The General History of Africa - by isaac Samuel
a comprehensive look at states and societies across the continent's entire history.
=========================== #### Discover more from African History Extra All about African history; narrating the continent's neglected past Over 6,000 subscribers The General History of Africa
============================= ### a comprehensive look at states and societies across the continent's entire history. ( Apr 07, 2024 48 African historiography has come a long way since the old days of colonial adventure writing. Following the re-discovery of countless ( across (
, many of which ( and several of which have been studied, including (
, and lesser-known documents such as those written in the (
, the (
, and (
; We are now sufficiently informed on (
, and can combine these historical documents with the developments in African archeology and linguistics, to discredit the willful ignorance of ( and ( This article outlines a general history of Africa. It utilizes hundreds of case studies of African states and societies from nearly every part of the continent that I have previously covered in about two hundred articles over the last three years, inorder to paint a more complete picture of the entire continent’s past. \ * * * **Support AfricanHistoryExtra by joining our Patreon community, and help keep this newsletter free for all:** ( * * * **Africa from the ancient times to the classical era.** Chronologically, the story of ( begins in the Nile valley (see map below) where multiple ( as part of a fairly uniform cultural spectrum which in the 3rd millennium BC produced the earliest complex societies such as the Egyptian Old Kingdom, the Nubian A-Group culture and the kingdom of Kerma. At its height in 1650 BC, the kings who resided in the capital of Kerma controlled a vast swathe of territory that is described as ( The rulers of Kerma also forged military and commercial alliances with the civilization of Punt, which (
. In West Africa, the neolithic culture of ( as Africa’s oldest complex society outside the Nile valley, and would lay the foundations for the rise of the Ghana empire. To its south were groups of semi-sedentary populations that constructed the ( beginning around 1350 BC. The central region of west Africa in modern Nigeria was home to the ( and is renowned for its vast corpus of terracotta artworks, as well as some of the oldest evidence for the independent invention of iron smelting in Africa. In the Lake Chad basin, the Gajigana Neolithic complex emerged around 1800BC in a landscape characterized by large and nucleated fortified settlements, the biggest of which was the ( and perhaps the aethiopian auxiliaries of Carthage that invaded Sicily and Roman Italy. _**Africa’s oldest Neolithic cultures as well as sites with early archaeobotanical evidence for the spread of major African crops**_. Map by Dorian Fuller & Elisabeth Hildebrand. In the Nile valley, the geographic and (
, with Nubian mercenaries and priestesses settling in Naqada, Hierakonpolis, and Luxor, all of whom were later joined Nubian elites from Kush who settled in Thebes, Abydos, and Memphis. By the ( and the eastern Mediterranean and left a remarkable legacy in many ancient societies from the ancient Assyrians, Hebrews, and Greeks who referred to them as _**'blameless aethiopians.'**_ After Kush's withdrawal from Egypt, the kingdom continued to flourish and eventually established its capital at Meroe, which became one of the largest cities of the ancient world, (
, and the birthplace of one of Africa's oldest writing systems; the Meroitic script. The Meroitic kingdom of (
, which were a product of Nubian mortuary architecture as it evolved since the Kerma period, and are attested across various Meroitic towns and cities in both royal and non-royal cemeteries. The kingdom of ( after successfully repelling a Roman invasion, thus beginning an extensive period of ( To the east of Kush was the Aksumite empire, which occupied an important place in the history of late antiquity when ( due to its control of the lucrative trade between Rome and India, and its formidable armies which conquered parts of Arabia, Yemen and the kingdom of Kush. (
, ruled by the illustrious king Abraha who organized what is arguably the first international diplomatic conference with delegates from Rome, Persia, Aksum and their Arab vassals. _**Queen Shanakadakheto’s pyramid**_, Beg. N 11, 1st century CE, Meroe, Sudan. * * * **The African Middle Ages (500-1500 CE)** After the fall of Kush in the 4th century, the Nubian kingdom of Noubadia emerged in Lower Nubia and was ( which had seized control of Egypt and expelled the Byzantines in the 7th century. Noubadia later merged with its southern neighbor, the Nubian kingdom of Makuria, and both armies defeated another Arab invasion in 651. The ( and planned an alliance with the Crusaders. The ( expanded the pre-existing patterns of (
, such that West African auxiliaries participated in the Muslim expansion into southern Europe and the ( By the 12th century, oasis towns such as ( that were engaged in localized trade with the southern kingdom of Kanem which eventually conquered them. The empire of (
, creating one of Africa's largest polities in the Middle Ages, extending southwards as far as (
, and eastwards to the western border of the kingdom of Makuria. _**ruins of Djado in the Kawar Oasis of Niger.**_ At its height between the 10th to 13th centuries, the kingdom of (
, facilitating the movement of pilgrims and religious elites between the two regions. The Zagwe kingdom emerged in the 11th century after the decline of Aksum and is ( East of the Zagwe kingdom was the sultanate of (
. The Zagwe kingdom later fell to the ‘Solomonids’ of Ethiopia in the late 13th century who inherited the antagonist relationship between the Christian and Muslim states of North-East Africa, with one Ethiopian king sending a warning to the Egyptian sultan that; _**(
**_ African Christian pilgrims from (
, where some eventually resided, while others also visited the Byzantine capital Constantinople and the ( _**Church of Beta Giyorgis in Lalibela**_ In the same period, (
, often after a temporary stay in Egypt where West African rulers such as the kings of Kanem had secured for them hostels as early as the 13th century. In many cases, these West African pilgrims were also accompanied by their kings who used the royal pilgrimage as a legitimating device and a conduit for facilitating cultural and intellectual exchanges, with the best documented ( and ( in 1324. ( of the Middle Ages, thanks not just to the famous pilgrimage of Mansa Musa, but also to one of its rulers’ (
, as well as Mali’s political and cultural influence on the neighboring societies. To the East of Mali in what is today northern Nigeria (
. Most notable among these were the cities of Kano, Katsina, Zaria, and Gobir, ( significantly contributed to the region's cultural landscape, and the (
. In the distant south-east of Mali in what is today southern Nigeria was (
, its religious primacy over the Yorubaland region of southern Nigeria, and its status as one of the earliest non-Muslim societies in west Africa to appear in external accounts of the middle ages, thanks to its interactions with the Mali empire that included the trade in glass manufactured at Ife. _**Crowned heads of bronze and terracotta**_, ca. 12th-15th century, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. The sculptural art of Ife had its antecedents in the enigmatic kingdom of Nri, which flourished in the 9th century and produced a (
. The sculptural art tradition of the region would attain its height under the Benin kingdom whose artist guilds created some of (
. In the immediate periphery of Mali to its west were the old (
, some of which were under the control of Mali’s rulers. On the empire’s southern border was the ( and influenced the spread of the distinctive architecture found in the Volta basin region of modern Ghana and Ivory Coast. Straddling Mali’s eastern border was the ( were within the political and cultural orbit of Mali and its successors like Songhai. _**Ruins of Wadan**_, South eastern Mauritania On the eastern side of the continent, ( that were largely populated by diverse groups of Bantu-speakers such as the Swahili and Comorians. Cosmopolitan cities like Shanga, Kilwa, Mombasa, and Malindi mediated exchanges between the mainland and the Indian Ocean world, including the (
. The early development of a dynamic maritime culture on the East African coast enabled further expansion into the offshore islands such as the (
. This (
, where city-states like ( along its northern coastline. The movement of people and exchanges of goods along the East African coast was enabled by the ( whose _**mtepe**_ ships carried gold and other commodities as far as India and Malaysia. The gold which enriched the Swahili city-states was obtained from the kingdoms of south-eastern Arica which developed around (
. One of the largest of the Zimbabwe-style capitals was the ( that characterized the political landscape of South-Eastern Africa during this period. Further north of this region in what is now southern Somalia, ( during the 16th century reinvigorated cultural and commercial exchanges between the coastal cities such as Mogadishu, and the mainland, in a pattern of exchanges that would integrate the region into the western Indian Ocean world. _**the Valley enclosure of Great Zimbabwe**_, Zimbabwe * * * **Africa and the World during the Middle Ages.** Africans continued their exploration of the old world during the Middle Ages, traveling as far as ( between the 7th and 14th centuries. Another region of interest was the (
, where there's extensive evidence for the (
, when Swahili merchants, scholars, craftsmen, pilgrims, and other travelers appeared in both archeological and documentary records. ( where they often initiated patterns of exchange and migration between the two regions that were facilitated by merchants from various African societies including Aksum, Ethiopia, and the Swahili coast, creating a diaspora that included prominent rulers of some Indian kingdoms. _**Foreign merchants (including Aksumites in the bottom half) giving presents to the Satavahana king Bandhuma, depicted on a sculpture from Amaravati, India**_ * * * **African society during the Middle Ages: Religion, Writing, Science, Economy, Architecture, and Art.** Political and cultural developments in Africa were shaped by the evolution of its religious institutions, its innovations in science and technology, its intellectual traditions, and the growth of its economies. The (
, being a product of a gradual evolution in religious practices of societies along the middle Nile, from the cult temples and sites of ancient Kerma to the mixed Egyptian and Nubian deities of the Napatan era to the gods of the Meroitic period. The more common religion across the African Middle Ages was Islam, especially in West Africa where it was adopted in the 11th century, and ( who are associated with some of the region's oldest centers of learning like Dia and Djenne, long-distance trade in gold, and the spread of unique architectural styles. ‘Traditional’ religions continued to thrive, most notably the ( that developed in close interaction with the religious practices of neighboring societies and eventually expanded as far as Tunisia and Burkina Faso. Similar to this was the Yoruba religion of Ifa, which is among Africa's most widely attested traditional religions, and provides a window into the Yoruba’s ( and the ( _**Temple reliefs on the South wall of the Lion temple at Naqa in Sudan, showing King Natakamani, Queen Amanitore and Prince Arikankharor adoring the gods; Apedemak, Horus, Amun of Napata, Aqedise, and Amun of Kerma.**_ The intellectual networks that developed across Africa during the Middle Ages and later periods were a product of its (
, while others were established as self-sustaining communities of scholars across multiple states producing ( The biographies of several African scholars from later periods have been reconstructed along with their most notable works. Some of the most prolific African scholars include (
, and (
. On the other side of the continent, the intellectual networks in the northern Horn of Africa connected many of the region’s scholarly capitals such as Zeila, Ifat, Harar, Berbera with other scholarly communities in the Hejaz, Yemen, and Egypt, where (
. Along the east African coast, (
, almost all of which were written in the Swahili language rather than Arabic. Some of Africa’s most prominent scholars had a significant influence beyond the continent. Ethiopian scholars such as Sägga Zäᵓab and Täsfa Sәyon who visited and settled in the cities of Lisbon and Rome during the 16th century engaged in intellectual exchanges, and ( The writings of West African scholars such as the 18th-century theologian, (
. _**copy of the 19th century ‘Utendi wa Herekali’, of Bwana Mwengo of Pate, Kenya,**_ now at (
. The growth of African states and economies was sustained by ( everything from metallurgy and glass manufacture to roadbuilding and shipbuilding, to intensive farming and water management, to construction, waste management, and textile making, to the composition of scientific manuscripts on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and Geography. Africa was home to what is arguably (
. It contains mathematical equations inscribed in cursive Meroitic and drawings of astronomers using equipment to observe the movement of celestial bodies, which was important in timing festivals in Nubia. While popular mysteries of Dogon astronomy relating to the Sirius binary star system were based on a misreading of (
. A significant proportion of the scientific manuscripts from Africa were (
, especially in ( _**18th-century astronomical manuscript from Timbuktu showing the rotation of the planets**_ Besides manuscripts on the sciences, religion, philosophy, and poetry, Africans also wrote about music and produced painted art. ( and instruments that (
. Additionally, they also created an (
, being utilized in everything from royal inscriptions to medieval chronicles to the calculation of the Easter computus. African art was rendered in various mediums, some of the most notable include (
, as well as the (
. Contrary to common misconception, the history of wheeled transport and road building in Africa reflected broader trends across the rest of the world, with (
, while others such as ( Regional and long-distance trade flourished during the African Middle Ages and later periods. In West Africa, trade was enabled by the (
, that could ferry goods and passengers across 90% of the river's length Some of the best documented industries in Africa's economic history concern (
, and played a decisive role in the emergence of early industries on the continent. One of the regions best known for the production of high-quality textiles was the (
, some of which ended up in prestigious collections across the western world. _**Kongo luxury cloth: cushion cover, 17th-18th century**_, Polo Museale del Lazio, Museo Preistorico Etnografico Luigi Pigorini Roma The expansion of states and trade across most parts of the continent during the Middle Ages enabled the ( Some of the African cities whose history is well documented include the (
, the (
, the (
, the (
, the Hausa (
, the (
, the Swahili cities of; (
, (
, (
, and (
, and lastly, the Ethiopian capital of ( The growth of cities, trade, and the expansion of states was enabled not just by the organization and control of people but also by the control of land, as various ( The cities and hinterlands of Africa feature a (
, some of the best-known of which include the castles of Gondar, the Nubian temples of Kerma and Meroe, the Swahili palaces and fortresses, the West African mosques and houses, as well as the stone palaces of Great Zimbabwe. Some of the best-studied (
, whose constructions include; large palace complexes, walled compounds, double-story structures with vaulted roofs, and intricately decorated facades. _**Ruins of the Husuni Kubwa Palace**_, Kilwa, Tanzania * * * **Africa during the early modern era (1500-1800)** The early modern period in African history continues many of the developments of the Middle Ages, as older states expanded and newer states appear in the documentary record both in internal sources and in external accounts. While Africa had for long initiated contact with the rest of the Old World, the arrival of Europeans along its coast began a period of mutual discovery, exchanges, and occasional conflicts. Early invasions by the (
. Over the succeeding period, African military strength managed to hold the Europeans at bay and dictate the terms of interactions, (
. The (
. This strength was attained through combining several innovations including the rapid adoption of new weapons, and ( ( also played an important role in the evolution of the military system in parts of the continent during the early modern era, including the ( to handle them. Bornu's diplomatic overtures to Istanbul and Morroco, and its powerful army enabled it to avoid the fate of ( But the Moroccans failed to take over Songhai's vassals, thus enabling (
. In the northern Horn of Africa, Ethiopia was briefly conquered by the neighboring empire of Adal which was supported by the Ottomans, but the ( In Central Africa the coastal (
. _Dutch delegation at the court of the King of Kongo_, 1641, in Olfert Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge van den Afrikaensche gewesten (Amsterdam, 1668) The (
. The (
, which allows us to reconstruct the kingdom's history as told by its own people. While Kongo crushed a major Portuguese invasion in 1622 and 1670, the kingdom became fragmented but was later (
, in (
. Another kingdom whose (
, which, despite its reputation as a 'black Sparta', was neither singularly important in the Atlantic world nor dependent on it. It’s important to note that the (
. However, the corpus of ( indicates a localized influence in some regions during specific periods. It is also important to note that (
, including in (
. To the east of Dahomey was the ( and was for some time the suzerain of Dahomey. West of these was the Gold Coast region of modern Ghana, that was dominated by the kingdom of Asante, which reached its height in the 18th and 19th centuries, (
. On the eastern side of the continent, the (
, as well as a reorientation of trade and travel, before the Portuguese were expelled by 1698. In south-east Africa, the kingdom of ( In south-western Africa, the ancient communities of (
, but the repeated threat of Dutch expansion prompted shifts in (
, as well as towns such as (
. In central Africa, the rise of the (
, and the lucrative trade in copper and ivory the Lunda controlled attracted Ovimbundu and Swahili traders who undertook the first recorded journeys across the region. Increased connectivity in Central Africa did not offer any advantages to the European colonists of the time, as the ( _**ruins of Naletale,**_ Zimbabwe In the far west of Rozvi was the kingdom of Ndongo and Matamba whose famous (
. * * * **Africa and the World during the early modern period.** ( during the early modern period. (
, some of whose envoys also visited Rome. By the 17th century, African travelers had extended their exploration to the region of western Europe, with several (
. Africans from the Sudanic ( often as envoys and scholars. While in eastern Africa, merchants, envoys, sailors, and royals (
, expanding on pre-existing links mentioned earlier, with some settling and attaining powerful positions as priests. The ( eventually ( _**detail of a 17th-century Japanese painting, showing an African figure watching a group of Europeans, south-Asians and Africans unloading merchandise**_. ( Internal exploration across the continent continued, ( where the ( The emergence of the ( as well as the kingdoms of Darfur and Funj in modern Sudan enabled the creation of new routes from West Africa, which facilitated regular (
. Along the Atlantic coast, ( * * * **Africa in the late modern period (18th to 19th centuries)** Safe from the threat of external invasion, the states and societies of Africa continued to flourish. In the Comoro Archipelago along the East African coast, (
. While ( didn't lead to the establishment of the mythical egalitarian (
, whose ruler's shifting alliances with the rulers of Nzwani initiated (
, before the ( subsumed it. In Central Africa, the 17th and 18th centuries were the height of the (
. In the far east of Loango was (
, and south of Kuba was the Luba kingdom, where sculptural artworks like the (
. In the eastern part of Central Africa, the Great Lakes region was home to several old kingdoms such as Bunyoro, Rwanda, and Nkore, in a highly competitive political landscape which in the 19th century was dominated by (
, that would play an important role in the region’s contacts and exchanges with the East African coast. In southern Africa, the old heterarchical societies such as ( built as early as the 16th century were gradually subsumed under ( that culminated in the so-called mfecane which gave rise to ( _**Bokoni ruins. a dense settlement near machadodorp, South Africa showing circular homes, interconnecting roads, and terracing.**_ In West Africa, the period between 1770 and 1840 was also a time of revolution, that led to the formation of large 'reformist' states such as ( and the (
, although other states survived such as the (
. The 'reformist' rulers drew their legitimacy in part from reconstructing local histories such as (
. Similarly in Sokoto, the empire’s founders and rulers such as Abdullahi Dan Fodio and Muhammad Bello ( contributing to the so-called ‘foreign origin’ hypothesis that would be exaggerated by European colonialsts. The 19th century in particular was one of the best documented periods of Africa’s economic history, especially for societies along the coast which participated in the commodities boom. In the Merina kingdom of Madagascar, an ambitious attempt at ( In Southern Somalia, the (
, just as the old kingdom of ( to the Red Sea region and India, while the ( to the red sea region. In East Africa, the emergence of Zanzibar as a major commercial entrepot greatly expanded pre-existing trade routes fueled by the ( as far as modern D.R.Congo _**Mombasa**_, Kenya, ca. 1890, Northwestern University In West-Central Africa, ( in contrast to the neighboring regions which were coming under colonial rule. In West Africa, participants in the commodities boom of the period included (
. * * * **Africa and the World during the late modern period.** The 19th century was the height of (
. African travelers produced detailed first-hand accounts of their journeys, such as the travel account of the (
, As well as ( The 19th century was also the age of imperialism, and the dramatic change in Africa's perception of Europeans can be seen in (
. _**Ivory box with two Portuguese figures fighting beside a tethered pangolin, Benin city**_, 19th century, Penn museum * * * **From Colonialism to Independence.** African states often responded to colonial threats by putting up stiff resistance, just like they had in the past. Powerful kingdoms such as the (
, the Wasulu empire of (
, the (
, while the (
. Some states such as the (
, while others such as the (
. But ultimately, only Ethiopia and Liberia succeeded in retaining their autonomy. After half a century of colonial rule that was marked by fierce resistance in many colonies and brutal independence wars in at least six countries (Angola, Algeria, Mozambique, Guinea, Zimbabwe, and Namibia), African states regained their independence and marked the start of a new period in the continent's modern history. * * * **Conclusion** Those looking for shortcuts and generalist models to explain the history of Africa will be disappointed to find that the are no one-size-fits-all theories that can comprehensively cover the sheer diversity of African societies.
# The General History of Africa - by Isaac Samuel

## Overview
- **Objective**: To provide a comprehensive look at states and societies across Africa’s extensive history.
- **Context**: African historiography has evolved from colonial adventure narratives to a more nuanced understanding that incorporates various historical and archaeological sources. 

## Ancient Africa (3rd Millennium BC - 500 CE)
1. **Nile Valley Civilizations**:
   - **Egyptian Old Kingdom**: Formed as one of the earliest complex societies.
   - **Nubian Cultures**: Included the A-Group culture and the Kingdom of Kerma, which controlled significant territories by 1650 BC and had alliances with Punt.

2. **West African Early Societies**:
   - **Neolithic Culture**: Recognized as Africa’s oldest complex society outside the Nile, laying the foundations for the Ghana Empire.
   - **Terracotta Art**: The central region of Nigeria produced significant terracotta artworks and is notable for early iron smelting evidence.

3. **Kerma and Kush**:
   - **Kingdom of Kush**: Rose after Kush's withdrawal from Egypt, establishing Meroe as a major cultural center with one of Africa's earliest writing systems, the Meroitic script.

4. **Aksumite Empire**:
   - Controlled trade between Rome and India and engaged in military conquests in the surrounding regions.

## The African Middle Ages (500 - 1500 CE)
1. **Rise of Noubadia and Makuria**:
   - Emerged after Kush's fall; these kingdoms successfully resisted Arab invasions and had significant military alliances.

2. **West African Empires**:
   - Participation of West African auxiliaries in the Muslim expansion into Europe.
   - Establishment of the Kanem Empire, which became a powerful entity by the 12th century.

3. **Cultural exchanges**:
   - Travels by West African pilgrims facilitated cultural and intellectual exchanges with regions such as Mecca.

4. **Ethiopian Kingdom**:
   - The Zagwe kingdom's rise and later conquest by the Solomonids, highlighting the religious tensions between Christian and Muslim states.

5. **East African Coast**:
   - Swahili city-states like Kilwa engaged in trade and established connections as far as India and Malaysia.

## Africa and the World during the Middle Ages
1. **Exploration and Exchange**:
   - Africans explored vast regions, establishing trade connections across Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and beyond.
  
2. **Cultural Development**:
   - The development of religious institutions and intellectual networks was prominent, with notable scholars emerging from various regions.

## Early Modern Era (1500 - 1800)
1. **European Arrival**:
   - The arrival of Europeans along the African coast initiated complex interactions characterized by both trade and conflict.

2. **Military Adaptations**:
   - African states adapted by incorporating new military technologies and maintained military strength against European advances.

3. **Regional dynamics**:
   - The emergence of new kingdoms and the consolidation of power in existing states marked this period, with significant trade routes developing.

## Late Modern Period (18th - 19th centuries)
1. **Flourishing States**:
   - Many African states continued to thrive despite external pressures, with significant developments in trade and diplomacy.

2. **Resistance to Colonialism**:
   - Various kingdoms mounted resistance against colonial incursions, with only a few like Ethiopia and Liberia retaining independence.

3. **Imperialism**:
   - The narrative of Africa changed dramatically during the 19th century due to imperialist expansion, though African travelers documented their experiences and engagements.

## Conclusion
- The complexity and diversity of African societies defy simplified narratives. Comprehensive understanding emerges from a careful examination of each state and society's unique historical context and contributions.