text:
Grand Duke of Lithuania
King of Lithuania
Lithuania proper
Livonian Order
King of Lithuania
Samogitia
Tatars
Treniota
Daumantas
Traidenis
Jogaila
Kings of Poland
Lithuania
Edvardas Gudavičius
Statehood Day
Livonian Rhymed Chronicle
Hypatian Codex
papal bull
Livonian Order
Bychowiec Chronicle
Palemonids
Roman Empire
Livonian Rhymed Chronicle
Ryngold
Dausprungas
Tautvilas
Gedvydas
Vykintas
Daniel of Halych
Treniota
Morta
Vaišvilkas
Svarn
scribe
Latin
Polish
Kazimieras Būga
Lithuanian name
Christianization of Lithuania
fiefdom
Riga
Battle of Saule
Mongol Empire
Galicia–Volhynia
twenty Lithuanian dukes
Dausprungas
Kurland
Mongols
Kiev
Kraków
Klaipėda
Navahrudak
Hrodna
Vawkavysk
Principality of Polotsk
Navahrudak
Vaišvilkas
Black Ruthenia
Tautvilas
Edivydas
Vykintas
Samogitia
Smolensk
Samogitia
Daniel of Galicia
Vasilko of Volhynia
Nalšia
Lithuania proper
Archbishop of Riga
Battle of Saule
Pope Innocent IV
papal bull
Bishop of Chełmno
Holy See
crossbow
Voruta
Tverai
Daniel of Galicia
Morta
Statehood Day
Edvardas Gudavičius
Black Ruthenia
Polatsk
Daugava
Pinsk
Svarn
Holy See
Pope Alexander IV
noble court
Vilnius Cathedral
Samogitia
Nadruva
Dainava
Roman
Orthodox
Polatsk
fief
Berke Khan
Burundai
Novgorod Chronicle
Hypatian Chronicle
Voruta
Kernavė
Statehood Day
Klaipeda Castle
Battle of Skuodas
Battle of Durbe
Semigalia
Prussians
Great Prussian Rebellion
Treniota
paganism
Pope John XXII
Galician–Volhynian Chronicle
Pope Clement IV
accept Christianity
Vilnius
Alexander Nevsky
Novgorod
Cēsis
Estonia
Masovia
Bryansk
Morta
Daumantas
Aglona
Traidenis
historiography
Lithuanian national revival
Gediminas
Vytautas the Great
Gediminids
Lithuania and Poland
Vilnius University
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Jonas Totoraitis
Edvardas Gudavičius
Mindaugas Bridge
Navahrudak
Adam Mickiewicz
Konrad Wallenrod
Juliusz Słowacki
Three Bards
Mārtiņš Zīverts
Justinas Marcinkevičius
Romualdas Granauskas
Juozas Kralikauskas
History of Lithuania (1219–1295)
List of rulers of Lithuania
List of rulers of Belarus
Early dukes of Lithuania

categories: 1203 births,Christians of the Prussian Crusade,Year of birth uncertain,Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions,Pagans of the Prussian Crusade,Grand Dukes of Lithuania,1263 deaths,Kings of Lithuania

paragraph: Mindaugas

paragraph: Mindaugas (, , , , c. 1203 – autumn 1263) was the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania and the only Christian King of Lithuania. Little is known of his origins, early life, or rise to power; he is mentioned in a 1219 treaty as an elder duke, and in 1236 as the leader of all the Lithuanians. The contemporary and modern sources discussing his ascent mention strategic marriages along with banishment or murder of his rivals. He extended his domain into regions southeast of Lithuania proper during the 1230s and 1240s. In 1250 or 1251, during the course of internal power struggles, he was baptised as a Roman Catholic; this action enabled him to establish an alliance with the Livonian Order, a long-standing antagonist of the Lithuanians. During the summer of 1253 he was crowned King of Lithuania, ruling between 300,000 and 400,000 subjects.

paragraph: While his ten-year reign was marked by various state-building accomplishments, Mindaugas's conflicts with relatives and other dukes continued, and Samogitia (western Lithuania) strongly resisted the alliance's rule. His gains in the southeast were challenged by the Tatars. He broke peace with the Livonian Order in 1261, possibly renouncing Christianity, and was assassinated in 1263 by his nephew Treniota and another rival, Duke Daumantas. His three immediate successors were assassinated as well. The disorder was not resolved until Traidenis gained the title of Grand Duke c. 1270.

paragraph: Although his reputation was unsettled during the following centuries and his descendants were not notable, he gained standing during the 19th and 20th centuries. Mindaugas was the only King of Lithuania; while most of the Lithuanian Grand Dukes from Jogaila onward also reigned as Kings of Poland, the titles remained separate. Now generally considered the founder of the Lithuanian state, he is also now credited with stopping the advance of the Tatars towards the Baltic Sea, establishing international recognition of Lithuania, and turning it towards Western civilization. In the 1990s the historian Edvardas Gudavičius published research supporting an exact coronation date – 6 July 1253. This day is now an official national holiday in Lithuania, Statehood Day.

paragraph: Section::::Sources, family, and name.

paragraph: Contemporary written sources about Mindaugas are very scarce. Much what is known about his reign is obtained from the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle and the Hypatian Codex. Both of these chronicles were produced by enemies of Lithuania and thus have anti-Lithuanian bias, particularly the Hypatian Codex. They are also incomplete: both of them lack dates and locations even for the most important events. For example, the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle devoted 125 poetry lines to Mindaugas's coronation, but failed to mention either the date or the location. Other important sources are the papal bulls regarding baptism and coronation of Mindaugas. The Lithuanians did not produce any surviving records themselves, except for a series of acts granting lands to the Livonian Order, but their authenticity is disputed. Due to lack of sources, some important questions regarding Mindaugas and his reign cannot be answered.

paragraph: Because written sources covering the era are scarce, Mindaugas's origins and family tree have not been conclusively established. The Bychowiec Chronicles, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, have been discredited in this regard, since they assert an ancestry from the Palemonids, a noble family said to have originated within the Roman Empire. His year of birth, sometimes given as c. 1200, is at other times left as a question mark. His father is mentioned in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle as a powerful duke ("ein kunic grôß"), but is not named; later chronicles give his name as Ryngold. Dausprungas, mentioned in the text of a 1219 treaty, is presumed to have been his brother, and Dausprungas' sons Tautvilas and Gedvydas his nephews. He is thought to have had two sisters, one married to Vykintas and another to Daniel of Halych. Vykintas and his son Treniota played major roles in later power struggles. Mindaugas had at least two wives, Morta and Morta's sister, whose name is unknown, and possibly an earlier wife; her existence is presumed because two children – a son named Vaišvilkas and an unnamed daughter married to Svarn in 1255 – were already leading independent lives when Morta's children were still young. In addition to Vaišvilkas and his sister, two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, are mentioned in written sources. The latter two were assassinated along with Mindaugas. Information on his sons is limited and historians continue to discuss their number. He may have had two other sons whose names were later conflated by scribes into Ruklys and Rupeikis.

paragraph: In the 13th century Lithuania had little contact with foreign lands. Lithuanian names sounded obscure and unfamiliar to various chroniclers, who altered them to sound more like names in their native language. Mindaugas's name in historic texts was recorded in various distorted forms: Mindowe in Latin; Mindouwe, Myndow, Myndawe, and Mindaw in German; Mendog, Mondog, Mendoch, and Mindovg in Polish; and Mindovg, Mindog, and Mindowh in Russian, among others. Since Russian sources provide the most information about Mindaugas's life, they were judged the most reliable by linguists reconstructing his original Lithuanian name. The most popular Russian rendition was "Mindovg", which can quite easily and naturally be reconstructed as "Mindaugas" or "Mindaugis". In 1909 the Lithuanian linguist Kazimieras Būga published a research paper supporting the suffix "-as", which has since been widely accepted. "Mindaugas" is an archaic disyllabic Lithuanian name, used before the Christianization of Lithuania, and consists of two components: "min" and "daug". Its etymology may be traced to "daug menąs" (much wisdom) or "daugio minimas" (much fame).

paragraph: Section::::Rise to power.

paragraph: Lithuania was ruled during the early 13th century by a number of dukes and princes presiding over various fiefdoms and tribes. They were loosely bonded by commonalities of religion and tradition, trade, kinship, joint military campaigns, and the presence of captured prisoners from neighboring areas. Western merchants and missionaries began seeking control of the area during the 12th century, establishing the city of Riga, Latvia in 1201. Their efforts in Lithuania were temporarily halted by defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236, but armed Christian orders continued to pose a threat. The country had also undergone incursions by the Mongol Empire.

paragraph: A treaty with Galicia–Volhynia, signed in 1219, is usually considered the first conclusive evidence that the Baltic tribes in the area were uniting in response to these threats. The treaty's signatories include twenty Lithuanian dukes and one dowager duchess; it specifies that five of these were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen. Mindaugas, despite his youth, as well as his brother Dausprungas are listed among the elder dukes, implying that they had inherited their titles. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describes him as the ruler of all Lithuania in 1236. His path to this title is not clear. Ruthenian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled several other dukes, including his relatives. Historian S.C. Rowell has described his rise to power as taking place through "the familiar processes of marriage, murder and military conquest."

paragraph: During the 1230s and 1240s, Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic and Slavic lands. Warfare in the region intensified; he battled German forces in Kurland, while the Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240 and entered Poland in 1241, defeating two Polish armies and burning Kraków. The Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Saule temporarily stabilized the northern front, but the Christian orders continued to make gains along the Baltic coast, founding the city of Klaipėda (Memel). Constrained in the north and west, Mindaugas moved to the east and southeast, conquering Navahrudak, Hrodna, Vawkavysk, and the Principality of Polotsk, but there is no information about any battles for those cities. In 1246 by Chronic of Gustynia he was baptized by Orthodox church in Navahrudak, but later because of political situation he was re-baptized by Catholic church. In about 1239 he appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern these areas, then known as Black Ruthenia. In 1248, he sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas, the sons of his brother Dausprungas, along with Vykintas, the Duke of Samogitia, to conquer Smolensk, but they were unsuccessful. His attempts to consolidate his rule in Lithuania met with mixed success; in 1249, an internal war erupted when he sought to seize his nephews' and Vykintas' lands.

paragraph: Section::::Path to coronation.

paragraph: Tautvilas, Edivydas, and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition in opposition to Mindaugas, along with the Samogitians of western Lithuania, the Livonian Order, Daniel of Galicia (Tautvilas and Edivydas' brother-in-law), and Vasilko of Volhynia. The princes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia, disrupting Vaišvilkas' supremacy. Tautvilas strengthened his position by traveling to Riga and accepting baptism by the Archbishop. In 1250, the Order organized a major raid through the lands of Nalšia into the domains of Mindaugas in Lithuania proper, and a raid into those parts of Samogitia that still supported him. Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere, Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position, but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga to further his own interests. He succeeded in bribing Order Master Andreas von Stierland, who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236, by sending him "many gifts".

paragraph: In 1250 or 1251, Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania, in return for an acknowledgment by Pope Innocent IV as king. The Pope welcomed a Christian Lithuania as a bulwark against Mongol threats; in turn, Mindaugas sought papal intervention in the ongoing Lithuanian conflicts with the Christian orders. On 17 July 1251, the pope signed two crucial papal bulls. One ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and build a cathedral. The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the Holy See, rather than to the Archbishop of Riga. This autonomy was a welcome development. The precise date of Mindaugas's baptism is not known. His wife, two sons, and members of his court were baptized; Pope Innocent wrote later that a multitude of Mindaugas's subjects also received Christianity.

paragraph: The process of coronation and the establishment of Christian institutions would take two years. Internal conflicts persisted; during the spring or summer of 1251, Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas's warriors and the Livonian Order's crossbow-men in Voruta Castle. The attack failed, and Tautvilas' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tviremet Castle (presumed to be Tverai in Samogitia). Vykintas died in 1251 or 1252, and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia.

paragraph: Section::::The Kingdom of Lithuania.

paragraph: Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned during the summer of 1253. Bishop Henry Heidenreich of Kulm presided over the ecclesiastical ceremonies and Andreas Stirland conferred the crown. 6 July is now celebrated as Statehood Day (Lithuanian: "Valstybės diena"); it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania. The exact date of the coronation is not known; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius, who promulgated this precise date, is sometimes challenged. The location of the coronation also remains unknown.

paragraph: Relative peace and stability prevailed for about eight years. Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on the expansion to the east, and to establish and organize state institutions. He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia, in Polatsk, a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin, and in Pinsk. He also negotiated a peace with Galicia–Volhynia, and married his daughter to Svarn, the son of Daniel of Galicia, who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania. Lithuanian relationships with western Europe and the Holy See were reinforced. In 1255, Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania. A noble court, an administrative system, and a diplomatic service were initiated. Silver long coins, an index of statehood, were issued. He sponsored the construction of a cathedral in Vilnius, possibly on the site of today's Vilnius Cathedral.

paragraph: Immediately after his coronation, Mindaugas transferred some lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia, Nadruva, and Dainava—although his control over these western lands was tenuous. There has been much discussion among historians as to whether in later years (1255–1261) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the order. The deeds might have been falsified by the order; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas and by various irregularities in treaty witnesses and seals.

paragraph: Mindaugas and his antagonist Daniel reached a reconciliation in 1255; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman, Daniel's son. Afterwards Mindaugas's son Vaišvilkas received baptism as a member of the Orthodox faith, becoming a monk and later founding a convent and monastery. Tautvilas's antagonism was temporarily resolved when he recognized Mindaugas's superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom. A direct confrontation with the Mongols occurred in 1258 or 1259, when Berke Khan sent his general Burundai to challenge Lithuanian rule, ordering Daniel and other regional princes to participate. The Novgorod Chronicle describes the following action as a defeat of the Lithuanians, but it has also been seen as a net gain for Mindaugas.

paragraph: A single sentence in the Hypatian Chronicle mentions Mindaugas defending himself in Voruta against his nephews and Duke Vykintas; two other sources mention "his castle". The location of Voruta is not specified, and this has led to considerable speculation, along with archeological research, concerning the seat of his court. At least fourteen different locations have been proposed, including Kernavė and Vilnius. The ongoing formal archeological digs at Kernavė began in 1979 after a portion of the site named "Mindaugas Throne hill-fort" collapsed. The town now hosts a major celebration on Statehood Day.

paragraph: Section::::Assassination and aftermath.

paragraph: The Livonian Order used their alliance with Mindaugas to gain control over Samogitian lands. In 1252 he approved the Order's construction of Klaipeda Castle. Their governance, however, was seen as oppressive. Local merchants could only conduct transactions via Order-approved intermediaries; inheritance laws were changed; and the choices among marriage partners and residencies were restricted. Several pitched battles ensued. In 1259 the Order lost the Battle of Skuodas, and in 1260 it lost the Battle of Durbe. The first defeat encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians, and the defeat at Durbe spurred the Prussians into the Great Prussian Rebellion, which lasted for 14 years. Encouraged by these developments and by his nephew Treniota, Mindaugas broke peace with the Order. The gains he had expected from Christianization had proven to be minor.

paragraph: Mindaugas may have reverted to paganism afterwards. His motivation for conversion is often described by modern historians as merely strategic. The case for his apostasy rests largely on two near-contemporary sources: a 1324 assertion by Pope John XXII that Mindaugas had returned to error, and the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle. The chronicler writes that Mindaugas continued to practice paganism, making sacrifices to his gods, burning corpses, and conducting pagan rites in public. Historians have pointed to the possibility of bias in this account, since Mindaugas had been at war with Volhynia. Pope Clement IV, on the other hand, wrote in 1268 of "Mindaugas of happy memory" ("clare memorie Mindota"), expressing regret at his murder.

paragraph: In any event, the Lithuanians were not prepared to accept Christianity, and Mindaugas's baptism had little impact on further developments. The majority of the population and the nobility remained pagan; his subjects were not required to convert. The cathedral he had built in Vilnius was superseded by a pagan temple, and all the diplomatic achievements made after his coronation were lost, although the practice of Christianity and intermarriage were well tolerated.

paragraph: Regional conflicts with the Order escalated. Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod, Tautvilas, and Tautvilas's son Constantine agreed to form a coalition in opposition to Mindaugas, but their plans were unsuccessful. Treniota emerged as the leader of the Samogitian resistance; he led an army to Cēsis (now in Latvia), reaching the Estonian coast, and battled Masovia (now in Poland). His goal was to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Christian orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership. His personal influence grew while Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Ruthenian lands, dispatching a large army to Bryansk. Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities. The Rhymed Chronicle mentions Mindaugas's displeasure at the fact that Treniota did not create any alliances in Latvia or Estonia; he may have come to prefer diplomacy. In the midst of these events Mindaugas's wife Morta died, and he took her sister, Daumantas' wife, as his own. In retaliation, Daumantas and Treniota assassinated Mindaugas and two of his sons in fall 1263. According to a late medieval tradition, the assassination took place in Aglona. He was buried along with his horses, in accordance with ancestral tradition. After Mindaugas's death, Lithuania lapsed into internal disorder. Three of his successors—Treniota, his son-in-law Svarn, and his son Vaišvilkas—were assassinated during the next seven years. Stability did not return until the reign of Traidenis, designated Grand Duke c. 1270.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Mindaugas held a dubious position in Lithuanian historiography until the Lithuanian national revival of the 19th century. While pagan sympathizers held him in disregard for betraying his religion, Christians saw his support as lukewarm. He received only passing references from Grand Duke Gediminas and was not mentioned at all by Vytautas the Great. His known family relations end with his children; no historic records note any connections between his descendants and the Gediminids dynasty that ruled Lithuania and Poland until 1572. A 17th-century rector of Vilnius University held him responsible for the troubles then being experienced by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ("the seed of internal discord among the Lithuanians had been sown".) A 20th-century historian charged him with the "destruction of the organization of the Lithuanian state". The first academic study of his life by a Lithuanian scholar, Jonas Totoraitis ("Die Litauer unter dem König Mindowe bis zum Jahre 1263") was not published until 1905. In the 1990s historian Edvardas Gudavičius published his findings pinpointing a coronation date, which became a national holiday. The 750th anniversary of his coronation was marked in 2003 by the dedication of the Mindaugas Bridge in Vilnius, numerous festivals and concerts, and visits from other heads of state. In Belarus, there is the legendary in Navahrudak, mentioned by Adam Mickiewicz in his 1828 poem "Konrad Wallenrod". A memorial stone on the Mindaugas's hill was installed in 1993 and a metal sculpture of Mindaugas in 2014.

paragraph: Mindaugas is the primary subject of the 1829 drama "Mindowe", by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the Three Bards. He has been portrayed in several 20th-century literary works: the Latvian author Mārtiņš Zīverts' tragedy "Vara" (Power, 1944), Justinas Marcinkevičius' drama-poem "Mindaugas" (1968), Romualdas Granauskas' "Jaučio aukojimas" (The Offering of the Bull, 1975), and Juozas Kralikauskas' "Mindaugas" (1995). Coronation of Mindaugas and creation of the Grand Duchy is the main topic of the 2002 Belarusian novel "Alhierd's Lance" by dedicated to the 750th anniversary of the coronation.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- History of Lithuania (1219–1295)

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Lithuania

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of rulers of Belarus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Early dukes of Lithuania

alias:
Mendog
Mindaugas I

description: King of Grand Duke of Lithuania

wikidata_label: Mindaugas

wikipedia_title: Mindaugas


text:
rapper
Boston
Massachusetts
fusion
mixtape
New York
DJ
Grandmaster Caz
Muslim
Saleemah Abdul-Ghafur
World Economic Forum
Copenhagen, Denmark
malaria
Underground Heat Vol 1
Freeway
Shock G
ReverbNation.com
Oryntherebel.com
ArtistJumpOff.com

categories: Living people,21st-century American rappers,Songwriters from Massachusetts,American record producers,African-American male rappers,Rappers from Boston,African-American singers,21st-century male musicians,Year of birth missing (living people)

paragraph: Oryn the Rebel

paragraph: Oryn the Rebel (born Mahmood Abdul-Ghafur) is an American rapper from Boston, Massachusetts and a frequent collaborator with many internationally established and up-and-coming acts. Oryn the Rebel is also known as a founding member of multi-genre fusion group Project Hybrid. He has been notably featured on the "Underground Heat" mixtapes hosted by New York DJ Grandmaster Caz.

paragraph: Oryn the Rebel originally went by the name Oryn, or O-ry-n, until Leo the Godless, a Malden-Revere-based rapper gave him the title "the Rebel".

paragraph: Section::::Background.

paragraph: Oryn the Rebel comes from a Muslim upbringing and a family of activists and philanthropists. His sister Saleemah Abdul-Ghafur, author of "Living Islam Out Loud: American Muslim Women Speak", was selected to participate in the Muslim Leaders of Tomorrow retreat hosted by the World Economic Forum in Copenhagen, Denmark in 2006. She remains an outspoken activist on the front to combat deaths caused by malaria.

paragraph: Section::::United Front Company.

paragraph: The United Front Company is a collection of creatives, musical and non-musical alike, and independently owned companies coming together to form a larger platform - The Artist Jumpoff. Together members of the UFC help one another to promote and earn revenue through their art by pooling their talent, skills, fans and knowledge. The common philosophy at the UFC is no contracts as the focus remains on the artistic aspect rather than the business one.

paragraph: Section::::Underground Heat.

paragraph: Underground Heat Vol 1, a mixtape series bringing together underground rappers from across the country, included two of Oryn's songs alongside works by Freeway and Shock G. This collaboration was mixed and hosted by Grandmaster Caz.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ReverbNation.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oryntherebel.com

paragraph: BULLET::::- ArtistJumpOff.com

description: American rapper

wikidata_label: Oryn the Rebel

wikipedia_title: Oryn the Rebel


text:
Canibus
Osun State
Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five
Mode 9 Loses His Dad

categories: Yoruba musicians,Musicians from London,Musicians from Osun State,1975 births,English people of Yoruba descent,English people of Nigerian descent,The Headies winners,Living people,Nigerian male rappers

paragraph: Mode 9

paragraph: Babatunde Olusegun Adewale(born June 14, 1975), popularly known by his stage name Modenine, is an English-born Nigerian rapper.In 2014, he released a song titled "Super Human" with Jamaican-American rapper Canibus.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: Mode 9 was born in London on June 14, 1975. He is the third child of his parents who are from Osun State. He has credited Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five for inspiring his love for Hip Hop.

paragraph: Section::::Education.

paragraph: He attended Agboju secondary school. He earned a degree in Building Technology at Federal Polytechnic, Bida, Niger State, Nigeria.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: He worked with Rhythm 84.7fm in Abuja, Nigeria as a radio presenter.

paragraph: Section::::Discography.

paragraph: In 2004, Mode9 released his debut project, Malcolm IX. His next album, Pentium IX was released in 2006. In 2007, He released another album called E Pluribus Unum. Modenine has eight studio albums. He released in 2018, a new album titled Hence4th produced by Black Intelligence. In 2019, he released an album titled The Monument

paragraph: Single Albums

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Malcolm IX -2004 "

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pentium IX - 2006"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "E' Pluribus Unum "One Amongst Many" -2007 "

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Paradigm Shift -2008"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Da Vinci Mode -2010"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Above Ground Level - 2014"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Insulin - 2016"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Monument (By Stormatique) - 2019"

paragraph: Featured Albums

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Modenine & Alias - Pay At-10-Shun - 2010"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Modenine & Mills The Producer - Golden Era Guevara New Era Mandela - 2011"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Modenine & XYZ - Alphabetical Order - 2013"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Modenine and DJ Papercutt - Look What I Found EP - 2016"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Modenine & Black Intelligence - Hence4th - 2018"

paragraph: Mixtapes

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Malcolm IX - The Lost Sessions - 2004"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Pentium IX - The Mixtape - 2005"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Nigel Benn's KraftWork (Modenine and Kraft) - The Soul Edition - 2007"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "09.09.09 The Mix Tape - 2009"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Occupy The Throne - 2012"

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: Mode 9 Loses His Dad

wikidata_label: Mode 9

wikipedia_title: Mode 9


text:
ballet
choreographer
actress
Scandinavia
television series
Tales of Hans Anderson
Monaco
Russia
Stockholm
editor
Denmark
natural causes
Copenhagen
Elsa-Marianne von Rosen
The Ballerina Gallery

categories: Swedish television actresses,Swedish film actresses,2014 deaths,Swedish choreographers,1924 births,Swedish ballerinas,Actresses from Stockholm

paragraph: Elsa-Marianne von Rosen

paragraph: Elsa-Marianne von Rosen (21 April 1924 – 7 September 2014) was a Swedish ballet dancer, choreographer and actress. She performed all over Scandinavia. She acted between 1939 and 1970. She appeared in the television series "Tales of Hans Anderson".

paragraph: In 1984, she was given the Royal Medal of Merit Litteris et artibus. She also directed ballet plays outside of Scandinavia, in Monaco, the United States, the United Kingdom and Russia. She was the head of ballet at the Stora teatern in Gothenburg between 1970 and 1976 and also of Malmöbaletten between 1980 and 1987.

paragraph: Von Rosen was born in Stockholm. She was the daughter of the artist Count Reinhold von Rosen and Elisabeth Österyd, his first wife.

paragraph: In 1950, von Rosen married editor Allan Fridericia (1921–1991). Soon after they moved to Denmark. She died from natural causes on 7 September 2014 in Copenhagen. She was 90 years old.

paragraph: Section::::Filmography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1939: "Skanör-Falsterbo"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1940: "Kyss henne!"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1941: "Det sägs på stan"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1950: "Ung och kär"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1954: "Balettprogram"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1957: "Med glorian på sned"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1958: "Jazzgossen"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1959: "Fröken Julie"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1967: "Lorden från gränden"

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1970: "The Only Way"

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Elsa-Marianne von Rosen at The Ballerina Gallery

wikidata_label: Elsa-Marianne von Rosen

wikipedia_title: Elsa-Marianne von Rosen


text: Communist Party of China

text: Cultural Revolution

text: NKVD

text: Wang Ming

text: Mao Zedong

text: Anti-Japanese War

text: Chinese Civil War

text: People's Republic of China

text: Gang of Four

text: Zhucheng

text: Qingdao

text: Shandong

text: Confucian

text: Shanghai University

text: Kuomintang

text: Qu Qiubai

text: Liu Shaoqi

text: Li Lisan

text: Zhang Guotao

text: Gu Shunzhang

text: Zhao Shiyan

text: Luo Yinong

text: Wang Shouhua

text: Zhou Enlai

text: Kuomintang

text: Du Yuesheng

text: Green Gang

text: Shanghai massacre

text: Shanghai University

text: Shandong

text: Cao Yi'ou

text: Yu Qiaqing

text: Kuomintang

text: Jiangsu

text: Li Lisan

text: Comintern

text: Kuomintang

text: Nanjing

text: Chen Lifu

text: Lu Futan

text: Changsha

text: Wang Ming

text: Pavel Mif

text: Sun Yat-sen University

text: 28 Bolsheviks

text: He Mengxiong

text: Pavel Mif

text: He Mengxiong

text: Hu Yepin

text: Ding Ling

text: Gu Shunzhang

text: Green Gang

text: Xiang Zhongfa

text: Pan Hannian

text: Guang Huian

text: Jiangxi

text: Comintern

text: Cao Yi'ou

text: Wang Ming

text: Yan'an

text: Long March

text: Mao Zedong

text: Jacques Guillermaz

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text: Trotskyists

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text: Dong Biwu

text: Chen Duxiu

text: Zunyi Conference

text: Wang Ming

text: Marxism-Leninism

text: Jiang Qing

text: Chen Yun

text: Soviet Union

text: Peter Vladimirov

text: Comintern

text: Wang Ming

text: Comintern

text: Shi Zhe

text: Mensheviks

text: Vyshinsky

text: Li Fuchun

text: Jin Maoyao

text: Yan'an Rectification Movement

text: Rana Mitter

text: Sun Yat-sen

text: NKVD

text: Nikolai Yezhov

text: Zhou Enlai

text: Nie Rongzhen

text: Ye Jianying

text: Cultural Revolution

text: Cultural Revolution

text: Zhu De

text: Liu Shaoqi

text: Gansu

text: Shanxi

text: Shandong

text: East China Bureau

text: Rao Shushi

text: Li Zhisui

text: schizophrenia

text: Gao Gang

text: Rao Shushi

text: Yu Bingbo

text: Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference

text: Gao Gang

text: Rao Shushi

text: Liu Shaoqi

text: Zhou Enlai

text: Zhu De

text: Chen Yun

text: Peng Zhen

text: Luo Fu

text: 28 Bolsheviks

text: May Day

text: Secret Speech

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: Secret Speech

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text: Hundred Flowers

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text: Maurice Meisner

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text: Central Organization and Propaganda Leading Group

text: Yao Wenyuan

text: Red Guards

text: Hunan

text: anarchists

text: Trotskyists

text: Liu Shaoqi

text: Gang of Four

text: Jiang Qing

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text: Wang Guangmei

text: Vladimir Lenin

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text: Gang of Four

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text: Ye Jianying

categories: Spymasters,Anti-revisionists,Members of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China,People from Zhucheng,Heads of the Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China,Chinese expatriates in the Soviet Union,People of the Cultural Revolution,Communist Party of China politicians from Shandong,Republic of China politicians from Shandong,Maoist theorists,Governors of Shandong,Members of the 10th Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China,Politicians from Qingdao,People's Republic of China politicians from Shandong,1898 births,Deaths from bladder cancer,1975 deaths,Members of the 9th Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China,Members of the 8th Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China

paragraph: Kang Sheng

paragraph: Kang Sheng (; 1898 – 16 December 1975) was a Communist Party of China (CPC) official best known for having overseen the work of the CPC's internal security and intelligence apparatus during the early 1940s and again at the height of the Cultural Revolution in the late 1960s and early 1970s. A member of the CPC from the early 1920s, he spent time in Moscow during the early 1930s, where he learned the methods of the NKVD and became a supporter of Wang Ming for leadership of the CPC. After returning to China in the late 1930s, Kang Sheng switched his allegiance to Mao Zedong and became a close associate of Mao during the Anti-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War and after. He remained at or near the pinnacle of power in the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1975. After the death of Mao and the subsequent arrest of the Gang of Four, Kang Sheng was accused of sharing responsibility with the Gang for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution and in 1980 he was expelled posthumously from the CPC.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Kang Sheng was born in Dataizhuang (大臺莊) (administered under Jiaonan County since 1946), Zhucheng County to the northwest of Qingdao in Shandong Province to a landowning family, some of whom had been Confucian scholars. Kang was born Zhang Zongke () but he adopted a number of pseudonyms – most notably Zhao Rong, but also (for his painting) Li Jushi—before settling on Kang Sheng in the 1930s. Some sources give his year of birth as being as early as 1893, but it has also been variously given as 1898, 1899 and 1903.

paragraph: Kang received his elementary education at the Guanhai school for boys and later at the German School in Qingdao. As a teenager, he entered into an arranged marriage with Chen Yi, in 1915, with whom he had two children, a daughter, Zhang Yuying, and a son, Zhang Zishi. After graduating from the German School, Kang taught in a rural school in Zhucheng, Shandong in the early 1920s before leaving, possibly for a sojourn in Germany and France, and ultimately for Shanghai, where he arrived in 1924.

paragraph: Section::::Shanghai.

paragraph: After arriving in Shanghai, Kang enrolled in Shanghai University, a former teacher's college that was officially funded by the Kuomintang but had come under the control of the CPC and the intellectual leadership of Qu Qiubai. After about six months at the university, he joined the Communist Party Youth League and then the Party itself, although the circumstances of his membership and sponsorship remains something of a mystery.

paragraph: At the direction of the Party, Kang worked underground as a labor organizer. He helped organize the February 1925 strike against Japanese companies that culminated in the May 30th Movement, a huge Communist-led demonstration, and brought Kang into close contact with Party leaders Liu Shaoqi, Li Lisan and Zhang Guotao. Kang participated in the March 1927 worker's insurrection alongside Gu Shunzhang and under the leadership of Zhao Shiyan, Luo Yinong, Wang Shouhua and Zhou Enlai. When the uprising was put down by the Kuomintang with the crucial assistance of Du Yuesheng's Green Gang in the Shanghai massacre of April 12, 1927, Kang was able to escape into hiding.

paragraph: Also in 1927, Kang married a Shanghai University student and fellow Shandong native, Cao Yi'ou (born Cao Shuqing), who was to become a lifelong political ally. He entered the employment of Yu Qiaqing, a wealthy businessman with strong Kuomintang sympathies, as Yu's personal secretary. At the same time, Kang remained an active but secret Party organizer, and was named to the Party's new Jiangsu Provincial Committee in June 1927.

paragraph: In the late 1920s, Kang worked closely with Li Lisan, a favorite of the Comintern, who had been made head of the Propaganda Department at the CPC's Sixth Congress, which for security reasons and proximity to the Comintern's congress was held outside Moscow in mid-1928. Several months after the Sixth Congress, Kang was named director of the Organization Department of the Jiangsu Provincial Committee, which controlled personnel matters.

paragraph: In 1930, while in Shanghai, Kang was arrested along with several other Communists, including Ding Jishi, and later released. Ding's uncle Ding Weifen, who was head of the Kuomintang Central Party School in Nanjing, where he worked with Chen Lifu, head of the Kuomintang's secret service. Kang later denied he had ever been arrested, as the circumstances of his release suggested that he had, as Lu Futan alleged in 1933, "sold out his comrades" in order to secure his freedom. As Byron and Pack note, however, "Kang's arrest in itself is no proof that he was turned by his captors or forced into long-term cooperation with them. KMT [Kuomintang] prisons were notoriously chaotic and corrupt."

paragraph: After Li Lisan's adventurism and the failed Changsha operation of June 1930 lost Li the support of the Party, Kang moved adroitly to align himself with the Comintern's new favorite, Wang Ming, and Pavel Mif's young students from Sun Yat-sen University, later known as the 28 Bolsheviks, who took control of the Party Politburo at the Fourth Plenum of the Sixth Central Committee on January 13, 1931. Kang allegedly demonstrated his loyalty to Wang Ming by betraying to the Kuomintang secret police a meeting convened on January 17, 1931 by He Mengxiong, who had been strongly opposed to Li Lisan and was disgruntled by Pavel Mif's high-handed role in securing the ascendancy of Wang within the Chinese Communist Party. On the night of February 7, 1931, He Mengxiong and 22 others were executed by the Kuomintang police at Longhua, Shanghai. Among those murdered were five aspiring writers and poets, including Hu Yepin, lover of Ding Ling and father of her child, later canonized as a martyr by the Party.

paragraph: The April 1931 arrest and defection to the Kuomintang of Gu Shunzhang, former Green Gang gangster and member of the Party's Intelligence Cell, led to serious breaches in Party security and the arrest and execution of Xiang Zhongfa, the Party's General Secretary. In response, Zhou Enlai created a Special Work Committee to oversee the Party's intelligence and security operations. Chaired by Zhou personally, the committee included Chen Yun, Pan Hannian, Guang Huian and Kang Sheng. When Zhou left Shanghai for the Communist base in Jiangxi Province in August 1931, he left Kang in charge of the Special Work Committee, a position he held for two years. In this role, Kang was "in charge of the entire Communist security and espionage apparatus, not only in Shanghai but throughout KMT China."

paragraph: Section::::Moscow.

paragraph: In July 1931, Wang Ming removed himself to Moscow and assumed the position of chief Chinese representative on the Comintern. Kang and his wife Cao Yi'ou followed two years later. Kang remained in Moscow for four years, acting as Wang's deputy on the Comintern, returning to China in 1937. While in Moscow, Kang was elected a member of the Politburo of the CPC, perhaps as early as 1931 but more probably in January 1934.

paragraph: As Byron and Pack put it, "Kang had no cause to regret working with Wang in Moscow. His own prestige and power grew ever greater, and his cocoon of privilege insulated him from the irritations of daily life. But being in Moscow also excluded Kang and Wang Ming from the drama that was unfolding in China at the time." That "drama" included the epic retreat of the Communists from Jiangxi Province to Yan'an, which became known to history as the Long March, and the ever-growing power within the CPC of Mao Zedong. As the French military historian Jacques Guillermaz observed,

paragraph: The Long March helped the Chinese Communist Party to achieve a greater independence of Moscow. Everything tended in the same direction – Mao Zedong's appointment as Chairman of the Party, happening as it did in unusual conditions, practical difficulties in maintaining contact, the Comintern's tendency to remain in the background to help the creation of popular fronts, under cover of patriotism or ant-fascism. In fact, after the Zunyi Conference, the Russians seem to have had less and less influence in the Chinese Communist Party's internal affairs. In light of more recent history, this was perhaps one of the major consequences of the Long March.

paragraph: Wang Ming's influence over the main Communist forces was minimal after Mao Zedong's emergence from the Zunyi Conference of January 1935 as the undisputed head of the Party. From Moscow, Wang and Kang did seek to maintain control over Communist forces in Manchuria, which were ordered by them to conserve their strength and avoid direct confrontation with the Japanese army. This directive, which Kang later denied even existed, was resisted by some Manchurian leaders and later criticized by Mao Zedong as evidence of Wang Ming having stifled Manchuria's revolutionary potential.

paragraph: Following the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, Joseph Stalin commenced his great purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Following this example, and with Wang Ming's support, Kang established in 1936 the Office for the Elimination of Counterrevolutionaries and worked closely with the Soviet secret police, the NKVD, in purging perhaps hundreds of Chinese then in Moscow. As Byron and Pack put it:

paragraph: Kang gained great power from the Elimination Office, which he used to silence opponents and witnesses to any embarrassing episodes in his past, especially his arrest in Shanghai. … This was not the first time the Chinese in Moscow had fallen victim to purges. Soviet authorities had made numerous arrests at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University during the late 1920s; students disappeared into the night, never to be seen again. But Kang worked his own variation: in the past, the Chinese had been purged by the Soviets; now, under Kang, they were liquidated by their fellow Chinese.

paragraph: Stalin was more tolerant of the Chinese in Moscow than he was of other foreign Communists, who were purged along with their Soviet comrades. This may have been motivated by a concern about the potential threat of a Japanese invasion of the Soviet Far East. In any case, at this time Stalin began to promote the idea of a united front of the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang against the Japanese, a policy that Wang Ming and Kang quickly endorsed. In November 1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and the Japanese invasion of China, Stalin dispatched Wang and Kang to Yan'an on a specially provided Soviet plane.

paragraph: Kang had played a wily game in the complex and murky world of Stalin's Moscow, earning the following comment from Josip Broz Tito, who had met Kang in Moscow in 1935:

paragraph: It can be said without any shadow of a doubt that at that time Kang Sheng was playing a multiple game. On the one hand he was humoring Stalin, but at the same time he was betraying his confidence. Similarly, he had made contact with the Trotskyists, and had considered joining their movement, but he had also taken steps to infiltrate and sabotage their Fourth International…

paragraph: Tito made these comments to Hua Guofeng on his only visit to China, in 1977 after Kang was dead, and certainly had his own agenda in doing so, but as Faligot and Kauffer remark, "in any case, Tito certainly got the measure of Kang's psychology: a multifaceted game of mirrors was certainly his style, even in the 1930s."

paragraph: Section::::Yan'an.

paragraph: When Kang Sheng arrived in the Party's redoubt at Yan'an in late November 1937 as part of Wang Ming's entourage, he may have already realized that Wang Ming was falling out of favor, but he initially supported Wang and the Comintern's efforts to guide the Chinese Communists back into line with Soviet policy, especially the need to align with the Kuomintang against the Japanese. Kang also brought Stalin's obsession with Trotskyism to play in helping Wang defeat the efforts of Zhou Enlai and Dong Biwu to bring Chen Duxiu back into the Party.

paragraph: After assessing the situation on the ground in Yan'an, however, in 1938 Kang decided to re-align himself with Mao Zedong. Kang's motives are easy to imagine. For Mao's part, as MacFarquhar put it,

paragraph: Kang Sheng was a valuable catch for Mao as he strove to consolidate the power he had won at the Zunyi Conference in January 1935. Kang could betray all the secrets of Wang Ming and his supporters. He was au fait with Moscow politics and police/terror methods, and sufficiently fluent in Russian to act as a major contact with Soviet visitors. He had absorbed sufficient Marxism-Leninism and Stalinist polemicizing to affect the patina of a theorist, and he was a fluent writer.

paragraph: At Yan'an, Kang was close to Jiang Qing, who may have been Kang's mistress when he visited Shandong in 1931. In Yan'an, Jiang became the lover of Mao Zedong, who later married her. In 1938, Kang earned Mao and Jiang's gratitude by supporting their liaison against the opposition of more socially conservative cadres, who were aware of her past and uncomfortable with it. Byron & Pack assert that

paragraph: Kang acted decisively to protect Mao and rebut the charges against Jiang Qing. Invoking his background as head of the Organization Department and as an expert on security and espionage matters, Kang vouched for Jiang Qing. She was a Party member in good standing, he declared, and had no affiliations that would bar marriage to Mao. Kang's personal knowledge of Jiang Qing's past was fragmentary and certainly insufficient to allow him to prove that she was not a KMT agent, but he doctored her record, destroyed adverse material, discouraged hostile witnesses, and coached her on how to answer the probing questions of high-level interrogators who hoped to discredit Mao.

paragraph: This episode is believed by many to have been key to Kang's future success, which depended not only on his considerable talents but also on his relationship with Mao. In addition to politics, Kang and Mao also shared an interest in classical culture, including poetry, painting and calligraphy.

paragraph: Mao's relationship with Kang, in Yan'an and later, was mainly based on political calculation. Kang's familiarity with Wang Ming enabled him to provide Mao with valuable information about Wang's subservience to the Soviets. Although cadres such as Chen Yun, who had been in Moscow with Wang and Kang, were aware of Kang's previous slavish support for Wang, Kang strenuously sought to change that history and obscure previous affiliations.

paragraph: In addition, Mao, who in these years had not yet visited the Soviet Union, used Kang during this period as a valuable source of information about Soviet affairs. Mao was also suspicious of the Russians and, soon after aligning himself with Mao, Kang also began to speak out against the Soviet Union and its agents in China. Peter Vladimirov, the Comintern agent sent to Yan'an, recorded that Kang kept him under constant surveillance and even forced Wang Ming to avoid meeting him. Vladimirov also believed that Kang delivered biased reports of Soviet affairs to Mao.

paragraph: When Stalin shifted his support from Wang Ming to Mao Zedong, the Personnel Department of the Executive Committee of the Comintern (the "ECCI") included Kang's name on a list of CPC cadres who should not be included in the leadership. According to Pantsov & Levine,

paragraph: Once again, the ECCI and, standing behind it, Stalin himself, helped Mao to consolidate his power. This time they even overdid it. Mao did not view Kang Sheng, who had already openly switched to his side, nor several of these other party officials [named in the ECCI Personnel Department memorandum] as his foes. He even tried to defend Kang Sheng in one of his letters to [Georgii] Dimitrov. "Kon Sin [Kang Sheng]," Mao wrote, "is reliable."

paragraph: While in Yan'an, Kang oversaw intelligence operations against the Party's two principal enemies, the Japanese and the Kuomintang, as well as potential opponents of Mao within the Party. Chang and Halliday write that "Shi Zhe observed that Kang was living in a state of deep fear of Mao in this period" because of his murky past, which had been raised with Mao in many letters from cadres and by the Russians, yet "[f]ar from being put off by Kang's murky past, Mao positively relished it. Like Stalin, who employed ex-Mensheviks like Vyshinsky, Mao used people's vulnerability as a way of giving himself hold over subordinates." Vladimirov believed that Kang was behind, at Mao's behest, the attempt by Li Fuchun and Jin Maoyao to murder Wang Ming by means of mercury poisoning, although this claim remains controversial.

paragraph: Kang was deeply involved with the Yan'an Rectification Movement launched by Mao in February 1942, which was "central to Mao's mission of a thorough reinvention of Chinese society." As Rana Mitter writes,

paragraph: China's wartime existential crisis provided a perfect excuse for the rival, yet parallel, states [in Chongqing, Nanjing and Yan'an] to use similar techniques, from blackmail to bombing, to achieve their ends, and mute the criticisms of their opponents. If each of them paid tribute to Sun Yat-sen in public, they also each paid court to the thinking and techniques of Stalin in private.

paragraph: In the person of Kang Sheng, Mao had at his disposal a man "trained by one of the world's greatest experts in the abuse of human bodies and minds: the head of the Soviet NKVD, Nikolai Yezhov" As Mitter explains,

paragraph: Kang Sheng was the mastermind behind the "pain and friction" that underlay the Rectification process. He used a classic Soviet technique of accusing loyal party members of being Nationalist spies. Once they had confessed under torture, their confessions could then set off an avalanche of accusations and arrests. As the war worsened in 1943, and the Communist area become more isolated, Kang stepped up the speed and ferocity of the purges.

paragraph: Kang was sufficiently brutal in his methods to arouse the opposition of senior cadres, including Zhou Enlai, Nie Rongzhen and Ye Jianying. At the same time, Mao was not keen to have a single man in such a position of power. Accordingly, following the CPC's Seventh Congress in April 1945, Kang was replaced as head of both the Social Affairs Department and the Military Intelligence Department.

paragraph: Byron and Pack write that "In spite of Kang's decline, his influence on the security and intelligence system was visible for decades to come. The methods he popularized in Yan'an shaped public security work through the Cultural Revolution and beyond." Moreover,

paragraph: [f]or many victims of Rectification, release and rehabilitation in 1945 after the Seventh Party Congress did not protect them permanently against Kang. During the Cultural Revolution, he searched many of them out, arrested them and charged them again with being traitors or renegades. A standard item of evidence used against them was a record of their arrest in Yan'an during the Rectification Movement – phony charges from the 1940s appeared twenty years later as "proof" of an individual's disloyalty.

paragraph: Section::::From Yan'an to the Cultural Revolution.

paragraph: After his fall from the security posts, in December 1946 Kang was assigned by Mao Zedong, Zhu De and Liu Shaoqi to review the Party's land reform project in Longdong, Gansu Province. He returned after five weeks with the view that land reform needed to be more severe and that there could be no compromise with landlords. "Kang whipped up hatred for the landlords and their retainers. In the name of social justice, he encouraged the peasants to settle scores by killing landlords and rich peasants."

paragraph: In March 1947, Kang put his methods into practice in Lin County, Shanxi Province. These methods included special scrutiny and persecution of landlords known to have Communist sympathies and investigation of the backgrounds of the Party's land reform teams themselves. In April 1948, Mao singled out Kang for praise in his handling of land reform, with the result that

paragraph: Agrarian reform cut a bloody swath through much of rural China. Squads of Communist enforcers were sent to the most remote villages to organize the local petty thieves and bandits into so-called land reform teams, which inflamed the poor peasants and hired laborers against the rich. When resentment reached fever pitch, peasants at staged "grievance meetings" were encouraged to relate the injustices and insults they had suffered, both real and imagined, at the hands of "the landlord bullies." Often these meetings would end with the masses, led by the land reform teams, shouting "Shoot him! Shoot him!" or "Kill! Kill! Kill!" The cadre in charge of proceedings would rule that the landlords had committed serious crimes, sentence them to death, and order that they be taken away and eliminated immediately.

paragraph: In November 1947, the CPC Politburo assigned Kang to inspect land reform in his home province of Shandong. Early in 1948, he was appointed deputy chief of the Party's East China Bureau, under Rao Shushi. Some commentators speculate that the private humiliation of being placed under a former subordinate may be one reason why Kang "fell ill" and largely disappeared from view until after Rao's fall in 1954. Of course, Kang may really have been ill. Mao's personal physician, Li Zhisui, later recorded that doctors responsible for Kang's treatment at Beijing Hospital told him that Kang was suffering from schizophrenia. Writing before Li's book was published, Byron and Pack offered other possible diagnoses based on symptoms Kang seems to have displayed, including manic-depressive psychosis and temporal lobe epilepsy.

paragraph: Kang's re-emergence on the political stage in the mid-1950s occurred at roughly at the same time as the Gao Gang-Rao Shushi Affair and the affair of Yu Bingbo. Faligot and Kauffer see these affairs as each showing signs of involvement by Kang Sheng, who they believe used them as means to return to power.

paragraph: In January 1956, Kang made his first public appearance in years at a meeting of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in Beijing. As Byron and Pack write

paragraph: The challenges that Kang faced during the early months of 1956 underscored the dangers he would have risked by continuing his retreat. As soon as he reappeared, Kang encountered serious problems that caused his position in the hierarchy to fluctuate dramatically. After the purge of Gao Gang and Rao Shushi in 1954, he had ranked sixth, below Chairman Mao, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, Zhu De and Chen Yun. But in February 1956, just weeks after his return to public life, he was listed below Peng Zhen. By the end of April he was reported in tenth place, even below Luo Fu, the only member of the 28 Bolsheviks who still held a Politburo seat. Yet on May Day of 1956 – the international socialist celebration – Kang was suddenly back in sixth place. His position, at least going by public reports and official bulletins, remained unchanged from then until the Eighth Congress four months later.

paragraph: Kang suffered a severe reversal of fortune at the Central Committee plenum that followed the first session of the CPC's Eighth Congress, when he was demoted to alternate, nonvoting membership of the Politburo. Roderick MacFarquar writes:

paragraph: The reasons for Kang Sheng's reduction to alternate membership of the Politburo are not clear. … The immediate reason for his demotion may have been the general revulsion against secret police within the communist bloc after Khrushchev's Secret Speech. Kang Sheng's emergence during the cultural revolution as one of the most important Maoist stalwarts suggests that…it is not unlikely that at the 8th Congress Mao saved Kang from even greater humiliation.

paragraph: Mao's own position was weakening, as evidenced by the decision of the CPC's Eighth Congress to delete the phrase "guided by the thought of Mao Zedong" from the new Party constitution and by re-establishing the role of General Secretary, abolished in 1937. The dangers of exalting a single leader and the desirability of collective leadership had been perhaps the most direct point of Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech to the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the "CPSU") in February 1956, in which he condemned Stalin, Stalin's methods and his cult of personality and which, according to Archie Brown, "was the beginning of the end of international Communism."

paragraph: While Kang remained a member of the Politburo, he had no concrete role and no power base, which led him to take on a series of diverse assignments and to align himself as closely as possible with Mao, who was devising his response to de-Stalinization and its effects within the leadership of the CPC. His responses, in the Hundred Flowers and the Anti-Rightist Campaign that followed, marked a profound turning point in the history of the People's Republic of China. As Maurice Meisner wrote

paragraph: The period of the Hundred Flowers was the time when the Chinese abandoned the Soviet model of development and embarked on a distinctively Chinese road to socialism. It was the time that China announced its ideological and social autonomy from the Soviet Union and its Stalinist heritage. It is a cruel and tragic irony that the break with the Stalinist pattern of socioeconomic development was not accompanied by a break with Stalinist methods in political and intellectual life. The latter was precluded by the suppression of the critics who had briefly "bloomed and contended" in May and June 1957.

paragraph: As noted in connection with the Yan'an Rectification Movement launched 15 years earlier, Kang Sheng played an important role in bringing Stalinist methods of repression to China.

paragraph: Kang was clearly a supporter of Mao during the period of the Great Leap Forward and its aftermath and, as MacFarquar writes, "[h]e was the beneficiary of Mao's practice of preserving and protecting those whom he trusted and relied upon, and for whom he saw a future use." As a result, Kang received a number of important positions during the late 1950s, including in 1959 responsibility for the Central Party School.

paragraph: Among Kang's most important activities in this period were those related to the deepening split with the Soviet Union, about which Mao and others regarded him as something of an expert. Among his assignments from the Politburo was to draft a long article that appeared in "The People's Daily" on December 29, 1956 under the title "More on the Historical Experience of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat" and which expressed the Party's position that Stalin's achievements overshadowed his mistakes.

paragraph: Kang visited the Soviet Union and various socialist countries in Eastern Europe on several occasions between 1956 and 1964, expressing increasing disdain for the "revisionist" policies of Nikita Khrushchev and Josip Broz Tito. In February 1960, as the Chinese observer at the conference of the Political Consultative Conference of the Warsaw Pact, Kang made what Jacques Guillermaz described as "a violent attack on the leaders of the United States, their feigned pacifism, their dream of 'peaceful evolution' of the socialist countries, and their repeated sabotage of disarmament." Byron and Pack describe the speech as "a subtle, almost sarcastic critique of Russian foreign policy that became a milestone in deteriorating Sino-Soviet relations."

paragraph: The following year, Kang was one of the Chinese delegates to the Twenty-Second Congress of the CPSU to leave their seats to avoid shaking hands with Khrushchev. Kang was also a member of the delegation that attended a meeting in Moscow in July 1963, which failed to bridge the growing gap between the Chinese and Soviet parties. Among the points of contention, raised in a letter issued by the Chinese Communist Party on June 14, 1963, had to do with de-Stalinization and the allegation that

paragraph: under the pretext of "combating the cult of the individual," certain persons are crudely interfering in the internal affairs of other fraternal parties and fraternal countries and forcing other fraternal parties to change their leadership in order to impose their own wrong line on those parties.

paragraph: Jacques Guillermaz asked rhetorically of this criticism, "[c]ould the Chinese really have been thinking of Enver Hoxha?"

paragraph: The Sino-Soviet rift and the obsession with Khrushchev's revisionism looms large in the coming of the Cultural Revolution, as Mao saw revisionism and de-Stalinization as a threat not only to his own position but also to the very survival of the Chinese Communist Party as a revolutionary force. Accordingly, an appreciation of Kang's role as a supporter of Mao's line in this period helps explain his return to very near the pinnacle of power a few years later.

paragraph: Section::::Cultural Revolution.

paragraph: As an important ally of Mao Zedong's efforts to regain control of the CPC, Kang was an important enabler of and participant in the Cultural Revolution, later described by the CPC's Central Committee as having "lasted from May 1966 to October 1976" and as "responsible for the most severe setback and heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the state and the people since the founding of the People's Republic." The Central Committee resolution concluded that the Cultural Revolution "was initiated and led by Comrade Mao Zedong." In outlining the "errors" that had been made by Mao and others in the run-up to the Cultural Revolution, the Central Committee noted that "[c]areerists like Lin Biao, Jiang Qing and Kang Sheng, harbouring ulterior motives, made use of these errors and inflated them."

paragraph: Well before the start of the Cultural Revolution as such, Kang played his part in attacking rivals of Mao in the Party leadership, many of whom were unhappy with a range of policies including Mao's refusal to rehabilitate Peng Dehuai, the former Defense Minister and outspoken critic of the Great Leap Forward. In 1962, Kang used the publication of a novel about Liu Zhidan, a Party member killed in battle against the Kuomintang in 1936, as the basis for reviving the Gao Gang affair, successfully insinuating that the novel's publication was an effort by Xi Zhongxun and others to reverse the Party's verdict on Gao. As a result of this, Kang was promoted to the secretariat of the Central Committee at the 10th Plenum in August 1962. As MacFarquar writes,

paragraph: Two months later, [Kang] moved to the Diaoyutai guest complex in the capital to mastermind a team of ideologues for the campaign against Soviet revisionism. The most cynical hit-man of Mao's Cultural Revolution swat team was now an agent in place, helping to initiate the domestic and foreign policies that were the prelude to that cataclysm.

paragraph: In January 1965, Mao suggested to the Party Politburo that the principal enemies of socialism in China were "those people in authority within the Party who are taking the capitalist road" and urged that the Party undertake a "cultural revolution." The Politburo established a five-man group, chaired by Peng Zhen, its fifth-ranking member and head of the Beijing Party Organization and mayor of the capital city. Kang Sheng was named a member of the group, which remained dormant for most of the year.

paragraph: In early 1965, Mao sent his wife Jiang Qing to Shanghai to light the first spark of what would become the Cultural Revolution, the campaign against Wu Han, the Vice Mayor of Beijing and the author of the 1961 play "Hai Rui Dismissed from Office". The attack on Wu Han was an indirect attack on Beijing's mayor, Peng Zhen, a pillar of the establishment that Mao wanted overthrown. Kang's role in the subsequent purge of Peng was to co-lead with Chen Boda the prosecution of Mao's charge that "Peng Zhen, the Propaganda Department, and the Beijing Party Committee had shielded bad people while suppressing leftists." Following the purge of Peng Zhen in May 1966, the Central Committee later concluded, "Lin Biao, Jiang Qing, Kang Sheng, Zhang Chunqiao and others…exploited the situation to incite people to 'overthrow everything and wage full-scale civil war.'"

paragraph: In May 1966, Kang Sheng sent his wife, Cao Yi'ou, to Beijing University as part of a team designed to rally leftists against the university president, Lu Ping, and other officials aligned with Peng Zhen. Cao sought out Nie Yuanzi, a Party branch secretary in the Philosophy Department with whom Kang and Cao had become acquainted years earlier in Yan'an. With information from Cao Yi'ou that Lu Ping had lost high-level Party protection, Nie Yuanzi and her leftist allies launched a movement that over the next three months threw Beijing University into chaos. As Yue Daiyun wrote:

paragraph: With no limits imposed, no guidance offered, no one assuming responsibility for what occurred, and the Red Guards merely following their impulses, the assault upon their elders and the destruction of property grew completely out of control.

paragraph: During the Cultural Revolution, Kang Sheng was actively involved in controlling the CPC propaganda apparatus, being appointed head of the "Central Organization and Propaganda Leading Group", while Yao Wenyuan as head of another "Propaganda Leading Group". In November 1970, Kang was elevated to head of the Propaganda Department.

paragraph: In 1968, Mao and other leaders finally began to rein in the Red Guards, with Kang Sheng playing a leading role. In January Kang denounced the Hunan "shengwulian" coalition of Red Guards as "anarchists" and "Trotskyists," launching a campaign of brutal suppression over the following months by the army and secret police. By July, when Mao joked with a group of Red Guard leaders that he himself was the "black hand" suppressing campus revolutionaries, the glory days of the movement were ending.

paragraph: In the turbulent years of the Cultural Revolution, Kang remained close to the pinnacle of power and, as the "evil genius" within the Central Case Examination Group (the "CCEG") established by the CPC Politburo on May 24, 1966, was instrumental in Mao's efforts to purge many senior Party officials, including his most senior rival within the Party, Liu Shaoqi. In the subsequent trial of the so-called "Gang of Four," one of the accusations leveled against Jiang Qing was that she conspired "with Kang Sheng, Chen Boda, and others to take it upon themselves to convene the big meeting [on July 18, 1967] to apply struggle-and-criticism to Liu Shaoqi, and to carry out a search of his house, physically persecuting the Head of State of the People's Republic of China." Xiao Meng testified at the trial that "the slander and persecution of [Liu Shaoqi's wife] Wang Guangmei was plotted by Jiang Qing and Kang Sheng in person."

paragraph: Kang's position on the CCEG gave him enormous, if invisible power. The very existence of the CCEG remained a secret, "[y]et," as MacFarquar and Schoenhals write,

paragraph: During its thirteen-year existence, the CCEG had powers far exceeding not only those once exercised by the Party's Discipline Inspection Commission and Organization Department, but even those of the central public security and procuratorial organs and the courts. The CCEG made the decision to "ferret out," persecute, arrest, imprison and torture "revisionist" [Central Committee] members and many lesser political enemies. Its privileged employees were the Cultural Revolution equivalent of Vladimir Lenin's Cheka and Adolf Hitler's Gestapo. Whereas the [Central Cultural Revolution Group] at least nominally dealt in "culture," the CCEG dealt exclusively in violence. The CCEG was established as an "ad hoc" body but soon became a permanent institution with a staff of thousands that, at one point, was investigating no fewer than 88 members and alternate members of the Party Central Committee for suspected "treachery," "spying," and/or "collusion with the enemy."

paragraph: During the Cultural Revolution, Kang abused his position to personal advantage. A gifted painter and calligrapher, he used his power to indulge his penchant for collecting antiques and works of art, notably inkstones. According to Byron & Pack, many of the Cultural Revolution leaders also used the lawlessness of the period to acquire for themselves objects seized from the homes of persons attacked by Red Guards. But Kang, in a series of visits to the Cultural Relics Bureau, "helped himself to 12,080 volumes of rare books – more than were taken by any other radical leader, and 34 percent of all the rare books removed – and 1,102 antiques, 20 percent of the total. Only Lin Biao, who, as Mao's designated heir, ranked second in the land, appropriated more antiques than Kang."

paragraph: Kang Sheng was instrumental in supervising the drafting of the new Party Constitution, adopted at the CPC's Ninth Congress in April 1969, which reinstated "Mao Zedong Thought" alongside Marxism-Leninism as the theoretical basis for the Party. The Congress elected Kang as one of the five members of the Politburo Standing Committee, along with Mao, Lin Biao, Zhou Enlai and Chen Boda. At the Ninth Congress, Kang Sheng's wife, Cao Yi'ou, was herself elected to the Central Committee.

paragraph: The Constitution drafted under Kang's supervision and adopted at the Ninth Congress stipulated that "Comrade Lin Biao is Comrade Mao Zedong's close comrade-in-arms and successor." Kang Sheng and Lin Biao were not close allies, although Kang had earlier assisted Lin in his successful efforts to remove Marshal He Long, a formidable rival to Lin's wish to control the People's Liberation Army. In the wake of Lin Biao's aborted coup attempt and death in September 1971, Kang was careful to distance himself from Mao's disgraced former heir and from Chen Boda, who had been closely aligned with Lin at the Central Committee meeting in Lushan in August 1970 and who was denounced after Lin's fall as "China's Trotsky." Efforts to link Kang to Lin Biao's plotting were unsuccessful and unsubstantiated.

paragraph: Ill with the cancer that would eventually kill him, Kang last appeared in public at the Tenth Congress of the CPC, in August 1973. The Tenth Congress adopted a new Constitution that removed the embarrassing reference to Lin Biao as Mao Zedong's successor, but as a sign that his position had not been adversely affected, Kang Sheng was named one of five vice chairmen of the Party. In his final years, Kang became involved in the Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius campaign that was created by the beneficiaries of the Cultural Revolution to oppose Zhou Enlai and other veteran officials in the struggle over who would succeed Mao Zedong. Kang was initially active in supporting Jiang Qing, perhaps seeing her as a successor through whom he would exercise power. Kang subsequently shifted tack when it became apparent that Jiang was out of favor with Mao, even going so far as to denounce her as having betrayed the Party to the Kuomintang during the mid-1930s, notwithstanding his support for her when the same charge had been leveled 30 years earlier in Yan'an. Kang's final political act came only two months before his death, when he warned Mao Zedong that Deng Xiaoping opposed the Cultural Revolution and should be purged again, advice that Mao ignored.

paragraph: Section::::Support for the Khmer Rouge.

paragraph: Kang also left a lasting imprint on China's foreign policy. As MacFarquhar writes, "the dual role of Kang Sheng in Mao's campaign against revisionism at home and abroad symbolized the close relationship between Chinese domestic and foreign policy." Kang's contribution to the dispute with the Soviet Union about de-Stalinization has been described above in connection with his efforts to insinuate himself with Mao and developing the ideological origins of the Cultural Revolution.

paragraph: Perhaps Kang's most important influence over Chinese foreign policy came during the Cultural Revolution itself, when he was instrumental in developing Chinese support for the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. While the mainstream of the CPC leadership supported Prince Norodom Sihanouk as Cambodia's anti-Western and anti-imperialist leader, Kang argued that Khmer Rouge guerrilla leader Pol Pot was the real revolutionary leader in the Southeast Asian nation.

paragraph: Kang's backing of Pol Pot was an effort to back his own cause within the CPC, as his touting of Pol Pot as the true voice of the Cambodian revolution was in large part an attack on the Chinese Foreign Ministry, whose pragmatic support for Prince Sihanouk's regime was thereby presented as reactionary. As a result of his success in this, the Pol Pot regime came to power and the Khmer Rouge became the recipient of Chinese aid for years to come, prolonging the life of that movement with tragic consequences for Cambodia.

paragraph: Section::::Death and disgrace.

paragraph: Kang Sheng died of bladder cancer on December 16, 1975. He was given a formal funeral, attended by every member of the Politiburo except Mao, who did not attend funerals at this stage, and Zhou Enlai and Zhu De, who both were too weak to attend. Marshal Ye Jianying delivered a eulogy in which he praised Kang as "a proletarian revolutionary, a Marxist theoretician, and a glorious fighter against revisionism."

paragraph: In November 1978, Hu Yaobang voiced the first formal criticism of Kang in a speech to the Central Party School. Ruan Ming reports Hu as telling four of Kang's "anti-revisionist scribblers" that:

paragraph: you four people have played an extremely negative role in the liberation of thought, the role of a brake. As far as I'm concerned, this is because you have come too much under the influence of people like Kang Sheng. … Kang Sheng passed his time reading between the lines looking for "allusions" without taking account of the real subject of articles and the general idea. He made a sort of talent of looking for a particular point he could attack. He had learned this from Stalin, from Andrei Zhdanov and the KGB, and acted thus from the time of the Yan'an era.

paragraph: As fear of Kang subsided following the arrest of the Gang of Four and the return to power of Deng Xiaoping, criticisms of Kang Sheng grew and a special case group was established to investigate Kang's career. In late summer 1980, the special case group reported to the CPC Central Committee. In October 1980, just in advance of commencing the trial of the Gang of Four, Kang Sheng was posthumously expelled from the CPC and the Central Committee formally rescinded Marshal Ye Jianying's eulogy.

description: Chinese politician

wikidata_label: Kang Sheng

wikipedia_title: Kang Sheng


text:
Persian
Mughal empire
Tehran
Akbar
Kabul
Nur Jahan
Tehran
Khvajeh Mohammad-Sharif
vizier
Safavid
Khorasan
Shah Tahmasp I
Yazd
Abarkuh
Isfahan
Akbar
Asaf Khan
Kandahar
Asmat Begam
Mehrunnisa
Arabic
Persian
art
literature
music
dance
Mehrunissa
Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan
Mumtaz Mahal
Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan
Shah Jahan
Taj Mahal
Arjumand Banu Begum
Aurangzeb
Taj Mahal
Kangra
Kashmir
Yamuna river
Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daulah

categories: Iranian emigrants to the Mughal Empire,People from Tehran,1622 deaths,Mughal nobility,17th-century Iranian people,16th-century births

paragraph: Mirza Ghiyas Beg

paragraph: Mirza Ghiyas Beg (), also known by his title of I'timad-ud-Daulah (), was an important Persian official in the Mughal empire, whose children served as wives, mothers, and generals of the Mughal emperors.

paragraph: Born in Tehran, Ghiyas Beg belonged to a family of poets and high officials. Nevertheless, his fortunes fell into disfavor after the death of his father in 1576. Along with his pregnant wife Asmat Begum, and his three children, they immigrated to India. There he was received by the Mughal emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605), and was enrolled into his service. During the latters reign, Ghiyas Beg was appointed treasurer for the province of Kabul.

paragraph: His fortunes further increased during the reign of Akbar's son and successor Jahangir (r. 1605-1627), who in 1611 married his daughter Nur Jahan and appointed Ghiyas Beg as his Prime minister. By 1615, Ghiyas Beg had risen to further prominence, when he was given the status of 6,000 men and was given a standard and drums, a prestige normally restricted for distinguished princes.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Ghiyas Beg was a native of Tehran, and was the youngest son of Khvajeh Mohammad-Sharif, a poet and vizier of Mohammad Khan Tekkelu and his son Tatar Soltan, who was the governor of the Safavid province of Khorasan. Mohammad-Sharif was later listed under the service of Shah Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576), where he in the start served as the vizier of Yazd, Abarkuh, and Biabanak for seven years. Thereafter he was appointed as the vizier of Isfahan, and died there in 1576. Ghiyas Beg's elder brother, Mohammad-Taher Wasli, was a learned man who composed poetry under the pen name of Wasli.

paragraph: Section::::Immigration to India.

paragraph: After the death of Ghiyas' father, his family fell into disgrace. Hoping to improve his family’s fortunes, Ghiyas Beg chose to relocate to India where the Emperor Akbar's court was said to be at the centre of the growing trade industry and cultural scene. Half way along their route the family was attacked by robbers who took from them the remaining meager possessions they had.

paragraph: Left with only two mules, Ghiyas Beg, his pregnant wife, and their three children (Mohammad-Sharif, Asaf Khan and a daughter Sahlia) were forced to take turns riding on the backs of the animals for the remained of their journey. When the family arrived in Kandahar, Asmat Begam gave birth to their second daughter. The family was so impoverished they feared they would be unable to take care of the newborn baby. Fortunately, the family was taken in by a caravan led by the merchant noble Malik Masud, who would later assist Ghiyas Beg in finding a job in the service of Emperor Akbar. Believing that the child had signaled a change in the family’s fate, she was named Mehrunnisa, meaning "sun among women". Ghiyas Beg was the not the first member of his family to move to India—his cousin Asaf Khan Jafar Beg and the uncle of Asmat Begum, Mirza Ghiyasuddin Ali Asaf Khan, had been enrolled into the provincial assignments of Akbar.

paragraph: Section::::Service under the Mughal Empire.

paragraph: Ghiyas was later appointed "diwan" (treasurer) for the province of Kabul. Due to his astute skills at conducting business he quickly rose through the ranks of the high administrative officials. For his excellent work he was awarded the title of ‘‘Itimad-ud-Daula‘‘ (‘Pillar of the State’) by the emperor. As a result of his work and promotions, Ghiyas Beg was able to ensure that Mehirunnisa (the future Nur Jahan) would have the best possible education. She became well versed in Arabic and Persian. She also became well versed in art, literature, music and dance.

paragraph: Ghiyas' daughter, Mehrunissa (Nur Jahan) married Akbar's son Jahangir in 1611, and his son Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan served as a general to Jahangir.

paragraph: Ghiyas was also the grandfather of Mumtaz Mahal (originally named Arjumand Bano, daughter of Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan), the wife of the emperor Shah Jahan, responsible for the building of the Taj Mahal. Jahangir was succeeded by his son Shah Jahan, and Abdul Hasan served as one of Shah Jahan's closest advisors. Shah Jahan married Abdul Hasan's daughter Arjumand Banu Begum, Mumtāz Mahal, who was the mother of his four sons, including his successor Aurangzeb. Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal to serve as Mumtaz Mahal's tomb.

paragraph: Section::::Death and burial.

paragraph: Ghiyas Beg died near Kangra in 1622 while the Mughal camp was moving towards its summer residence in Kashmir. His body was carried back to Agra, where he was buried on the right bank of the Yamuna river. His burial place still stands till this day, and is known as Tomb of I'timad-ud-Daulah.

paragraph: Section::::Sources.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Keay, John (2000). "India: A History". Grove Press, New York.

description: official in the Mughal empire

wikidata_label: Mirza Ghiyas Beg

wikipedia_title: Mirza Ghiyas Beg


text:
Kannada poet
New style
Kannada literature
Mysore
Sagara
Udupi
Rabindranath Tagore
M.N.Roy
independence of India
British rule
Navya
Western literature
Kannada language
Kannada literature
Kannada poetry
Gopalakrishna Bharathi

categories: 1992 deaths,Bharatiya Jan Sangh politicians,20th-century Indian poets,Mangaloreans,Indian male poets,Hindu poets,People from Udupi district,University of Mysore faculty,1918 births,Kannada poets,Maharaja's College, Mysore alumni,Poets from Karnataka,Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Kannada

paragraph: Gopalakrishna Adiga

paragraph: Mogeri Gopalakrishna Adiga (1918–1992) was a modern Kannada poet. He is known by some commentators as the "pioneer of New style" poetry.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: As editor of "Saakshi" magazine he helped bring Kannada literature to the masses.

paragraph: Adiga's grandson is Manu Raju, Senior Political reporter for CNN.

paragraph: Section::::Work.

paragraph: In the 1950s and 1960s Adiga was a teacher in Mysore. From 1964 until 1968 he was the principal of Lal Bahadur College in Sagara, and from 1968 until 1971 he was Principal of Poorna Prajna College in Udupi. He later worked as the Deputy Director for the National Book Trust of India.

paragraph: Although Adiga taught English literature, he wrote almost exclusively in Kannada, except for a single poem in English on Rabindranath Tagore in 1961. It seems that he wrote this at the request of M.N.Roy for the "Radical Humanist" magazine.

paragraph: His style has been described as a response to the independence of India from British rule in 1947. The style called Navya was generally about the new times. Inspired by modern Western literature and Indian tradition, he set out to portray the "disillusionment and angst of the times".

paragraph: In 2007, Nadig brought out "Selected Poems, Gopalakrishna Adiga", a work commissioned by Bharatiya Sahitya Parishat (the Indian Academy of Literature).

paragraph: His poetic style is revealed in his 1957 poem "Prarthane" (Prayer).

paragraph: Prayer

paragraph: Lord, br

paragraph: plying the well-known pumps of heraldic praisebr

paragraph: your hirelings bend double; others, gouty wagtails,br

paragraph: lick the land for crumbs; one snuffs his candle outbr

paragraph: and seeks like a eunuch leechbr

paragraph: the warm marshes in the cracks of light;br

paragraph: another sissy gives his back to the time-fed rumpsbr

paragraph: and sheathes his dagger deep.br

paragraph: Lord, br

paragraph: I am not of these.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bhavataranga" - 1946

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Ananthe" - 1954 (novel)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bhoomi Geetha" - 1959

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Mannina Vasane" (book of essays) - 1966

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Vardhamana" - 1972

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Idanna Bayasiralilla" (poems) - 1975

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Samagra Kavya" (collection of poems) - 1976

paragraph: BULLET::::- " Sakshi" (Magazine) - 1962

paragraph: Section::::Quotes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "ಇರುವುದೆಲ್ಲವ ಬಿಟ್ಟು ಇರದುದರೆಡೆಗೆ ತುಡಿವುದೆ ಜೀವನ?" (Iruvudellava bittu iradudaredege tudivude jeevana?)

paragraph: Is life leaving everything we have and craving for things which we do not have?

paragraph: BULLET::::- "ಮೌನ ತಬ್ಬಿತು ನೆಲವ" (mouna tabbitu nelava)

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kannada language

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kannada literature

paragraph: BULLET::::- Kannada poetry

paragraph: BULLET::::- Gopalakrishna Bharathi

description: Kannada poet

wikidata_label: Gopalakrishna Adiga

wikipedia_title: Gopalakrishna Adiga


text:
linebacker
American football
Arizona Cardinals
undrafted free agent
college football
Virginia
Oakland Raiders
Detroit Lions
National Football League
Africa
China
London
United Nations
Colgate University
Suffield Academy
football
soccer
basketball
track
Virginia Cavaliers
NCAA
wide receiver
2005 NFL Draft
Arizona Cardinals
practice squad
Oakland Raiders
restricted free agent
2009 Pro Bowl
Detroit Lions
Oakland Raiders bio
Virginia Cavaliers bio

categories: Nigerian emigrants to the United States,Nigerian players of American football,Players of American football from New York (state),African-American players of American football,1981 births,Players of American football from Connecticut,Oakland Raiders players,American football linebackers,Virginia Cavaliers football players,Arizona Cardinals players,Living people

paragraph: Isaiah Ekejiuba

paragraph: Isaiah Afamefuna Ekejiuba [Eck-ah-ju-buh] (born October 5, 1981) is a former Nigerian-American linebacker of American football. He was originally signed by the Arizona Cardinals as an undrafted free agent in 2005. He played college football at Virginia.

paragraph: Ekejiuba has also played for the Oakland Raiders and the Detroit Lions of the National Football League.

paragraph: Section::::Early years.

paragraph: Ekejiuba was born in Nigeria and lived throughout parts of Africa, China and London while his mother worked for the United Nations, before moving to upstate New York where his mother taught at Colgate University.

paragraph: Ekejiuba attended high school at Suffield Academy, a boarding school in Connecticut. At Suffield, Ekejiuba played football his senior year and excelled in soccer, basketball and track.

paragraph: Section::::College career.

paragraph: In 2002, Ekejiuba joined the Virginia Cavaliers in the NCAA.

paragraph: Ekejiuba was on the Virginia football roster in the 2002 season as a wide receiver, but did not play in the whole season.

paragraph: Prior to the 2003 season, he switched his position to linebacker. Leading the special teams, Ekejiuba was awarded a scholarship prior to the start of the season. He played on the punt, punt return, kickoff and kickoff return units.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Arizona Cardinals.

paragraph: After going undrafted in the 2005 NFL Draft, Ekejiuba signed with the Arizona Cardinals. He spent training camp with the team but was released before the regular season.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Oakland Raiders.

paragraph: On September 6, 2005, Ekejiuba was signed to the practice squad of the Oakland Raiders. He spent the first seven weeks of the season there before being promoted to the active roster on October 28.

paragraph: A restricted free agent in the 2008 offseason, Ekejiuba was tendered a one-year contract by the Raiders. He was re-signed on April 14.

paragraph: Ekejiuba was a 3rd alternate for the 2009 Pro Bowl on special teams.

paragraph: On July 8, 2010 Ekejiuba was released.

paragraph: Section::::Professional career.:Detroit Lions.

paragraph: Ekejiuba signed with the Detroit Lions on July 23, 2010.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: The son of the late Felicia Ekejiuba, Ekejiuba has two brothers, Ben Umezurike and Sam Ekejiuba, and two sisters, Ada Umezurike and Felicia Ekejiuba. At the University of Virginia, he majored in electrical engineering.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Oakland Raiders bio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Virginia Cavaliers bio

paragraph: BULLET::::-

description: American football player

wikidata_label: Isaiah Ekejiuba

wikipedia_title: Isaiah Ekejiuba


text:
Republic of Ragusa
Marin Getaldić
Zadar
Šišmundo Getaldić-Gundulić
Austrian Empire
Ivan Gundulić
Croatian
Latin
hexameter
Zadar
Biagio Ghetaldi
Biagio Ghetaldi II

categories: Austrian male writers,19th-century Croatian people,1872 deaths,Austrian nobility,18th-century Croatian people,Latin-language writers,People from the Republic of Ragusa,Ragusan nobility,1788 births

paragraph: Vlaho Getaldić

paragraph: Vlaho Getaldić (also Biagio Ghetaldi; 22 December 1788 - 27 October 1872) was a Dalmatian writer, translator and politician from Dubrovnik.

paragraph: Born in the Republic of Ragusa. He was the grand-nephew of the renowned Marin Getaldić, and descendant of Gundulić family through his mother's line. He was member and president of the Council "Reign of Dalmatia" based in the city of Zadar, which consisted of eight individuals. Getaldić married Ana Božidarević. His cousin, the Mayor of Ragusa, Šišmundo Getaldić-Gundulić married with the sister of Malvina Božidarević.

paragraph: The Austrian Empire gave him the title of Baron in 1846. In 1865 Vlaho translated "Osman" (by Ivan Gundulić) from Croatian into Latin hexameters. In the short introduction, Vlaho gave the rules of his translations.br

paragraph: Also, Vlaho wrote poetry in Latin.

paragraph: Section::::Notes.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Caesareo principi archiduci Austriae Regio Ungariae et Bohemiae Principi etc. etc., Dalmatiam primum auspicatissime invisenti Blasius A. Ghetaldi Jadera, Battara, 1842. In 8¡, brossura, pp. n. 24

paragraph: BULLET::::- Vlaho Barone Getaldić, Francesco Conte di Borelli, "Discorsi sull'economia rurale in Dalmazia e particolarmente nel distretto di Zadar", Battara, Zadar 1850 .

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ioannis Francisci Gondulae pat. Rag. Osmanides Latinis. versibus expressa, Venetiis, 1865. (izbor).

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biagio Ghetaldi

paragraph: BULLET::::- Biagio Ghetaldi II

description: writer and politician

wikidata_label: Vlaho Getaldić

wikipedia_title: Vlaho Getaldić