| { | |
| "paper_id": "W89-0110", | |
| "header": { | |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", | |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:44:31.762068Z" | |
| }, | |
| "title": "The Design and Application of a Domain Specific Knowledgebase in the TA C ITU S Text Understanding System", | |
| "authors": [], | |
| "year": "", | |
| "venue": null, | |
| "identifiers": {}, | |
| "abstract": "TACITUS is a text understanding system being developed at SRI In ternational. One of the main components in the system is a knowledge base which contains commonsense and domain specific world knowledge encoded as axioms in a first order predicate calculus language. The prime function o f the knowledgebase is to provide extra-linguistic facts to be used in the resolution of a range of ambiguities such as compound nom inal constructions, definite reference, and in drawing conclusions on the basis o f the implicatures in the text. The paper discusses the methodology used in building a knowledgebase for analyzing news reports about terror ist attacks, and demonstrates how it is used in an application extracting information to be stored in a simulated database.", | |
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| "paper_id": "W89-0110", | |
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| "abstract": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "TACITUS is a text understanding system being developed at SRI In ternational. One of the main components in the system is a knowledge base which contains commonsense and domain specific world knowledge encoded as axioms in a first order predicate calculus language. The prime function o f the knowledgebase is to provide extra-linguistic facts to be used in the resolution of a range of ambiguities such as compound nom inal constructions, definite reference, and in drawing conclusions on the basis o f the implicatures in the text. The paper discusses the methodology used in building a knowledgebase for analyzing news reports about terror ist attacks, and demonstrates how it is used in an application extracting information to be stored in a simulated database.", | |
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| "section": "Abstract", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "body_text": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "D u r in g m y te rm as In te rn a tio n a l F ello w a t S R I In tern a tion a l, C a lifo rn ia , this o u r k n ow led g eb a se, i.e. w h a t are th e se ttin g s, w h a t a re th e ty p ic a l a c tio n s , w h o a re th e agen ts, w h a t are th e ro les a n d re la tion s b e tw e e n th e en tities in o u r ' te r r o r is t' u niverse, e tc . T h u s th e y in d ic a te d w h a t lin g u istic a n d e x tr alin g u istic in fo r m a tio n w o u ld b e n eed ed in o u r k n ow le d g e b a se.", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Preamble", | |
| "sec_num": "1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "U sin g a fu ll-sen ten ce c o n c o r d a n c e o f th e sa m p le te x ts , w e lo o k e d a t ea ch single le x ica l ite m in c o n te x t, a n d n o te d d o w n , in a n in fo rm a l m a n n er, w h a t fa cts w ere lin g u istica lly p re su p p o s e d a T h e s e a x io m s g iv e th e b a s ic fa c ts a b o u t o rg a n iz a tio n s, i.e. th a t an organ izar tio n has p e rso n s as m e m b e rs, a n d th a t th e y h ave a pla n . In th e e x a m p le sen ten ces g iv en in (1 ), th e n o u n p h ra se ' th e b la s t' , is rela ted T h u s , w e fin d th e o r g a n iz a tio n (o ) re sp o n sib le fo r an a tta ck (e ) b y p rov in g th a t e is a te rro rist a tta c k , th a t o is a terrorist o r g a n iz a tio n , a ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "T he A nalysis o f Corpus T exts", | |
| "sec_num": "2.1" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "T h e D a n ish C a rls b e rg ", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "Ac kn owledgements:", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1989", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "back_matter": [ | |
| { | |
| "text": "(4) (Defaxiom EXPLOSIOK- ' ' A n explosion generates a b l a s t '' (ALL ((el* . ev) (x . nev) (y . nev) (z . nev)) (IMPLY (AND (ASSUMABLE (etc-expl el* x y z ) 0.3) (explode! el* x y z)) (SOME ((e2* . ev) (b . nev)) (AND (blast! e2* b) (genn el* e2*))))))E ssen tia lly, th is a x io m sa y s th a t a b la st (e 2 * ) im p lies th e o c c u r r e n c e o f som e e x p lo s io n ev en t ( e l * ) , a n d th a t th e la tte r g en era tes th e fo r m e r , w h ich is sta ted b y w a y o f th e p r im itiv e p r e d ic a te ' g e n n ' . (proving (enumerated-for-all ((el . ev)) (proving (some ((it . nev)) (incident-type el it)) (terror-limits default-time) print-incident) (and (enumerated-for-all ((it . nev)) (proving (incident-type el it) (terror-limits default-time) print-incident-type) :true) (enumerated-for-all ((ro . nev)) (proving (responsible-organization el ro) (terror-limits default-time) print-responsible-organization) :true) (terror-limits default-time) print-sentence-finished)))T h e lin k in g a x io m in th e k n o w le d g e b a se fo r ' re s p o n s ib le o r g a n iz a tio n ' c o u ld b e th e fo llo w in g sta tem en t:(5) (Defaziom RESP-ORG-1 (terror) ' ' T h e organization responsible for the attack' ' (ALL ((el* . ev) (e . ev) (e2* . ev) (o . nev) (e3* . ev)) (IMPLY (AHD (terattack! el* e) (responsible! e2* o e) (terorg! e3* o)) (responsible-organization e o))))", | |
| "cite_spans": [], | |
| "ref_spans": [], | |
| "eq_spans": [], | |
| "section": "annex", | |
| "sec_num": null | |
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| "BIBREF19": { | |
| "ref_id": "b19", | |
| "title": "A Prolog-like Inference System for Computing Minimum Cost Abductive Expl2inations in Natural Language Interpretation", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "M", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "E" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Stickel", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1988, | |
| "venue": "Proceedings o f ICCSC", | |
| "volume": "58", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "343--350", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Stickel, M.E. 1988. A Prolog-like Inference System for Computing Minimum Cost Ab- ductive Expl2inations in Natural Language Interpretation. Proceedings o f ICCSC 58:343-350. Hong Kong.", | |
| "links": null | |
| }, | |
| "BIBREF20": { | |
| "ref_id": "b20", | |
| "title": "Domain-Independent Task Specification in the TAC ITUS Natural Language System", | |
| "authors": [ | |
| { | |
| "first": "M", | |
| "middle": [], | |
| "last": "Tyson", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| }, | |
| { | |
| "first": "J", | |
| "middle": [ | |
| "R" | |
| ], | |
| "last": "Hobbs", | |
| "suffix": "" | |
| } | |
| ], | |
| "year": 1988, | |
| "venue": "", | |
| "volume": "", | |
| "issue": "", | |
| "pages": "", | |
| "other_ids": {}, | |
| "num": null, | |
| "urls": [], | |
| "raw_text": "Tyson, M. and J.R. Hobbs. 1988. Domain-Independent Task Specification in the TAC ITUS Natural Language System. Ms. SRI, Menlo Park, California.", | |
| "links": null | |
| } | |
| }, | |
| "ref_entries": { | |
| "FIGREF0": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
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| "text": "p a st w in te r, I h a d th e o p p o r t u n it y t o fa m ilia rize m y s e lf w ith th e T A C I T U S te x t u n d e r s ta n d in g s y s te m . U n d e r th e su p e rv isio n o f Jerry H o b b s , w h o is head o f th e T A C I T U S p r o je c t , I d e v e lo p e d a d o m a in s p e cific k n o w le d g e b a se fo r th e T A C I T U S s y s te m . T h e p re se n t p a p e r is a b r ie f a n d fa irly h ig h -lev e l a n d n on te c h n ic a l o v e r v ie w o f th e e n terp rise. S e c tio n 2 o f th e p a p e r p resen ts th e m e t h o d o lo g y u sed in th e co n s tr u c tio n o f th e k n o w le d g e b a s e fo r n ew s re p o r ts a b o u t te rro rist a tta ck s; a c r u d e o u tlin e o f th e T A C I T U S s y ste m is g iv en in s e c tio n 3 as n ece ssa ry b a ck g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n b e fo r e w e g o o n t o lo o k in g in d e ta il a t an e x a m p le te x t in se ctio n s 4 a n d 5. W e c o n c lu d e w ith s o m e fin a l re m a rk s in s e c tio n 6g o a l w as to b u ild a fa irly la rg e k n o w le d g e b a s e fo r a sp e c ific d o m a in , n a m e ly terrorist a tta ck s, t o b e u sed as a b a sis fo r a u to m a te d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f te x ts fallin g w ith in th is d o m a in , a n d su b seq u en t a u to m a t ic e x tr a c tio n o f s p e c ific in fo rm a tio n . W e d e c id e d t o w o rk o n th e b a sis o f a set o f sa m p le te x ts , a n d w e co m p ile d a c o r p u s c o n s is tin g o f several n ew s r e p o r ts a b o u t te rro rist e v en ts. T h is co rp u s th en c o n s tit u t e d th e b a c k b o n e in o u r w ork . R a th e r th a n a d o p t w h a t m ig h t b e te rm e d a str ic t su b la n g u a g e a p p r o a c h to th e d e scrip tiv e ta sk (c f. H irsch m a n 1986, a n d H o b b s 1984 fo r m o re d e ta ile d d is cu ssio n s), w e e m p lo y e d a m e t h o d o lo g y o f step w ise refin em en t (c f. H o b b s 1 9 8 4 ). T h e th ree step s o f o u r w o rk in g m e t h o d o lo g y , w h ich w ill b e e la b o r a te d o n b e lo w , c o n siste d in: \u2022 A n (in fo rm a l) a n a lysis o f th e c o r p u s te x ts in o r d e r t o esta b lish a b a s ic v o ca b u la ry , d e te rm in e a n d s ele ct relevan t fa cts fo r th e d o m a in . \u2022 B rea k in g u p th e d o m a in in to se lf-c o n ta in e d a n d co h e re n t s u b -d o m a in s . \u2022 A x io m a tiz in g th e fa cts o f th e s u b d o m a in s .", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF1": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "irstly, th e c o r p u s te x ts serv ed th e p u r p o s e o f e sta b lish in g th e b a s ic v o c a b u la r y in o u r sy stem . S econ d ly , th e y c o n s titu te d a p ic tu r e o f th e w o rld w e in te n d e d t o m o d e l in", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF2": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
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| "text": "n d w h a t g en era l b a c k g r o u n d k n o w le d g e w o u ld b e n ee d ed in o r d e r to u n d e rsta n d a g iv e n o c c u r r e n c e o f a le x ica l item in its co n te x t. (W e w ill n o t d iscu ss th e m e a n in g o f ' u n d e r s ta n d ' h ere, b u t w e u se it in a sen se sim ilar t o th a t o f E c o 's te rm ' a c tu a lis a tio n ' (E c o 1 9 7 9 )). T h e an alysis resu lts in a first b re a k in g d o w n o f e a ch ite m in to c o m p o n e n t p a rts an d e x p licit s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e im p lica tu re s (G r ic e 1 975) ca rried b y th e te x t.", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF3": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "Structuring the D om ain Inform ation T h e aim o f th e s e co n d ste p w as to s tru ctu re th e d o m a in in fo rm a tio n b y s o rtin g f2 w:ts in to su b -d o m a in s o r ' c lu s te r s ' (H a yes 1 9 8 5 ). T h e p rim e rea son fo r im p o s in g a s tru ctu re o n th e d o m a in is to e n h a n ce c o n c e p tu a l cla rity , a tta in m o d u la rity , an d t o b e a b le t o d is co v e r g a p s a n d lo g ic a l d e p e n d e n c ie s in th e k n o w le d g e b a se .S o r tin g fa c ts in to s u b -d o m a in s is g en e ra lly a s tra ig h tforw a rd p rocess. T h e first c r u d e d is tin c tio n w h ich ca n b e m a d e , is th a t b e tw ee n fa cts p erta in in g to c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w le d g e a n d d o m a in sp e c ific o r sp e cia lize d k n ow led g e. T h e fo r m er is fa c ts a b o u t th e w o r ld in g en era l a n d n o t p a rticu la rly tied t o a sp e cific d o m a in (b e it te rro rist a c tio n s , in fo r m a tio n te ch n o lo g y , o r w h a t h ave y o u ), w h ereas th e la tte r ch a ra cte riz e s th e fa c ts w h ich are q u ite o fte n fo u n d to b e restricted an d h ig h ly s p e cia liz e d . F a cts p e r ta in in g t o fo r e x a m p le s p a c e , tim e, a n d b e lie f a re co n sid e re d c o m m o n se n se k n o w le d g e , w h ere a s va riou s fa c ts a b o u t te rro rist o rg a n iza tio n s are c le a rly d o m a in s p e c ific , a n d essen tial fo r th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f re p o rts a b o u t te rro rist e v en ts. G e o g r a p h ic a l fa c ts a b o u t th e lo c a tio n o f cities an d cou n tries see m t o fa ll s o m e w h e re b e tw e e n th e m o re a b s tra ct c o m m o n s e n s e n o tio n an d th e s p e c ia liz e d d o m a in k n ow led g e. O n th e b a sis o f th e resu lts fr o m o u r fa ct-fin d in g , i.e. ste p o n e a b o v e , we d efin e d 30 s u b -d o m a in s . T h e o v era ll c o n c e p tu a l s tru ctu re fo r th e k n ow led g e b ase, th e s u b -d o m a in s a n d th e re la tion s b e tw e e n th em , ca n b e s ch e m a tica lly ren dered b y th e illu stra tio n in fig u re 1. A p a r t fr o m p r o v id in g c o n c e p tu a l cla rity , th e a d v a n ta g e o f th is m o d u la r a p p r o a c h is o b v io u s ly th a t it p e r m its y o u t o la ter en h a n ce o r m o d ify th e su bd o m a in s in th e k n o w le d g e b a se in d e p e n d e n tly o f each oth er.", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF4": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "h e fin a l s te p in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e k n ow led g eb a se co n siste d in cre a tin g p r e c is e o n to lo g ie s fo r th e in d iv id u a l s u b -d o m a in s , i.e. w h a t en tities e x ist and w h a t a re th e re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e m , a n d a x io m a tiz in g th e fa cts. T h e m a in ta sk h ere w as t o d e cid e o n w h ich p r e d ic a te s t o d e c o m p o s e , i.e. ch a r a c te r iz e b y o th e r o r n ew p re d ica te s, a n d w h ich w ere t o b e b a sic p red ica te s, i.e. g r o u n d te rm s fo r w h ich n o fu rth e r d e s c r ip tio n is p ro v id e d . T h e id e a b e h in d th e a d o p te d a p p r o a c h is n eith er t o fu lly d efin e ea ch lex ica l ite m in th e sen se o f p r o v id in g n ecessa ry a n d su fficien t c o n d itio n s , n o r t o d e c o m p o s e it in to a p re d e fin e d set p rim itiv e s in th e S ch a n k ia n tra d itio n . R a th e r , the p u r p o s e w as t o c h a ra cte riz e th e p re d ica te s u sed in th e k n ow le d g e -b a se. C o n sid e r as an e x a m p le th e fo llo w in g a x io m s fr o m th e 'o r g a n iz a tio n ' su b -d o m a in . t (x ,e ) & in .se rv ice jD f (e ,g ,p ) & p la n (p ,g ,o )", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF5": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "F u rth erm ore, a m em b er ro le , w h ich is b e in g th e ag en t o f s o m e a c tio n w h ich is in serv ice o f th e plan o f th e o r g a n iz a tio n .3 The Knowledgebase and the TACITU S SystemT o te st o u r k n o w le d g e b a se , w e im p le m e n te d a su b set (a p p . 10 0 ) o f th e a x io m s we h a d d e fin e d o n th e s y s te m , a n d ran differen t ty p e s o f se n te n ces. T h e a x io m s are s ta te d in th e ' o n to lo g ic a l p r o m is c u o u s ' n o ta tio n d e v e lo p e d b y H o b b s (c f. H o b b s 1 9 8 5 b ).T h is n o ta tio n is a first o r d e r p r e d ic a te ca lcu lu s la n g u a g e w ith th e a d d itio n o f a n o m in a liz a tio n o p e r a to r , w ritte n ' !' , a n d an e x tr a a rg u m en t, in fo rm a lly referred t o as th e ' s e lf' a rg u m e n t.T o b e m o r e c o n c r e te a n d t o c o n v e y th e b a s ic in tu ition o f th e n o ta tio n t o th e rea d er, let us c o n s id e r a sim p le e x a m p le : e x p lo d e (b ) w h ich is t o b e rea d as: b e x p lo d e s e x p l o d e !( e l '\", b ) w h ich is t o b e rea d as: th e e x p lo s io n o f b. W h e r e p ( x ) sa y s th a t p is tru e o f x , p !(e ,x ) says th a t e is th e e v e n tu a lity o r p o s s ib le s itu a tio n o f p b e in g tru e o f x . C on seq u en tly , H o b b s ' n o ta tio n ca n b e re la te d t o s ta n d a rd first o r d e r p r e d ic a te ex p ression s b y th e fo llo w in g a x io m : ( V x ) p ( x ) < = > (E e ) p !( e ,x ) & R e x is ts (e ) w h e re R e x is t s (e ) sa y s th a t th e ev e n tu a lity 'e ' d o e s in fa c t re a lly ex ist. In su m , th e b a s ic id e a o f th e n o ta tio n is th a t o f s p littin g a sen te n ce in to its p r o p o s itio n a l co n te n t a n d an a s s e r tio n a l/e x is te n tia l cla im . F u rth erm o re , th e self a rg u m e n t, i.e. th e ' e ' , p r o v id e s a ' h a n d le ' fo r referrin g t o a p re d ic a tio n , i.e. a p r e d ic a te a n d its a rg u m e n t, in o th e r p re d ica te s. B e fo r e w e g o o n t o d iscu ssin g a sa m p le te x t, w e w ill g iv e a cru d e o v e rv ie w o f th e b a s ic c o m p o n e n ts a n d th eir fu n c tio n in g in th e T A C I T U S sy stem . W e d e lib e r a te ly ig n o r e s o m e o f th e m o re a d v a n ce d fea tu res o f T A C I T U S in o rd e r n ot t o g e t b o g g e d d o w n b y t o o m a n y te c h n ic a l d eta ils. U n fortu n a tely , th is m ea n s th at w e d o n o t d o T A C I T U S fu ll ju s t ic e (b u t fo r m o r e d eta iled a n d co m p re h e n siv e d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e sy s te m , see fo r e x a m p le H o b b s 1 9 8 6 c a n d la te r). T h e s y s te m , w h ich is im p le m e n te d in L IS P a n d ru ns o n S y m b o lics , com p rise s an in te rp re ta tio n c o m p o n e n t a n d a ta sk sp e c ific a n a lysis c o m p o n e n t. In th e in te r p r e ta tio n c o m p o n e n t, th ere is a p a rsin g an d a p ra g m a tics m o d u le . T h e p a rsin g m o d u le h a n d les th e s y n ta c tic a n d w h a t w e w ill ca ll th e b a s ic sem a n tic a n a ly sis; th is m o d u le is a fu rth e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e D I A L O G I C s y ste m (G r o s z e t al. 1 9 8 2 ) u sed in T E A M (G r o s z et al. 1 9 8 7 ). A s o u tp u t, it p r o d u c e s a log ica l fo r m o f th e p a rsed se n te n ce in a firs t-o rd e r p r e d ic a te ca lcu lu s la n g u a g e. T h e lo g ic a l fo r m is e la b o r a te d o n , o r m o r e p recisely , fu rth er p ro ce s s e d b y th e se co n d m o d u le o f th e in te r p r e ta tio n c o m p o n e n t, th e p r a g m a tic s m o d u le . T h e task o f th e p ra g m a tics m o d u le is t o resolv e referen tia l ex p re ssio n s a n d s o m e s y n ta c tic am b ig u ities, t o e x p a n d m e to n y m ie s , a n d t o in te rp re t th e im p lic it r e la tio n s in c o m p o u n d n om in a ls. T h e p r a g m a tic s m o d u le w ork s b y c o n s tr u c tin g a lo g ic a l ex p ression fo r th e b a s ic se m a n tic a n a ly sis resu lt, a n d c a llin g th e K A D S th e o re m p rov er (S tick el 1 982) t o p r o v e o r d eriv e it u sin g a s ch e m e o f a b d u c tiv e in fe re n cin g in w h ich it is p e r m itte d t o a ssu m e th e e x is te n ce o f ' n e w ' fa cts. T h e th e o r e m p rov er d ra w s o n th e k n o w le d g e b a se o f c o m m o n s e n s e a n d d o m a in k n o w le d g e t o c o m p le te th e task. A b d u c tiv e in fe ren ce is, o f co u rse , a lo g ic a lly in valid m o d e o f in fe re n ce , i.e. g iven p ( X ) -\u25ba q ( X ) a n d q (a ) w e c o n c lu d e p (a ). H ow ev er, w e m a y a rg u e, as d o e s H o b b s (c f. H o b b s e t al. 1 9 8 8 ), th a t it is a re a son a b le w a y o f lo o k in g a t te x t u n d ersta n d in g b e c a u s e a b d u c tio n is in fe ren ce t o th e ' b est e x p la n a tio n ' in a g iv en c o n te x t. q (a ) ca n b e th o u g h t o f as th e o b s e r v e r a b le e v id e n c e , th e im p lic a tio n as th e gen era l p r in cip le th a t c o u ld e x p la in th e o c c u r e n c e o f q (a ) , a n d th e a n te ce d e n t o f th e im p lic a tio n as th e u n d erly in g ca u se o r e x p la n a tio n o f q (a ). A n in terestin g fea tu re o f th e p r a g m a tic s m o d u le is th a t it uses a sch e m e fo r a b d u c tiv e in fe ren cin g in w h ich w eigh ts a n d c o s ts a re a ssign ed t o th e a x io m s (fo r fu rth er d eta ils, see e.g . S tick el 1 9 8 8 ). T h u s i f w e c a n n o t p r o v e an a n te ce d e n t, w e assu m e its ex iste n ce a t s o m e c o s t. S o m e b a s ic h e u ristic p rin cip le s c o n tr o llin g th e w eigh ts a n d a ssu m a b ility c o s ts are h a rd w ire d in to th e sy ste m (e .g . it is m o re ex p e n siv e t o assu m e a fa c t th a n t o p ro v e it, a n d it is less e x p e n s iv e to a ssu m e an in d efin ite e n tity th a n a d e fin ite o n e ), b u t th e a x io m s in th e k n o w le d g e b a se m a y b e assign ed co s ts m a n u a lly (c f. 4 .2 ). T h e in te rp re ta tio n o f a te x t in th is a b d u c tiv e a n d a ss u m p tio n -b a s e d fra m e w o rk , a m o u n ts t o p r o d u c in g th e m in im a l ex p la n a tio n o f w h y th e te x t w o u ld b e tru e (c f. H o b b s et al. 1988 fo r a d e ta ile d d iscu ssion ). T h e an alysis c o m p o n e n t, i.e th e c o m p o n e n t fo r e x tr a c tin g ta sk sp e c ific in fo r m a tio n fr o m a n in terp reted t e x t, is b a s ica lly a s p e cia liz e d c a ll t o th e th e o re m p rov er (see fu rth e r b e lo w ). T h e e n h a n ce d lo g ic a l fo r m , i.e. th e resu lt o u t p u t fr o m th e p ra g m a tics m o d u le , is a b d u c tiv e ly p r o v e d b y b a c k -ch a in in g o v e r th e a x io m s in th e k n ow led g e b a se. In th e n e x t se ctio n s , w e w ill h ave a lo o k a t an e x a m p le te x t a n d sh o w h o w th e k n o w led g eb a se is u sed fo r d is a m b ig u a tio n a n d c o m p u ta tio n o f im p lic it in fo r m a tion . 4 An Example L et us n ow co n sid e r th e fo llo w in g tw o sen ten ces as an e x a m p le te x t t o b e tre a te d w ith in o u r fra m e w ork : (1 ) A b o m b e x p lo d e d a t a R e n a u lt s h o w r o o m in B ilb a o . A p e rso n cla im in g to represen t th e E T A -M h a d w a rn e d o f th e b la st in a ca ll t o th e p o lic e . L in g u istica lly , th e sen ten ces p resen t us w ith p r o b le m s o f r e s o lv in g a c o m p o u n d n om in a l c o n s tr u c tio n , ' R e n a u lt s h o w r o o m ' , a n d lo c a t in g a p o s s ib le an tece d en t fo r ' th e b la s t' . T h e e x tr a -lin g u is tic k n o w le d g e n e ed ed in o r d e r t o a ch iev e so m e rea son a b le le v el o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e te x t is a m o n g o th e r th in gs; R e n a u lt is a F rench firm m a n u fa ctu rin g p r o d u c ts , i.e. ca rs, a s h o w r o o m is a b u ild in g o w n e d b y a firm w h e re th e p r o d u c t s o f th a t firm a re o n display, B ilb a o is a c ity in thec o u n t r y S p a in , E T A -M is a te rro rist o r g a n iz a tio n , a n d terrorist org a n iza tion s h a v e m e m b e rs , ce rta in p la n s a n d g o a ls a n d v iole n t m e th o d s fo r rea ch in g their g o a ls , a n d an e x p lo s io n g en e ra lly in v olv e s a blast.T h e b a s ic fa c ts su ch as fo r in sta n ce S p a in b e in g a c o u n t r y a n d E T A -M b ein g a te rro rist o r g a n iz a tio n , a re e n c o d e d as ex isten tia l a x io m s in th e k n ow led geb a se. E .g :(la) (Defaxiom COUNTRY-SPAIN-1 (terror) ' ' Spain is a country' ' ((SOME ((el* . ev) (country! el* Spain))) (lb) (Defaxiom TERORG-ETA-M-1 (terror) \"ETA-M is a terrorist orgemization' ' ((SOME ((el* . ev) (terorgi el* eta-m)))T h e q u a n tifie d v a ria b les in th e a x io m s are m ark ed fo r th eir ty p e su ch th at 'e v ' d e n o te s ev en t a n d ' n e v ' n o n -e v e n t variables.", | |
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| "type_str": "figure", | |
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| "text": "ro m th e lin g u is tic p o in t o f v ie w , th e T A C I T U S fra m e w o rk offers in terestin g p o s s ib ilitie s fo r d is a m b ig u a tin g c o m p o u n d n o m in a l e x p re ssio n s u sin g lin gu isticas w ell as e x tr a -lin g u is tic k n ow led g e.T h e in d iv id u a l n o u n s in a c o m p o u n d n o m in a l c o n s tr u c tio n a re a n a ly zed as a rg u m e n ts o f th e g e n e ric ' n n '-p r e d ic a te . T h a t is, th e e x p ression ' R e n a u lt sh owr o o m ' , w o u ld a p p e a r as n n ( e l ''' , R e n a u l t , S h o w r o o m ) in th e in itia l lo g ic a l form o f th e se n te n ce p r o d u c e d as o u tp u t fr o m th e p a rsin g m o d u le . In fo r m u la tin g th e a x io m s fo r re so lv in g su ch n n -rela tio n s, w e a d o p te d a stra t e g y c o m b in in g th e lin e o f a n a ly sis fo r c o u m p o u n d n o m in a ls p r o p o s e d b y D o w n in g (1 9 7 7 ), a n d th a t a d v o c a t e d b y L e v i (1 9 7 8 ). In su m m a ry. D o w n in g argues th a t th e se m a n tic re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e elem en ts o f a c o u m p o u n d c a n n o t b e ch a r a c te r iz e d in te rm s o f a fin ite list o f a p p r o p r ia te c o m p o u n d in g rela tion sh ip s, w h e re a s L e v i tries t o e sta b lish su ch a list fo r th e m o s t c o m m o n ca ses on the b a sis o f th e tra n s fo r m a tio n a l re la tio n sh ip b etw ee n th e elem ents. O u r c o m b in e d a p p r o a c h ca n b e seen in th e fo llo w in g sa m p le a x io m s , w h ere th e first tw o a x io m s e n c o d e th e p o s s ib le gen era l rela tion sh ip as e x p resse d in te rm s o f p re p o s itio n s , a n d th e su b seq u en t tw o a x io m s sta te fu rth e r sp e cific c o n stra in ts. (2a) (Defaziom NN-1 (terror) \"An nn-relation: f o r \" (ALL ((el* . ev) (p . nev) (s . nev)) (IMPLY (for! el* s p) (SOME ((e2* . ev)) (nn! e2* p s))))) (2b) (Defaziom NN-2 (terror) \"An nn-relation: o f \" (ALL ((el* . ev) (f . nev) (s . nev)) (IMPLY (of! el* s f) (SOME ((e2* . ev)) (nn! e2* f s))))) (3a) (Defaziom FOR-1 (terror) \"A shovroom is for products' ' (ALL ((e2* . ev) (s . nev) (e3* . ev) (p . nev) (e4* . ev) (f . nev)) (IMPLY (AHD (shovroom! e2* s) (product! e3* p) (firm! e4* f)) (SOME ((el* . ev)) (for! el* s p))))) (3b) (Defaziom OF-1 (terror) \"A shovroom is ovned by a f i r m ' ' (ALL ((o2* . ev) (s . nev) (e3*. ev) (e4* . ev) (f . nev)) (IMPLY (AND (shovroom! e2* s) (ovn! e3* f s) (firm! e4* f)) (SOME ((el* . ev)) (of! el* s f))))) In try in g to a b d u c tiv e ly p r o v e a relevan t lo g ic a l fo r m o u tp u t fr o m th e p a rsin g m o d u le a n d t o m ak e im p licit in fo r m a tio n e x p lic it, th e p r a g m a tic s m o d u le haa th e th e o re m p ro v e r b a ck -ch a in o v e r th e a x io m s in th e k n o w le d g e b a se . T h u s ann n -re la tio n as th e a b o v e is resolv e d a g a in st 2 a a n d 2 b , th e n th e n ew g o a ls, o f ! ( e l * s f ) a n d f o r ! ( e l* s f ) , are resolv ed a g a in st 3 a a n d 3 b re sp e ctiv e ly , y ie ld in g n ew g o a ls to b e resolv ed .", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF7": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "tion ed a b o v e , o n e o f th e b a sic h eu ristic a ssu m p tio n h a rd w ire d in to T A C I T U S ' p ra g m a tics m o d u le is th a t an in d efin ite n o u n p h ra se in tr o d u c e s n ew in fo rm a tio n a n d a d e fin ite n o u n p h rase refers t o a k n o w n en tity , i.e. s o m e th in g w h ich is eith er in th e k n o w le d g e b a se o r h as b e en in tr o d u c e d in th e p r e v io u s ly p ro ce sse d te x t. H en ce th e c o s t o f a ssu m in g an in d efin ite n o u n p h ra se is ch e a p e r th an a ssu m in g a d e fin ite n o u n ph rase.", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF8": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "to th e ev en t o f th e e x p lo s io n m e n tio n e d in th e p re ce e d in g sen ten ce. S im p lify in g so m e w h a t (c f. fu rth er b e lo w ), w e c o u ld sa y th a t ' th e b la s t ' is in a sen se an o m in a liza tion o f ' a b o m b e x p lo d e d ' .", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF9": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "In o rd e r t o esta b lish referen ce c o n n e c tio n s o f th is ty p e , w e d e fin e th e fo llo w in g kin d o f a x io m in o u r k n ow le d g eb a se: 124 Computational Linguistics -Reykjavik 1989", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF10": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "n d th a t o is re s p o n s ib le fo r e. C o n tr a r y t o th e p r a g m a tic s m o d u le , n o a ssu m p tion s are m a d e in th e task s p e c ific a n a ly sis p h a se w h en tr y in g t o p ro v e th e g o a ls o f th e sch em a ; th is step is m e a n t t o e x tr a c t in fo r m a tio n on ly . H o w ev er, th e p r o c e s s is still b a ck -ch a in in g c o n tr o lle d a b d u c tiv e in fe re n cin g . T h is m ea n s th a t e v e r y th in g has to b e p roved a g a in st th e k n o w le d g e in th e d a ta b a s e in co n ju n c tio n w ith th e in terp reta tio n o f th e te x t. P r o v in g th e a n te ce d e n ts o f th e lin k in g a x io m s m a y o f c o u r s e in v o lv e resolvin g th e n ew g o a ls w ith k n o w le d g e a sserted in th e te x t o r in th is c a se , p r o v in g fu rth er a x io m s in th e k n o w le d g e b a se . T h e r e m a y a lso b e differen t a x io m s fo r th e sa m e g o a l, in d ic a tin g th a t a g oa l ca n b e e x p la in e d , o r m o r e c o r r e c tly p r o v e d , in differen t w ays. A ctu a lly , this is o n ly a re fle ctio n o f th e fa c t th a t a g iv en p h e n o m e n a ca n b e b ro u g h t a b o u t in d ifferen t w ays. F o r e x a m p le , th ere are a ctu a lly th ree differen t a x io m s fo r ' r e s p o n s ib le ' in o u r k n o w le d g e b a se . us n o w re tu rn t o o u r e x a m p le te x t. F or illu stra tion , w e first sh o w an e x c e r p t fr o m th e resu lt o f th e in te rp re ta tio n o f th e sen ten ces in e x tern a l fo rm a t (6 ) -n o te th e reso lv ed c o m p o u n d in g rela tio n sh ip ; a n d th en th e p rin t-o u t o fth e in fo r m a tio n a u to m a t ic a lly e x tr a c te d b y th e a n a ly z e c o m p o n e n t fro m th e in te r p r e ta tio n (7 ) o f th e tw o e x a m p le sen ten ces.", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF11": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "T A C IT U S offers an in terestin g fra m e w o rk fo r e x p e rim e n tin g w ith k n o w le d g eba sed n a tu ra l la n g u a g e p r o ce ssin g , a n d in fa c t it is a q u ite s o p h is tic a te d sy ste m .P rev iou sly , th e T A C I T U S te a m a t S R I has b een e x p e rim e n tin g w ith im p le m e n ta tion s o f k n o w le d g eb a se s fo r d o m a in s su ch as th e b re a k -d o w n o r m a lfu n c tio n in g o f m e ch a n ica l p a rts in sh ip s (H o b b s 1 9 8 7 ). C o n s tr u c tin g a k n o w le d g e b a se fo r th e te rro rist a tta ck d o m a in w as th e first a tt e m p t t o d e a l w ith a slig h tly less re s trict ed s u b je c t field in th e T A C I T U S sy s te m . T h e m a in c o n c lu s io n t o b e d ra w n fr o m th e e x p erim e n t w ith th e te rro rist te x ts is th a t v e r y ca re fu l a x io m a tiz a tio n o f th e f2 w;ts is n ecessa ry in o r d e r t o a ch iev e g o o d resu lts, i.e. ' n u ts a n d b o lt s ' h ave to b e ca re fu lly fitte d to g e th e r t o c re a te ' d elu sion s o f g r a n d e u r ' .", | |
| "uris": null | |
| }, | |
| "FIGREF12": { | |
| "type_str": "figure", | |
| "num": null, | |
| "text": "F o u n d a tio n p r o v id e d th e fin a n cia l s u p p o r t fo r m y sta y at S R I In tern a tion a l. C o n s tr u c tin g a n d te s tin g th e d o m a in sp e c ific k n o w le d g e b a se fo r terrorist te x ts in th e T A C I T U S s y ste m d e s c r ib e d h ere, w as s u g g e ste d t o m e b y J erry H o b b s a n d ca rried o u t u n d e r his s u p e rv is io n . I a m in d e b te d t o J erry fo r his g u id a n c e an d m a n y u sefu l h in ts. N eed less t o say, i f th e p resen t p a p e r co n ta in s e rrors o r m is c o n c e p tio n s in th e p re se n ta tio n o f T A C I T U S , th e a u th o r alon e ca n b e b la m ed .", | |
| "uris": null | |
| } | |
| } | |
| } | |
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