| { | |
| "paper_id": "W89-0107", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:44:39.672522Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "Computational Man-Machine Interaction in Simple Natural Language", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "G", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Regers Koch", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": {}, | |
| "email": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "A", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Bstract", | |
| "suffix": "", | |
| "affiliation": {}, | |
| "email": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "For a wide variety of semantic theories we shall present a common method of calculating the semantic representation when starting from the input text and a grammar covering the syntactic description o f the text. It appears that the so-called data-flow trees play a huge and central role in this kind of analysis and translation into a semimtic representation. The method here seems particularly well fit for the analysis of natural language queries to database systems. The considerations here are rather tentative and reflect research in progress.", | |
| "pdf_parse": { | |
| "paper_id": "W89-0107", | |
| "_pdf_hash": "", | |
| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "For a wide variety of semantic theories we shall present a common method of calculating the semantic representation when starting from the input text and a grammar covering the syntactic description o f the text. It appears that the so-called data-flow trees play a huge and central role in this kind of analysis and translation into a semimtic representation. The method here seems particularly well fit for the analysis of natural language queries to database systems. The considerations here are rather tentative and reflect research in progress.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "T h e fo c u s o f th is p a p e r is o n lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n w h ich is a m e t h o d fo r th e s y ste m a tic p a tte rn id e n tifica tio n a n d e x tr a c tio n in lin g u is tic d a t a se q u en ce s. in p a rticu la x a t a se m a n tic a n T h e re su ltin g lo g ic g ra m m a r w ill b e th e fo llo w in g : ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "(7 ) S ( V ,W ,U ) N p ( X , Y , Z ) ,V p ( X ,W ,V ,U ) N p ( X , Y , Z ) P r o p ( X ) N p ( X , Z , W ) ^ D ( X , Y , Z , W ) , N ( X , Y ) V p ( Y , X l , Y l , V ) ^ V p -s ( X ,Y ,Z ,W ) ,[ t h a t ] ,S ( W ,Z ,V ) V p ( Y , W ,V ,U ) ^ T v ( X ,Y ,Z ,W ) ,N p ( Z , V", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Introduction", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1989, pages 77-85", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1989", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [], | |
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| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "P", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Saint-Dizier", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1986, | |
| "venue": "The Journal o f Logic Programming", | |
| "volume": "3", | |
| "issue": "4", | |
| "pages": "329--356", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "P. Saint-Dizier. 1986. An Approach to Natural Language Semantics in Logic Pro gramming. The Journal o f Logic Programming. 3(4):329-356.", | |
| "links": null | |
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| "text": "h is p a p e r in v estig a tes m e th o d s a n d to o ls fo r d e v e lo p in g a sp e c ific k in d o f m o d e l o f h u m a n la n g u a g e lea rn in g ca p a b ility , b y p rese n tin g a p e r fo r m a tiv e sim u la tio n m o d e l (h ere te rm e d a co m p u ta tio n a l lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n sy ste m [16, 1 8 ]). T h e s\u00a3tme m e th o d s an d to o ls m a y b e a p p lie d fo r th e p u r p o s e o f im p le m e n tin g a w id e v a riety o f c o m p u ta tio n a l sy ste m s in clu d in g ce rta in k in d s o f r u le -b a se d e x p e rt sy ste m s a n d ce rta in k in ds o f m o d e r n g ra m m a rs (in p a r tic u la r th e s oca lle d u n ifica tion g ra m m a rs ) [17]. T h e a d v a n ta g e o f lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n is its a p p lic a b ility in th e c o n te x t o f co n s tr u c tin g n a tu ra l la n g u a g e in terfa ces as w ell as a v a riety o f o th e r u serfrien d ly ty p e s o f in terfa ces to e x p e r t sy ste m s a n d o th e r c o m p u te r sy ste m s. W e are s tu d y in g th e p r o b le m o f c o n s tr u c tin g la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n m o d e ls fro m sp e cific d a ta . T h a t is, w e c o u ld b e cla im e d t o b e m o d e llin g an e x tr e m e ly a d v a n ce d ty p e o f in fo r m a tio n p r o c e s s in g sy ste m s, v iz . h u m a n b e in g s in th e ro le o f a cq u irin g la n g u a g e ca p a b ilitie s. H o w ev er, w e are m o d e llin g th e p e r fo r m a tiv e a sp e cts on ly . N o c la im w h a ts o e v e r is m a d e as t o th e p o s s ib le d e s c r ip tiv e p o w e r o f th e resu ltin g m o d e ls fr o m a p s y c h o lo g ic a l p o in t o f v ie w (s o w e m ig h t c a ll it p u rely a n tr o p o m o r p h ic in fo r m a tio n t e c h n o lo g y ).", | |
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| "text": "d a c o m b in e d s y n ta c tic a n d lo g ica l level o f in ter p r e ta tio n . It p r o v id e s a m ea n s fo r th e a u to m a te d a n a lysis o f v e rb a l p r o to c o ls , a n d it c o n s titu te s a m e t h o d fo r th e a u to m a te d c o n s tr u c tio n o f a lo g ico -s e m a n tic p arser. L o g ic o -S e m a n tic In d u c tio n a n d its a u to m a te d varian t C o m p u ta tio n a l L o gic o -S e m a n t ic In d u c tio n d e sig n a te a c o m p le te ly n ew m e t h o d fr o m th e area o f lo g ic p r o g r a m m in g a n d n a tu ra l la n g u a g e p ro ce ssin g . In c o n tra s t to th e m a jo r ity o f o th e r in d u c tiv e a p p r o a c h e s th e m e t h o d h ere d o e s n o t d ea l w ith in d u ctio n in a s p a c e o f p o s s ib le a ssertion s b u t in ste a d w ith in d u ctio n in a s p a ce o f p ossib le lo g ic o -s e m a n tic rep resen ta tio n s. H ere is g iv e n a sh o rt in tr o d u c tio n t o th e c o n ce p ts . A m o r e c o m p r e h e n s iv e d iscu ssio n b y th is a u th o r m a y b e fo u n d elsew here. T h e p a r tic u la r k in d o f in d u c tiv e in feren ce th a t w e h ave in m in d m a y b e illus tr a te d b y m e a n s o f a d ia g ra m . A lo n g th e first a xis w e sh all m a p all th e p ossib le a ssertion s o r u tte ra n ce s (in s o m e s u ita b le e n c o d in g ), a n d a lo n g th e s e co n d axis w e sh all m a p all p o s s ib le r e p re se n ta tio n s w ith in th e fra m e w o rk o f a p a rticu la r re p re se n ta tio n a l n o ta tio n (a n d sim ila rly in a su ita b le e n c o d in g ). A sem a n tic th e o r y w ill th e n o c c u r in th e s h a p e o f a m a p p in g fr o m th e a xis o f utter\u00a3inces in to th e a x is o f r e p re se n ta tio n s (a s lo n g as w e p re su p p o s e u n a m b ig u ity , o th e rw ise it w ill b e g en era lise d t o a r e la tio n ).", | |
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| "text": "o r e x a m p le , w e m ig h t & o m th e fo llo w in g fa cts c r o w n u m b e r 1 is b la ck c r o w n u m b e r 2 is b la ck c r o w n u m b e r 3 is b la ck e tc . m a k e th e a tt e m p t t o in d u c e th e fo llo w in g m o re gen era l a ssertion ; [2] a ll c r o w s axe b la ck . T h e ty p e o f in d u c tio n a d v o c a t e d here is o f a d ifferen t k in d : F rom th e fo llo w in g c o n v e n tio n s te x t E l h as th e lo g ic o -s e m a n tic rep re sen ta tion F I te x t E 2 h as th e lo g ic o -s e m a n tic re p resen ta tion F 2 te x t E 3 has th e lo g ic o -s e m a n tic rep resen ta tion F 3 e tc. w e sh o u ld like t o fin d a (p o s s ib ly v e r y lim ite d ) lin g u istic u niverse L a n d a (lo g i c a l) p r o g r a m P su ch th a t fo r e 2u:h te x t e in L its c o r r e s p o n d in g lo g ic o -s e m a n tic r e p re s e n ta tio n f is th e resu lt (o u t p u t ) o f e x e c u tin g th e p ro g ra m P w ith th e given e as in p u t. H ere th e e x a m p le te x ts E l , E 2 , E 3 e tc . are all in clu d e d in th e lin gu istic u n iv erse L .", | |
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| "text": "C o m p u t a tio n a l L o g ic o -S e m a n tic In d u c tio n m a y b e c o n s id e re d a g en era lisa tio n o f th e o ld c o n c e p t g r a m m a tic a l in fe re n ce th a t m a y b e ch a ra cterise d as a k in d o f c o m p u ta tio n a l s y n ta c tic in d u c tio n [11]. T h e p o s s ib ility o f a u to m a t io n is d iscu sse d in c o n s id e r a b le d e ta il. T h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f c o m p u ta tio n a l s e m a n tic in d u c tio n has t o d o w ith th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a kin d o f b leick box t o a c c e p t a tr a d itio n a l s y n ta c tic d e s c r ip tio n o f a lin g u istic u niverse. B esid e s th e b la c k b o x m u st ciccept as in p u t a fin ite set o f p a irs < ek ,fk > w h ere ek is a te x t fr o m th e lin g u istic u n iv erse, a n d fk is th e in te n d e d se m a n tic re p resen ta tion c o r r e s p o n d in g t o th e in p u t ek-F or in sta n ce , th e fk m a y b e in th e fo rm o f a lo g ic a l fo r m u la o r a lo g ic a l c o d e . O u tp u t fr o m th e b la c k b o x s h o u ld b e a p ro g ra m th a t tra n sla te s lin g u istic in p u t e in to lo g ic a l o u tp u t f w h e re e s p e c ia lly th e in p u t ek g iv es th e o u tp u t fk. H ere is re q u ire d a c o m p le te m a tc h w ith th e g iv en e x a m p le s . S o m e p o s s ib le p rin cip le s fo r su ch a b la c k b o x a re d iscu ssed . T h e s e p rin cip le s are cla rified b y a p p lic a tio n t o a fe w s m a ll sa m p le te x ts . W e c o n c lu d e th a t th is n ew c o n c e p t o f co m p u ta tio n a l lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n is e x tr a o r d in a r ily p ro m isin g . T h is p a p e r con ta in s a b r ie f d iscu ssion a n d sk etch es a s o lu tio n . A m o r e c o m preh ensive d iscu ssion is in p re p a ra tio n [13, 14, 16]. H ere w e are c o n c e r n e d e x clu s iv e ly w ith p a rsin g o r te x tu a l a n a ly sis. A n a lo g o u s co n sid e ra tio n s ca n b e m a d e co n c e r n in g te x tu a l sy n th esis o r g e n e ra tio n . T h is w ork o n c o m p u ta tio n a l lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n w as p e r fo r m e d u n d er h e a v y in flu en ce b y so m e o f th e le a d in g a p p r o a c h e s w ith in lo g ic g ra m m a rs like th o se o f A . C o lm e ra u e r [3, 4], V . D a h l [7, 8 , 9], F . P e re ira [23, 2 4 , 25], P . S ain t-D izier [27, 28], an d M . M c C o r d [21, 22]. It m a y rea lly b e seen as an a tte m p t t o u n ify s o m e ra th e r d iv e r g in g ten d e n cie s in th e p h ilo s o p h y o f la n g u a g e, n a m e ly C re s w e ll's la m b d a -c a lc u la t o r ic th e o r y [5, 6] an d s o m e m o n ta g o v ia n on es [19, 10], a n d o n th e o th e r h a n d , th e first o rd e r lo g ica l th eories fr o m lo g ic g ra m m a rs [12, 16]. T h e c o n tr ib u tio n h ere seem s to s u p p o r t a n y o f th ese th eo ries. A s an e x a m p le w e m a y in v e stig a te th e fo llo w in g E n g lish sen ten ce (1 ) M a r y b eliev es th a t P e te r lo v e d a w o m a n W ith in th e lim its o f a m o d e s tly e x te n d e d first o r d e r p r e d ic a te ca lcu lu s w e m a y a ssign t o th e sen ten ce th e fo llo w in g tw o in te rp re ta tio n s o r lo g ic o -s e m a n tic re p resen ta tio n s, resp e ctiv e ly : (2 ) 3 y [w o m a n (y ) k b e lie v e (p r e s ,m a r y ,lo v e (p a s t,p e te r ,y ))] (3 ) b e lie v e (p r e s ,m a x y ,3 y [w o m a n (y ) k lo v e (p a s t,p e te r ,y )]) A n a b s o lu te ly ce n tra l p r o b le m o f sem a n tics (h ere ca lle d th e lo g ic o -s e m a n tic p r o b le m ) is t o assign t o e a ch in p u t te x t fr o m th e a p p r o p r ia te lin g u istic u n iverse o n e o r several fo rm a liz e d sem a n tic re p re sen ta tion s. A s fo r m a liz a tio n s w e w ill here co n sid e r o n ly lo g ic a l fo rm u la e b e lo n g in g t o s o m e p a r tic u la r lo g ic a l ca lcu lu s (like d efin ite cla u ses o r H o rn cla u ses, first o r d e r p r e d ic a te lo g ic , s o m e e x te n d e d first o rd e r p re d ica te lo g ics , th e la m b d a ca lcu li, a n d M o n ta g u e 's in te n sio n a l lo g ic [19]). T h e p rin cip les o f im p le m e n ta tio n a re q u ite cle a r a n d fa irly w ell d e v e lo p e d , as m a y b e seen b y s tu d y in g th e e x a m p le b e lo w (a n o th e r e x a m p le m a y b e fo u n d in [16]). B u t as fa r as an a c tu a l im p le m e n ta tio n is c o n c e r n e d , w e a re w o rk in g o n it a lb eit in a ra th er slo w p a c e (d u e t o la ck o f re so u rce s). A Small Example N o w tim e is p r o b a b ly rip e t o in v e stig a te th e e x a m p le m e n tio n e d a b o v e . T h is m ay b e seen as a fu rth e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e id e a s d iscu ssed in [16]. I f th e sy n ta ctic d e s c r ip tio n is th e fo llo w in g little gr<im m ar (4 ) S ent -\u25ba N p V p N p -\u25ba D e t N o u n | P r o p V p -> T v N p I V p -s th a t S (in th e last p r o d u c t io n ru le w e h a v e u sed a ca te g o ria l grsim m ar n o ta tio n ) th en we m a y lo o k fo r a rep re se n ta tiv e , a lso ca lle d an ex h a u stiv e te x t. S u ch an ex h a u stiv e s a m p le te x t m a y b e th e fo llo w in g : M a r y b eliev es th a t P e te r lo v e d a w om a n W it h in th e ch o se n se m a n tic rep re se n ta tio n a l n o ta tio n (a p r e d ic a te ca lcu lu s o f a r b itr a r y h ig h o r d e r , PC^^) w e m a y p refer t o use a k in d o f g en era lised qu antifiers fo r rep resen tin g s o m e (t w o ) p o s s ib le in te rp re ta tio n s o f th e sa m p le te x t in the fo llo w in g w a y : (5 ) a (y ,w o m a n (y ),b e lie v e (p r e s ,m a r y ,lo v e (p a s t,p e te r ,y ))) (6 ) b e lie v e (p r e s ,m a r y ,a (y ,w o m a n (y ),lo v e (p a s t,p e te r ,y ))) T h e tw o in te r p r e ta tio n s d e v ia te b y o n e h a v in g as a p re s u p p o s itio n th e exis te n c e o f su ch a fe m a le a n d th e o th e r n o t h a v in g th a t p r e s u p p o s itio n . M o n ta g u e g ra m m a rs lik e P T Q w o u ld o b ta in th e sa m e d istin ctio n . I f w e c h o o s e t o c o n s id e r th e first fo r m u la (5 ) t o b e th e in te n d e d represen ta t io n , th e m e t h o d h ere w ill lea d in a m e ch a n ica l fa sh io n t o th e lo g ic p rog ra m s h o w n b e lo w (7 ) , w ritte n in th e fo r m o f a lo g ic g ra m m a r. T h e p r o g r a m co n s titu te s ju s t a s y n ta c tic a l d e s c r ip tio n a u g m e n ted w ith a t tr ib u te s o r d e c o r a tio n s as m a y b e seen b y ig n o rin g th e fu n ctio n a l a rgu m en ts (th e n q u ite s im p ly th e g r a m m a r o f (4 ) o c c u r s ). L e t u s see w h a t h a p p e n s m o r e p re cise ly in o u r m e th o d . T h e in ten d ed resu ltin g fo r m u la (5 ) s h o u ld b e rep resen ted as a tree s tru ctu re like th a t in figure 1. T h e n th e fo llo w in g s te p s sh o u ld b e p e r fo r m e d : S te p 1: E n u m e ra te th e b o x e s in th e in te n d e d resu lt stru ctu re. (In o u r e x a m p le th is m ea n s th a t th e b o x e s w ill g e t th e n u m b ers fro m 1 t o 7, as in figure 1). S te p 2: C o n s t r u c t th e s y n ta c tic s tru ctu re (b y p e rfo r m in g p a rsin g o r s y n ta ctic a n a ly s is ). S te p 3: C r e a te a m a tc h b e tw e e n th e resu lt s tru ctu re a n d th e s y n ta c tic stru c tu re . M o r e p recisely , m a k e a c o n n e c tio n fr o m a n u m b e re d b o x in th e resu lt s tr u c tu r e t o th e le x ic a l c a te g o r y in th e s y n ta x s tru ctu re t o w h ich th e w o r d (le x ic a l o r s y n c a te g o r e m a tic ) b e lo n g s. T h is is an in d ica tio n o f th e v e r te x in th e s y n ta x tre e w h e re th a t fr a c tio n o f th e resu lt stru ctu re", | |
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| "text": "h a v in g th e releva n t w o r d as its t o p v e rte x , is b e in g c o n s tr u c te d as th e resu lt a tt r ib u te o f th e v e rte x . S te p 4: C o n s t r u c t th e flo w fr o m th e s o -c a lle d fo c u s v a ria b les (fo r m a n ew vari a b le fo r e a ch N p p h ra se , as in flg u re 2 ). S te p 5: C o n s t r u c t th e flo w in th e le x ica l rules. S te p 6: C o n n e c t e a ch p a ir o f n u m b ers c o r r e s p o n d in g t o an e d g e in th e result s tr u c tu r e (h e re th e tre e s tr u c tu r e s h o u ld b e r e s p e cte d , as in flgure 3 w h ere th e fo llo w in g p a irs a re c o n n e c te d : 7 -6 , 5 -4 , 6 -4 , 3 -2 , 4 -2 , 2 -1 ) . S te p 7: C h e c k th e c o n s is te n c y c o n c e r n in g a rity a n d lo c a l flow . In o u r e x a m p le th e a u g m e n te d s y n ta c tic s tru ctu re w ill b e like figu re 3.", | |
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| "text": ", U ) D ( X , Y , Z , a ( X , Y , Z ) ) ^ [a] D ( X , Y ,Z ,e v e r y ( X ,Y , Z ) ) [every] Concluding Remarks and Perspectives A s t o w h ich re p resen ta tion la n g u a g es are a c c e p ta b le w ith r e s p e c t t o th is m e t h o d , th ere seem s t o b e a h ig h d e g re e o f fre e d o m s o th a t w e seem t o b e n ea r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f a gen eral in fo r m a tio n th e o r e tic a l o r c o m p u te r s c ie n c e p a ra d ig m like th is: A n yw ay, th ere e x ists a req u irem en t th a t a k in d o f h o m o m o r p h y p ro p e rty , a kin d o f c o m p o s itio n a lity sh o u ld b e a v a ila b le in th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n in p u t an d o u tp u t. O n e o r a n o th e r va ria n t o f F re g e 's p r in cip le o f c o m p o s itio n a lity sh o u ld b e o b ta in e d : T o th e e x ten t th a t o u r rules axe o f th e fo r m P o ( G ( y i,...,y n ) ) -> p i( y i ) ,...,P n ( y n ) w e k n ow a b o u t th e sem a n tic rep resen ta tion fu n c tio n Sem th a t S e m (P o )= G (S e m (P i) ,...,S e m (P n )) w h ere P o = P i^P 2 ^ Pn p r o v id e d th a t P^ is th e fra g m en t o f th e in p u t te x t b e lo n g in g t o th e s y n ta x c a te g o r y pk fo r all k e { 0 , l , . . , n } . A n d th is p r o p e r ty is p recisely o n e w a y o f e x p re ssin g P reg ea n co m p o s itio n a lity . O n e p e r s p e c tiv e o f th is a p p ro a ch is th a t it a llo w s a g e n era lis a tion in to w h a t w e te n d t o c a ll c o m p u ta tio n a l lo g ic o -s e m a n tic a b s tr a c tio n [18]. In th is c o n te x t it is p r o fita b le t o m ake u se o f ce rta in resu lts fr o m th e m o d e r n c o m p u te r s cie n ce discip lin es o f lo g ic p ro g ra m m in g , a ttr ib u te g ra m m a rs , a n d d e n o ta tio n a l se m a n tic th eories. A n o th e r p e r s p e c tiv e c o n ce rn s a u to m a te d lea rn in g . C o m p u ta tio n a l lo g ic osem a n tic in d u c tio n has th e p ro p e r ty th a t th e sy ste m w ill b e a b le t o im p r o v e its lin gu istic p e r fo r m a n c e (i.e ., h a n d lin g n ew in fo r m a tio n o f a s e m a n tic n a tu re ) b y a d o p tio n fr o m a sin g le o c c u r r e n c e o f a g ra m m a tic a l rule. T h a t m u st b e e ffe c tiv e a u to m a te d lea rn in g p a r e x ce llen ce! S o, b esid e s c o n c lu d in g th a t th e m e t h o d o f lo g ic o -s e m a n tic in d u c tio n is n o t o n ly new b u t a lso p ro m isin g w e are a b le t o d iscu ss A l-p r o b le m s re la te d t o in d u c tiv e lea rn in g fr o m th e fo llo w in g p e r s p e c tiv e : in d u c tiv e rea so n in g as a w a y o f m a n a g in g lin gu istic in fo rm a tio n in lo g ic a l sy stem s. H e n ce in th is ca s e it is n o t really a q u estio n o f em p irica l in fo r m a tio n , a n d o f c o u rs e its re la tio n s h ip t o A I is alw ays a rg u a b le (w h a t is th e p recise c o n te n t o f A I ? ), b u t a s u rp risin g ly h igh degree o f a u to m a te d lea rn in g is a c tu a lly o b ta in a b le .", | |
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