text: Werner Hansen

text: communists

text: Eduard Wald

text: Konrad Adenauer

text: CDU

text: FDP

text: SPD

text: German Federal Republic (West Germany)

text: IG Metall

text: SPD

text: capitalism

text: DGB

text: DGB

text: IG Metall

text: IG Metall

text: internal border

text: Communist Party of Germany

text: Soviet

text: imperialist aspirations

text: rebranded sister party

text: iron Curtain

text: before 1933

text: IG Metall

text: KPD

text: SED

text: DGB

text: Social Democratic Party

text: CDU

text: (Bavarian) CSU

text: DGB

text: IG Metall

text: Federal Republic

text: Spiegel affair

text: "Extra parliamentary opposition"

text: Allied Control Council

text: peaceful reunification

text: iron curtain

text: Paris conventions ratified in 1955

text: IG Metall

text: Hungary

text: Poland

text: Suez Crisis

text: sealing off

text: Berlin Wall

text: Cuban Missile Crisis

text: cold war

text: nuclear war

text: CDU/CSU

text: Adenauer

text: Erhard

text: Kiesinger

text: SPD

text: Godesberg Program

text: Godesberg Program

text: Trades Union Confederation (DGB)

text: Georg Leber

text: SPD

text: union

text: Leber's

text: Godesberg

text: SPD

text: Social Democracy

text: SPD

text: City councillor (""Ratsherr"")

text: Hannover

text: Landtag of Lower Saxony

text: party and a government

text: "Basic Law" (provisional constitution)

text: allied occupying powers

text: Paris agreements

text: Hitler years

text: National Socialist

text: "emergency legislation"

text: East Germany

text: Article 48

text: general strike

text: young republic

text: Kapp Putsch

text: Fascism

text: German Federal Republic (West Germany)

text: National Socialist

text: Adenauer

text: DGB

text: SPD

text: coalition negotiations

text: SPD

text: CDU

text: Bundestag

text: IG Metall

text: Cardiovascular disease

text: Der Spiegel

wikipedia_title: Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany

categories: German resistance members,People from Hanover,Members of the Landtag of Lower Saxony,People condemned by Nazi courts,Socialist Workers' Party of Germany politicians,1907 births,1972 deaths,German trade unionists

paragraph: Otto Brenner

paragraph: Otto Brenner (8 November 1907 - 15 April 1972) was a German trades unionist and politician. Between 1956 and 1972 he was the leader of the powerful IG Metall "(Industrial Union of Metalworkers)".

paragraph: In a tribute published in 1967 to celebrate Brenner's sixtieth birthday the politician-commentator wrote that "Otto Brenner ... embodies more than any other German trades union leader that generation - a link between the older generation of the Weimar years [before 1933] and the younger generation that grew to maturity after 1945 - which rescued the best traditions of the German labour movement to the present day, bridging the intervening abyss of the Fascist rule".

paragraph: The for the promotion of scientific research and knowledge is named after him, as is the annually awarded .

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Provenance and early years.

paragraph: Otto Brenner was born and grew up in Hanover, the third of his parents' four children. His mother was a "washerwoman". With the outbreak of war his father was conscripted for military service and life became harder: Otto was just seven. Hanover was (and remains) home to several large engineering/manufacturing businesses: Brenner eventually trained successfully for work as an industrial electrician. However, the family was not wealthy, and the immediate postwar period was one of acute economic hardship. When he first left school the family could not afford for him to embark on any sort of period of training. Instead he went to work first as a grocery store assistant and then for a small business that manufactured boilers. Here he was engaged in physically heavy work as a rivet-warmer and rivet-presser. He worked next to an extremely hot industrial furnace which produced high levels of carbon monoxide. By the time he reached the age of fifteen he had contracted a severe lung disease which would leave him vulnerable to lung disorders for the rest of his life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Politics and trades unionism.

paragraph: He joined the in 1920 and the Metal Workers' Union in 1922. Driven by a conviction that alcohol and tobacco were contributing to the catastrophic material condition and what he perceived as the political lethargy of working people, he campaigned energetically against their misuse, and in 1926 founded a local branch of the , taking on the chairmanship himself. He would remain a life-long non-smoker and vegetarian. He consumed alcohol only very sparingly. Meanwhile, it was at the social events organised by the that he met Martha Werner who would subsequently become his wife.

paragraph: It was in 1925, after a period of illness, that he took unskilled work in the electrical components section of the local Hanomag railway locomotive and road vehicle plant. Taking advantage of adult education opportunities and evening training sessions, he was soon able to qualify as a skilled assembly worker. As a young man he became a sports and fitness enthusiast. He also demonstrated a commitment to political education, leading the Marxist study circle of the Hanover and developing his own (not always uncritical) philosophy of socialism. At around the same time that he launched the local DAAB branch, by now aged 21, he also joined the Social Democratic Party (""Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands"" / SPD).

paragraph: Between 1 November and 3 December 1928 he participated in the so-called which involved, according to at least one source, the largest industrial lock-out in the industrial north-west of Germany during the entire Weimar period. In the end the strikers succeeded in pushing through significant wage increases. Brenner drew valuable lessons about both the responsibilities and the sheer power of trades unions from the experience. However, the Wall Street Crash ten months later ushered in a period of sustained economic downturn across Europe. Unemployment in Germany rose to six million: those affected suffered real hardship. In 1931 Otto Brenner became one of them. Brenner had long held a strong belief in the power of self-education, however, and over the several years of unemployment that ensued he was able to devote more time to reading political books.

paragraph: As later as 1932 the SPD held the largest number of seats in the Reichstag ("national parliament"), and even at the July 1932 election they still comfortably out-polled the Communists. Nevertheless, the rise of the extremists and of other right wing parties meant the SPD were no longer part of the government coalition after 1930. It was therefore from a position of relative political weakness that in 1931 the party supported the building of a new generation of war tanks. Citing a "credibility deficit", Brenner resigned angrily from the party. According to some reports he was expelled from it. Either way, he now joined the breakaway Socialist Workers' Party ("" Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands"" / SAPD). By the start of 1932 the local SAPD for Braunschweig-Hanover had a membership of around 200, and they elected Brenner their branch chairman. The defining purpose of the SAPD was to promote a coming together between the SPD and the Communists (KPD) in order to protect the country from a take-over by right-wing populists. Brenner decried what he saw as the "capitulation policy" (""Kapitulationspolitik"") of the SPD leadership and their trades union allies. Later he would make it clear that he believed that the SPD must accept a share of the responsibility for the collapse of Germany's first republic. He called for a "united proletarian front" of the KPD, SPD and SAPD. His urgent arguments, and those of fellow SAPD activists, failed to find significant resonance within the SPD and the KPD, however.

paragraph: In the light of developments in the German Federal Republic (West Germany) after the Nazi nightmare ended in 1945, it is nevertheless important to emphasize that through the 1930s Brenner never stopped supporting the economic positions of the SPD, especially with regard to economic democracy (""Wirtschaftsdemokratie"") as propounded by two particularly influential economists, Peretz Naftali and Rudolf Hilferding. For them, and for Otto Brenner, economic democracy offered the route towards a socialist democratic structure by means of a gradual and peaceful transition. The 1929 market crash and the economic depression that followed, along with the subsequent paralysis of the Reichstag that was ended only by the National Socialist take-over in January 1933, all combined to strengthen Brenner's conviction that, in the context of the relationship between economics and the world of politics, the underlying principal for trades unions must always be that democracy is a prerequisite for trades union activities, and economic actions must be subject to democratic control.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:National Socialism and war.

paragraph: Regime change was followed by a rapid transition to one-party dictatorship during the first part of 1933. The SAPD, like most other political parties, became illegal. Otto Brenner nevertheless believed in the need to use the party as an instrument of resistance to tyranny, and despite the ban continued to work on party recruitment and organisation. There are references to his having led and/or been part of the "SAPD Resistance Group" in Hanover with his brother and sister-in-law Kurt and Käte Brenner. He visited a number of cities in order to create and build contacts with local SAPD parties across the country.

paragraph: During the summer of 1933 he was also involved with the , a resistance group built up since 1930 by the Hanover communist Eduard Wald, apparently in anticipation of the National Socialist take-over. The extent and nature of Brenner's involvement in the group is hard to determine, however, and it probably lasted for no more than a few months.

paragraph: An important personal development was Brenner's marriage to his long-time friend Martha Werner on 3 August 1933.

paragraph: In the immediate aftermath of the Reichstag fire the authorities concentrated their harassment/persecution on political activists identified as communists. Many were arrested and others fled abroad. On 30 August 1930, however, after he returned from one of his trips, Otto Brenner was arrested and taken into investigatory custody. During the eighteen months of uncertainty that followed he was permitted to remain in touch with his wife by letter. The charge, when it came on 9 May 1935, was the usual one under these circumstances: "Preparing to commit high treason" (""Vorbereitung zum Hochverrat""). The verdict was largely a foregone conclusion, but the sentence, delivered by the on 25 June 1935, was relatively mild. He was sentenced to a two-year jail term. This had largely been spent in pre-trial detention, and a few months later he was able to return to his wife in . He remained under police surveillance till the end of the 1939-45 war, however.

paragraph: Following release he was permitted to work as an electrician in and around Hanover, though during the next ten years the risk of re-arrest never went away. He was deemed "wehrunwürdig" (""unfit for military service"") and therefore, despite the return of war in September 1939, he avoided conscription. He was, however, sent to work in Frankfurt on civil engineering projects and as a courier for the Frankfurter Zeitung.

paragraph: A couple of years after the war started, on 1 October 1941, Heike Brenner, the Brenners' only child, was born.

paragraph: During the final part of the war Brenner was back in Hanover, able to experience the destructive British and American bombing which peaked in the Autumn/Fall of 1943; but the bombs continued to drop till April 1945. Having lived through the German disaster between 1933 and 1945, Otto Brenner drew one conclusion in particular to which he would remain true for the rest of his life: "Another 1933 must never be allowed to happen."

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Aftermath of war.

paragraph: Hanover was liberated by the US 84th Infantry Division on 10 April 1945. Otto Brenner and his family had survived. Filled with the hope that it might at last be possible to build a new life Brenner committed himself unreservedly to rebuilding the city. True to his longstanding conviction that the war represented a crisis-management response to issues involving capitalist means of production, he concluded that under a capitalist system there could never be true peace. This meant that the post-war order must deliver a non-exploitative, non-capitalist socialist society. After various exploratory political contacts, he decided to rejoin the Social Democrats. Although the important decision would have been his alone, one factor in it will have been discussion with Kurt Schumacher who had settled in Hanover following his liberation from the Neuengamme concentration camp. Schumacher also persuaded Brenner to become active in local and "national" politics in (and possibly beyond) what was administered between 1945 and 1949 as the .

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Rebuilding trades unionism.

paragraph: Early on Brenner decided to devote himself to recreating the trades unions, which had been destroyed under the Hitler government. In May 1945 he was a co-founder of the General Trades Union in the territory which by the end of 1946 had been relaunched as the state of Lower Saxony (""Allgemeinen Gewerkschaft Niedersachsen""). In 1947 he became chairman of the union's Metals Division (""Wirtschaftsgruppe Metall""), and thereby a paid trades union official. The structure of the General Trades Union reflected a compromise for the creation of a single unified trades union, free from political and religious, but also free of professional/vocational distinctions. Brenner however, like most trades unionists, advocated a structure involving individual industry-sector based trades unions organised under the aegis of a single trades union confederation: that is the structure that was subsequently adopted and which operates to this day.

paragraph: The first industrial strike in postwar Germany took place in December 1946 at the Hanover plant of . It lasted 23 days. Brenner was the most prominent of the strike leaders, and his name appeared in news reports far beyond the Hanover city limits. The dispute, taking place when Germany was still under the "dictatorship of military occupation", was in support of "the socialisation of production and economic democracy". Brenner demanded "full co-decision rights for factory and office employees in the enterprise and in the economy". After a hard-fought struggle Brenner succeeded in concluding a benchmark agreement, which gave the works council a comprehensive package of co-determination rights covering recruitment, remuneration, production planning and working methods. In most cases other businesses in the area, when threatened with strike action, chose to head off the threat by adopting equivalent agreements in respect of their own factories. His reputation buoyed by these successes, in 1947 Brenner became district head of what would become IG Metall Hanover.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Trades unions as an engine for social reform.

paragraph: For Otto Brenner political and social democracy were indivisible. Therefore, his principal twin-track objective for the postwar order was for economic democracy and co-determination. Even if the top priority for a negotiation was wage rates, his approach to trades union strategy was always a far wider one, grounded in a social philosophical vision. For him the unions had a comprehensive political, social and cultural mandate to fulfill: that involved achieving social change through democratic methods. That meant that for Brenner, capitalism, which after 1949 West Germans experienced as the "social market economy" (""soziale Marktwirtschaft""), also incorporated private ownnership of the means of production, giving rise to an unequal balance of power and control/ownership in the political sphere. From this clearly followed, for him, that the cream of sustained German postwar prosperity would fade relatively quickly. He therefore hoped for an overcoming of capitalism or, failing that, a far reaching taming of it. He summarized his underlying conviction in the following way: "The economy is not there simply to serve its own ends. It has to serve human needs and society's objectives". This also corresponded with the "Economic Policy Ground-rules" - generally referred to subsequently as the "Munich Ground-rules Programme" (""Münchener Grundsatzprogramm"") - adopted by the German Trades Union Confederation (""Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund"" / DGB) at its (re)founding congress in Munich in October 1949. A particular case in point is the programme's demand for "the transfer of key industries to common ownership, especially the mining, iron and steel industries, as well as the major chemicals firms, the energy sector, major transport providers and credit institutes".

paragraph: During the early 1950s Otto Brenner was a member of the "Circle of Ten" (""Zehnerkreis""). This was an informal group of leading decision makers from IG Metall and the DGB. The fact that their regular meetings were "secret" seems, over time, to have intensified interest in the "Circle" among commentators and journalists. Other members included Brenner's former ISK friends and Werner Hansen. There were also three former communists: Eduard Wald, and . Behind the scenes the "Circle of Ten" exercised a powerful influence over key personnel selections and strategic decisions taken by the trades union movement. During the later 1950s the circle disintegrated as the members' socio-political ambitions diverged.

paragraph: The West German election result of 1949 saw Konrad Adenauer's CDU-FDP coalition narrowly winning power, which was both a disappointment for SPD supporters (such as Otto Brenner) and a surprise for commentators and others from across the political spectrum. For Brenner and the trades union movement more widely the result represented a temporary deferral but not an abolition for their shared objective of a rapid and fundamental transformation of social relationships in the newly launched German Federal Republic (West Germany). Between 1952 and 1956 Otto Brenner served as vice-chairman of IG Metall, with as senior chairman. A second general election defeat for the SPD in 1953 was deeply disappointing. There would be no rapid end to "capitalism". Brenner refused to see that as a reason to compromise on the basic tenets of the "Munich Programme" agreed within the DGB in 1949. Indeed, he saw it as all the more reason to intensify pressure to address the most extreme social inequalities, even if in the short term the best - or only - route available to the unions in pursuit of that objective might be ratcheting up pressure in respect of wages negotiations. Eloquent testimony to this was commitment was the commitment he showed to the developing and implementing the DGB action plan which he himself co-initiated in May 1954. By means of significant wage and salary increases, the introduction of holiday pay and the gradual move to a 40-hour working week. IG Metall under his influence - and subsequently under his leadership - made a crucial contribution to improving the quality of life for both workers and employers, in a country where rapid economic recovery and growth were by this time opening the way to increased levels of general prosperity. Because of the extent to which Brenner set the course for IG Metall as vice-chairman, there was no major change of direction when he assumed sole leadership of the union in 1956. Brenner was feared as a tough negotiator, but capable of compromise, his demands were not simply for parity between negotiating partners, but also that employers and employees should receive a fair share of the wealth they jointly generated. The reduction in the working week was also, in part, an excursion into emancipatory social policy, giving as it did more free time both to workers and to employers. By 1965, step by step, the point had been reached where the union and the metals industry employers signed off on the core 40-hour week, running from Monday to Friday. But there was, again, a consciously social element in all this, which is expressed in the slogan "Dad belongs to me on Saturdays" (""Samstag gehört Vati mir!""). There was also an understanding that reducing the standard working week could be a way to secure more jobs, thereby doing something to counteract the steady march of "workplace rationalisation".

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Politics.

paragraph: Alongside the business of wage negotiations and promoting a social-political strategy, there was necessarily always a more directly party-political dimension to trades union leadership during Otto Brenner's time at the top. From beyond the no longer so porous internal border, reports seeping through from friends and relatives of the short-lived and brutally suppressed 1953 East German uprising did nothing to refute the growing belief that the postwar Communist Party of Germany should best be understood as a proxy for Soviet imperialist aspirations. Nevertheless, the Communist party's rebranded sister party east of the "iron Curtain" had become the ruling party in a new kind of one-party dictatorship. Despite the fact that in West Germany the Communist Party never came close to receiving the levels of electoral support it had enjoyed before 1933, the power underlying Soviet-backed communism was a reality in West Germany from 1945 till long after Brenner left the stage. In the inter-union conflicts that were a feature of the West German industrial scene during the 1950s he was uncompromising in his hostility to communist activism, which he saw as a serious threat to trades union solidarity. Within IG Metall Brenner rigorously excluded from positions of power any trades unionists who refused to distance themselves from the goals of the KPD and SED. Just as resolutely - if a little less brutally - he rejected aspirations to positions of power of any "Christian-Socialist" unionists who, even while they complained that the DGB's close links to the Social Democratic Party undermined party-political neutraility, were themselves closely associated with the centre-right CDU and (Bavarian) CSU whose influence within the DGB they were happy (if without much success) to try and promote.

paragraph: Under Brenner's leadership IG Metall saw itself explicitly as a "political trades union", with not just the right, but the duty to "take a position on political questions that affect the welfare of millions of working people", and not to restrict itself to the narrow fields of wages and social policy. Brenner claimed this duty of intervene most especially if he saw that the democratic principles of the Federal Republic were threatened, because he recognised that preserving the rule of law in as democratic state governed by laws was the indispensable precondition for the successful operation of trades unions. His own experiences led him to doubt the democratic substance of postwar West German democracy. The Spiegel affair in 1962 confirmed him in his assessment that "the democratic order, and above all those called upon to serve as its guardians, are still not immune from the temptations of authoritarian undemocratic operations". A few years later he unhesitatingly lined up the union alongside the "Extra parliamentary opposition" during the run-up to the contentious "Emergency Acts" constitutional amendments eventually imposed on the country in 1968 by the Allied Control Council. His distrust of a resurgent authoritarian militarism caused him to reject West German re-armament and, in particular to oppose nuclear rearmament or the stationing of nuclear forces in German soil. His opposition to the arms build-up was reinforced by his conviction that militarisation on the ground made it even harder to envisage any future peaceful reunification of the two Germanies on either side of the iron curtain. That was also why he opposed the Paris conventions ratified in 1955, which he saw as a move to integrate West Germany into the west. He contended that if the two German states were integrated into competing international power blocs, a rapid peaceful reunification would become unthinkable.

paragraph: The real problem for Brenner and IG Metall was that during the postwar decades there was, in West Germany, no appetite for the politics of the left. At home the economic and socio-political fruits of the so-called Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle") years did little to engender political protest. Internationally the use of Soviet military muscle in 1956 to crush reform movements in Hungary and Poland, the Suez Crisis of the same year, the sealing off of the internal German border during the 1950s, culminating in with the erection of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 and the overall intensification of cold war tensions which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war combined to determine that during the 1950s and most of the 1960s insufficient West Germany voters were willing to vote against the centre-right CDU/CSU coalition under the reassuring leaderships of Adenauer, Erhard and Kiesinger.

paragraph: A succession of disappointing results in national elections persuaded the SPD to take a fundamentally new direction in the later 1950s, transforming itself from a "socialist workers' party" to a "people's party". The new strategy was embodied in the Godesberg Program, ratified at a party convention on 15 November 1959. Overtly Marxist terms such as "class struggle", "socialisation of key industrial sectors" and "planned economy" were consigned to history. There was to be no more talk of a new socialist order. In its place, the party committed to further developments, improvements and refinements of existing economic and social structures. This "course correction" to the party programme went decisively beyond what might have been acceptable to Otto Brenner, who argued consistently for the retention of the earlier party objectives, the most pressing of which was, for him and his union comrades, "socialisation of key industrial sectors". He campaigned with characteristic energy against the changes, both in the discussions that took place between 1954 and 1958 with the "programme commission" drawing up what became the Godesberg Program and, especially, in parallel discussions for a new Godesberg-compatible Trades Union Confederation (DGB) programme. Within the DGB this set him at odds with the so-called modernisers, such as Georg Leber, the long-standing leader of the , who was advocating a departure from the "Munich programme" of 1949 and a new conception of trades unionism based on social partnership. For Brenner that was totally unacceptable. Specifically, if the need to obtain political power with a democratic parliamentary majority meant converting the SPD from a "class-party" to a "people's party", the result would be to blur the inherent conflict of interests between labour and capital, and involve transforming the two sides in a wages negotiation into "social partners". Brenner rejected such a model, as did his colleagues on the union executive. With equal vigour they rejected Leber's attempts to redefine the role of trades unions in the state and in society. Brenner also rejected repeated demands that trades unions must take a share in responsibility for the wider economy. He was challenged with the metaphor that the unions were in the same boat as other members of society. The destiny of the nation was a shared destiny for good and ill. Brenner would reply that everyone was indeed in the same boat and all could look forward to a shared destiny. But that was no reason to feign indifference as to the identity of the pilot, the composition of the ship's crew and the small matter of how decisions were made as to the direction of travel. It must be acknowledged that despite the vehemence with which he opposed the Godesberg changes and the differences of opinion involved, Brenner refused to infer any conflict of interest between the SPD and the trades unions. Between Social Democracy and the free trades union movement in West Germany there existed an "organic solidarity" firmly entrenched in shared underlying interests.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Politics.:City council and regional parliament.

paragraph: Between 1946 and 1953 Brenner served as an SPD City councillor (""Ratsherr"") in Hannover. Between 6 May 1951 and his exclusion from it 15 February 1954 he was of the Landtag of Lower Saxony, representing the . During that period he served, between 14 June 1951 and 9 February 1953 as chairman of the assembly's Social Affairs committee.

paragraph: Section::::Fundamental beliefs.

paragraph: Brenner never compromised his conviction that the "strike weapon" was inalienable as a means to enforce workers' rights in any bourgeois democracy. The absence of any "right to strike" was one of his core criticisms of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany): a party and a government that denied workers the fundamental right to strike had no right to hold itself out as representing the interests of the workers, nor any right to solicit favours from the trades union movement in West Germany or to impart "good advices" (""gute Ratschläge"") to them.

paragraph: For almost ten years Brenner was among those opposing the "Emergency Acts" constitutional amendments (which eventually came into force, as the 17th amendment, in 1968). In his judgement, consciously or unconsciously, they were a means whereby the political class put West Germany's young democracy on the line. It mattered. When they passed the so-called "Basic Law" (provisional constitution) in 1949, the legislators had left out any comprehensive regulation in respect of a potential emergency situation concerning the reservation of rights to the allied occupying powers. In the event of a domestic emergency (such as a natural catastrophe) or an international emergency (such as a war) there were simply a set of "laws in the cupboard" (""Schubladengesetze"") which, if implemented, would impose severe constraints on citizens' rights. It was only on 5 May 1955 that West Germany was declared to enjoy "the full authority of a sovereign state", following the Paris agreements the previous year: this opened up the possibility for "completion" of the constitutional settlement, and the point was one which West Germany's allies had been insistent. A succession of West German governments set to work to make good the earlier omission, but every draft proposal for incorporating provision of "emergency acts" in the constitution involved drastic curtailments of fundamental human rights. Brenner was able to bring a keen historical perspective to the matter, having himself lived through the curtailment of basic rights during the Hitler years. The National Socialist government had invoked "emergency" conditions to introduce "emergency legislation" which had put an end to democracy for twelve years, and it was hard to find anyone who would assert that the government of that time had used its enhanced powers to benefit the people. The "emergency acts" constitutional amendments threatened to the constitutional legality of trades unions. Taking the matter back to first principles, Brenner was convinced that the constitutional rules imposed in 1919 and again in 1949 had left the way open for a "legally sanctioned" reversal of history, taking the country back to a pre-democratic condition (which, many believed, was already happening in East Germany). West Germany remained a "capitalist class-based society": the role of the trades unions in defending the positions of working people was an important one. Just as he compared the proposed "emergency acts" with the infamous Article 48 of the Weimar constitution, he recalled the greatest general strike in German history, which the unions had organised in 1920 (as requested by "some" government ministers) to defend the young republic against the Kapp Putsch.

paragraph: Otto Brenner always believed that there was a residual latent danger of Fascism in the German Federal Republic (West Germany), not because he feared a National Socialist revival in the state formed under Adenauer during the 1950s. The risk he saw was rather the progressive distortion of the democracy through a combination of mistakes by politicians, economic crises and socio-psychological insecurities. Within the DGB and the SPD only a minority of the memberships shared Brenner's views over this. Eventually, during the course of coalition negotiations in 1966, the SPD and the CDU agreed to a version of the "Emergency Acts" constitutional amendments which passed into law in 1968. Brenner respected the Bundestag decision, much to the disappointment of various younger union colleagues who had hoped that he would call a general strike over the issue. Brenner was adamant that as a democrat he had to respect a parliamentary majority decision even when he believed it to wrong. At the 9th IG Metall congress in 1968 he spelled out his position: "Calling a general strike against a decision by parliament, as some trades unionists had demanded, was quite impossible. It would have meant opposing the existing constitutional order, and in any case, there was no way that a call for a general strike would have been obeyed by a majority of the people". Expecting that Otto Brenner might call a general strike against a government in which his own party was a coalition partner would have involved expecting a long-standing champion of social-democracy to become a revolutionary. Brenner was no revolutionary and never wished to become one.

paragraph: Otto Brenner died of Cardiovascular disease in April 1972, aged just 64. Werner Thönnessen, his former presschief, contributed an obituary to Der Spiegel: "achieving Civil democracy 'by democratising the economy became Brenner's greatest objective. He found his failure to achieve it a painful thing. Acutely aware of the inherent contradiction in which trades unions become enmeshed if they try to enforce improvements to the economic order from the bottom up, which nevertheless become necessary both to improve the condition of the workers and to extend the life expectancy of capitalism".

paragraph: Section::::Celebration (selection).

paragraph: BULLET::::- The "Otto Brenner Bridge" (""Otto-Brenner-Brücke"") which forms part of the was named in his honour.

paragraph: BULLET::::- The "Joseph Street" (""Josephstraße"") was renamed Otto Brenner Street (""Otto-Brenner-Straße"") in 1972

paragraph: BULLET::::- The has been awarded in his memory since 2005.

description: German trade unionist and politician

wikidata_label: Otto Brenner

wikipedia_title: Otto Brenner


text: Catholic Church

text: Province of Naples

text: Archdiocese of Naples

text: Carmelites

text: San Martino ai Monti

text: Rome

text: Santa Maria del Carmine (Naples)

text: Pontifical Lateran University

text: Doctor of both laws

text: Roman Rota

text: presbyter

text: Archdiocese of Naples

text: Judicial vicar

text: auxiliary bishop

text: Archdiocese of Naples

text: titular bishop

text: Nebbi

text: Algeria

text: Pope John Paul II

text: Michele Giordano

text: Archdiocese of Naples

text: Crescenzio Sepe

text: Vicar General

text: Pope Benedict XVI

text: vicegerent

text: Diocese of Rome

text: archbishop

categories: 1957 births,Living people,Italian Roman Catholic archbishops

paragraph: Filippo Iannone

paragraph: Filippo Iannone (born 13 December 1957) is a prelate of the Catholic Church who has been President of the President of the Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts since April 2018. He has been a bishop since 2001.

paragraph: Section::::Education and early career.

paragraph: Iannone was born both within the secular Province of Naples and the religious Archdiocese of Naples. On 1 August 1976, for his liturgical study, he entered the Carmelites. He was initiated into the San Martino ai Monti in Rome and became a student at the Santa Maria del Carmine (Naples). He later studied at the San Luigi Papal Theological Seminary of Southern Italy, towards his baccalaureate in theology, and at the Pontifical Lateran University, where he gained a Doctor of both laws. After a course of study at the Roman Rota, he gained the title of .

paragraph: He took his vows on 1 October 1977 and solemnised them on 15 October 1980. On 26 June 1982 he passed his exams to be ordinated as presbyter to Bishop Antonio Ambrosanio (later archbishop).

paragraph: After his ordination, he worked for the regional Treasury Commissioner () from 1985 to 1988; and nationally from 1988 to 1991; from 1988 to 1994 he was President of the Commission for the Revision of the Constitution. Under the Archdiocese of Naples he held the position of Defender of the Faith in the Regional Court, from 1987 to 1990; and Judicial vicar at the Naples Diocese Trubinal from 1990 to 1994; episcopal vicar for the IVth parish from 1994 to 1996, and from 1996 to 2001.

paragraph: Section::::Episcopal ministry.

paragraph: On 12 April 2001, Iannone was appointed auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Naples and titular bishop of Nebbi in Algeria by Pope John Paul II. He received his episcopal ordination on 26 May 2001 from Cardinal Michele Giordano. At the time of his appointment, he was the youngest Italian bishop. As part of the reorganisation of the Archdiocese of Naples undertaken by Cardinal Crescenzio Sepe, he was nominated as Vicar General, co-ordinating with the clergy and ) (lit. "Court moderators") in matters of Church administration.

paragraph: On 19 June 2009 Pope Benedict XVI named him Bishop of the Diocese of Sora-Cassino-Aquino-Pontecorvo. He succeeded to the post the next September.

paragraph: On 31 January 2012 Benedict named him vicegerent of the Diocese of Rome, elevating him to the rank of archbishop.

paragraph: As of December 2015, he is a member of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, a consultant to the Congregation for Institutes of Consecrated Life and Societies of Apostolic Life, a member of the Council for Legal Affairs of the Italian Episcopal Conference, and president of the Education and Culture Committee of the Lazio episcopal region.

paragraph: From November 2017 to April 2018 he served as adjunct secretary of Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts. On 7 April 2018 Pope Francis named Iannone President of that body.

description: Catholic archbishop from Italy

wikidata_label: Filippo Iannone

wikipedia_title: Filippo Iannone


text:
Armenia
Namus
Zare
Khaspush
Zangezur
Khaspush
Evil Spirit
David Bek
Anahit

categories: 20th-century Armenian male actors,Armenian male silent film actors,1897 births,People from Yerevan,Armenian screenwriters,Armenian male film actors,1971 deaths,Male actors from Yerevan

image: 512px-Ամասի_Մարտիրոսյան_(ռեժիսոր).jpg

paragraph: Amasi Martirosyan

paragraph: Amasi Martirosyan () was an Armenian film director, screenwriter and actor.

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.:As actor.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Namus" (1925) as Smbat

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Zare" (1927) as Zurba

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Khaspush" (1928) as Mulla

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Zangezur" (1938) as Dashnak officer

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.:As assistant director.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Khaspush" (1928)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Evil Spirit" (1928)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "David Bek" (1944)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Anahit" (1947)

description: Russian actor, film director and screenwriter (1897-1971)

wikidata_label: Amasi Martirosyan

wikipedia_title: Amasi Martirosyan


text:
Bayreuth
Munich
Munich School
University of Technology
Academy of Fine Arts Munich
Karl von Piloty
draftsmanship
Fliegende Blätter
Schiller's
Wilhelm von Kaulbach
Franz Marc
Fritz Osswald
Max Slevogt
Wilhelm Trübner
Ludwig von Löfftz
Heinrich Lefler
Carl Max Schultheiss
Fritz Mackensen
National Gallery (Berlin)
Wilhelm von Diez in HeidICON

categories: German male painters,1839 births,1907 deaths,German illustrators,19th-century German painters,People from Bayreuth

paragraph: Wilhelm von Diez

paragraph: Albrecht Christoph Wilhelm von Diez (17 January 1839, Bayreuth – 25 February 1907, Munich) was a German painter and illustrator of the Munich School.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: He attended a trade school in Munich, followed by the Polytechnic School (precursor of the University of Technology) from 1853 to 1855 and, from 1855, the Academy of Fine Arts Munich, where he was briefly a student of Karl von Piloty. He didn't stay at the Academy very long, preferring to teach himself draftsmanship and painting.

paragraph: He first became known through the illustrations he drew for the "Fliegende Blätter", a weekly satirical magazine. In 1871, he illustrated Schiller's "History of the Thirty-Years War". He later turned to animal, landscape and genre painting.

paragraph: Earlier that same year, with the support of Wilhelm von Kaulbach, Diez became a teacher at the Academy and was soon elevated to Professor. In this position, he not only had a major influence on his pupils (among them, Franz Marc, Fritz Osswald, Max Slevogt, Wilhelm Trübner, Ludwig von Löfftz, Heinrich Lefler, Carl Max Schultheiss and Fritz Mackensen), but also upon the development of the entire Munich School, leading it to a more coloristic approach.

paragraph: Section::::Major works.

paragraph: All in the National Gallery (Berlin)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Waldfest", (Forest Festival)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Totes Reh", (Dead Deer)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Sankt Georg der Drachentöter", (Study for Saint George, the Dragonslayer)

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Stefanie Kamm: "Wilhelm von Diez. 1839–1907. Ein Künstler zwischen Historismus und Jugendstil". (Reihe Kunstgeschichte; Vol.43). München 1991,

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Wilhelm von Diez in HeidICON - Illustrations from the "Fliegenden Blättern"

alias:
Wilhelm Von Diez
Albrecht Christoph Wilhelm von Diez
wilh. v. dietz
wilh. von diez-schuler
diez wilhelm von
wilh. diez
diez wilh. von
wilh. von diez
wilhelm v. dietz
Diez
professor wilhelm von diez
prof. wilhelm von diez
w. diez
wilhelm von, prof. diez
prof. wilh. von diez
wilhelm diez
professor w. von diez
w. dietz
diez wilhelm v
dietz professor wilh. v.
w. v. diez
wilhelm dietz
w. von diez
wilhelm v. diez
wilhelm von dietz
wilh. von dietz
diez wilhelm v.
diez w. von
professor wilhelm diez
wilh. v. diez
Wilh. v. Diez

description: German painter

wikidata_label: Wilhelm von Diez

wikipedia_title: Wilhelm von Diez


text: Manchu

text: Plain Yellow Banner

text: Kangxi Emperor

text: Booi Aha

text: lunar

text: Shunzhi Emperor

text: Gregorian calendar

text: Kangxi Emperor

text: Yinzhen

text: Yunti

text: Eastern Qing tombs

text: Shunzhi Emperor

text: Kangxi Emperor

text: Yongzheng Emperor

text: Yongzheng Emperor

text: Tunggiya

text: Yunti

text: Prince Xun of the Second Rank

text: The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty

text: Sally Chen

text: Legend of YungChing

text: Yongzheng Dynasty

text: Huang Taizi Mishi

text: Leanne Liu

text: Palace

text: Empresses in the Palace

text: Palace II

text: Dai Chunrong

text: Scarlet Heart

text: Vivian Wu

text: The Palace

text: Gilded Chopsticks

text: Legend of Dragon Pearl

categories: Manchu people,17th-century Chinese women,Qing dynasty empresses,1660 births,18th-century Chinese women,1723 deaths

image: 512px-《孝恭仁皇后朝服像》局部.jpg

paragraph: Empress Xiaogongren

paragraph: Empress Xiaogongren (28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723), of the Manchu Plain Yellow Banner Uya clan, was a consort of the Kangxi Emperor. She was six years his junior.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Family background.

paragraph: Empress Xiaogongren's personal name was not recorded in history. She was a Booi Aha of the Plain Yellow Banner by birth.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Father: Weiwu (), served as a third rank military official (), and held the title of a first class duke ()

paragraph: BULLET::::- Paternal grandfather: Esen ()

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Shunzhi era.

paragraph: The future Empress Xiaogongren was born on the 19th day of the third lunar month in the 17th year of the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor, which translates to 28 April 1660 in the Gregorian calendar.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Kangxi era.

paragraph: In February or March 1673, Lady Uya entered the Forbidden City and became a lady-in-waiting of the Kangxi Emperor. On 13 December 1678, she gave birth to the emperor's fourth son, Yinzhen. On 15 November 1679, she was granted the title "Concubine De". On 5 March 1680, she gave birth to the emperor's sixth son, Yinzuo, who would die prematurely on 15 June 1685.

paragraph: On 28 January 1682, she was elevated to "Consort De". She gave birth on 5 July 1682 to the emperor's seventh daughter, who would die prematurely in September 1682, on 10 November 1683 to his ninth daughter, Princess Wenxian of the First Rank, on 14 June 1686 to his 12th daughter, who would die prematurely in February or March 1697, and on 10 February 1688 to his 14th son, Yunti.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Yongzheng era.

paragraph: The Kangxi Emperor died on 20 December 1722 and was succeeded by Yinzhen, who was enthroned as the Yongzheng Emperor. As the mother of the reigning emperor, Lady Uya was honoured as "Empress Dowager Renshou".

paragraph: Lady Uya died of illness on 25 June 1723. Some sources claimed that she wished to commit suicide to join her husband but her son refused to let her do so. She fell ill shortly afterwards and died after refusing medical treatment. She was interred in the Jing Mausoleum of the Eastern Qing tombs. She was granted the posthumous title "Empress Xiaogongren" by the Yongzheng Emperor.

paragraph: Section::::Titles.

paragraph: BULLET::::- During the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor (r. 1643–1661):

paragraph: BULLET::::- Lady Uya (from 28 April 1660)

paragraph: BULLET::::- During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722):

paragraph: BULLET::::- Concubine De (; from 15 November 1679), fifth rank consort

paragraph: BULLET::::- Consort De (; from 28 January 1682), fourth rank consort

paragraph: BULLET::::- During the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722–1735):

paragraph: BULLET::::- Empress Dowager Renshou (; from 20 December 1722)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Empress Xiaogongren" (; from August/September 1723)

paragraph: Section::::Issue.

paragraph: BULLET::::- As a mistress:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yinzhen (; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), the Kangxi Emperor's 11th (fourth) son, enthroned on 27 December 1722 as the Yongzheng Emperor

paragraph: BULLET::::- As Concubine De:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yinzuo (; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), the Kangxi Emperor's 14th (sixth) son

paragraph: BULLET::::- As Consort De:

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Kangxi Emperor's seventh daughter (5 July 1682 – September 1682)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), the Kangxi Emperor's ninth daughter

paragraph: BULLET::::- Married Shun'anyan (; d. 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Kangxi Emperor's 12th daughter (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Yunti (; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), the Kangxi Emperor's 23rd (14th) son, granted the title Prince Xun of the Second Rank in 1748, posthumously honoured as Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank

paragraph: Section::::In fiction and popular culture.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Au Yin-lin in "The Rise and Fall of Qing Dynasty" (1987)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Sally Chen in "Legend of YungChing" (1997)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Shi Jianlan in "Yongzheng Dynasty" (1999)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Wu Qianqian in "Huang Taizi Mishi" (2004)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Leanne Liu in "Palace" (2011), "Empresses in the Palace" (2011) and "Palace II" (2012)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Dai Chunrong in "Scarlet Heart" (2011)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Vivian Wu in "The Palace" (2013)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Rosanne Lui in "Gilded Chopsticks" (2014)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Portrayed by Luo Mi in "Legend of Dragon Pearl" (2017)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ranks of imperial consorts in China#Qing

paragraph: BULLET::::- Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty

description: Qing Dynasty empress

wikidata_label: Empress Xiaogongren

wikipedia_title: Empress Xiaogongren


categories: German male film actors,1902 births,1978 deaths

paragraph: Willi Rose

paragraph: Wilhelm Bernhard Max Rose (4 February 1902 – 16 June 1978) was a German actor. He appeared in more than one hundred films from 1936 to 1978.

description: German actor

wikidata_label: Willi Rose

wikipedia_title: Willi Rose


text: Botoșani

text: Bucharest

text: Belle Arte Art School of Iași

text: Ștefan Dimitrescu

text: Nicolae Tonitza

text: pointillism

categories: 1886 births,1936 deaths,People from Botoșani

paragraph: Leon Viorescu

paragraph: Leon Viorescu (born 1886, Botoșani – died 1936, Bucharest) was a Romanian painter.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Viorescu graduated at the Belle Arte Art School of Iași, being from the same generation as Ștefan Dimitrescu and Nicolae Tonitza, who was a very good friend of Viorescu.

paragraph: His main profession was that of a public clerk in the Romanian Ministry of Culture starting from 1920. The financial stability provided by his job was decisive for the start of his artistic career.

paragraph: Viorescu chose pointillism for the main form of artistic expression but with a reinterpretation it his own personal painting style.

paragraph: Viorescu approached landscape, interiors, still lifes , these styles defined him as master painter in the Romanian Interbelic era. Of all the topics, the most preferred were compositions which are remarked by the interior atmosphere created that are typical and unmistakable of his own style.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Note de Artă" în "Dimineața", 6 februarie 1927

paragraph: BULLET::::- Dan Botta, "Cronica Plastică" în "Calendarul", nr 550, 31 decembrie 1933

paragraph: BULLET::::- Petre Oprea, "Leon Viorescu", Pro Arte, nr. 9, 1998, pp. 12–13

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Universul literar – 1927 * Ilustrare grafică de Leon Viorescu

description: Romanian painter

wikidata_label: Leon Viorescu

wikipedia_title: Leon Viorescu


text:
West Point Academy
College of Louisiana
New Orleans Mint

categories: 1845 deaths,1801 births,Centenary College of Louisiana faculty

paragraph: Henry H. Gird

paragraph: Henry Hatton Gird III was born May 29, 1801, in New York City, NY. When H. H. Gird III was Seventeen he was appointed a cadet at West Point Academy. He graduated as a Second Lieutenant at the age of twenty-two. He married Sarah Ann Kinsley and had six children. He married a second time, this time to Elizabeth Lewis Wheeler and had three children together. He was then sent to New Orleans with another Lieutenant to survey the harbor. His family soon followed. After he resigned from the Army he became the second President of the College of Louisiana in 1829 and resigned in 1833. He was also a Professor of Mathematics at the same college. One year after H. H. Gird III resigned from the College of Louisiana he accepted a position at the New Orleans Mint. He later died of Yellow Fever.

wikidata_label: Henry H. Gird

wikipedia_title: Henry H. Gird