text:
Arab
Emir
Caliph of Córdoba
Umayyad dynasty
al-Andalus
freedom of religion
Fatimid
Maghrawa
North Africa
Caliph
Islamic world
Córdoba
Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi
Umayyad
al-Andalus
Onneca Fortúnez
Fortún Garcés of Pamplona
Toda of Pamplona
Umar ibn Hafsun
Al-Bayan al-Mughrib
Kingdom of Asturias
Reconquista
Douro
Ifriqiya
Fatimids
Muladi
Umar ibn Hafsun
saqaliba
Arab
Berber
Hasdai ibn Shaprut
Kingdom of Navarre
Écija
Jaén
Granada
Málaga
Fiñana
province of Almería
Juviles
Alpujarras
siege engine
Banu Hayyay
Seville
Carmona
Granada
Jaen
vizier
Valencia
Cuevas de San Marcos
Algarinejo
Benahavís
Fuengirola
Évariste Lévi-Provençal
Ojén
Algeciras
Maghreb
Guadix
Jerez de la Frontera
Cádiz
Pechina
Banu Qasi
Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona
Évora
Ordoño II
Beja
Ocsónoba
Niebla
Alcácer do Sal
Lisbon
Banu Dānis
Mérida
Caliph of Córdoba
Fatimid
Abbasid
Mecca
Medina
Ibn Marwan
Almeria
Maghrawa
Melilla
Ceuta
Tangiers
Jawhar al-Siqilli
Fatamid
Ordoño III
Idrisid
Ordoño II of León
Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz
Osma
San Esteban de Gormaz
Sancho Garcés I of Navarre
Leon
Valdejunquera
Pamplona
Ramiro II
Madrid
Osma
Álava
Burgos
Toda
García Sánchez I
Zaragoza
Battle of Simancas
Fernán González of Castile
Ordoño III of León
Borrell II of Barcelona
Sancho
Leon
Garcia Sanchez
Navarre
Queen Toda
Cordoba
Sancho the Fat
Ordoño IV
Zamora
Oviedo
harem
Saint Pelagius of Córdoba
al-Hakam II
humanist
Medina Azahara
Damascus
Mediterranean Europe
Galicia
Fraxinetum
Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba
Otto I
Byzantine
Pyrenean
Onneca Fortúnez
Kingdom of Pamplona
Arab
Basque

categories: 10th-century caliphs of Córdoba,889 births,LGBT royalty,Patrons of the arts,People from Córdoba, Andalusia,Bisexual royalty,Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba,Spanish humanists,LGBT Muslims,Spanish people of Arab descent,LGBT heads of state,Pardon recipients,10th-century Arabs,Emirs of Córdoba,Medieval LGBT people,10th-century Muslims,Medieval LGBT history,961 deaths

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman III

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman III ("′Abd al-Rahmān ibn Muhammad ibn ′Abd Allāh ibn Muhammad ibn ′abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hakam al-Rabdi ibn Hisham ibn ′abd al-Rahman al-Dakhil"; (); 11 January 889/9115 October 961) was an Arab Emir and Caliph of Córdoba (912–961) of the Umayyad dynasty in al-Andalus. Called "al-Nasir li-Din Allah" ("the Defender of God's Faith"), he ascended the throne in his early 20s and reigned for half a century as the most powerful prince of Iberia. Although people of all creeds enjoyed tolerance and freedom of religion under his rule, he repelled the Fatimids, partly by supporting their Maghrawa enemies in North Africa, and partly by claiming the title Caliph (ruler of the Islamic world) for himself.

paragraph: Section::::Life.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early years.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus. His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine. His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal infanta Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona. Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona. He is described as having "white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout. His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it. When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short. He dyed his beard black.

paragraph: Muhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah. Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned. According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895. Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem. Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as "al-Sayyida" ("the Lady"), was entrusted with his education. She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigor.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Accession to throne.

paragraph: Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72. Despite the fact that four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) were alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession. Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son). This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions. Most importantly Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death. Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912. Historiographers of the time, such as "Al-Bayan al-Mughrib" and the "Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman III", state that his succession was "without incident". At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old. He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba. To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of "Reconquista" in the Douro valley. To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah. On the internal front the discontented Muladi families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir. The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.

paragraph: From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate centralized power, and reestablish internal order within the emirate. Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba. From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them. To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the "saqalibah", slaves of East European origin. The "saqalibah" represented a third ethnic group that could neutralize the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.

paragraph: Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier of the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues on this wise:

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Early rule.

paragraph: During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre. The Muladi rebels were the first problem he confronted. Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.

paragraph: He first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun. On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some from the capital. All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as residence of the governor and a garrison for the emiral troops. In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm. His troops were able to recover the "coras" (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege. He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs. Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras. After devastating its countryside to deprive it of any resource, he encircled it. Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply. The Muladi defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange of their allegiance to the emir. The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days. Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muladi to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.

paragraph: In the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hayyay lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit. He initially sent a special corps ("hasam") under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission. This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama. When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro. He next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaen, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun. Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913. Ibn al-Mundir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona. Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.

paragraph: The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Ibn Hafsun and other rebels.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the longstanding rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.

paragraph: His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos). His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troopes moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.

paragraph: The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty. Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina. The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day. Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called "Turrus "or "Turrus Jusayn" (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén). He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914. He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb. Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir. The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army manifested itself.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons. Among them, Jafar ibn Hafsun held the stronghold of Toledo. Abd al-Rahman ordered ravaged the city's countryside. Jafar, after two years of siege, escaped the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms. In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebel men escaped in a night sally. The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.

paragraph: In 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina (922). In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off by the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.

paragraph: The last of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun. Surrounded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier Said ibn al-Mundhir who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months, until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:The Levente and Algarve rebels.

paragraph: The continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd ad-Rahman III from the situation of other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt. Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent the attack of the king of Galicia (future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.

paragraph: In much of the eastern and western province, Abd al-Rahman's authority was completely unrecognized. The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba. To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, he ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi. The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Sa'id ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr. Alcácer do Sal and Lisbon were under control of the Banu Dānis.

paragraph: The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915. Abd al-Rahman III did not send an army and only several local Berber "jefes" offered some resistance which was ineffective.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Assumption of the Caliphate.

paragraph: In the next year, despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba (16 January 929), effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir. But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa. He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects. The symbols of his new caliphate power were a scepter ("jayzuran") and the throne ("sarir"). In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars and silver dirhams, replacing the "al-Andalus" title with his name.

paragraph: In his new role of caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal. On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria. The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931) and Tangiers (951), which accepted his suzerainty. However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatamids. In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing the caliphate ones in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria. Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety through paying a huge sum.

paragraph: In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the caliphate influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:War with the Christian kingdoms of the north.

paragraph: Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory. In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.

paragraph: Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign. He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz. After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of Leon at Valdejunquera on 26 July, he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south. Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.

paragraph: In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier. he launched counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.

paragraph: The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II obtained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid and scoring a victory at Osma.

paragraph: In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahmad forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I. In 937 Abd al-Rahmad conquered some thirty castles in León. Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.

paragraph: Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphate army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman, due, most likely, to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army. After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns. His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro. The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956. However they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.

paragraph: In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphate supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support. In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of Leon, Garcia Sanchez, King of Navarre, and Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in Cordoba.

paragraph: Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterizing the Christian kingdom during the period. Ordoño III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV. Together with his grandmother Toda of Navarre, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba. In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV.

paragraph: Section::::Life.:Later years.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman was accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. He is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem. This likely influenced the polemical story of his falling in love with a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances. The love story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam. Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba. He died in October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture. A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings. After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometers north of Córdoba. The Medina Azahara was modeled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors. It was said that Cordoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.

paragraph: Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe. He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.

paragraph: He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe. Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa. The colonizers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.

paragraph: Due to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries. It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created. He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.

paragraph: He was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins in his family. In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him. He was tolerant of non-Muslims, Jews and Christians who were treated fairly. European nations sent emissaries such as from Otto I of Germany, and the Byzantine emperor.

paragraph: Section::::Ancestry.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region. His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona. In his immediate ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque.

alias: Abd ar-Rahmān ibn Muhammad ibn ′Abd Allāh ibn Muhammad ibn ′abd ar-Rahman ibn al-Hakam ar-Rabdi ibn Hisham ibn ′abd ar-Rahman ad-Dakhil

description: politician

wikidata_label: Abd-ar-Rahman III

wikipedia_title: Abd al-Rahman III


text: Muslim

text: Iberia

text: Caliphate of Córdoba

text: Umayyad

text: Damascus

text: Abbasid

text: Quraysh

text: Damascus

text: Syria

text: Mu'awiya ibn Hisham

text: concubine

text: Berber

text: Nefzaoua

text: Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik

text: caliph

text: Umayyads

text: Abbasid Revolution

text: freedman

text: Euphrates

text: Abbasids

text: Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari

text: Palestine

text: Sinai

text: Egypt

text: Maghreb

text: partly conquered

text: Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri

text: Ifriqiya

text: Fihrid

text: Kairouan

text: Kabylie

text: Berber

text: Ceuta

text: al-Andalus

text: Berber Revolt

text: Muslim community

text: Arab

text: Qays–Yemeni feud

text: Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri

text: Yemen

text: al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi

text: jund

text: Qays

text: Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman

text: Abd Allah ibn Khalid

text: Yusuf ibn Bukht

text: Zaragoza

text: emir

text: Almuñécar

text: Málaga

text: Málaga

text: Upper March

text: Sevilla

text: River Guadalquivir

text: Córdoba

text: counterattack

text: hodge-podge

text: Toledo

text: Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri

text: safe haven

text: Baghdad

text: al-Mansur

text: Beja

text: Portugal

text: Mecca

text: Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri

text: Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi

text: Charlemagne

text: al-Husayn ibn Yahiya

text: Basque

text: Gascon

text: Chanson de Roland

text: siege engine

text: defensive wall

text: Great Mosque of Córdoba

text: standing army

text: North Africa

text: religious tolerance

text: Wittiza

text: Charlemagne

text: Abbasid

text: Berbers

text: Umayyad Dynasty

text: Caliphate of Cordoba

text: favorite son

text: Hisham I

text: Abd al-Rahman III

text: Mu'awiya

text: Hisham

text: Abd al-Malik

text: Fruela I

text: Hisham I

text: Quraish

text: al-Mansur

text: al-Mansur

text: Quraysh

text: Commander of the Faithful

text: Mu'awiya

text: Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

text: al-Andalus

text: Tribute of 100 virgins

text: Maria Rosa Menocal

text: Andrea Pancini

categories: 8th-century rulers in Europe,Emirs of Córdoba,788 deaths,731 births,Date of birth unknown

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman I

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman I, more fully Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (731–788)(), was the founder of a Muslim dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba). Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in 750.

paragraph: He was also known by the surnames "al-Dakhil" ("the Entrant"), "Saqr Quraish" ("the Falcon of the Quraysh") and the "Falcon of Andalus". Variations of the spelling of his name include Abd ar-Rahman I, Abdul Rahman I, Abdar Rahman I, and Abderraman I.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Flight from Damascus.

paragraph: Born near Damascus in Syria, Abd al-Rahman was the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Ra'ha, a Berber woman from Nefzaoua, and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743. He was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him include his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek freedman, Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village. He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd ar-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio. Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates. The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back. The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come to me!" Yahya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen. They cut off his head and left his body to rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him. Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Exile years.

paragraph: After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled. It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Egypt would prove perilous. At the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Umayyad vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself. At first, he sought an understanding with the Abbasids, but when they refused his terms and demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants of the Umayyad dynasty to take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time.

paragraph: But Ibn Habib soon changed his mind. He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than his own, might become a focal point for intrigue among local nobles against his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them. At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping a low profile, staying in Kabylie, at the camp of a black Nafza Berber chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed. Once they were gone, Abd a-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards.

paragraph: In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed. Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a state of confusion, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another member of the Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers ("baladiyun"), mostly of south Arabian or "Yemeni" tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the "Syrians"—the "shamiyum", drawn from the "junds" or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.

paragraph: Among the Syrian "junds" were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500, and Abd al-Rahman believed he might tug on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make contact. Bedr managed to line up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin. The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try to make himself emir. As a result, Bedr and the Umayyad clients sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemenite commanders. Although the Yemenites were not natural allies (the Umayyads are a Qaysid tribe), their interest was piqued. The emir Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself unable to keep the powerful al-Sumayl in check and several Yemenite chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, whether in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they had a better chance of advancement if they hitched themselves to the glitter of the Umayyad name. Although the Umayyads did not have a historical presence in the region (no member of the Umayyad family was known to have ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns about young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several of the lower-ranking Yemenite commanders felt they had little to lose and much to gain, and agreed to support the prince.

paragraph: Bedr returned to Africa to tell Abd al-Rahman of the invitation of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off with a small group of followers for Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa. He did indeed hand over some amount of dinars to the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Just as Abd al-Rahman launched his boat, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a fee from him for leaving. One of the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however his landing site was unconfirmed.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Fight for power.

paragraph: Upon landing in al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry. During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly. Waves of people made their way to Málaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted through history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master.

paragraph: News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula. During this time, emir al-Fihri and the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If that did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the rebellion. This might have been fortunate timing for Abd al-Rahman, since he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following of Umayyad clients and Yemenite "junds", were able to take Sevilla without violence. He managed to break the rebellion attempt in Zaragoza, but just about that time the Cordovan governor received news of a Basque rebellion in Pamplona. An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After the setback, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the "pretender". The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin. The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.

paragraph: The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought. Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered from hunger. In an attempt to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of the Umayyad lines. An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth. Abd ar-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed. And the prince's mettle was untried in battle, after all! The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle.

paragraph: Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed. The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads. Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat. After a long and difficult fight "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.". Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him. Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed. In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages. For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him; people who would have liked to see him back in power.

paragraph: Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering to 20,000. It is doubtful, however, that his troops were "regular" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus. Abd ar-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge. With this act, Abd ar-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus. However, one final act to take over southern Iberia had to be performed: al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail. Now most of central and northern al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Rule.

paragraph: It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph. There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city. He himself believed he was destined to be Caliph because of prophesies he had heard as a boy, so it seems likely he would. However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendent, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up the title of caliph. In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family. He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters. Abd ar-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations. However, by 763 Abd ar-Rahman had to get back to the business of war. Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army.

paragraph: Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith (also known as al-Ala) as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly. The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men. The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months. Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate. There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger.

paragraph: The gate lifted and Abd ar-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Most of the Abbasid army was killed. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off. Their heads were preserved in salt, and identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing a sea between us!" Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (The Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe.)

paragraph: Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus. Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidence in al-Andalus. However, this assumption needs to be in perspective, since in 756 he was in charge of a limited number of southern strongholds and he faced resistance to submit from other towns during the next 25 years, rather than revolts.

paragraph: Despite all this turmoil in al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman wanted to take the fight back east to Baghdad. Revenge for the massacre of his family at the hands of the Abbasids must surely have been the driving factor in Abd al-Rahman's war plans. However his war against Baghdad was put on hold by more internal problems. The city of Zaragoza on the Upper March remained out of reach of the Umayyad leader since the times of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, bidding for autonomy. Little could Abd al-Rahman have known that as he set off to settle matters in that northern city, his hopes of warring against Baghdad would be indefinitely put on hold.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Problems in the Upper March.

paragraph: Zaragoza proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd ar-Rahman, but his successors as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne. "(Charlemagne's) army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad (emir) in Cordoba..." Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd. It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland)., Charlemagne also suffered attack from Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.

paragraph: Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's governorship. The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza. It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question. Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines. Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy and death.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy and death.:Social dynamics and construction works.

paragraph: After the aforementioned period of conflict, Abd al-Rahman continued in his improvement of al-Andalus' infrastructure. He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and that a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Córdoba. Construction on what would in time become the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba was started circa the year 786. Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army. He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa as well as slaves from other areas. The total number of army-men under his command were nearly 40,000. As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths. They did, and have to pay a tribute tax for this privilege. Abd al-Rahman's policy of taxing non-Muslims, which was often carried out by later rulers, changed the religious dynamic of al-Andalus. Possibly because of excessive tribute taxes "the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim". However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century.

paragraph: Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam. There was a great deal of freedom of interaction between the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza, married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards. There is some dispute as to whether what he created was an extension of the Umayyad Dynasty or a new Caliphate of Cordoba.

paragraph: Section::::Legacy and death.:Death.

paragraph: The date of Abd al-Rahman's death is approximately in 788. Abd al-Rahman died in his adopted city of Córdoba, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita. Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd ar-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayyad for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III.

paragraph: Section::::Family.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry. Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member from the Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750.

paragraph: Abd al-Rahman married a woman named Hulal. She is said to be the mother of Hisham. Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Sulayman (745–800) Governor of Toledo. Exiled after he refused to accept his brother Hisham's accession to the throne. Returned to challenge his nephew in 796, captured and executed in 800.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Omar (died before 758) Captured in battle and executed by Fruela I King of Asturias.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796) Emir of Cordoba.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Abdallah

paragraph: Section::::Legends.

paragraph: In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as "al Dakhil" ("the Entrant"). But he was also known as "Saqr Quraish" ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.

paragraph: According to the chroniclers, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of "Falcon of the Quraysh" ("Saqr Quraish", foremost of the Prophet's tribe). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful!", but the Caliph said no. Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again said no. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no. Then who, they asked, and the Caliph al-Mansur replied:

paragraph: Section::::See also.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula

paragraph: BULLET::::- al-Andalus

paragraph: BULLET::::- Tribute of 100 virgins

paragraph: Section::::Further reading.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)

description: founder of the Emirate of Córdoba

wikidata_label: Abd ar-Rahman I

wikipedia_title: Abd al-Rahman I


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paragraph: Edward Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham

paragraph: Edward William Macleay Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham (8 September 1879 – 1 December 1955) was a British colonial administrator and politician.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Early years.

paragraph: Grigg was the son of Henry Bridewell Grigg, a member of the Indian Civil Service, and Elizabeth Louisa, "née" Thomson, the daughter of Edward Deas Thomson. Born in Madras, he was educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford, where he won the Gaisford Prize for Greek verse in 1902. Upon graduation, he embarked on a career in journalism. He joined "The Times" in 1903 as secretary to the editor, George Earle Buckle, then moved to "The Outlook" in 1905, where he worked as assistant editor under J. L. Garvin. Grigg returned to "The Times" in 1906, where he was the head of the colonial department until he resigned in 1913 in order to become the co-editor of "The Round Table Journal".

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Military service.

paragraph: At the start of the First World War, Grigg enlisted in the Grenadier Guards, and was commissioned as a special-reserve second lieutenant (on probation) on 13 March 1915. He was confirmed in his rank on 11 August, with a promotion to temporary lieutenant. He was subsequently promoted to lieutenant (effective 15 July 1915), and to temporary captain on 8 November. Serving in France, he distinguished himself in combat before his transfer to the staff as a GSO 3 on 4 February 1916, briefly relinquishing his temporary rank of captain with effect from 27 January, and resuming it from 15 April.

paragraph: He received the Military Cross in 1917 and the Distinguished Service Order the following year, and was a lieutenant-colonel by the end of the war. Grigg was created Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1919 and served as military secretary to Edward, Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) from 1919 until 1920, accompanying the prince on tours of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. For his services, Grigg was appointed Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1919 and Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1920.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Entry into politics.

paragraph: Upon his return in 1920, Grigg became a private secretary to Prime Minister David Lloyd George. Grigg became devoted to Lloyd George, developing a deep respect for the "Welsh Wizard" that subsequently limited his political career. After Lloyd George's departure in 1922, Grigg passed up a number of appointments within the civil service to enter the House of Commons. He was elected to Parliament as a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) in 1922 from the constituency of Oldham. During this period he also served as secretary to the Rhodes Trust, a position he held from 1923 until 1925.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Governor of Kenya.

paragraph: In 1925, Grigg resigned his seat to accept an appointment as governor of Kenya. While frustrated in his assigned task to merge Kenya with the bordering British colonies of Uganda and Tanganyika, he provided energetic administration to the colony, improving agriculture, education, and infrastructure during his governorship. Yet Grigg opposed consideration of the colony's development into a multi-racial state, believing that the native African population was ill-prepared for managing the government. During this period he was named KCMG in 1928.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Resuming politics.

paragraph: Grigg returned to Britain in 1930. Though offered his choice of Indian governorships, his poor health, along with that of his wife, forestalled accepting an appointment. Instead, Grigg decided to reenter politics. Though initially nominated as the Conservative candidate for the Leeds Central constituency in the 1931 general election, Grigg loyally stood aside for the National Labour candidate, Richard Denman. Two years later, he returned to Parliament in a by-election for the constituency of Altrincham. He would serve as MP for Altrincham until the constituency was abolished in 1945.

paragraph: Grigg's return to politics coincided with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler as German chancellor. Grigg feared the Nazi movement and in two books he pressed the case for a strong defence against the threat it posed. Yet Grigg never openly challenged the policy of appeasement advanced by the governments of Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain, keeping his criticisms private. When war did break out, Grigg joined the government as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Information. In April 1940 he became first the financial secretary, then joint parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for War, a post he held until March 1942. He declined Winston Churchill's invitation to become First Commissioner of Works, as it was dependent upon acceptance of a peerage, and did not return to government until he was selected as Minister Resident, Middle East in November 1944. He was also appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1944.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Final years.

paragraph: In the aftermath of the Conservative caretaker government's defeat in the 1945 general election, Grigg was raised to the peerage as Baron Altrincham, ending his political career. Three years later, he assumed the editorship of the "National Review", a post he held until failing health forced his retirement in 1954. Grigg died a year later in Gloucestershire aged 76. His son, John Grigg, who became the second Baron Altrincham upon his father's death, disclaimed the peerage in 1963 under the terms of the Peerage Act of that year.

paragraph: Section::::Works.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Greatest Experiment in World History" (1924)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Unity" (1935)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Faith of an Englishman" (1936)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Britain Looks at Germany" (1938)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The British Commonwealth: Its Place in the Service of the World" (1944)

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Kenya's Opportunity: Memories, Hopes and Ideas" (1955)

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- ThePeerage.com: Sir Edward William MacLeay Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham

wikidata_label: Edward Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham

wikipedia_title: Edward Grigg, 1st Baron Altrincham


text: Grandee of Spain

text: Spanish Royal Family

text: Lieutenant General

text: Spanish army

text: Santander

text: Francisco de Borbón y de la Torre

text: Enriqueta de Borbón y Parade

text: Duchess of Seville

text: morganatic

text: House of Bourbon

text: Juan Carlos I of Spain

text: Madrid

text: Málaga

text: Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910)

text: Grand Master

text: Coadjutor

text: schism

text: Patrilineal descent

text: House of Bourbon

text: Robert of Hesbaye

text: Robert III of Worms

text: Robert the Strong

text: Robert I of France

text: Hugh the Great

text: Hugh Capet

text: Robert II of France

text: Henry I of France

text: Philip I of France

text: Louis VI of France

text: Philip II of France

text: Louis VIII of France

text: Louis IX of France

text: Robert, Count of Clermont

text: Louis I, Duke of Bourbon

text: James I, Count of La Marche

text: John I, Count of La Marche

text: Louis, Count of Vendôme

text: John VIII, Count of Vendôme

text: Francis, Count of Vendôme

text: Charles, Duke of Vendôme

text: Antoine of Navarre, Duke of Vendôme

text: Henry IV of France

text: Louis XIII of France

text: Louis XIV of France

text: Louis, "Grand" Dauphin of France

text: Philip V of Spain

text: Charles III of Spain

text: Charles IV of Spain

text: Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain

text: Infante Enrique, Duke of Seville

text: Francisco de Borbón y de la Torre

categories: 1995 deaths,1912 births,Recipients of the Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910),Grandees of Spain,Grand Masters of the Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910),Nobility from Madrid

paragraph: Francisco de Borbón y Borbón

paragraph: Francisco Enrique de Borbón y Borbón, Grandee of Spain (16 November 1912 - 18 November 1995), was a Spanish aristocrat and a distant relative of the Spanish Royal Family. He had a brilliant and outstanding military career as a Lieutenant General and commander of the cavalry in the Spanish army.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.

paragraph: Francisco was born in Santander and was the eldest child of Francisco de Borbón y de la Torre (1882–1953) and his wife, Enriqueta de Borbón y Parade, 4th Duchess of Seville (1888-1967). He was descended from a morganatic line of the Spanish branch of the House of Bourbon and was a relative of King Juan Carlos I of Spain. He renounced his rights to succeed to his mother's title in 1968.

paragraph: Section::::Biography.:Marriages and issue.

paragraph: Francisco was married on 4 October 1942 at Madrid to Enriqueta Escasany y Miguel (13 October 1925 in Málaga – 16 May 1962 in Málaga), daughter of Ignacio Escasany y Ancell and Enriqueta de Miguel, Marquesa de la Pobla de Claramunt. The couple had two sons:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Francisco de Borbón y Escasany, 5th Duke of Seville (born 16 November 1943 in Madrid)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Alfonso Carlos de Borbón y Escasany (born 10 February 1945 in Madrid)

paragraph: Francisco married for the second time on 15 March 1967 at Madrid to María Josefa García de Lóbez y Salvador (11 December 1928 in Madrid - 28 March 2002 in Madrid), daughter of Nicolas García and Dolores Salvador. They had one son:

paragraph: BULLET::::- Enrique Ignacio de Borbón y García de Lóbez (born 18 March 1970 in Madrid)

paragraph: Section::::Distinctions.

paragraph: Section::::Distinctions.:Order of Saint Lazarus.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Order of Saint Lazarus (statuted 1910)

paragraph: BULLET::::- Grand Master (December 1959-1967 and 1973-1995); elected after the death of his father

paragraph: BULLET::::- Coadjutor (1935)

paragraph: During his tenure, the order suffered a schism which led to the development of two obediences, termed the "Malta" and "Paris Obediences". He continued to lead the "Malta Obedience" until his death in 1995. Under his leadership, a 1986 attempt to reunite the two obediences proved unsuccessful; they were subsequently reunited in 2008, after his death.

paragraph: Section::::Patrilineal descent.

paragraph: Francisco's patriline is the line from which he is descended from father to son.

paragraph: Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations, which means that Francisco is a member of the House of Bourbon.

paragraph: BULLET::::- House of Bourbon

paragraph: BULLET::::1. Robert of Hesbaye, c. 765–807

paragraph: BULLET::::2. Robert III of Worms, 800–834

paragraph: BULLET::::3. Robert the Strong, 820–866

paragraph: BULLET::::4. Robert I of France, 866–923

paragraph: BULLET::::5. Hugh the Great, 898–956

paragraph: BULLET::::6. Hugh Capet, c. 939–996

paragraph: BULLET::::7. Robert II of France, 972–1031

paragraph: BULLET::::8. Henry I of France, 1008–1060

paragraph: BULLET::::9. Philip I of France, 1052–1108

paragraph: BULLET::::10. Louis VI of France, 1081–1137

paragraph: BULLET::::11. Philip II of France, 1165–1223

paragraph: BULLET::::12. Louis VIII of France, 1187–1226

paragraph: BULLET::::13. Louis IX of France, 1214–1270

paragraph: BULLET::::14. Robert, Count of Clermont, 1256–1317

paragraph: BULLET::::15. Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, 1279–1342

paragraph: BULLET::::16. James I, Count of La Marche, 1319–1362

paragraph: BULLET::::17. John I, Count of La Marche, 1344–1393

paragraph: BULLET::::18. Louis, Count of Vendôme, 1376–1446

paragraph: BULLET::::19. John VIII, Count of Vendôme, 1426–1478

paragraph: BULLET::::20. Francis, Count of Vendôme, 1470–1495

paragraph: BULLET::::21. Charles, Duke of Vendôme, 1489–1537

paragraph: BULLET::::22. Antoine of Navarre, Duke of Vendôme, 1518–1562

paragraph: BULLET::::23. Henry IV of France, 1553–1610

paragraph: BULLET::::24. Louis XIII of France, 1601–1643

paragraph: BULLET::::25. Louis XIV of France, 1638–1715

paragraph: BULLET::::26. Louis, "Grand" Dauphin of France, 1661–1711

paragraph: BULLET::::27. Philip V of Spain, 1683–1746

paragraph: BULLET::::28. Charles III of Spain, 1716–1788

paragraph: BULLET::::29. Charles IV of Spain, 1748–1819

paragraph: BULLET::::30. Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain, 1794–1865

paragraph: BULLET::::31. Infante Enrique, Duke of Seville, 1823–1870

paragraph: BULLET::::32. Francisco de Paula de Borbón y Castellví, 1853–1942

paragraph: BULLET::::33. Francisco de Borbón y de la Torre, 1882–1952

paragraph: BULLET::::34. Francisco Enrique de Borbón y Borbón, 1912–1995

alias:
Franciszek III Burbon Sewilski
Francisco de Borbón y Borbón
Francisco de Borbon y Borbon

wikidata_label: Francisco de Paula de Bourbon

wikipedia_title: Francisco de Borbón y Borbón


href: Calligraphy mathematician Zaragoza Zaragoza Logro%C3%B1o Zaragoza Juan%20Guti%C3%A9rrez%20de%20Gualda

text:
calligraphist
mathematician
Zaragoza
Zaragoza
Logroño
Zaragoza
Juan Gutiérrez de Gualda

categories: Calligraphers,Spanish mathematicians,16th-century male writers,16th-century Spanish writers,1573 deaths,1523 births,16th-century mathematicians,People from Durango, Biscay

paragraph: Juan de Yciar

paragraph: Juan de Yciar or Iciar (16th century) was a calligraphist and mathematician active in Zaragoza in the middle of 16th century.

paragraph: Section::::Life and work.

paragraph: Little is known about the life of Juan de Yciar and it is known by his self-explanations in the preface of one of his books.

paragraph: Born in Durango (north of actual Spain) circa 1523, he was gone to Zaragoza in his young age, probably due to some familiar adverse circumstances. When he was fifty years old, he was ordered priest and he was living in Logroño, where it is supposed he was dead in unknown date, but after 1573.

paragraph: Yciar is known mainly by his work on calligraphy, edited first time in Zaragoza in 1548 titled "Recopilacion subtilissima: intitulada Ortographia pratica: por la qual se enseña á escreuir perfectamente", which was extended, modified and reedited many times, with different titles, during 16th century. It is a book to teach writing in which there are from pedagogic rules to different types of letters, going by formulas to make inks or ways to cut quills. The success of the book resides in the fact that codification of a standard legible hand was indispensable to the functioning of an imperial bureaucracy that raising imperial Spain needed. The plate engravings had been made by the French engraver Juan de Vingles, who worked in several Spanish towns during 16th century. The editions of 1564 and onward had attached and annex on arithmetic written by Juan Gutiérrez de Gualda.

paragraph: In 1549, and also in Zaragoza, he published a book on elementary arithmetic, with pedagogical goals, titled "Arithmetica practica, muy util y provechoso para toda persona que quisiere ejercitar se en aprender a contar". Despite the small success of this book, it is also a sample of the learning needs of the tradesmen in an era of growing of trade.

alias:
Juan de Yciar
Juan de Iciar

wikidata_label: Juan de Icíar

wikipedia_title: Juan de Yciar


text:
House of Welf
Duke of Bavaria
Duke of Saxony
Margrave of Tuscany
Duke of Spoleto
election
King of the Romans
Conrad of Hohenstaufen
Henry IX of Bavaria
Wulfhilde
Magnus of Saxony
Billung
Weingarten Abbey
Conrad
Cistercian Order
Duchy of Bavaria
Saxony
Swabia
Welf VI
Gertrude
Lothair III of Germany
Hohenstaufen
Frederick II of Swabia
House of Supplinburg
Brunonids
Northeim
Germany
Henry the Lion
Judith
Franconia
anti-king
Bogen
Bishop of Regensburg
Italy
Kingdom of Sicily
Bari
Tuscany
Engelbert III of Sponheim
Matilda of Tuscany
Pope Innocent II
Otto of Freising
cognomen
princes
Imperial Regalia
duchies
banned
Babenberg
Leopold IV of Austria
Ascanian
Albert the Bear
Eilika of Saxony
Quedlinburg
Imperial Cathedral
Königslutter
Richenza of Northeim
Henry the Lion
Henry II, Duke of Austria

categories: Dukes of Saxony,1108 births,1139 deaths,Dukes of Bavaria

paragraph: Henry X, Duke of Bavaria

paragraph: Henry the Proud () ( – 20 October 1139), a member of the House of Welf, was Duke of Bavaria (as Henry X) from 1126 to 1138 and Duke of Saxony (as Henry II) as well as Margrave of Tuscany and Duke of Spoleto from 1137 until his death. In 1138 he was a candidate for the election as King of the Romans but was defeated by Conrad of Hohenstaufen.

paragraph: Section::::Life and reign.

paragraph: He was the second son of Duke Henry IX of Bavaria and Wulfhilde, daughter of Duke Magnus of Saxony; thus not only a member of the Welf family, but, what was quite important, also senior heir of the Saxon House of Billung. Henry came of age in 1123, in 1126 his father retired to Weingarten Abbey where he and his wife died shortly afterwards. As his elder brother Conrad had entered the Cistercian Order, Henry was enfeoffed with the Duchy of Bavaria. He shared the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother Welf VI.

paragraph: In 1127 he married Gertrude, the only child of King Lothair III of Germany. Henry's father had been promised her marriage and inheritance as reward for his changing to support Lothair in the royal election of 1125 against the Hohenstaufen rival Duke Frederick II of Swabia. Gertrude was heir of the properties of three Saxon dynasties: the House of Supplinburg, the Brunonids, and the Counts of Northeim. The marriage marked the expansion of power of the Welf dynasty, Bavarian dukes since 1070, to the northern parts of Germany. The couple had only one son, Henry the Lion.

paragraph: After the marriage, Henry remained a loyal supporter in the warfare between King Lothair and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Duke Frederick II (who was Henry's brother-in-law, having been married with his sister Judith) and Conrad, then Duke in Franconia and proclaimed the German anti-king. While engaged in this struggle, Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in Bavaria, led by Count Frederick of Bogen, during which both duke and count sought to establish their own candidates as Bishop of Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Count Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohenstaufen brothers made their peace with Emperor Lothair.

paragraph: In 1136, Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command of a Bavarian division of the Imperial army marched into the south Italian Kingdom of Sicily up to Bari, devastating the land as he went. Having distinguished himself by his military abilities during this campaign, Henry was appointed as margrave of Tuscany, succeeding Engelbert III of Sponheim, and as Lothair's successor in the Duchy of Saxony. He was also given the private properties of late Margravine Matilda of Tuscany from the hands of Pope Innocent II.

paragraph: When Emperor Lothair died on his way back from Italy in December 1137, Henry's wealth and position made him a formidable candidate for the German crown. According to the contemporary chronicler Otto of Freising, after his appointment as Duke of Saxony he boasted of a realm stretching "from sea to sea, from Denmark to Sicily". However, the same qualities which earned him the cognomen of "the Proud" aroused the jealousy of the princes and so ultimately prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III, demanded the Imperial Regalia which Henry had received from Lothair, and the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a settlement failed, and when in July 1138 Henry refused to take the oath of allegiance, he was banned and deprived of both his duchies. Bavaria was given to the Babenberg margrave Leopold IV of Austria, a half-brother of the new king Conrad. Saxony, which he had attempted to hold but was not officially invested with, was given to the Ascanian count Albert the Bear, son of Eilika of Saxony, a younger daughter of the last Billung duke Magnus.

paragraph: In 1139 Henry succeeded in expelling his enemies from Saxony and was preparing to attack Bavaria when he suddenly died in Quedlinburg. Henry is buried in the Imperial Cathedral of Königslutter next to his parents-in-law Emperor Lothair and Richenza of Northeim. His death left his son Henry the Lion underage who later would be given Saxony, while Henry II, Duke of Austria received Bavaria.

description: Duke of Bavaria, Duke of Saxony and Spoleto

wikidata_label: Henry X

wikipedia_title: Henry X, Duke of Bavaria


text: photographer

text: Far East

text: Saint-Genis-Laval

text: lycée

text: Lyon

text: Kodak

text: World War II

text: French Resistance

text: École Centrale de Lyon

text: Paris

text: Henri Cartier-Bresson

text: Robert Capa

text: David Seymour

text: Magnum Photos

text: China

text: reportages

text: North Vietnam

text: Mao Zedong

text: Cultural Revolution

text: Fès

text: Angkor

text: Acapulco

text: Niger

text: Bénarès

text: Shaanxi

text: Life

text: National Geographic

text: Paris Match

text: Stern

text: Overseas Press Club

text: Lifetime Achievement Award

text: Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris

text: International Center of Photography

text: Royal Photographic Society

text: Washington, D.C.

text: the Pentagon

text: America's involvement in Vietnam

text: North Vietnam

text: Hanoi

text: socialism

text: Geoffrey Wolff

text: Rap Metal

text: Rage Against the Machine

text: Bullet in the Head

text: Stars and Stripes

text: Vietnamese

text: Barbara Chase

text: Sally Hemings

text: Museum of Modern Art

text: Rote Fabrik

text: Musée de la Vie romantique

text: Month of Photography Asia

text: Magnum Photos portfolio

text: Audio interview with Don Swaim, 1988

categories: French photojournalists,Magnum photographers,1923 births,2016 deaths,Vietnam War photographers,Photography in China,French Resistance members,People from Saint-Genis-Laval,Photography in Japan

paragraph: Marc Riboud

paragraph: Marc Riboud (; 24 June 1923 – 30 August 2016) was a French photographer, best known for his extensive reports on the Far East: "The Three Banners of China", "Face of North Vietnam", "Visions of China", and "In China".

paragraph: Section::::Early life and education.

paragraph: Riboud was born in Saint-Genis-Laval and went to the lycée in Lyon. He photographed his first picture in 1937, using his father's Vest Pocket Kodak camera. As a young man during World War II, he was active in the French Resistance, from 1943 to 1945. After the war, he studied engineering at the École Centrale de Lyon from 1945 to 1948.

paragraph: Section::::Career.

paragraph: Until 1951 Riboud worked as an engineer in Lyon factories, but took a week-long picture-taking vacation, inspiring him to become a photographer. He moved to Paris where he met Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and David Seymour, the founders of Magnum Photos. By 1953 he was a member of the organization. His ability to capture fleeting moments in life through powerful compositions was already apparent, and this skill was to serve him well for decades to come.

paragraph: Over the next several decades, Riboud traveled around the world. In 1957, he was one of the first European photographers to go to China, and in 1968, 1972, and 1976, Riboud made several reportages on North Vietnam. Later he traveled all over the world, but mostly in Asia, Africa, the U.S. and Japan. Riboud has been witness to the atrocities of war (photographing from both the Vietnam and the American sides of the Vietnam War), and the apparent degradation of a culture repressed from within (China during the years of Chairman Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution). In contrast, he has captured the graces of daily life, set in sun-drenched facets of the globe (Fès, Angkor, Acapulco, Niger, Bénarès, Shaanxi), and the lyricism of child's play in everyday Paris. In 1979 Riboud left the Magnum agency.

paragraph: Riboud's photographs have appeared in numerous magazines, including "Life", "Géo", "National Geographic", "Paris Match", and "Stern". He twice won the Overseas Press Club Award, received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2009 Sony World Photography Awards and has had major retrospective exhibitions at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris and the International Center of Photography in New York.

paragraph: Riboud was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Photographic Society in 1998.

paragraph: Section::::Photography.

paragraph: One of Riboud's best known images is "Eiffel Tower Painter", taken in Paris in 1953. It depicts a man painting the tower, posed like a dancer, perched between the metal armature of the tower. Below him, Paris emerges from the photographic haze. Lone figures appear frequently in Riboud's images. In "Ankara", a central figure is silhouetted against an industrial background, whereas in "France", a man lies in a field. The vertical composition emphasizes the landscape, the trees, sky, water and blowing grass, all of which surround but do not overpower the human element.

paragraph: An image taken by Riboud on 21 October 1967, entitled "," is among the most celebrated anti-war pictures. Shot in Washington, D.C. where thousands of anti-war activists had gathered in front of the Pentagon to protest against America's involvement in Vietnam, the picture shows a young girl, Jan Rose Kasmir, with a flower in her hands and a kindly gaze in her eyes, standing in front of several rifle-wielding soldiers stationed to block the protesters. Riboud said of the photo, "She was just talking, trying to catch the eye of the soldiers, maybe trying to have a dialogue with them. I had the feeling the soldiers were more afraid of her than she was of the bayonets."

paragraph: In contrast to the images in his photo essay, "A Journey to North Vietnam" (1969), Riboud says in the accompanying interview:

paragraph: "My impression is that the country's leaders will not allow the slightest relaxation of the population at large [...] it is almost as if [...] they are anxious to forestall the great unknown - peace." In the same "Newsweek" article, he expanded further in his observations on life in North Vietnam:

paragraph: I was astonished, for example, at the decidedly gay atmosphere in Hanoi's Reunification Park on a Sunday afternoon [...] I honestly did not have the impression they were discussing socialism or the 'American aggressors' [...] I saw quite a few patriotic posters crudely 'improved' with erotic graffiti and sketches.

paragraph: There is a divide between what is photographed (or published) and what Riboud had to say by way of his interview. Commenting on this in 1970, the author Geoffrey Wolff wrote:

paragraph: Riboud's photographs illustrate the proposition. The French photographer has been to North Vietnam twice [...] and he is most friendly, on the evidence of his pictures, to the people and the institutions he found there. His photographs are of happy faces,[...] An Air Force ace illustrates how he shot the American "air pirates" from the sky [...] Who knows the truth about these places?

paragraph: American, revolutionary political Rap Metal band, Rage Against the Machine used two of Riboud's photographs for their second single "Bullet in the Head". Both photographs carry strong political and social messages, but are very different. The front cover is a picture of American school children pledging allegiance to the 'flag' (Stars and Stripes) in a classroom; the back cover picture, is of a young (probably Vietnamese) boy, who is pointing a pistol, while soldiers stand on parade in the background. It is unclear who or what the boy is aiming at and whether the gun is real or a toy.

paragraph: Section::::Marriage and family.

paragraph: In 1961 Riboud married the American sculptor Barbara Chase, who was living in Paris. They had two children. She became well known for her novel, "Sally Hemings" (1979), which earned critical acclaim and became a bestseller. They divorced before 1981.

paragraph: He later married Catherine Chaine, a journalist and author.

paragraph: Riboud died in Paris on 30 August 2016, at the age of 93.

paragraph: Section::::Publications.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Women of Japan". Andre Deutch, 1959.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Visions of China, Photographs 1957-1980". Pantheon Books, 1981.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Three Banners of China". Macmillan, 1966.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Photographs at Home and Abroad". Abrams, 2000.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Photo Poche 37: Marc Riboud"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marc Riboud: photos choisies 1953-1985". Paris: Musee d'art moderne de la ville de Paris, 1985.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marc Riboud: l'embarras du choix"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marc Riboud: Journal". by Claude Roy. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1988.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marc Riboud in China: Forty Years of Photography" New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Marc Riboud: 50 Years of Photography" by Annick Cojean. Flammarion, 2004.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Grands Travaux à Paris: 1981-1995" with Seloua Luste Boulbina and Alexis Riboud. France: La Dispute, 2007.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Le Bon Usage du monde" by Claude Roy. France: Éditions Rencontre, 1963.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Istanbul, 1950-2000". With Jean-Claude Guillebaut. France: Imprimerie Nationale, 2003.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Huang Shan"

paragraph: BULLET::::- "The Face of North Vietnam". With Philippe Devilliers. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Chine: Instantanés de Voyage". France: Arthaud, 1980.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Bangkok" with William Warren. Weatherhill/Serasia, 1976.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Angkor: The Serenity of Buddhism". London: Thames and Hudson, 1993.

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Angkor: Sérénité bouddhique". France: Institut Geographique National, 1998.

paragraph: Section::::Exhibitions.

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1958 "Photographs From The Museum Collection" (Museum of Modern Art, New York)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1959 "30th Anniversary Special Installation - Towards the "New" Museum" (Museum of Modern Art, New York)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1960 "Photographs for Collectors" (Museum of Modern Art, New York)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1963 "Marc Riboud" (The Art Institute, Chicago)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1964 "Edward Steichen Photography Center" (Museum of Modern Art, New York)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1966 "China" (Institute of Contemporary Art, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1967 "China" (The Photographers Gallery, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1974 "Marc Riboud" (The Photographers Gallery, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1975 "Nord Vietnam" (Rote Fabrik, Zurich)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1975 "Against the Odds by Marc Riboud" (International Center of Photography, NY)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1977 "Marc Riboud" (Galerie Municipale, Toulouse)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1978 "Marc Riboud" (Galerie Agathe Gaillard, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1981 "From China & Elsewhere" (Gallery Photograph, NY)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1981 "China" (The Photographers Gallery, London)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1982 "China" (Galerie Photo, Geneva)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1984 "Hommage à Marc Riboud" (Centre d'action culturelle and 'China' Galerie ACPA, Bordeaux)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1985 "Rétrospective" (Musée d'Art moderne de la Ville, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1988 "Marc Riboud" (Galerie Agathe Gaillard, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1988 "Marc Riboud" (International Center of Photography, NY)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 1996 "China, Travelling Exhibition" (Centre National de Photographie, Paris - Barbican, London - International Center of Photography, NY)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2004 "Rétrospective" (Maison européenne de la Photographie, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008 "Les Inédits de Marc Riboud" (Atelier Publimod, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2008 "Home On The Road" (Howard Greenburg, New York)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 "Marc Riboud. L'Instinct de l'instant. 50 Years of Photography" (Musée de la Vie romantique, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2009 "China 1954-2004" (Month of Photography Asia, Singapore)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2010 "Krishna Riboud's Garden" (Musée des Arts asiatiques—Guimet, Paris)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2014 "Portraits of the 20th Century" (Peter Fetterman Gallery, Santa Monica)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2015 "Marc Riboud" (Salon Galic Croatian Association of Visual Artists, Croatia)

paragraph: BULLET::::- 2018 "The World of Marc Riboud" (Leica Gallery Tokyo, Tokyo)

paragraph: Section::::External links.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Magnum Photos portfolio

paragraph: BULLET::::- Audio interview with Don Swaim, 1988

alias:
リブーマルク
Maruku Ribū

description: French photographer

wikidata_label: Marc Riboud

wikipedia_title: Marc Riboud


text: racing cyclist

text: women's sprint event

categories: 1997 births,Place of birth missing (living people),Living people,Polish female cyclists

paragraph: Julita Jagodzińska

paragraph: Julita Jagodzińska (born 10 February 1997) is a Polish racing cyclist. She rode in the women's sprint event at the 2018 UCI Track Cycling World Championships.

description: Polish cyclist

wikidata_label: Julita Jagodzińska

wikipedia_title: Julita Jagodzińska


text:
Alexandria
Greek
mathematician
astronomer
geodesics
Rome
Alexandria
Pappus of Alexandria
Proclus
Plutarch
Ptolemy
CE
Almagest
occultation
Spica
Beta Scorpii
precession
equinox
discovered
Hipparchus
BCE
Arabic
spherical triangle
Menelaus' theorem
Francesco Maurolico
Menelaus
Thabit ibn Qurra
star catalogue
Ivor Bulmer-Thomas
Ménélaos d’Alexandrie

categories: 140 deaths,70 births,2nd-century Greek people,Ancient Greek mathematicians,Ancient Greek astronomers

paragraph: Menelaus of Alexandria

paragraph: Menelaus of Alexandria (; , "Menelaos ho Alexandreus"; c. 70 – 140 CE) was a Greek mathematician and astronomer, the first to recognize geodesics on a curved surface as natural analogs of straight lines.

paragraph: Section::::Life and works.

paragraph: Although very little is known about Menelaus's life, it is supposed that he lived in Rome, where he probably moved after having spent his youth in Alexandria. He was called "Menelaus of Alexandria" by both Pappus of Alexandria and Proclus, and a conversation of his with Lucius, held in Rome, is recorded by Plutarch.

paragraph: Ptolemy (2nd century CE) also mentions, in his work "Almagest" (VII.3), two astronomical observations made by Menelaus in Rome in January of the year 98. These were occultations of the stars Spica and Beta Scorpii by the moon, a few nights apart. Ptolemy used these observations to confirm precession of the equinoxes, a phenomenon that had been discovered by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE.

paragraph: "Sphaerica" is the only book that has survived, in an Arabic translation. Composed of three books, it deals with the geometry of the sphere and its application in astronomical measurements and calculations. The book introduces the concept of spherical triangle (figures formed of three great circle arcs, which he named "trilaterals") and proves Menelaus' theorem on collinearity of points on the edges of a triangle (which may have been previously known) and its analog for spherical triangles. It was later translated by the sixteenth century astronomer and mathematician Francesco Maurolico.

paragraph: The lunar crater Menelaus is named after him.

paragraph: Section::::Bibliography.

paragraph: The titles of a few books by Menelaus have been preserved:

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On the calculation of the chords in a circle", composed of six books

paragraph: BULLET::::- "Elements of geometry", composed of three books, later edited by Thabit ibn Qurra

paragraph: BULLET::::- "On the knowledge of the weights and distributions of different bodies"

paragraph: BULLET::::- He may also have written a star catalogue.

paragraph: Section::::References.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Ivor Bulmer-Thomas. "Menelaus of Alexandria." "Dictionary of Scientific Biography" 9:296-302.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Pedro Pablo Fuentes González, “Ménélaos d’Alexandrie”, in R. Goulet (ed.), "Dictionnaire des Philosophes Antiques", vol. IV, Paris, CNRS, 2005, p. 456-464.

paragraph: BULLET::::- Roshdi Rashed and Athanase Papadopoulos, Menelaus' Spherics. Early Translation and al-Māhānī / al-Harawī's Version. De Gruyter, Scientia Graeco-Arabica 21. xiv, 874 pages.

description: Hellenistic mathematician and astronomer

wikidata_label: Menelaus of Alexandria

wikipedia_title: Menelaus of Alexandria