Owing to the low abundance of actinides, their extraction is a complex, multistep process.
Fluorides of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with redox reactions.
Fluorides are reduced with calcium, magnesium or barium:
Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate.
Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP₂O₇) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate.
Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution.

In another extraction method, monazite is decomposed with a 45% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 140 °C.
Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first, filtered at 80 °C, washed with water and dissolved with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Next, the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH = 5.8 that results in precipitation of thorium hydroxide (Th(OH)₄) contaminated with ~3% of rare-earth hydroxides; the rest of rare-earth hydroxides remains in solution.
Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the rare earth elements.
An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid, because the resulting solution can be purified by extraction with organic solvents:
Th(OH)₄ + 4 HNO₃ → Th(NO₃)₄ + 4 H₂O
Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:
ThO₂ + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th
Sometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700–800 °C in a graphite crucible.
Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process.

Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways.
In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state.
Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO₂(NO₃)₂(TBP)₂. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH₄)₂U₂O₇ or with hydrogen peroxide as UO₄·2H₂O.
When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite, magnesite, etc.,
those minerals consume much acid.
In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction.
Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, which converts uranium into a complex [UO₂(CO₃)₃]⁴⁻, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions.
The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution.
The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well.
Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure:
2 UO₂ + O₂ + 6 CO²⁻
₃ → 2 [UO₂(CO₃)₃]⁴⁻
This equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranium carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate.
At high pH, this results in precipitation of diuranate, which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate.

Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte.
Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium.
Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate, UO₂(NO₃)₂·6H₂O. When heated, it turns into UO₃, which is converted to UO₂ with hydrogen:
UO₃ + H₂ → UO₂ + H₂O
Reacting uranium dioxide with hydrofluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal:
4 HF + UO₂ → UF₄ + 2 H₂O
To extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (FeSO₄, or H₂O₂) is added to the resulting solution.
This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO₂(NO₃)₂).
The solution is treated wit
Owing to the low abundance of actinides, their extraction is a complex, multistep process. Fluorides of actinides are usually used because they are insoluble in water and can be easily separated with redox reactions. Fluorides are reduced with calcium, magnesium or barium:
Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP₂O₇) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate. Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution.
In another extraction method, monazite is decomposed with a 45% aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at 140 °C. Mixed metal hydroxides are extracted first, filtered at 80 °C, washed with water and dissolved with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Next, the acidic solution is neutralized with hydroxides to pH = 5.8 that results in precipitation of thorium hydroxide (Th(OH)₄) contaminated with ~3% of rare-earth hydroxides; the rest of rare-earth hydroxides remains in solution. Thorium hydroxide is dissolved in an inorganic acid and then purified from the rare earth elements. An efficient method is the dissolution of thorium hydroxide in nitric acid, because the resulting solution can be purified by extraction with organic solvents:
Th(OH)₄ + 4 HNO₃ → Th(NO₃)₄ + 4 H₂O
Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere:
ThO₂ + 2 Ca → 2 CaO + Th
Sometimes thorium is extracted by electrolysis of a fluoride in a mixture of sodium and potassium chloride at 700–800 °C in a graphite crucible. Highly pure thorium can be extracted from its iodide with the crystal bar process.
Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO₂(NO₃)₂(TBP)₂. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH₄)₂U₂O₇ or with hydrogen peroxide as UO₄·2H₂O.
When the uranium ore is rich in such minerals as dolomite, magnesite, etc., those minerals consume much acid. In this case, the carbonate method is used for uranium extraction. Its main component is an aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, which converts uranium into a complex [UO₂(CO₃)₃]⁴⁻, which is stable in aqueous solutions at low concentrations of hydroxide ions. The advantages of the sodium carbonate method are that the chemicals have low corrosivity (compared to nitrates) and that most non-uranium metals precipitate from the solution. The disadvantage is that tetravalent uranium compounds precipitate as well. Therefore, the uranium ore is treated with sodium carbonate at elevated temperature and under oxygen pressure:
2 UO₂ + O₂ + 6 CO²⁻
₃ → 2 [UO₂(CO₃)₃]⁴⁻
This equation suggests that the best solvent for the uranium carbonate processing is a mixture of carbonate with bicarbonate. At high pH, this results in precipitation of diuranate, which is treated with hydrogen in the presence of nickel yielding an insoluble uranium tetracarbonate.
Another separation method uses polymeric resins as a polyelectrolyte. Ion exchange processes in the resins result in separation of uranium. Uranium from resins is washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate or nitric acid that yields uranyl nitrate, UO₂(NO₃)₂·6H₂O. When heated, it turns into UO₃, which is converted to UO₂ with hydrogen:
UO₃ + H₂ → UO₂ + H₂O
Reacting uranium dioxide with hydrofluoric acid changes it to uranium tetrafluoride, which yields uranium metal upon reaction with magnesium metal:
4 HF + UO₂ → UF₄ + 2 H₂O
To extract plutonium, neutron-irradiated uranium is dissolved in nitric acid, and a reducing agent (FeSO₄, or H₂O₂) is added to the resulting solution. This addition changes the oxidation state of plutonium from +6 to +4, while uranium remains in the form of uranyl nitrate (UO₂(NO₃)₂). The solution is treated wit
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