a brief note on Africa in 16th century global history.
the international relations and manuscripts of Kongo
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====================================================== ### the international relations and manuscripts of Kongo ( Mar 03, 2024 23 The 16th century was one the most profound periods of change in Africa's international relations. Africans had led the initiative in establishing international contact across Eurasia(
, and the expansion of the Ottoman and Portuguese empires in the 16th century further accelerated Africa's engagement with the rest of the world, reshaping pre-existing patterns of regional alliances and rivalries. In the northern Horn of Africa, the armies of the Adal sultanate defeated the Ethiopian forces in 1529 as their leader, Imam Ahmad al-Ghazi, launched a series of successful campaigns that briefly subsumed most of Ethiopia. Al-Ghazi's campaigns eventually acquired an international dimension and became increasingly enmeshed in the global conflict between the Portuguese and the Ottomans. The Turks supplied al-Ghazi with firearms and soldiers, while the Portuguese provided the same to the Ethiopian ruler Gelawdewos, who eventually won the war in 1543. **‘Futuh al-Habasa’** (_Conquest of Abyssinia_) written by Sihab ad-Din Ahmad bin Abd al-Qader in 1559, copy at the King Saud University.( Around the same time, the rulers of the Swahili city-states along the East African coast who were opposed to the Portuguese presence sent envoys to the Ottoman provinces in Arabia beginning in 1542, looking for allies to aid them in expelling the Portuguese. After several more embassies in the 1550s and 60s, Ottoman corsair Ali Beg brought his forces to the East African coast in 1585 and 1589, but was eventually forced to withdraw after an army from the mainland drove his forces from the coast.( On the other side of the continent the simultaneous expansion of the Portuguese and Ottomans into north-western Africa threatened the regional balance of power between the empires of Morocco and Bornu. After a series of diplomatic initiatives by Bornu’s envoys to Marrakech and Istanbul, the Moroccans defeated the Portuguese in 1578, just as Bornu's ruler Mai Idris Alooma was halting the Ottoman advance into Bornu’s dependancies in southern Libya.( _**the 16th century fortress of Murzuq in southern Libya’s Fezzan region, associated with the Awlad dynasty, a client state of Bornu**_. The fezzan remained the border between Bornu and the Ottomans and it was from this region that **(
**. In all three regions, the globalized rivalries between the regional powers are mentioned in some of Africa's best known works of historical literature. The chronicle on Adal’s ‘_Conquest of Abyssinia’_ was completed in 1559, in the same decade that the chronicle of the Swahili city of Kilwa was written, and not long before the Bornu scholar Aḥmad Furṭū would complete the first chronicle of Mai Idris' reign in 1576. While all three chronicles are primarily concerned with domestic politics, they also include an international dimension regarding the diplomatic activities of their kingdoms.( Much further south in the region of west-central Africa, another African society entered the international arena, without engaging in the global rivaries of the period. The sudden entry of the kingdom of Kongo into global politics and the emergence of its intellectual tradition was one of the most significant yet often misunderstood developments in 16th-century Africa. **The international activities of the kingdom of Kongo and its intellectual traditions are the subject of my latest Patreon article.** **please subscribe to read about it here:** ( * * * _**The ambassador Antonio Emanuele Ne Vunda of the Kingdom of Kongo and the embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga of Japan**_. Painting by Agostino Taschi. ca. 1616 in the Sala dei Corazzieri, Palazzo del Quirinale., Rome * * * Thanks for reading African History Extra! for free to receive new posts and support my work.
### A Brief Note on Africa in 16th Century Global History: The International Relations and Manuscripts of Kongo

1. **Introduction to 16th Century Africa**: 
   - The 16th century marked a significant period of transformation in Africa’s international relations. 
   - This era was characterized by increased African initiative in establishing international contacts across Eurasia.

2. **Ottoman and Portuguese Empire Expansion**:
   - The expansion of the Ottoman Empire and the Portuguese Empire intensified Africa's connections with the global stage.
   - This expansion altered existing regional alliances and rivalries.

3. **Conflict in the Horn of Africa**:
   - In 1529, armies of the Adal Sultanate, led by Imam Ahmad al-Ghazi, defeated Ethiopian forces, briefly dominating most of Ethiopia.
   - Ahmad al-Ghazi’s campaigns gained international significance, intertwining with a global conflict between the Portuguese and the Ottomans.
   - The Ottomans supplied Ahmad al-Ghazi with military resources, while the Portuguese supported Ethiopian ruler Gelawdewos, who ultimately triumphed in 1543.

4. **Literary Contributions**:
   - The historical account “Futuh al-Habasa” (_Conquest of Abyssinia_) was authored by Sihab ad-Din Ahmad bin Abd al-Qader in 1559, capturing the conflict's essence.

5. **Swahili City-States and Ottoman Relations**:
   - Rulers of Swahili city-states opposed Portuguese dominance and initiated diplomatic ties with the Ottoman provinces in Arabia starting in 1542.
   - These efforts were aimed at seeking support to expel Portuguese forces, leading to the intervention of Ottoman corsair Ali Beg in 1585 and 1589. 
   - However, he was eventually expelled by local mainland forces.

6. **Northwestern Africa: Portuguese and Ottoman Threats**:
   - The simultaneous territorial aspirations of the Portuguese and Ottomans in northwestern Africa influenced the regional balance of power.
   - The Moroccan Empire faced threats from Portuguese encroachments, prompting diplomatic engagements with the Bornu Empire.
   - In 1578, Moroccan forces defeated the Portuguese, while Bornu’s ruler Mai Idris Alooma repelled Ottoman advances into Bornu’s southern dependencies.

7. **Chronicles of Regional Conflicts**:
   - Prominent historical texts from this era, such as the chronicles detailing Adal’s _Conquest of Abyssinia_, were completed in 1559.
   - Similar chronicles from the Swahili city of Kilwa and the Bornu Empire were written in the decades following, showcasing the political dynamics and international relations of the time.

8. **Emergence of the Kingdom of Kongo**:
   - In west-central Africa, the Kingdom of Kongo emerged as a significant player on the international stage, distinct from the rivalries that characterized other regions.
   - Kongo's entry into global politics and the development of its intellectual traditions highlight crucial yet often overlooked aspects of 16th-century African history.

9. **Conclusion**:
   - The international activities and intellectual heritage of the Kingdom of Kongo are detailed in a dedicated article available on Patreon, emphasizing the kingdom's role amidst the broader 16th-century global context. 
   - The ambassadorial mission led by Antonio Emanuele Ne Vunda of Kongo to Japan illustrates the kingdom's diplomatic engagements beyond Africa.

### Further Reading:
- For an in-depth exploration of Kongo's international relations and its historical significance, please subscribe to the additional content available on Patreon. 

**Note**: This structure provides a clear and factual narrative, facilitating an understanding of Africa's global interactions during the 16th century and the specific role of the Kingdom of Kongo within that context.