text: Byzantine

text: Emperor

text: Michael II the Amorian

text: Slavic origin

text: Pontus

text: Turkey

text: Leo V the Armenian

text: Bardanes Tourkos

text: Asia Minor

text: themes

text: Abbasid Caliphate

text: laid siege to Constantinople

text: Bulgarian

text: khan

text: Omurtag

text: Arcadiopolis

text: Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium

text: Iconoclasm

text: Greek

text: Theophanes Continuatus

text: South Slavs resettled in Asia Minor

text: Byzantine emperor

text: Genesios

text: Armenian

text: Gaziura

text: Pontus

text: Bardanes Tourkos

text: Constantinople

text: patrikios

text: Arabs in Syria

text: Constantine VI

text: J.B. Bury

text: Abbasid Caliphate

text: Alexander Vasiliev

text: George the Monk

text: Lesbos

text: Paul Lemerle

text: Michael II

text: spatharios

text: monostrategos

text: themes

text: Nikephoros I

text: Leo V

text: hagiographic

text: Philomelion

text: Romilly James Heald Jenkins

text: Warren Treadgold

text: tagma

text: Excubitors

text: tourma

text: Foederati

text: Anatolic Theme

text: western emperor

text: Louis the Pious

text: Skylitzes

text: Alexander Kazhdan

text: exculpate

text: Symeon Logothetes

text: Patriarch

text: stutter

text: Athinganoi

text: Irene of Athens

text: regnal name

text: iconolatry

text: iconoclasm

text: restored

text: Macedonian-era

text: George Ostrogorsky

text: Hagarenes

text: India

text: Egyptians

text: Assyria

text: Medians

text: Abasgia

text: Zichs

text: Iberians

text: Kabirs

text: Slavs

text: Huns

text: Vandals

text: Getae

text: sectarians of Manes

text: Laz

text: Alania

text: Chaldia

text: Armenians

text: Greek

text: Amorion

text: Opsician Theme

text: Armeniac Theme

text: Thracesian Theme

text: Chaldia

text: al-Ma'mun

text: Khurramites

text: Babak Khorramdin

text: Antioch

text: Patriarch of Antioch

text: Job

text: Archbishop of Ephesus

text: Antony I Kassimates

text: siege machines

text: Cibyrrhaeot

text: Aegean Sea

text: Hellas

text: Gregory Pterotos

text: Skyros

text: Abydos

text: Thrace

text: Macedonia

text: tagma

text: city walls

text: Golden Horn

text: Theophilos

text: True Cross

text: Virgin Mary

text: Church of St. Mary

text: Blachernae

text: Greek fire

text: Greece

text: Sea of Marmara

text: Bulgaria

text: 30-year treaty

text: Omurtag

text: Kedouktos

text: Heraclea

text: Arcadiopolis

text: Bizye

text: Panion

text: Opsikion

text: Optimaton

text: prostrated

text: Logothete of the Course

text: brigandage

text: Iconium

text: Ancyra

text: magistros

text: triumph

text: Hippodrome

text: deacon Ignatios

text: Byzantine navy

text: Andalusian

text: Crete

text: Tunisia

text: Aghlabids

text: conquest of Sicily

text: List of sieges of Constantinople

categories: 9th-century Byzantine people,Byzantine usurpers,760s births,Executed Byzantine people,Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars,9th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire,People executed by impalement,823 deaths,Byzantine Pontians,Byzantine generals

paragraph: Thomas the Slav

paragraph: Thomas the Slav (,  – October 823) was a 9th-century Byzantine military commander, most notable for leading a wide-scale revolt in 821–23 against Emperor Michael II the Amorian ().

paragraph: An army officer of Slavic origin from the Pontus region (now north-eastern Turkey), Thomas rose to prominence, along with the future emperors Michael II and Leo V the Armenian (), under the protection of general Bardanes Tourkos. After Bardanes' failed rebellion in 803, Thomas fell into obscurity until Leo V's rise to the throne, when Thomas was raised to a senior military command in central Asia Minor. After the murder of Leo and usurpation of the throne by Michael the Amorian, Thomas revolted, claiming the throne for himself. Thomas quickly secured support from most of the themes (provinces) and troops in Asia Minor, defeated Michael's initial counter-attack and concluded an alliance with the Abbasid Caliphate. After winning over the maritime themes and their ships as well, he crossed with his army to Europe and laid siege to Constantinople. The imperial capital withstood Thomas's attacks by land and sea, while Michael II called for help from the Bulgarian ruler khan Omurtag. Omurtag attacked Thomas's army, but although repelled, the Bulgarians inflicted heavy casualties on Thomas's men, who broke and fled when Michael took to the field a few months later. Thomas and his supporters sought refuge in Arcadiopolis, where he was soon blockaded by Michael's troops. In the end, Thomas's supporters surrendered him in exchange for a pardon, and he was executed.

paragraph: Thomas's rebellion was one of the largest in the Byzantine Empire's history, but its precise circumstances are unclear due to competing historical narratives, which have come to include claims fabricated by Michael to blacken his opponent's name. Consequently, various motives and driving forces have been attributed to Thomas and his followers. As summarized by the "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium", "Thomas's revolt has been variously attributed to a reaction against Iconoclasm, a social revolution and popular uprising, a revolt by the Empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, Thomas's personal ambitions, and his desire to avenge Leo V." Its effects on the military position of the Empire, particularly vis-à-vis the Arabs, are also disputed.

paragraph: Section::::Early life and career.

paragraph: The 11th-century "Theophanes Continuatus" states that Thomas was descended from South Slavs resettled in Asia Minor by successive Byzantine emperors, while the 10th-century chronicler Genesios calls him "Thomas from Lake Gouzourou, of Armenian race". Most modern scholars support his Slavic descent and believe his birthplace to have been near Gaziura in the Pontus.

paragraph: Hence his epithet of "the Slav", which has been applied to him only in modern times. Nothing is known about his family and early life, except that his parents were poor and that Thomas himself had received no education. Given that he was between 50 and 60 years old at the time of the rebellion, he was probably born around 760.

paragraph: Two different accounts of Thomas's life are recounted in both Genesios and "Theophanes Continuatus". According to the first account, Thomas first appeared in 803 accompanying general Bardanes Tourkos, and pursued a military career until launching his revolt in late 820. In the second version, he came to Constantinople as a poor youth and entered the service of a man with the high court rank of "patrikios". Then, discovered trying to commit adultery with his master's wife, Thomas fled to the Arabs in Syria, where he remained for 25 years. Pretending to be the murdered emperor Constantine VI (r. 780–797), he then led an Arab-sponsored invasion of Asia Minor, but was defeated and punished. Classical and Byzantine scholar J.B. Bury tried to reconcile the two narratives, placing Thomas's flight to the Abbasid Caliphate at around 788 and then having him return to Byzantine service before 803, while the Russian scholar Alexander Vasiliev interpreted the sources as implying that Thomas fled to the Caliphate at Constantine VI's deposition in 797, and that his participation in Bardanes's revolt must be discounted entirely. The second version of Thomas's story is explicitly preferred by Genesios and "Theophanes Continuatus", and is the only one recorded in 9th-century sources, namely the chronicle of George the Monk and the "Life of Saints David, Symeon, and George of Lesbos". Nevertheless, the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle came to consider it an unreliable later tradition created by his rival Michael II to discredit Thomas, and rejected it altogether, preferring to rely on the first account alone. Most modern scholars follow him in this interpretation.

paragraph: The first tradition relates that Thomas served as a "spatharios" (staff officer) to Bardanes Tourkos, the "monostrategos" ("single-general", i.e. commander-in-chief) of the eastern themes, who in 803 rose in rebellion against Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). Alongside Thomas were two other young "spatharioi" in Bardanes's retinue, who formed a fraternal association: Leo the Armenian, the future Leo V, and Michael the Amorian, the future Michael II. According to a later hagiographic tradition, before launching his revolt, Bardanes, in the company of his three young protégés, is said to have visited a monk near Philomelion who was reputed to foresee the future. The monk predicted what would indeed happen: that Bardanes's revolt would fail, that Leo and Michael would both become emperors, and that Thomas would be acclaimed emperor and killed. When Bardanes did in fact rise up, he failed to win any widespread support. Leo and Michael soon abandoned him and defected to the imperial camp and were rewarded with senior military posts. Thomas alone remained loyal to Bardanes until his surrender. In the aftermath of Bardanes's failure, Thomas disappears from the sources for ten years. Bury suggests that he fled (for a second time according to his interpretation) to the Arabs, a view accepted by a number of other scholars, such as Romilly James Heald Jenkins. The historian Warren Treadgold, however, argues that Thomas stayed in the empire and that may have even remained in active military service, and explains his obscurity by Thomas's association with Bardanes, which hampered his career.

paragraph: In July 813, Leo the Armenian became emperor and quickly rewarded his old companions, giving them command over elite military forces. Michael received the "tagma" of the Excubitors (one of the professional guard cavalry regiments stationed around Constantinople), and Thomas the "tourma" (division) of the "Foederati", stationed in the Anatolic Theme.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Background and motives.

paragraph: On Christmas Day 820, Leo was murdered in the palace chapel by officials under the direction of Michael the Amorian, who was quickly crowned emperor. At about the same time, Thomas launched a rebellion in the Anatolic Theme. Sources are divided on the exact chronology and motives of the revolt. George the Monk, the hagiographic sources, and a letter from Michael II to the western emperor Louis the Pious claim that Thomas had risen up against Leo before Michael's usurpation. This chronology is followed by almost all later Byzantine chroniclers like Genesios, "Theophanes Continuatus", and Skylitzes, as well as a number of modern scholars like John B. Bury and Alexander Kazhdan. In his study of Thomas and the revolt, Paul Lemerle dismisses this timeline as a later attempt by Michael to justify his revolt as a response to Leo's failure to suppress the rebellion, and to exculpate himself of the early defeats suffered by the imperial forces. Some recent studies follow Lemerle and prefer the account of Symeon Logothetes—generally considered the most accurate of the 10th-century sources—according to which Thomas rebelled a few days after the murder of Leo and in reaction to it.

paragraph: Consequently, the empire became divided in a struggle that was less a rebellion against the established government and more a contest for the throne between equal contenders. Michael held Constantinople and the European provinces, controlled the imperial bureaucracy, and had been properly crowned by the Patriarch, but he had come to the throne through murder, while Thomas gained support and legitimacy through his claim to avenge the fallen Leo, and he won the backing of themes both in Asia and later in Europe. Thomas was a well-known, popular, and respected figure in Asia Minor, where Leo V had enjoyed considerable support. Michael, on the other hand, was virtually unknown outside the capital; his military record was unremarkable, he was uneducated and coarse of manner, his stutter earned him ridicule, and he was reputed to sympathize with the heretical religious sect of the Athinganoi, to which his family had belonged.

paragraph: Byzantine accounts of Thomas's rebellion state that he did not in fact claim the throne under his own name but assumed the identity of Emperor Constantine VI, who had been deposed and murdered by his mother, Irene of Athens, in 797. Most modern scholars follow Lemerle, who dismisses this as yet another later fabrication. If it contains any truth, it is possible that this story may originate from Thomas choosing to be crowned under the regnal name of "Constantine", but there is no evidence for such an act. The possible appropriation of Constantine VI's identity is linked in some Byzantine sources with the statement that Thomas was a rumoured supporter of iconolatry, as opposed to Michael's support for iconoclasm: it was under Constantine VI that veneration of the icons was restored. Nevertheless, the ambiguous phrasing of the sources, the iconoclast leanings of many themes in Asia Minor, and Thomas's alliance with the Arabs seem to speak against any open commitment to icon worship on his part. Indeed, given Michael II's conciliatory approach during his early reign, the icon worship controversy does not seem to have been a major issue at the time, and in the view of modern scholars most probably did not play a major role in Thomas's revolt. The image of Thomas as an iconophile champion opposed to the iconoclast Michael II in later, Macedonian-era sources was probably the result of their own anti-iconoclast bias. Warren Treadgold furthermore suggests that if true, Thomas's claim to be Constantine VI may have been little more than a tale circulated to win support, and that Thomas pursued a "studied ambiguity" towards icons, designed to attract support from iconophiles. In Treadgold's words, "Thomas could be all things to all men until he had conquered the whole empire, and then he would have time enough to disappoint some of his followers".

paragraph: The account of "Theophanes Continuatus" on Thomas's revolt states that in this time, "the servant raised his hand against his master, the soldier against his officer, the captain against his general". This has led some scholars, chiefly Alexander Vasiliev and George Ostrogorsky, to regard Thomas's revolt as an expression of widespread discontent among the rural population, which suffered under heavy taxation. Other Byzantinists, notably Lemerle, dismiss rural discontent as a primary factor during the revolt.

paragraph: Genesios and other chroniclers further state that Thomas won the support of "Hagarenes, Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medians, Abasgians, Zichs, Iberians, Kabirs, Slavs, Huns, Vandals, Getae, the sectarians of Manes, Laz, Alanians, Chaldians, Armenians and every kind of other peoples". This has led to modern claims that Thomas's rebellion represented an uprising of the empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, but according to Lemerle, this exaggerated account is yet another piece of hostile disinformation. It is almost certain, however, that Thomas could count on support among the empire's Caucasian neighbours, for the presence of Abasgians, Armenians, and Iberians in his army is mentioned in the near-contemporary letter of Michael II to Louis the Pious. The reasons for this support are unclear; Thomas may have made unspecified promises to their rulers, but Lemerle suggests that the Armenians might have in part been motivated by revenge for Leo, their murdered kinsman.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Outbreak and spread of the revolt in Asia Minor.

paragraph: As commander of the "Foederati", Thomas was based at Amorion, the capital of the Anatolic Theme. Although junior to the theme's "strategos" (military governor), his proclamation received widespread support throughout Asia Minor. Within a short time, all the Asian themes supported Thomas, except for the Opsician Theme under the patrician Katakylas, a nephew of Michael II, and the Armeniac Theme, under its "strategos", Olbianos. The Thracesian Theme wavered between the two rivals, but finally threw its support behind Thomas. More than two-thirds of the empire's Asian army eventually aligned with Thomas, while the defection of the provincial tax officials provided him with much-needed revenue.

paragraph: Michael's first response was to order the Armeniac army to attack Thomas. The Armeniacs were easily defeated in battle and Thomas proceeded through the eastern parts of the Armeniac Theme to occupy the frontier region of Chaldia. His conquest of the Armeniac province was left incomplete because the Abbasids, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war, launched raids by land and sea against southern Asia Minor, where Thomas had left few troops. Instead of returning to face these raids, Thomas launched a large-scale invasion of his own against Abbasid territory in spring 821, either in Syria (according to Bury and others) or in Arab-held Armenia (according to Treadgold). Thomas then sent an emissary to the Caliph al-Ma'mun, who was sufficiently impressed by Thomas's show of force to receive his proposals, especially in view of the Caliphate's own problems with the rebellion of the Khurramites under Babak Khorramdin. Thomas and Ma'mun concluded a treaty of peace and mutual alliance. The Caliph allowed Thomas to recruit men from Arab-ruled territories, and gave leave for him to cross the border and travel to Arab-held Antioch, where he was crowned emperor by the iconophile Patriarch of Antioch, Job. In exchange, Thomas is said to have promised to cede unspecified territories and become a tributary vassal of the Caliph, though the agreement's exact terms are left unclear in the sources. At about the same time, Thomas adopted a young man of obscure origin, whom he named Constantius and made his co-emperor.

paragraph: Meanwhile, Michael II tried to win support among the iconophiles by appointing a relative of his as Archbishop of Ephesus, but his plan failed when the latter refused to be consecrated by the avowedly iconoclast Patriarch Antony I Kassimates. In an effort to consolidate his hold on the provinces, and especially the two Asian themes still loyal to him, Michael proclaimed a 25 percent reduction in taxes for 821–822.

paragraph: By summer 821, Thomas had consolidated his position in the East, though the Opsician and Armeniac themes still eluded his control. He set his sights on the ultimate prize, Constantinople, the possession of which alone conferred full legitimacy to an emperor. Thomas assembled troops, gathered supplies, and built siege machines. To counter the powerful Imperial Fleet stationed in the capital, he built new ships to augment his existing fleet, which came from the Cibyrrhaeot and Aegean Sea naval themes, and possibly included task forces from the theme of Hellas. Thomas recalled Gregory Pterotos, a general and nephew of Leo V whom Michael had exiled to the island of Skyros, and gave him command of the fleet. By October, the thematic fleets loyal to Thomas had finished assembling at Lesbos, and Thomas's army began marching from the Thracesian Theme towards Abydos, where he intended to cross over into Europe.

paragraph: At this point, Thomas suffered his first reversal of fortune: before his departure for Abydos, he had sent an army under his adoptive son Constantius against the Armeniacs. Constantius was ambushed by "strategos" Olbianos and killed, although the army was able to withdraw with relatively few casualties. Constantius's severed head was sent to Michael, who dispatched it to Thomas at Abydos. Thomas was undaunted by this relatively minor setback, and crossed over into Europe some time in late October or early November. There, Constantius was soon replaced as co-emperor by another obscure individual, a former monk whom Thomas also adopted and named Anastasius.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Siege of Constantinople.

paragraph: Anticipating Thomas's move, Michael had gone out at the head of an army to the themes of Thrace and Macedonia in Constantinople's European hinterland and strengthened the garrisons of several fortresses there to secure the loyalty of their populace. When Thomas landed, the people of the European themes welcomed him with enthusiasm, and Michael was forced to withdraw to Constantinople. Volunteers, including many Slavs, flocked to Thomas's banner. As he set out towards Constantinople, chroniclers recount that his army swelled to some 80,000 men. The capital was defended by the imperial "tagmata", augmented by reinforcements from the Opsician and Armeniac themes. Michael had ordered the city walls to be repaired, and chained off the entrance to the Golden Horn, while the Imperial Fleet further guarded the capital from the sea. Nevertheless, judging from Michael's passive stance, his forces were inferior to Thomas's; Warren Treadgold estimates Michael's army to have numbered approximately 35,000 men.

paragraph: Thomas's fleet arrived at the capital first. Facing no opposition from the Imperial Fleet, the rebels broke or unfastened the chain and entered the Golden Horn, taking station near the mouths of the Barbysos river, where they awaited the arrival of Thomas and his army. Thomas arrived in early December. The sight of his huge force did not cow the capital's inhabitants: unlike the provinces, the capital's citizens and garrison stood firmly behind Michael. To further encourage his troops, Michael had his young son Theophilos lead a procession along the walls, carrying a piece of the True Cross and the mantle of the Virgin Mary, while a large standard was hoisted on top of the Church of St. Mary at Blachernae, in full view of both armies.

paragraph: After subduing the cities around the capital, Thomas resolved to attack Constantinople from three sides, perhaps hoping his assault would impress its inhabitants or lead to defections. His deputies Anastasius and Gregory Pterotos would attack the Theodosian land and sea walls, respectively, while he would lead the main attack against the less formidable defenses protecting Blachernae. All of Thomas's forces were amply supplied with siege engines and catapults, and his fleet fielded quantities of Greek fire in addition to large shipborne catapults. Each of Thomas's attacks failed: the defenders' artillery proved superior and kept Thomas's engines away from the land walls, while adverse winds hindered the fleet from taking any meaningful action. Deciding that operations in the midst of winter were hazardous and unlikely to succeed, Thomas suspended all further attacks until spring and withdrew his army to winter quarters.

paragraph: Michael used the respite to ferry in additional reinforcements from Asia Minor and repair the walls of Blachernae. When Thomas returned in spring, he decided to focus his attack on the Blachernae sector. Before the offensive, Michael himself ascended the walls and addressed Thomas's troops, exhorting them to abandon their commander and promising amnesty if they would defect. Thomas's army viewed the plea as a sign of weakness, and advanced confidently to begin the assault, but as they neared the wall, the defenders opened the gates and attacked. The sudden onslaught drove back Thomas's army; at the same time, the Imperial Fleet defeated Thomas's ships, whose crews broke and fled to the shore in panic. This defeat diminished Thomas's naval strength, and although he continued blockading the capital by land, the loss demoralized his supporters, who began defecting. Gregory Pterotos, whose family was in Michael's hands, resolved to desert Thomas, followed by a small band of men loyal to him. He departed the rebel camp, headed west, and sent a monk to inform Michael of his defection, but the monk failed to circumvent the blockade and reach the capital. Upon learning of this defection, Thomas reacted quickly: with a select detachment, he followed Gregory, defeated his troops and killed the deserter.

paragraph: Thomas exploited this small victory for all it was worth, widely proclaiming that he had defeated Michael's troops "by land and sea". He sent messages to the themes of Greece, whose support had been lukewarm until that point, demanding additional ships. The themes responded forcefully, sending their squadrons, allegedly numbering 350 vessels, to join him. Thus reinforced, Thomas decided to launch a two-pronged assault against Constantinople's sea walls, with his original fleet attacking the wall of the Golden Horn, and the new fleet attacking the south coast, looking towards the Sea of Marmara. Michael, however, did not remain idle: his own fleet attacked the thematic force soon after it arrived at its anchorage in Byrida. Using Greek fire, the Imperial Fleet destroyed many of the rebel vessels and captured most of the remaining ships. Only a few managed to escape and rejoin Thomas's forces.

paragraph: Through this victory, Michael secured control of the sea, but Thomas's army remained superior on land and continued its blockade of Constantinople. Minor skirmishes ensued for the remainder of the year, with Michael's forces sallying forth from the city to attack Thomas's forces. Although both sides claimed minor successes in these clashes, neither was able to gain a decisive advantage.

paragraph: Michael turned to the empire's northern neighbour, Bulgaria, for help. The two states were bound by a 30-year treaty signed under Leo V, and the Bulgarian ruler, khan Omurtag (r. 814–831), was happy to respond to Michael's request for assistance. A later tradition, reported by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus, holds that Omurtag acted of his own accord and against Michael's will, but this is almost universally rejected as a version started or at least encouraged by Michael, who did not wish to be seen encouraging "barbarians" to invade the empire. The Bulgarian army invaded Thrace, probably in November 822 (Bury believes that the Bulgarian attack occurred in spring 823), and advanced towards Constantinople. Thomas raised the siege, and marched to meet them with his army. The two armies met at the plain of Kedouktos near Heraclea (hence known as the Battle of Kedouktos in the Byzantine sources) . The accounts of the subsequent battle differ: the later sources state that Thomas lost the battle, but the near-contemporary George the Monk states that Thomas "killed many Bulgarians". Given the lack of Bulgarian activity after the battle, most modern scholars (with the notable exception of Bury) believe that Thomas won the battle.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Defeat and death of Thomas, end of the revolt.

paragraph: Thomas was unable to resume the siege: aside from the heavy casualties his army likely suffered, his fleet, which he had left behind in the Golden Horn, surrendered to Michael during his absence. Thomas set up camp at the plain of Diabasis some west of Constantinople, spending winter and early spring there. While a few of his men deserted, the bulk remained loyal. Finally, in late April or early May 823, Michael marched with his troops against Thomas, accompanied by the generals Olbianos and Katakylas with new troops from Asia Minor. Thomas marched to meet them and planned to use a stratagem to outwit his opponents: his men, ostensibly demoralized, would pretend to flee, and when the imperial army broke ranks to pursue them, they would turn back and attack. However, Thomas's troops were by now weary of the prolonged conflict, and their submission was unfeigned. Many surrendered to Michael, while others fled to nearby fortified cities. Thomas sought refuge in Arcadiopolis with a large group; his adopted son Anastasius went with some of Thomas's men to Bizye, and others fled to Panion and Heraclea.

paragraph: Michael blockaded Thomas's cities of refuge but organized no assaults, instead aiming to capture them peacefully by wearing out their defenders. His strategy was motivated by the political and propaganda expedient of appearing merciful—"in order to spare Christian blood", as Michael himself put it in his letter to Louis the Pious—but also, according to the chroniclers, by fear of demonstrating to the Bulgarians that the Byzantine cities' fortifications could fall to attack. In Asia Minor, Thomas's partisans hoped to lure Michael away by allowing the Arabs free passage to raid the provinces of Opsikion and Optimaton, which were loyal to the emperor. Michael was unmoved and continued the blockade. His troops barred access to Arcadiopolis with a ditch. To conserve supplies, the blockaded troops sent away women and children, followed by those too old, wounded, or otherwise incapable of bearing arms. After five months of blockade, Thomas's loyalists were eventually forced to eat starved horses and their hides. Some began deserting by lowering themselves with ropes over the city walls or jumping from them. Thomas sent messengers to Bizye, where the blockade was less close, to arrange a relief attempt by Anastasius. Before anything could be done, however, the exhausted troops at Arcadiopolis surrendered their leader in exchange for an imperial pardon. Thomas was delivered to Michael seated on a donkey and bound in chains. He was prostrated before the emperor, who placed his foot on his defeated rival's neck and ordered his hands and feet cut off and his corpse impaled. Thomas pleaded for clemency with the words "Have mercy on me, oh True Emperor!" Michael only asked his captive to reveal whether any of his own senior officials had had dealings with Thomas. Before Thomas could respond, the Logothete of the Course, John Hexaboulios, advised against hearing whatever claims a defeated rebel might make. Michael agreed, and Thomas's sentence was carried out immediately.

paragraph: When the inhabitants of Bizye heard of Thomas's fate, they surrendered Anastasius, who suffered the same fate as Thomas. In Panion and Heraclea, Thomas's men held out until an earthquake struck in February 824. The tremor severely damaged the wall of Panion, and the city surrendered. The damage at Heraclea was less severe, but after Michael landed troops at its seaward side, it too was forced to surrender. In Asia Minor, Thomas's loyalists mostly submitted peacefully, but in the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, resistance lingered until suppressed by "strategos" John Echimos. In the Thracesian theme, Thomas's soldiers turned to brigandage. The most serious opposition was offered in central Asia Minor by two officers, who had possibly served Thomas as "strategoi": Choireus, with his base at Kaballa northwest of Iconium, and Gazarenos Koloneiates, based at Saniana, southeast of Ancyra. From their strongholds, they spurned Michael's offer of a pardon and the high title of "magistros" and raided the provinces that had gone over to him. Soon, however, Michael's agents persuaded the inhabitants of the two forts to shut their gates against the officers. Choireus and Koloneiates then tried to seek refuge in Arab territory but were attacked en route by loyalist troops, captured, and crucified.

paragraph: Section::::Rebellion.:Aftermath and effects.

paragraph: The end of Thomas the Slav's great rebellion was marked by Michael II's triumph, held in May 824 in Constantinople. While he executed Thomas's volunteers from the Caliphate and perhaps also the Slavs, the sheer number of individuals involved, the necessity of appearing clement and sparing with Christian lives, and the need to restore internal tranquillity to his realm compelled Michael to treat Thomas's defeated partisans with leniency: most were released after being paraded in the Hippodrome during his celebration, and only the most dangerous were exiled to remote corners of the empire. In an effort to discredit his opponent, Michael authorized an "official" and heavily distorted version of Thomas's life and revolt. The document was written by the deacon Ignatios and published in 824 as "Against Thomas". This report quickly became the commonly accepted version of events.

paragraph: Thomas failed in spite of his qualities and the widespread support he had gained, which brought him control of most of the empire. Lemerle holds that several factors played a role in his defeat: the Asian themes he did not subdue supplied reinforcements to Michael; Thomas's fleet performed badly; and the Bulgarian offensive diverted him away from the capital and weakened his army. But the most decisive obstacles were the impregnable walls of Constantinople, which ensured that an emperor who controlled Constantinople could only be overthrown from within the city.

paragraph: Thomas's rebellion was the "central domestic event" of Michael II's reign, but it was not very destructive in material terms: except for Thrace, which had suffered from the prolonged presence of the rival armies and the battles fought there, the larger part of the empire was spared the ravages of war. The Byzantine navy suffered great losses, with the thematic fleets in particular being devastated, while the land forces suffered comparatively few casualties. This is traditionally held to have resulted in a military weakness and internal disorder which was swiftly exploited by the Muslims: in the years after Thomas's rebellion, Andalusian exiles captured Crete and the Tunisian Aghlabids began their conquest of Sicily, while in the East, the Byzantines were forced to maintain a generally defensive stance towards the Caliphate. More recent scholarship has disputed the degree to which the civil war was responsible for Byzantine military failures during these years, citing other reasons to explain them: Warren Treadgold opines that the empire's military forces recovered fairly quickly, and that incompetent military leadership coupled with "the remoteness of Sicily, the absence of regular troops on Crete, the simultaneity of the attacks on both islands, and the government's long-standing lack of interest in sea-power" were far more responsible for the loss of the islands.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of sieges of Constantinople

description: Byzantine military commander

wikidata_label: Thomas the Slav

wikipedia_title: Thomas the Slav


href: Saint-Rambert-en-Bugey Ain Lyon Mayor%20%28France%29 Lyon

text: Saint-Rambert-en-Bugey Ain Lyon Mayor Lyon

categories: Senators of Rhône (department),People from Ain,Mayors of Lyon,1910 births,20th-century French women politicians,2009 deaths,Women mayors of places in France

paragraph: Francisque Collomb

paragraph: Francisque Collomb (Saint-Rambert-en-Bugey, Ain 19 December 1910 – Lyon, 24 July 2009) was a French politician and the Mayor of Lyon from 1976 to 1989.

description: French politician

wikidata_label: Francisque Collomb

wikipedia_title: Francisque Collomb


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text: Chiapas conflict

text: nom de guerre

text: Tampico

text: Tamaulipas

text: National Autonomous University of Mexico

text: Autonomous Metropolitan University

text: Zapatista Army of National Liberation

text: Lacandon Jungle

text: Mayan people

text: Vicente Fox

text: The Other Campaign

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text: Gabriel García Márquez

text: Instituto Cultural Tampico

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text: Tlatelolco massacre

text: Maoist

text: Chiapas

text: Mayan

text: proletarian

text: bourgeoisie

text: urban workers

text: property

text: A Place Called Chiapas

text: Nicaragua

text: Sandinistas

text: FMLN

text: foco

text: Mercedes del Carmen Guillén Vicente

text: Institutional Revolutionary Party

text: Ernesto Zedillo

text: Zapatistas

text: Javier Elorriaga Berdegue

text: Mexican Army

text: Lacandon Jungle

text: Lacandon Jungle

text: Esteban Moctezuma

text: Manuel Camacho Solis

text: Mexican

text: Max Appedole

text: Edén Pastora

text: Luis Maldonado

text: Chiapas

text: Luis Maldonado

text: Ejido

text: Attorney General of Mexico

text: Javier Elorriaga Berdegué

text: fable

text: Euskadi Ta Askatasuna

text: La Historia de los Colores

text: Mayan

text: creation myth

text: diversity

text: National Endowment for the Arts

text: William J. Ivey

text: Lannan Foundation

text: Marxist

text: Libertarian socialism

text: Anarchism

text: ironic

text: romantic

text: The Uncomfortable Dead

text: Paco Ignacio Taibo II

text: neoliberalism

text: globalization

text: Cold War

text: economic globalization

text: Cold War

text: neutron bomb

text: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: polis

text: neoliberalism

text: neoliberalism

text: neoliberalism

text: Maastricht Treaty

text: Fidel Castro

text: Argentine

text: Che Guevara

text: Evo Morales

text: Hugo Chavez

text: Venezuela

text: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva

text: Daniel Ortega

text: Other Campaign

text: Liga MX

text: Chiapas F.C.

text: Querétaro

text: Serie A

text: Inter Milan

text: Massimo Moratti

text: Diego Maradona

text: Javier Zanetti

text: Zapatista Army of National Liberation

text: Chiapas

text: Anti-globalization

text: Global justice movement

text: Left-wing politics

text: Profile: The Zapatistas' mysterious leader

text: BBC News

text: Subcomandante Marcos tribute web page

text: "A Place Called Chiapas"

text: Writings of Subcomandante Marcos

text: From Che to Marcos

text: Dissent Magazine

categories: Mexican anarchists,Anarcho-communists,1957 births,People from Tampico, Tamaulipas,Mexican revolutionaries,National Autonomous University of Mexico alumni,Members of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation,Indigenous rights activists,1995 in Mexico,Mexican political writers,Mexican rebels,Living people

paragraph: Subcomandante Marcos

paragraph: Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente (born ) is a Mexican insurgent and former military leader and spokesman of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) during the Chiapas conflict. Widely known by his previous "nom de guerre" as Subcomandante Marcos, he has recently used several other pseudonyms; he referred to himself as Delegate Zero during the 2006 Mexican Presidential Campaign. In May 2014 he adopted the name of his dead comrade "Teacher Galeano", naming himself Subcomandante Galeano instead.

paragraph: Born in Tampico, Tamaulipas, Marcos earned a degree in sociology and a master's degree in philosophy from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and taught at the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) for several years during the early 1980s. During this time he became increasingly involved with a guerrilla group known as the National Liberation Forces (FLN), before leaving the university and moving to Chiapas in 1984.

paragraph: The Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) (Zapatista Army of National Liberation) was founded in the Lacandon Jungle in 1983, initially functioning as a self-defense unit dedicated to protecting Chiapas' Mayan people from evictions and encroachment on their land. While not Mayan himself, Marcos emerged as the group's leader, and when the EZLN – often referred to as Zapatistas – began their rebellion on January 1, 1994, Marcos served as their spokesman.

paragraph: Known for his trademark ski mask and pipe, and for his charismatic personality, Marcos led the EZLN during the 1994 revolt and the subsequent peace negotiations, during a counter-offensive by the Mexican Army in 1995, and throughout the decades that followed. In 2001, he led a group of Zapatista leaders into Mexico City to meet with President Vicente Fox, attracting widespread public and media attention. In 2006, Marcos made another public tour of Mexico, which was known as The Other Campaign. In May 2014, Marcos stated that the persona of Subcomandante Marcos had been "a hologram" and no longer existed. Many media outlets interpreted the message as Marcos retiring as the Zapatistas' leader and spokesman.

paragraph: Marcos is also a prolific writer, and hundreds of essays and multiple books are attributed to him. Most of his writings focus on his anti-capitalist ideology and the advocacy for indigenous people's rights, but he has also written poetry and novels.

paragraph: Section::::Early life.

paragraph: Guillén was born on 19 June 1957, in Tampico, Tamaulipas, to Alfonso Guillén and Maria del Socorro Vincente. He was the fourth of eight children. A former elementary school teacher, Alfonso owned a chain of furniture stores, and the family is usually described – including by Guillén himself – as middle class. In a 2001 interview with Gabriel García Márquez and Roberto Pombo, he described his upbringing as middle class, and "without financial difficulties". According to Guillén, his parents fostered a love for language and reading in their children.

paragraph: Guillén attended high school at the Instituto Cultural Tampico, a Jesuit school in Tampico. Later, he moved to Mexico City and graduated from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), majoring in Philosophy. There he became immersed in the school's pervasive Marxist rhetoric of the 1970s and 1980s and won an award for the best dissertation (drawing on the then-recent work of Althusser and Foucault) of his class. He began working as a professor at the Autonomous Metropolitan University (UAM) while finishing his dissertation at UNAM, but left after a couple of years. It is thought that it was at UAM where Rafael got in touch with the Forces of National Liberation, the mother organization of what would later become the EZLN.

paragraph: Marcos was radicalized by the Tlatelolco massacre (2 October 1968) of students and civilians by the Mexican federal government; consequently, he became a militant in the Maoist National Liberation Forces. In 1983, he went to the mountains of Chiapas to convince the poor, indigenous Mayan population to organize and launch a proletarian revolution against the Mexican bourgeoisie and the federal government. After hearing his proposition, the Chiapanecs "just stared at him," and replied that they were not urban workers, and that from their perspective the land was not property, but the heart of the community. In the documentary "A Place Called Chiapas" (1998), about his early days there, Subcommander Marcos said:

paragraph: There are several rumors that Marcos left Mexico in the mid-1980s to go to Nicaragua to serve with the Sandinistas under the "nom de guerre" El Mejicano. After leaving Nicaragua in the late 1980s, he returned to Mexico and helped form the EZLN with support from the Sandinistas and the Salvadoran leftist guerrilla group FMLN. Some believe that this contradicts the view that the first Zapatista organizers were in the jungle by 1983, however it is known that the real founders of the EZLN "foco" were the brothers Fernando ( "German") and Cesar (a.k.a. "Pedro") Yañez-Muñoz, who were previously part of the FLN guerrillas. Marcos took over the remnants of the FLN after Pedro was killed and German captured.

paragraph: Guillén's sister Mercedes del Carmen Guillén Vicente is the Attorney General of the State of Tamaulipas, and an influential member of the Institutional Revolutionary Party.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Military site.

paragraph: Once Subcomandante Marcos was identified as Rafael Sebastián Guillén Vicente, on 9 February 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo decided to launch a military offensive to capture or annihilate Marcos and the Zapatistas. Arrest warrants were issued for Marcos, Javier Elorriaga Berdegue, Silvia Fernández Hernández, Jorge Santiago, Fernando Yanez, German Vicente, Jorge Santiago and other Zapatistas. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) was besieged by the Mexican Army in the Lacandon Jungle.

paragraph: Marcos' resolve was put to the test in his camp in the Lacandon Jungle when the Zapatistas were under military siege by the Mexican Army. Marcos' response was immediate, sending Secretary of the Interior Lic. Esteban Moctezuma the following message: "See you in hell." There were conflicting signals in favor of a fast military solution. The facts seemed to confirm Manuel Camacho Solis' 16 June 1994 assertion that the reason for his resignation as the Chiapas Peace Commissioner was due to sabotage done by the presidential candidate Ernesto Zedillo.

paragraph: Under the political pressure of a highly radicalized situation, Moctezuma believed a peaceful solution was possible. He championed a negotiated solution to the 1995 Zapatista Crisis, betting on a creative strategy to re-establish Mexican–EZLN dialog. Taking a strong position against the 9 February actions, Moctezuma submitted his resignation to President Zedillo. Zedillo refused the resignation and asked Moctezuma to try to restore conditions that would allow dialog and an attempt at negotiation. For these reasons the Mexican army moderated their actions, providing an opportunity that Marcos capitalized upon to escape the military site in the Lacandon Jungle.

paragraph: Faced with this situation, Max Appedole, a childhood friend of Guillén and colleague at the Jesuits College Instituto Cultural Tampico, asked for help from Edén Pastora, the legendary Nicaraguan "Commander Zero"; they prepared a report for Under-Secretary of the Interior Luis Maldonado, Moctezuma, and President Zedillo about Marcos' natural pacifist vocation and the consequences of a military outcome.

paragraph: The document concluded that the complaints of marginalized groups and the radical left in México have been vented through the Zapatistas movement, while Marcos maintained an open negotiating track. If Marcos was to be eliminated, his work at social containment would cease and more-radical groups could take control of the movement. These groups would respond to violence with violence, threatening terrorist bombings, kidnappings and belligerent activities. The country would be in a very dangerous spiral, with discontent in areas other than Chiapas

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Decree for reconciliation and peace.

paragraph: On 10 March 1995 President Zedillo and Secretary of the Interior Moctezuma signed the Presidential Decree for the Dialog, the Reconciliation and a Peace with Dignity in Chiapas Law. It was discussed and approved by the Mexican Congress.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Restoration of the peace talks.

paragraph: On the night of 3 April 1995 at 8:55 pm the first meeting between representatives of the EZLN and those of the Zedillo's government were held. Moctezuma sent his under secretary, Luis Maldonado, to deliver a letter to Zapatista representatives in radio communication with Marcos. The letter expressed the Secretary of Interior's commitment to find a political path to resolve the conflict.

paragraph: In contrast to many other talks – with broad media exposure, strong security measures, and great ceremony – Maldonado decided on secret talks, alone, without any disruptive security measures. He went to the Lacandon Jungle to meet with Marcos. Secret negotiations took place in Prado Pacayal, Chiapas, witnessed by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Batel. Marcos and Maldonado established parameters and a location for the peace dialog between the parties. After several days of unfruitful negotiations, without reaching any specific agreements, Maldonado proposed an indefinite suspension of hostilities. On his way out, he said: "If you do not accept this, it will be regretted not having made the installation of the formal dialog in the time established by the Peace Talks Law." Marcos took this as a direct threat, and did not reply.

paragraph: Subcomandante Marcos gave a statement to the Witness of Honor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas Batel:

paragraph: Marcos asked Batel to accompany Moctezuma and Maldonado to Ocosingo to verify their departure in good health having been unharmed. The meeting ended 7 April 1995 at 4:00 am.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Peace.

paragraph: Without much hope of dialog, Maldonado began his return to Mexico City under hostile conditions. When passing by the Ejido, San Miguel, a Zapatista patrol beckoned them to stop. Maldonado, surprised and not knowing what was happening, was handed a radio. Using it, Maldonado and Marcos resumed their dialog, and made agreements in accordance with the law to start the formal peace talks. Marcos convinced the Zapatista movement to put aside their arms and begin the talks to reach a peace agreement.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Protocol.

paragraph: By 9 April 1995, the basis for the Dialog Protocol and the harmony, peace with justice and dignity agreement negotiation between the Mexican Government and the Zapatistas was signed. On 17 April the Mexican Government appointed Marco Antonio Bernal as Peace Commissioner in Chiapas. The peace talks began in San Andrés Larráinzar on 22 April, where the Zapatistas rejected the Mexican Government's proposal. Peace talks resumed on 7 June 1995. The parties agreed with Alianza Cívica Nacional and the Convención Nacional Democrática to organize a national consultation for peace and democracy. The basis for the dialog protocol was renegotiated, in La Realidad, Chiapas. On 12 October 1995 peace talks resumed in San Andres Larráinzar, Chiapas.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:The Other Agenda.

paragraph: The difficulties encountered during the peace talks between the government and the Zapatistas were due mostly to the initiatives promoted by the Attorney General of Mexico (PGR). On 23 October 1995, in order to derail the peace talks, the PGR arrested and sent Fernando Yañez Muñoz to prison. These actions violated the governing peace talks law, which granted a guarantee of free passage to all Zapatistas during the negotiations and suspended outstanding arrest warrants against them. On 26 October, the Zapatista National Liberation Army denied any association with Muñoz and announced a Red Alert, while Marcos returned to the mountains. That same day, the PGR dropped all charges against the alleged Comandante German. The COCOPA ("Comisión de Concordia y Pacificación", Commission of Concord and Pacification) agreed with the determination. On 27 October, Muñoz was freed from the Reclusorio Preventivo Oriente. He said: "I was arrested for political reasons and I guess I am set free for political reasons, my arrest was with the objective purpose of sabotaging the peace talks." On 29 October 1995 the Zapatistas lifted the Red Alert and negotiations were resumed.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Executive decision.

paragraph: Finding a non-military, peaceful solution to the 1995 Zapatista Crisis was politically and honorably correct, saving many lives in México. After a rocky start because of conflicting intelligence, Moctezuma was able to give to President Zedillo proper information. Zedillo avoided innocent bloodshed by changing the course of action, reversing his 9 February 1995 decision which brought him heavy political criticism at the time.

paragraph: Section::::Zapatista Crisis.:Release of the prisoners.

paragraph: On appeal, the Court dismissed the previous sentences given on 2 May 1996 for the crime of terrorism to the alleged Zapatistas Javier Elorriaga Berdegué and Sebastian Etzin Gomez, of 13 and 6 years of imprisonment, respectively. They were released on 6 June 1996. The EZLN then suspended their troops' alert status.

paragraph: Marcos has written more than 200 essays and stories, and has published 21 books documenting his political and philosophical views. The essays and stories are compiled in the books. Marcos tends to prefer indirect expression, and his writings are often fables, although some are more earthy and direct. In a January 2003 letter to Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (the Basque ETA separatist group), titled "I Shit on All the Revolutionary Vanguards of This Planet", Marcos says: "We teach [children of the EZLN] that there are as many words as colors and that there are so many thoughts because within them is the world where words are born...And we teach them to speak with the truth, that is to say, to speak with their hearts."

paragraph: "La Historia de los Colores" (The Story of Colors) is a story written for children and is one of Marcos' most-read books. Based on a Mayan creation myth, it teaches tolerance and respect for diversity. The book's English translation was to be published with support from the U.S. National Endowment for the Arts, but in 1999 the grant was abruptly canceled after questions from a reporter to the Endowment's chairman William J. Ivey. The Lannan Foundation provided support after the NEA withdrew.

paragraph: Marcos' political philosophy is often characterized as Marxist and his writings, which concentrates on strong criticism of people by both business and the State, underlines some of the commonalities the Zapatista ideology shares with Libertarian socialism and Anarchism.

paragraph: The elliptical, ironic, and romantic style of Marcos' writings may be a way of keeping a distance from the painful circumstances that he reports on and protests. His literary output has a purpose, as suggested in a 2002 book titled, "Our Word is Our Weapon", a compilation of his articles, poems, speeches, and letters. In 2005, he wrote the novel "The Uncomfortable Dead" with the whodunit writer Paco Ignacio Taibo II.

paragraph: Section::::Political and philosophical writings.:Fourth World War.

paragraph: Subcomandante Marcos has also written an essay in which he claims that neoliberalism and globalization constitute the "Fourth World War". He termed the Cold War the "Third World War". In this piece, Marcos compares and contrasts the Third World War (the Cold War) with the Fourth World War, which he says is the new type of war that we find ourselves in now: "If the Third World War saw the confrontation of capitalism and socialism on various terrains and with varying degrees of intensity, the fourth will be played out between large financial centers, on a global scale, and at a tremendous and constant intensity." He goes on to claim that economic globalization has created devastation through financial policies:

paragraph: Toward the end of the Cold War, capitalism created a military horror: the neutron bomb, a weapon that destroys life while leaving buildings intact. During the Fourth World War, however, a new wonder has been discovered: the financial bomb. Unlike those dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, this new bomb not only destroys the polis (here, the nation), imposing death, terror, and misery on those who live there, but also transforms its target into just another piece in the puzzle of economic globalization.

paragraph: Marcos explains the effect of the financial bombs as, "destroying the material bases of their [nation-state's] sovereignty and, in producing their qualitative depopulation, excluding all those deemed unsuitable to the new economy (for example, indigenous peoples)". Marcos also believes that neoliberalism and globalization result in a loss of unique culture for societies as a result of the homogenizing effect of neo-liberal globalization:

paragraph: All cultures forged by nations – the noble indigenous past of America, the brilliant civilization of Europe, the wise history of Asian nations, and the ancestral wealth of Africa and Oceania – are corroded by the American way of life. In this way, neoliberalism imposes the destruction of nations and groups of nations in order to reconstruct them according to a single model. This is a planetary war, of the worst and cruelest kind, waged against humanity.

paragraph: It is in this context which Subcomandante Marcos believes that the EZLN and other indigenous movements across the world are fighting back. He sees the EZLN as one of many "pockets of resistance".

paragraph: It is not only in the mountains of southeastern Mexico that neoliberalism is being resisted. In other regions of Mexico, in Latin America, in the United States and in Canada, in the Europe of the Maastricht Treaty, in Africa, in Asia, and in Oceania, pockets of resistance are multiplying. Each has its own history, its specificities, its similarities, its demands, its struggles, its successes. If humanity wants to survive and improve, its only hope resides in these pockets made up of the excluded, the left-for-dead, the 'disposable'.

paragraph: Marcos' views on other Latin American leaders, particularly ones on the left, are complex. He has expressed deep admiration for former Cuban president Fidel Castro and Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara, and given his approval to Bolivian president Evo Morales, but has expressed mixed feelings for Hugo Chavez of Venezuela, whom he views as too militant, but still responsible for vast revolutionary changes in Venezuela. On the other hand, he has labeled Brazil's former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and Nicaragua's current president Daniel Ortega, whom he once served under while a member of the Sandinistas, as traitors who have betrayed their original ideals.

paragraph: Section::::Popularity.

paragraph: Marcos is often credited with putting the impoverished state of Mexico's indigenous population in the spotlight, both locally and internationally. On his trek to the capital during the Other Campaign in 2006, Marcos was welcomed by "huge adoring crowds, chanting and whistling". There were "Marcos handcrafted dolls, and his ski mask-clad face adorns T-shirts, posters and badges."

paragraph: Section::::Relationship with Inter Milan.

paragraph: Apart from cheering for local Liga MX side Chiapas F.C., which relocated to Querétaro in 2013, Subcomandante Marcos and the EZLN also support the Italian Serie A club Inter Milan. The contact between EZLN and Inter, one of Italy's biggest and most famous clubs, began in 2004 when an EZLN commander contacted a delegate from Inter Campus, the club's charity organization which has funded sports, water, and health projects in Chiapas.

paragraph: In 2005, Inter's president Massimo Moratti received an invitation from Subcomandante Marcos to have Inter play a football game against a team of Zapatistas with Diego Maradona as referee. Subcomandante Marcos asked Inter to bring the match ball because the Zapatistas' ones were punctured. Although the proposed spectacle never came to fruition, there has been continuing contact between Inter and the Zapatistas. Former captain Javier Zanetti has expressed sympathy for the Zapatista cause.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Zapatista Army of National Liberation

paragraph: BULLET::::- Chiapas

paragraph: BULLET::::- Anti-globalization

paragraph: BULLET::::- Global justice movement

paragraph: BULLET::::- Left-wing politics

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Mihalis Mentinis (2006). "ZAPATISTAS: The Chiapas Revolt and What It Means for Radical Politics". London: Pluto Press.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Subtitled "Conversations avec le Sous-commandant Marcos."

paragraph: BULLET::::- German translation of "Marcos: el Señor de los Espejos."

paragraph: BULLET::::- French translation of "Marcos: el Señor de los Espejos."

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- EZLN and Subcomandante Marcos official web page

paragraph: BULLET::::- Profile: The Zapatistas' mysterious leader, BBC News

paragraph: BULLET::::- Subcomandante Marcos tribute web page

paragraph: BULLET::::- "A Place Called Chiapas" - a 1998 Documentary by Nettie Wild about the Zapatista movement.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Narco News: Subcomandante Marcos Pays Homage to Che Guevara and Praises Cuba 11 October 2006.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Writings of Subcomandante Marcos

paragraph: BULLET::::- Revolution Rocks: Thoughts of Mexico's First Postmodern Guerrilla Commander by "The New York Times"

paragraph: BULLET::::- The Death Train of the WTO: The Slaves of Money and Our Rebellion by Subcomandante Marcos

paragraph: BULLET::::- From Che to Marcos by Jeffrey W. Rubin, "Dissent Magazine", Summer 2002

description: Mexican activist

enwikiquote_title: Subcomandante Marcos

wikidata_label: Subcomandante Marcos

wikipedia_title: Subcomandante Marcos


text: Sulṭān

text: Acèh Darussalam

text: Indonesia

text: Strait of Malacca

text: Alexander the Great

text: Islam

text: Sulṭān

text: Acèh Darussalam

text: Alauddin al-Kahar

text: Sulṭān

text: Acèh Darussalam

text: Ali Ri'ayat Syah III

text: Pidië

text: Portuguese

text: galley

text: elephant

text: conscript

text: Deli

text: Aru

text: Johor

text: Alauddin Riayat Shah III

text: Dutch East India Company

text: Pahang

text: Palembang

text: Jambi

text: Inderagiri

text: Kampar

text: Siak

text: Portuguese

text: Bintan

text: Pahang

text: Ahmad Syah

text: Kedah

text: Nias

text: Melaka

text: pepper

text: Lampung

text: sultanate of Banten

text: spice trade

text: clove

text: nutmeg

text: betel nut

text: Ottoman Sultan

text: prisoners-of-war

text: slave

text: orang kaya

text: Malay language

text: hulubalang

text: Acehnese

text: Islamic jurisprudence

text: Iskandar Thani

text: Sufi

text: Hamzah Pansuri

text: Syamsuddin of Pasai

text: Nuruddin ar-Raniri

text: Akbarnama

text: Akbar

text: Alexander the Great

text: Malay

text: Melaka

text: Johor

text: Perak

text: Pahang

text: Banda Aceh

text: Sultan Iskandarmuda Airport

text: Kodam Iskandar Muda

text: military area commands

text: Aceh Province

categories: 1636 deaths,Sultans of Aceh,1580s births

paragraph: Iskandar Muda

paragraph: Iskandar Muda (1583? – 27 December 1636) was the twelfth Sulṭān of Acèh Darussalam, under whom the sultanate achieved its greatest territorial extent, and was the strongest power and wealthiest state in the western Indonesian archipelago and the Strait of Malacca. "Iskandar Muda" literally means "young Alexander," and his conquests were often compared to those of Alexander the Great. In addition to his notable conquests, during his reign, Aceh became known as an international centre of Islamic learning and trade.

paragraph: Section::::The Youth of Iskandar Muda.

paragraph: The future Iskandar Muda was born in about 1583. His father was Mansur Syah, son of Sultan Abdul Jalil, son of third Sulṭān of Acèh Darussalam Alauddin al-Kahar. His mother Puteri Raja Inderabangsa was the daughter of tenth Sulṭān of Acèh Darussalam Alauddin Ri'ayat Syah Sayyid al-Mukammal. Through his parentage he therefore combined the two branches of the Acehnese sultan's dynasty. His childhood and youth are described at great length in the "Hikayat Aceh" which extols his personal qualities. He was known under a number of names and titles, especially Perkasa Alam which was also the name he used after his accession ("Iskandar Muda" is however not a posthumous name as sometimes suggested since it occurs on his coins). In about 1605 he fell out with his uncle, Sultan Ali Ri'ayat Syah III and fled to Pidië where another uncle, Husain, was the vassal ruler. Together they planned rebellion against Sultan Ali. Perkasa Alam was put in command of the Pidië troops, but in the end they refused to fight and Perkasa Alam was imprisoned by the sultan. However, when the Portuguese invaded Aceh in 1606 he was let out of prison and distinguished himself in the fight against the "infidels". The invasion force was beaten back and withdrew and Perkasa Alam rose in esteem at the court. When Sultan Ali suddenly died on 4 April 1607, Perkasa Alam was able to secure the throne on the same day. He imprisoned his other uncle Husain and later had him killed.

paragraph: Section::::Conquests.

paragraph: The successes of Iskandar Muda were based on his military strength. His armed forces consisted of a navy of heavy galleys each with 600-800 men, a cavalry using Persian horses, an elephant corps, conscripted infantry forces and more than 2000 cannons and guns (of both Sumatran and European origin). Upon gaining power, he began consolidating control over northern Sumatra. In 1612 he conquered Deli, and in 1613 Aru and Johor. Upon the conquest of Johor, its sultan, Alauddin Riayat Shah III, and other members of the royal family were brought to Aceh, along with a group of traders from the Dutch East India Company. However, Johor was able to expel the Acehnese garrison later that year, and Iskandar Muda was never able to assert permanent control over the area. Johor further built an alliance with Pahang, Palembang, Jambi, Inderagiri, Kampar and Siak against Aceh.

paragraph: Iskandar Muda's campaigns continued, however, and he was able to defeat a Portuguese fleet at Bintan in 1614. In 1617 he conquered Pahang and carried its sultan Ahmad Syah to Aceh, and thus achieved a foothold on the Malayan peninsula. This conquest was followed by Kedah in 1619, in which the capital was laid waste and the surviving inhabitants were brought to Aceh. A similar capture of Perak occurred in 1620, when 5,000 people were captured and left to die in Aceh. He again sacked Johor in 1623 and took Nias in 1624/5. At this point Aceh's strength seriously threatened the Portuguese holding of Melaka. In 1629, he sent several hundred ships to attack Melaka, but the mission was a devastating failure. According to Portuguese sources, all of his ships were destroyed along with 19,000 men. After this loss, Iskandar Muda launched only two more sea expeditions, in 1630/1 and 1634, both to suppress revolts in Pahang. His sultanate maintained control over northern Sumatra, but was never able to gain supremacy in the strait or expand the empire to the rich pepper-producing region of Lampung on the southern part of the island, which was under the control of the sultanate of Banten.

paragraph: Section::::Economy and administration.

paragraph: The economic foundations of the sultanate was the spice trade, especially in pepper. The conflicts between Aceh and Johor and Portuguese Melacca, as well as the numerous pepper-producing ports in the sultanate's domain, were the main causes of the military conflict. Other major exports included cloves and nutmegs, as well as betel nuts, whose narcotic properties bypassed the Muslim prohibition of alcohol. Exports, encouraged by the Ottoman Sultans as an alternative to the "infidel" (i.e. Portuguese)-controlled route around Africa, added to the wealth of the sultanate. Iskandar Muda also made shrewd economic decisions that supported growth, such as low interest rates and the widespread use of small gold coins ("mas"). However, like other sultanates in the area it had trouble compelling the farms in the hinterland to produce sufficient excess food for the military and commercial activities of the capital. Indeed, one of the aims of Iskandar Muda's campaigns was to bring prisoners-of-war who could act as slaves for agricultural production.

paragraph: One reason for Iskandar Muda's success, in contrast to the weaker sultans who preceded and succeeded him, was his ability to suppress the Acehnese elite, known as the "orang kaya" ("powerful men"). Through the royal monopoly on trade, he was able to keep them dependent on his favour. The "orang kaya" were forced to attend court where they could be supervised, and were prohibited from building independent houses, which could be used for military purposes or hold cannons. He sought to create a new nobility of “war leaders” (Malay language: "hulubalang"; Acehnese: "uleëbalang"), whom he gave districts ("mukim") in feudal tenure. After his reign, however, the elite often supported weaker sultans, to maintain their own autonomy. He also sought to replace the Acehnese princes with royal officials called "panglima", who had to report annually and were subject to periodic appraisal. An elite palace guard was created, consisting of 3,000 women. He passed legal reforms which created a network of courts using Islamic jurisprudence. His system of law and administration became a model for other Islamic states in Indonesia.

paragraph: Iskandar Muda's reign was also marked by considerable brutality, directed at disobedient subjects. He also did not hesitate to execute wealthy subjects and confiscate their wealth. Punishments for offences were gruesome; a French visitor in the 1620s reported "every day the King would have people’s noses cut off, eyes dug out, castrations, feet cut off, or hands, ears, and other parts mutilated, very often for some very small matter." He had his own son Merah Pupok killed, and named his son-in-law, the son of the captured sultan of Pahang, as his successor, Iskandar Thani.

paragraph: Section::::Culture.

paragraph: During Iskandar Muda's reign, eminent Islamic scholars were attracted to Aceh and made it a centre of Islamic scholarship. Iskandar Muda favoured the tradition of the Sufi mystics Hamzah Pansuri and Syamsuddin of Pasai, both of whom resided at the court of Aceh. These writers' works were translated into other Indonesian languages, and had considerable influence across the peninsula. Both were later denounced for their heretical ideas by Nuruddin ar-Raniri, who arrived in the Aceh court during the reign of Iskandar Thani, and their books were ordered to be burnt.

paragraph: The chronicle "Hikayat Aceh" ("The Story of Aceh") was probably written during the reign of Iskandar Muda, although some date it later. It describes the history of the sultanate and praises Iskandar Muda in his youth. It was apparently inspired by the Persian "Akbarnama" for the Mogul Emperor Akbar. The "Hikayat Aceh" described Iskandar Muda as a scion of the lineage ("nasab") and race ("bangsa") of Iskandar Zulkarnain, Alexander the Great. Through this statement the "hikayat" presented Aceh as a part of the Malay world, since Iskandar Zulkarnain was the purported ancestor of the Melaka, Johor, Perak and Pahang rulers.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Among the Acehnese, Iskandar Muda is revered as a hero and symbol of Aceh's past greatness. Posthumously he was given the title "Po Teuh Meureuhom", which means "Our Beloved Late Lord", or "Marhum Mahkota Alam".

paragraph: He has several buildings and structures in and near Banda Aceh named after him, including the Sultan Iskandarmuda Airport and Sultan Iskandar Muda Air Force Base. Kodam Iskandar Muda is the name of the military area commands overseeing Aceh Province.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Leonard Y. Andaya. "Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka". Singapore: NUS Press, 2010.

paragraph: BULLET::::- J.M. Barwise and N.J. White. "A Traveller’s History of Southeast Asia". New York: Interlink Books, 2002.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Raden Hoesein Djajadiningrat. 'Critisch overzicht van de in Maleische werken vervatte gegevens over de geschiedenis van het soeltanaat van Atjeh', "Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde" 65, pp. 135-265.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Denys Lombard. "Le sultanat d'Atjéh au temps d'Iskandar muda, 1607-1636". Paris: École francaise d'Extrême-Orient.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hans Penth. "Hikajat Atjeh: Die Erzählung von der Abkunft und den Jugendjaren des Sultan Iskandar Muda von Atjeh (Sumatra)". Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M.C. Ricklefs. "A History of Modern Indonesia Since c. 1300", 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994.

description: Sultan of Aceh

wikidata_label: Iskandar Muda

wikipedia_title: Iskandar Muda


text:
GCSI
GCIE
British
Member of Parliament
Weston-super-Mare
Brighton
Walter Erskine, 12th Earl of Mar
Eton
Oxford University
House of Commons
Walter Erskine, 12th Earl of Mar
Eton
Christ Church
Oxford University
4th Marquess of Bristol
First World War
Scots Guards
Major
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Conservative Party
Assistant Private Secretary
Viscount Long
1922 general election
Conservative
Member of Parliament
Weston-super-Mare
Liberal
1923 general election
1924
William Joynson-Hicks
Parliamentary Private Secretary
1931 general election
Government whip
House of Commons
India
Round Table Conferences
Brighton
Winston Churchill
Madras
Chiltern Hundreds
George Frederick Stanley
Governor of Madras Presidency
Justice Party
1937 elections
Indian National Congress
Government of India Act of 1935
V. S. Srinivasa Sastri
Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu
R. M. Palat
S. Satyamurti
Gandhi
Nehru
Viceroy Linlithgow
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari
1938 Anti-Hindi agitations
Tory
King Ashoka
Nilgiri Hills
Kotagiri
All India Radio
Second World War
Defence of India Act
Ickworth
Bury St Edmunds
Gandhi
Navy League
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

categories: Scots Guards officers,Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire,UK MPs 1924–1929,UK MPs 1935–1945,1895 births,Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India,Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies,British Army personnel of World War I,UK MPs 1929–1931,1953 deaths,Heirs apparent who never acceded,Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford,Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders officers,UK MPs 1931–1935,Governors of Madras,Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies,UK MPs 1922–1923

paragraph: John Erskine, Lord Erskine

paragraph: John Francis Ashley Erskine, Lord Erskine GCSI, GCIE (12 April 1895 – 3 May 1953) was a British soldier, Conservative Party politician and administrator who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Weston-super-Mare and Brighton. Erskine also served as the Governor of Madras Presidency from 1934 to 1940.

paragraph: Erskine was born to Walter Erskine, 12th Earl of Mar on 12 April 1895 and had his education at Eton and Oxford University. On graduation, Erskine served in the British army and rose to become a major before entering politics. Erskine was elected to the House of Commons as a candidate of the Conservative Party from Weston-super-Mare and served as MP from 1922 to 1923 and from 1924 to 1934. He also served as Assistant Government Whip from 1930 to 1934. In 1934, Erskine was appointed Governor of Madras Presidency, British India.

paragraph: Erskine served as the Governor of Madras Presidency from 1934 to 1940. He was a close friend of Indian politician Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari though he disagreed with some of his policies. On the conclusion of his term, Erskine returned to the United Kingdom and served as the Member of Parliament for Brighton from 1940 to 1941. Erskine retired from politics in his later life. He died on 3 May 1953 at the age of 58.

paragraph: Section::::Family and early life.

paragraph: John Erskine was born on 12 April 1895 to Walter Erskine, 12th Earl of Mar and his wife Lady Violet Ashley Cooper(1868–1938). He was the eldest of their two sons and had his education at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford University.

paragraph: John Erskine married Lady Marjorie Hervey, the elder daughter of the 4th Marquess of Bristol, on 2 December 1919 and had four sons.

paragraph: Section::::Military career.

paragraph: On outbreak of the First World War, Erskine enlisted in the Scots Guards. By the end of the war he was a Major in the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders.

paragraph: Section::::Politics.

paragraph: With an interest in politics and an allegiance to the Conservative Party, Erskine was appointed Assistant Private Secretary to Viscount Long in 1920. At the 1922 general election, Erskine was elected as Conservative Member of Parliament for Weston-super-Mare. He lost his seat to a Liberal in the 1923 general election but easily regained it in 1924 and did not face a serious challenge there again.

paragraph: William Joynson-Hicks, then a rapidly rising Conservative Minister, appointed Erskine as his Parliamentary Private Secretary in 1922, which gave him considerable interesting work to do. Joynson-Hicks was among the more controversial Ministers and had especial need to know that he had the support of Conservative backbenchers, and this Erskine was able to arrange.

paragraph: After the 1931 general election, Erskine was named as an unpaid Assistant Government whip on 12 November 1931. This appointment effectively silenced Erskine in the Chamber of the House of Commons due to the tradition that Whips do not make speeches. Previously Erskine had been an effective and confident speaker who had taken a close interest in the affairs of India (although he admitted never to having visited it). He followed the 'Round Table Conferences' of the early 1930s closely.

paragraph: In his later years, Erskine served as a member of Parliament for the two-member Brighton constituency. However Erskine's public support for native rule in India counted against him with Winston Churchill who had led the opposition to the Government of India Act 1935. Although hopeful of appointment to government office, Erskine was given nothing.

paragraph: Section::::As Governor of Madras Presidency.

paragraph: On 22 May 1934 Erskine was appointed the new Governor of Madras. Although his appointment commenced in November, Erskine resigned his seat through appointment as Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds at the beginning of June.

paragraph: In 1934, Erskine succeeded George Frederick Stanley as the Governor of Madras Presidency and served from 1934 to 1940. Erskine was a supporter of the Justice Party and wanted the party to capture power in the Presidency during the 1937 elections. However, to his disappointment, the Indian National Congress won by a huge margin. Despite being the majority party in the Assembly and the Council, the Congress refused to form the government. Their objections stemmed from the special powers given to the Governor by the Government of India Act of 1935. Erskine decided to form an interim provisional Government with non-members and opposition members of the Legislative Assembly. He first offered the Prime Minister post in the interim government to V. S. Srinivasa Sastri but Shastri refused to accept it. Then Erskine formed the interim Government with Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu of the Justice Party as premier on 1 April 1937. He also used the Minister for Public Health R. M. Palat to try and entice Congress legislators into supporting the government. Wary of his tactics, Congress leaders like S. Satyamurti started a campaign to convince Congress High Command (Gandhi and Nehru) to accept power within the limitations set by the Government of India Act. They also appealed to the British Government to give assurances that the Governor's special powers will not be misused. On 22 June, Viceroy Linlithgow issued a statement expressing the British Government's desire to work with the Congress in implementing the 1935 Act. On 1 July, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) agreed to form Governments in the provinces they had won. On 14 July, Erskine had to swear in the Congress leader Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari as the Premier.

paragraph: Erskine had a cordial personal relationship with Rajagopalachari though they disagreed over some issues. When Rajagopalachari took a month's leave, he requested Erskine to look after most of his duties. It is also alleged that Rajagopalachari suggested knighthoods for some his friends. However, there were disagreements over the constitution of the ministry. Erskine also opposed Rajagopalachari's usage of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1932 during the 1938 Anti-Hindi agitations:"..[Rajagopalachari] was too much of a Tory for me, for though I may want to go back twenty years, he wishes to go back two thousand and to run India as it was run in the time of King Ashoka".

paragraph: Erskine was also a regular visitor to the Nilgiri Hills. On a public reception accorded to him by the Kotagiri Panchayat Board in 1935, he gave Kotagiri town the sobriquet, "Princess among Hill Stations". The first regular radio service in the Madras Presidency commenced in 1938 when the All India Radio established its station in Madras.

paragraph: The Congress ministry resigned on 9 October 1939 over the outbreak of Second World War. Erskine declared an emergency and took over the reins of the administration. Rajagopalachari and other ministers were arrested as per Defence of India Act rules. On 21 February 1940, Erskine repealed the unpopular law imposing compulsory study of Hindi in the Madras Presidency.

paragraph: Section::::Later life.

paragraph: With no hope of continuing a political career, and finding that representing the seat was very expensive, Erskine resigned his seat and went to live in his house at Ickworth near Bury St Edmunds. He continued to comment on Indian affairs, bemoaning the influence of Gandhi. His second son was killed in action in 1945.

paragraph: Active in voluntary work locally, Erskine was appointed President of the Navy League. A major operation in the early 1950s damaged his health, and he died in 1953 during the lifetime of his father.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- M. Stenton and S. Lees, "Who's Who of British MPs" Vol. IV (Harvester Press, 1981)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "John Francis Ashley Erskine" in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Obituary, "The Times", 4 May 1953.

description: British soldier, politician and administrator

wikidata_label: John Erskine, Lord Erskine

wikipedia_title: John Erskine, Lord Erskine


href: Al-Kafr Syria Druze Egypt Farid%20al-Atrash Mariam%20Fakhr%20Eddine Houran Jordan

text:
Al-Kafr
Syria
Druze
Egypt
Farid al-Atrash
Mariam Fakhr Eddine
Houran
Jordan

categories: 1933 births,Syrian male singers,1997 deaths,20th-century male singers,People from as-Suwayda,20th-century singers,Druze people of Syrian nationality

paragraph: Fahd Ballan

paragraph: Fahd Ballan () (1933–1997, Al-Kafr) was a popular Syrian Druze singer and actor. Like most of his generation of artists who started their show business careers in the early sixties he was exposed to a world of influences of those decades of music glory. His voice and looks made him a symbol of masculinity and won him many acting roles in his youth.

paragraph: Fahd Ballan traveled to Egypt and worked with Farid al-Atrash. He married actress Mariam Fakhr Eddine and had an acting career. At least one of his tracks (Ma Aqdarshi Ala Kidah ) is done in Egyptian dialect. Most of his songs are performed in a Hourani dialect typical of Southern Syria and Northern Jordan. One track is done in formal Arabic (Jassa El Tabibo Liya Nabadhi). Fahd Ballan had an amazingly strong and beautiful voice that used to shadow the soundtrack music. Many people think some of his songs including "Larchab Haddak Yal Motor" and "Irkibna 3al Houssan" constitute the basis for the type of Arabic music that was later known as "songs from the mounts" (). Most of his popular songs can be found on YouTube.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: Zuhur, Sherifa (2000) "Asmahan's secrets: woman, war and song", University of Texas Press

description: Syrian musician

wikidata_label: Fahd Ballan

wikipedia_title: Fahd Ballan


text: Bat Mitzvah

text: bat mitzvah

text: Mordecai Kaplan

text: Society for the Advancement of Judaism

text: Betty Friedan

text: Letty Cottin Pogrebin

text: Ruth W. Messinger

text: Elizabeth Holtzman

text: Columbia University

text: Juilliard School

text: Ira Eisenstein

text: Jewish Institute of Religion

categories: American women non-fiction writers,Jewish musicians,American female musicians,Jewish feminists,People from Columbia, Maryland,Jewish-American history,1996 deaths,American non-fiction writers,1909 births

paragraph: Judith Kaplan Eisenstein

paragraph: Judith Kaplan (September 10, 1909 – February 14, 1996) was an author, musicologist, composer, theologian and the first person to celebrate a Bat Mitzvah publicly in America (see below).

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: The bat mitzvah was created to address Judaism's gender imbalance and is the female equivalent of a boy’s bar mitzvah, signifying entrance into religious majority. Judith, the oldest daughter of Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (who was the founder of the Reconstructionist branch of Judaism), was the first person to celebrate a Bat Mitzvah publicly in America, which she did on March 18, 1922, aged 12, at her father’s synagogue the Society for the Advancement of Judaism in New York City. Judith Kaplan recited the preliminary blessing, read a portion of that week's Torah portion in Hebrew and English, and then intoned the closing blessing. Her bat mitzvah was the first time that a woman led the congregation; as such it represents a significant shift for Judaism in America. Until this time women did not engage in public reading of the Torah and a Jewish girl's transition from child to adult was not reflected in synagogue ceremonies.

paragraph: Reflecting on the ceremony many years later she said: "No thunder sounded. No lightning struck." "It all passed very peacefully". Bat mitzvah ceremonies are now commonplace within the Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist branches of Judaism. At the age of 82, Kaplan had a second bat mitzvah. Various feminist and Jewish leaders, including Betty Friedan, Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Ruth W. Messinger, and Elizabeth Holtzman were present.

paragraph: During her life she was an author, theologian, musicologist and composer. She earned bachelor's and master's degrees from Columbia University and studied at the Institute of Musical Art, now the Juilliard School. She published a book of children's music, "Gateway to Jewish Song," and a number of cantatas on Jewish themes, including the popular "What Is Torah," with her husband, Rabbi Ira Eisenstein whom she married in 1934. Her translations of Hebrew songs are now enjoyed by Jewish children throughout the US. She taught music education and the history of Jewish music at the Albert A. List College of Jewish Studies from 1929 to 1954. She taught at School of Sacred Music of Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York from 1966 to 1979.

paragraph: She died on February 14, 1996, in Silver Spring, Maryland. Her papers are included in the Ira and Judith Kaplan Eisenstein Reconstructionist Archives of the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.

paragraph: Section::::Selected works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Shir ha-shahar [Song of the Dawn] (1974)

description: musician, theologian and the first woman to celebrate a Bat Mitzvah publicly

wikidata_label: Judith Kaplan Eisenstein

wikipedia_title: Judith Kaplan Eisenstein


text: professional baseball

text: first baseman

text: Southern Maryland Blue Crabs

text: Tokyo Yakult Swallows

text: Nippon Professional Baseball

text: Central League

text: Berryhill High School

text: Tulsa, Oklahoma

text: Oklahoma State University

text: Barry University

text: Barry Buccaneers

text: NCAA Division II

text: Detroit Tigers

text: 2011 Major League Baseball draft

text: Erie SeaWolves

text: Class AA

text: Eastern League

text: Toledo Mud Hens

text: Class AAA

text: International League

text: Tokyo Yakult Swallows

text: Nippon Professional Baseball

text: Central League

text: New Jersey Jackals

text: Can-Am League

text: Toros de Tijuana

text: Mexican League

text: Sioux City Explorers

text: American Association

text: Southern Maryland Blue Crabs

text: NPB

categories: Toledo Mud Hens players,Erie SeaWolves players,Tokyo Yakult Swallows players,American expatriate baseball players in Japan,Lakeland Flying Tigers players,Southern Maryland Blue Crabs players,Sportspeople from Tulsa, Oklahoma,West Michigan Whitecaps players,Gulf Coast Tigers players,American expatriate baseball players in Mexico,Oklahoma State Cowboys baseball players,Barry Buccaneers baseball players,Baseball players from Oklahoma,Toros de Tijuana players,New Jersey Jackals players,Connecticut Tigers players,Living people,Nippon Professional Baseball first basemen,1989 births,Sioux City Explorers players

paragraph: Dean Green (baseball)

paragraph: Rodger Dean Green (born June 30, 1989) is an American professional baseball first baseman for the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. He played for the Tokyo Yakult Swallows of Nippon Professional Baseball's Central League in 2017.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Green attended Berryhill High School in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Green started his collegiate career at Oklahoma State University. He transferred to Barry University in 2010, finishing his college baseball career with the Barry Buccaneers of NCAA Division II.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Detroit Tigers.

paragraph: The Detroit Tigers selected Green in the 11th round of the 2011 Major League Baseball draft. He played for the Erie SeaWolves of the Class AA Eastern League in 2014. Beginning the 2015 season with Erie, Green was named an All-Star and was promoted to the Toledo Mud Hens of the Class AAA International League. He began the 2016 season with Erie, receiving another midseason promotion to Toledo.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Tokyo Yakult Swallows.

paragraph: After the 2016 season, the Tigers sold Green's contract to the Tokyo Yakult Swallows of Nippon Professional Baseball's Central League.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:New Jersey Jackals.

paragraph: On February 6, 2018, Green signed with the New Jersey Jackals of the Can-Am League.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Toros de Tijuana.

paragraph: On July 29, 2018, his contract was purchased by the Toros de Tijuana of the Mexican League. After only 8 recorded at bats, he was released on August 6, 2018.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Sioux City Explorers.

paragraph: On August 16, 2018, Green signed with the Sioux City Explorers of the American Association. He was released on June 24, 2019.

paragraph: Section::::Career.:Southern Maryland Blue Crabs.

paragraph: On July 2, 2019, Green signed with the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

paragraph: Section::::Personal.

paragraph: Rodger Dean Green is married to Shanna Green. The couple married on December 31, 2017. Green has one son, Gibson.

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: , or NPB

description: baseball player (1989-)

wikidata_label: Dean Green

wikipedia_title: Dean Green (baseball)


text:
Lieutenant
Canada
1812
Brown
Izard
New Jersey
Postmaster
Paterson
New Jersey General Assembly
New Jersey
Presidential Election
Abraham Godwin
Captain Abraham Godwin
Parke Godwin
Binghamton, New York
Civil War
Abraham
The Battle of Wilderness
Andersonville, Georgia
Passaic County
Revolutionary War
William Colfax
Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works
tuberculosis
Cedar Lawn Cemetery
Paterson, New Jersey

categories: American people of English descent,1791 births,1849 deaths,19th-century deaths from tuberculosis,19th-century American military personnel,People from Morristown, New Jersey,People from Paterson, New Jersey,Godwin family (United States),Military personnel from New Jersey

paragraph: Abraham Godwin Jr.

paragraph: Abraham Godwin Jr. (July 14, 1791 – August 18, 1849) was the first Lieutenant of the expedition to Canada in 1812 led by Generals Brown and Izard. He later rose to the rank of Brigadier General in the New Jersey state militia. In 1816 when his eldest brother Henry committed suicide, he became Postmaster of Paterson, a position he would hold until 1829, and briefly again before his death in 1849. In 1821, he was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly, of which he served until 1832. In November 1840, Abraham was tasked to take the New Jersey votes to Washington, D.C. for the Presidential Election.

paragraph: Section::::Personal life.

paragraph: He is the son of Abraham Godwin, Grandson of Captain Abraham Godwin, Husband of Martha Parke & father of three sons. His eldest was famous Parke Godwin, his second son Henry was a lawyer in Binghamton, New York, and disappeared in the Civil War, and the youngest son Abraham, was a house painter, captured at The Battle of Wilderness and died a prisoner of the Confederacy in Andersonville, Georgia. At the Godwin Hotel on the Passaic in 1828 he created Passaic County.

paragraph: He was elected an officer for the State of New Jersey at the New York Convention on October 26, 1831. He lived in the house his grandfather built and his grandmother Phebe turned into a Tavern known as the 'Widow Godwin Tavern', right down the street from the Passaic Hotel/Godwin Tavern. An old resident of Paterson recalls back to their youth about their memories of Abraham as the Postmaster:

paragraph: He commanded the martial music at his father's funeral and Revolutionary War hero William Colfax's funeral in 1838. He inherited his fathers epaulets.

paragraph: In 1820 Abraham became partners with Thomas Rogers and went into business running a cotton mill. They leased several mills over the years and worked together until 1830 when Thomas Rogers decided to go on his own. Soon after he founded the Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works. On 2 March 1831 books to receive stock in the "Paterson and Hudson River Valley Railroad Company" were commissioned by Abraham at the Godwin Hotel, which was being run by Abraham's sister Maria and her husband Henry Post. This railroad would go on to split Godwin Avenue in two, creating Godwin Street.

paragraph: Section::::Death.

paragraph: Abraham died in the Widow Godwin Tavern on August 18, 1849, from tuberculosis, and was buried in Cedar Lawn Cemetery in Paterson, New Jersey. He and his wife's gravestones were tipped over. Abraham's was split in half. In 2017, the stones were returned upright and fixed with cement.

wikidata_label: Abraham Godwin Jr

wikipedia_title: Abraham Godwin Jr.


text:
Major League Baseball
umpire
Delfin Colon
Puerto Rico
Jeff Gosney
home plate
List of Major League Baseball umpires

categories: People from Caguas, Puerto Rico,1984 births,Puerto Rican sportspeople,Major League Baseball umpires,Living people

paragraph: Roberto Ortiz (umpire)

paragraph: Roberto Carlos Ortiz Maymi (born December 16, 1984) is a Major League Baseball (MLB) umpire. He made his debut on May 14, 2016, becoming the first MLB umpire since Delfin Colon to have been born in Puerto Rico. He wears number 40, which was most recently worn by former umpire Jeff Gosney.

paragraph: During the 2016 season, Ortiz umpired eight games (two as the home plate umpire), and during 2017 he umpired 66 games (14 behind the plate).

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- List of Major League Baseball umpires

description: Puerto Rican baseball umpire

wikidata_label: Roberto Ortiz

wikipedia_title: Roberto Ortiz (umpire)


text:
American
soil scientist
Soil Conservation Service
Cornell University
World War II
Madison
Oneida
Lewis
New York State
acre
The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
podcast
NRCS New York Photo Gallery

categories: Women scientists,1923 births,2011 deaths,American soil scientists

paragraph: Mary C. Baltz

paragraph: Mary C. Baltz (1923September 2011) was an American soil scientist.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Mary Baltz was the first woman soil scientist officially assigned in the field for the Soil Conservation Service.

paragraph: After graduating from Cornell University, Baltz joined the soil survey as a "Junior Soil Surveyor" in 1946 and later became a "Survey Party Chief".

paragraph: Labor shortages during World War II gave her the opportunity to work in a job that, up to that time, had been reserved for men. By 1951, Baltz was responsible for soil mapping on farms in Madison, Oneida and Lewis counties in New York State, and was later assigned the task of map measurement for the entire state. The work was done by cutting out the soil map delineations on copies of the field sheets and then weighing the areas with the same label. The weight was later converted to acres.

paragraph: Baltz hired the team of women to work with her in the winter months.

paragraph: Mary Baltz worked for until 1960's.

paragraph: Section::::Trivia.

paragraph: Mary Baltz was mentioned in a Forgotten Superheroes of Science section of The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast, episode #633.

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- NRCS New York Photo Gallery

description: American soil scientist (1923 – 2011)

wikidata_label: Mary C. Baltz

wikipedia_title: Mary C. Baltz