David Sinclair: Extending the Human Lifespan Beyond 100 Years | Lex Fridman Podcast #189
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David Sinclair is a geneticist at Harvard and author of Lifespan. Please support this podcast by checking out our sponsors:
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EPISODE LINKS:
David's Twitter: https://twitter.com/davidasinclair
David's Website: https://lifespanbook.com

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OUTLINE:
0:00 - Introduction
1:34 - Staying young at heart
5:30 - Bringing people back to life
11:05 - Wearables and tracking health data
20:18 - How to solve aging
30:22 - Why do we age?
35:50 - Genetic reset switch that reverses aging
38:20 - AI in biology
40:52 - Health data
48:58 - Fasting
56:29 - Diet
1:04:40 - Exercise
1:10:01 - Sleep
1:18:29 - Data
1:24:00 - Extending lifespan
1:26:42 - Immortality
1:32:28 - Denial of death
1:35:45 - Meaning of life without death

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 The following is a conversation with David Sinclair. He's a professor in the Department of Genetics at Harvard and co-director of the Paul F. Glenn Center for the Biology of Aging at Harvard Medical School. He's the author of the book, Lifespan and co-founder of several biotech companies. He works on turning age into an engineering problem and solving it, driven by a vision of a world where billions of people can live much longer and much healthier lives. Quick mention of our sponsors, Onnit, Clear, National Instruments, and I, Simply Safe and Linode. Check them out in the description to support this podcast. As a side note, let me say that longevity research challenges us to think how science and engineering will change society. Imagine if you can live 100,000 years, even under controlled conditions, like in a spaceship, say, then suddenly a trip to Alpha Centauri that is 4.37 light years away takes a single human lifespan. And on the psychological, maybe even philosophical level, as the horizons of death drifts farther into the distance, how will our search for meaning change? Does meaning require death or does it merely require struggle? Reprogramming our biology will require us to delve deeper into understanding the human mind and the robot mind. Both of these efforts are as exciting of a journey as I can imagine. This is the Lex Friedman podcast, and here is my conversation with David Sinclair. I usually feel like the same person when I was 12, like when I, right now, as I think about myself, I feel like exactly the same person that I was when I was 12, and yet I am getting older, both body and mind, and still feel like time hasn't passed at all. Do you feel this tension in yourself that you're the same person and yet you're aging? Yeah, I have this tension that I'm still a kid, but that helps in my career. Scientists need to have a wonder about the world, and you don't wanna grow up, a 12-year-old and even younger, I would say six, seven-year-olds, I've still got that boy in me, and I can look at things. It's a gift, I think, that I can see things for the first time if I choose to, and then explain them as I would to a six-year-old, because I am that mentally. But on the other hand, I'm getting older, right? I run a lab of 20 people at Harvard. I've got a book, I've got science to do, companies to run, and so I have to, on most days, just pretend to be a grownup and be mature, but I definitely don't feel that way. There's something I really appreciated. In the opening of your book, you talked about your grandmother, and on this kind of theme, on this kind of topic, she, first of all, had a big influence on you. My grandmother had a big influence on me. You also mentioned this poem by the author of Winnie the Pooh, Alan Alexander Milne. Maybe I can read it real quick, because I love, on the topic of being children, when I was one, I had just begun. When I was two, I was nearly new. When I was three, I was hardly me. When I was four, I was not much more. When I was five, I was just alive, but now I am six. I am as clever as clever, so I think I'll be six, now, forever and ever. So this idea of being six and staying six forever, being youthful, being curious, being childlike, this and other things, what influence has your grandmother had in your thinking about life, about death, about love? Yeah, I was getting misty-eyed as you read that, because that poem was read to me very often, if not every day, by my grandmother, who partially raised me. And she was as much a bohemian as an artist, philosopher, and she's one of those people that wouldn't talk about the little things. She said, I hate small talk. Don't talk to me about politics or the weather. Yeah, talk to me about human beings and culture. So I was raised on that, and this poem was one that she read to me often, because she knew that the mind of a child is precious, it's honest, it's pure, and she grew up during the Second World War, and in Hungary and Budapest, witnessed the worst of humanity. She was trying to save a whole group of Jewish friends in her apartment, saw what happened after the World War, which was, the Russians were in control, and locals weren't necessarily treated well if they were rebellious, which she was. And then there was the revolution in 56, which she was part of and had to escape the country. So she saw what can happen when humans do their worst. And her words to me, expressed in part through that poem, was David, always stay young and innocent and have wonder about the world, and then do your best to make humanity the best it can be. And that's who I am, that's what I live for, that's what I get up in the morning to do, is to leave the world a better place, and show to whoever's watching us, whether it's aliens or some future human historian, that we can do better than we did in the 20th century. You know, you mentioned offline this idea of bringing people back to life through artificial intelligence, sort of, I don't know if you've seen videos of basically animating people back to life. Meaning, whether it's, for me personally, I've been working on specifically about Albert Einstein, but also Alan Turing, Isaac Newton, and Richard Feynman. And it's an opportunity to bring people that meant a lot to others in the world, and animate them, and be able to have a conversation with them. At first, to try to visually, visually explore the full richness of character that they had as they struggle with the ideas of the modern age. Sort of, it's less about bringing back their mind, and more bringing back the visual quirks that made them who they are. And then maybe in the future, it's using the textual, the visual, the video, the audio data to actually compress down the person for who they are, and be able to generate text. There's a few companies, there's Replica, which is a chat engine, that was born out of the idea of bringing, the founder lost her friend, to, he got ran over by a car. And the initial reason she founded the company was trying to just have a conversation with her friend. She trained machine learning, natural language system, on the text that they exchanged with each other, and try, she had a conversation with him, sort of after he was gone. And it's very, the conversation was very trivial, it was obvious that it's, you know, AI agent, but it gave her solace, it made her actually feel really good. And that's the way I wonder if it's possible to bring back people that are, that mean something to us personally. Not just Einstein, but people that we've lost, and in that way, achieve a kind of small, artificial immortality. I don't know if you think about this kind of stuff. Well, I definitely think about a lot of things. That one's a really good one. There's a great Black Mirror episode about the wife who brings back the boyfriend or husband. I think one of the challenges with bringing back Richard Feynman would be to capture his sense of humor, but that would be awesome. But yeah, bringing back loved ones would be great, especially if they're young and they die early. Though it may hold you back from moving on, that's another thing that could happen as a negative. But I think that's great. And I also think that it's gonna be possible, especially when we're recording some of us, every aspect of our lives, whether it's our face or things we see, eventually one day, everything we see can be recorded. And then you can build somebody's experience and thoughts, speech, and you will have replicas of everybody, at least digitally, and physically you could do that too one day. But that's a good idea, especially because there are people that I'd like to meet, and I think it's easier than building a time machine. One person I'd love to meet is Benjamin Franklin. Really? Well, I wouldn't go back in time, I would, but I'd prefer to bring him into the future and say, can you believe we have this thinking machine in our pockets now? And just see the look on his face as to where humanity has come. Because I think of him as a modern guy that just was before his time. Yeah, so you're thinking Benjamin Franklin is a scientist, not Benjamin Franklin the political thing, because he'd be very upset with Congress right now. Right. So maybe talk to him about science and technology, not politics, or maybe just don't get him on Twitter, because he'll be very upset with human civilization. You know, I wonder what their personalities are like. Isaac Newton, it does seem complicated to figure out what their personality is like. Even Friedrich Nietzsche, who I also thought about. Feynman is, we just have enough video where we get the full kind of, I mean, it shows you how important it is to get not the official kind of book level presentation of a human, but the authentic, the full spectrum of humanity. You mentioned collecting data about a person, collecting the whole thing, the whole of life, the ups and downs, the embarrassing stuff, the beautiful stuff, not just the things that's condensed into a book. And then with Feynman, you start to see that a little bit through conversations, you start to see peaks of like that genius, and then through stories about him from others. And then certainly you, the sad thing about Alan Turing, for example, is there's very little, if any, recording of him. In fact, I haven't been able to find recording, allegedly there's supposed to be a recording of him doing some kind of radio broadcast, but I haven't been able to find anything. And so that's truly sad. That it feels like it makes you realize how the upside, how nice it is to collect data about a person, to capture that person. That's the upside of the modern internet age, the digital age, that that information, yeah, creates a kind of immortality. And then you can choose to highlight the best parts of the person, maybe throw away the ugly parts and celebrate them even after they're gone. So that's a really interesting opportunity. You've also mentioned to me offline that you're really excited about all the different wearables and all the different ways we can collect information about our bodies, about the whole thing. What's most exciting to you in terms of collecting the biological data about a human being? Well, so I'm a biologist. I find animals and humans as machines very interesting. It's one of the reasons I didn't become an engineer or a surgeon, I wanted to understand how we actually are built. And so I think a lot about machines merging with humans. And the first of that are the bio-wearables. And so I talked a lot about this, I wrote about it in Lifespan, the book, and pictured a future where you would be monitored constantly so that you wouldn't suddenly have a heart attack, you'd know that was coming, or you wouldn't go to the doctor and they don't know if you need an antibiotic or not. Long-term, how old are you, how to fix things, what should you eat, what should you take, what should you talk to do? These devices, I predicted, would be smarter, better educated than your physician and would augment them, and then there'd be a human that would just tick off to see if it's correct and they approve. I also was predicting in the book that we would have video conferences with our doctors and that medicines would be delivered, initially by courier, but eventually by drones, and get it to you sometimes in an emergency. And that we could even have pills that were synthesized or delivered in your kitchen, and combined, certainly. What's amazing about that is that, what are we now, two years since the book came out, even less, and that future is basically here already, COVID-19. Accelerated. Accelerated that incredibly. So where we're at now in society is, if you want to pay for it, you can have a blood test that will detect cancer 10, 20 years earlier than it would before it forms a tumor. You can, of course, do your genome very cheaply for less than $100 now. There are bio-wearables already. I wear this ring from Aura that I have a number of years of data. I've been doing blood tests for the last 12 years with a company called InsideTracker, which I consult for. And so I have all of that data as well, and there's 34 different parameters on my testosterone, my blood glucose, my inflammation. And I use all that data to, of course, I wear a watch that measures things as well. I use that data to keep my body in optimal shape. So I'm now 51. And according to those parameters, I'm at least as good as someone in their early 40s. And if I really work at it, I can get my biochemistry down to early to mid 30s, though I like to now eat a little dessert once in a while. So that's the future we're in right now. Anyone can do what I just said. But in the very near future, just in the next few years, you can be wearing wearables. So I'm currently wearing a little, what's called a bio sticker. This one I just put on last night. It's about an inch long, a few millimeters. Yeah, for people just listening, it's on David's chest. It's just, how does it attach? It's just kinda- It sticks on. Sticks on. Yeah, so on one side you have an on button that you press, the lights come on, flashes four times, it's good to go. It immediately syncs to your phone. And this one, it's called a bio button, nice name. And there's another one that I have that I haven't tried yet that does EKG on your heart. This is mainly for doctors to monitor patients that go home after a heart attack or surgery. But that's medical grade, FDA approved device. So there will be a day, in fact, it's already here, that doctors are using these to get patients to go home and save a week in hospital, $2,000 at least for each patient. That's massive savings for the hospital. But ultimately, what I'm excited about is a future that isn't that far off where everybody, certainly in developed countries, eventually these will cost a few cents and rechargeable. The only cost will be the software subscription that can be monitored constantly. And to give you an idea what this is measuring me at a thousand times a second is my vibrations as I speak, my orientation, it already has told me this morning how I slept, where I slept, what side I slept on. We've got sneezing, coughing, body temperature, heart rate, heart of other parameters of the heart that would indicate heart health. These data are being used to now to predict sickness. So eventually we'll have just in the next year or so, the ability to predict whether something or diagnose whether something is pneumonia or just a rhinovirus that can be treated or not. This is really going to not just revolutionize medicine, but I think extend lives dramatically. Because if I'm gonna have a heart attack next week, and that's possible, this device should know that and I'll be in hospital before I even have it. Maybe you can talk a little bit about InsideTracker because I saw that there's some really cool things in there. Like it actually, so maybe you can talk about, I guess that you're collecting blood to give it the data. So, and it has like basic recommendations on how to improve your life. So we're not just talking about diseases, right? Like anticipating having a particular disease, but it's almost like guiding your trajectory to life, how to, whether it's extend your life or just live a more fulfilling, like improve the quality of life. I suppose this is the right way to say it. What, how does InsideTracker work? What the heck is it? Because I saw the results are pretty cool. Yeah. What is it? Is it something other people can use? You can definitely use it. You can sign up it's consumer. It's like a company consumer facing company. It is, yeah. Okay, cool. And I also want to democratize the ability to just take a mouth swab eventually. We don't need to have a blood test necessarily, but for now it's a blood test and you'd go to a lab core request in the US. It's also available overseas. You can upload your own data for minimal cost and get the algorithms, the AI in the background to take that data, plot where you are against others in your age group as in terms of health and longevity at bio age, they call it, inner age. But also it provides recommendations. And this isn't just a bunch of BS. It sounds like it might be to say, I'll go eat this or go to that restaurant in order that, but it's actually based on, they basically, this company has entered hundreds. Now it would be thousands of scientific papers into their database and hundreds of thousands of human data points. And they have tens of thousands of individuals that have been tracked over time. And anonymously that data is used to say what works and what doesn't. If you eat that, what works. If you take that supplement, what works. And I was a co-author on a paper that showed that the recommendations for food and supplements was better than the leading drug for type two diabetes. That's so cool. The idea that you can connect, like skipping the human having to do this work, you can connect the scientific papers, almost like meta-analysis of the science connected to the individual data. And then based on that, sort of connect your data to whatever the proper group is within whatever the scientific paper is to make the suggestion of how that work applies to your life. And then that ultimately maps to a recommendation of what you should do with your life. It all like this giant system that ultimately recommends you should drink more coffee or less. Right, and we'll have the genome in there as well. You can upload that. And so these programs will know us way better than we do and our doctors as well. The idea of going to a doctor once a year for an annual checkup and having, males get a finger up their butt and you cough. That to me is a joke. That's medieval medicine. And that's very soon going to be seen as medieval. Yeah, to me as a computer science person, it's always upsetting to go to the doctor and just look at him and realize, you know nothing about me. You're making your opinions based on, it is very valuable, years of intuition building about basic symptoms, but you're just like, it is medieval. They're very good at it. In fact, doctors in medieval times were probably damn good at working with very little. But the thing is, I'd rather prefer a doctor that doesn't really know what they're doing, but has a huge amount of data to work with. Well, you're right. And many of my good friends are doctors. I work at Harvard. So I'm not against the profession at all, but I think that they need just as much help as anyone else does. We wouldn't drive a car without a dashboard. We wouldn't think of it. So why would doctors do the same? If we could, can we step back to the big, profound, philosophical, both tragic and beautiful question about age? How and why do we age? Is it from an engineer perspective, you said you like the biological machine. Is that a feature or a bug of the biological machine? It is both a bug and a feature. Evolutionarily speaking, we only live as long as we need to to replace ourselves efficiently. If you're a mouse, you're only gonna live two and a half years, three years. You're probably gonna die of starvation, predation, freezing in the winter. So they divert most of their resources to reproducing rapidly, but they don't put a lot of energy into preserving their soma, which is their body. Conversely, a baleen type of whale, a bowhead whale in particular will live hundreds of years because they're at the top of the food chain and they can live as long as they want. So they breed slowly and build a body that lasts. We're somewhere in between. Because we've really only just come out of the savannahs where we could be picked off by a cat. We were pretty wimpy going back six million years ago. So we actually need to evolve quicker than evolution will. And that's why we can use our oversized brains and intuition to give us what evolution not only didn't give us, but took away from us. We're pathetic, look at our bodies. These arms, if any of us, even the strongest person in the world went in a cage with a chimpanzee, the chimp could knock that person's head off, no question. So we're pathetic. So we need to engineer ourselves to be healthier and longer lived. So getting to aging, we can do better, right? Whales do way better. We're trying to learn how whales do that. And if you ask really anybody in the field now, professor, they'll say there are eight or nine hallmarks of aging, which are really, it's a word for causes of aging. So that you probably have heard of some of these. Your listeners will have loss of telomeres, the ends of the chromosomes, like the little ends of shoelaces, that kind of thing. They get too short, cells stop dividing, become senescent. They become, they put out what are called mitogens that cause cancer and inflammatory molecules. So that's another aspect of aging, cellulose senescence. Another one is loss of the energetics, so mitochondria, the battery packs, wind down. There's a whole bunch, stem cells, proteostasis. Well, these are our Achilles heels that I'm talking about. They're a common amongst all life forms, really. But if you want me to jump to the chase is to where, what is the upstream defining factor? If we boil it down, what do we get? So most biologists would say you can't boil it down. It's too complex. I would say you can boil it down to an equation, which is the preservation of information and loss due to entropy, i.e. noise. And that is the basis of my research. It originally came out of discoveries in yeast cells, where I went to MIT in the 1990s. You studied bread. I kind of did. I studied the makers of bread, little yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which at the time was one of the hottest, excuse the pun, organisms to work on. But we figured out in the lab why yeast cells get old and found genes that control that process and made them live longer, which was an amazing four years of my life. One of those genes had a name with an acronym SIR2. Now the two is irrelevant. The SIR is important, and the most important letter out of all of those three is I, which stands for information. Silent information regulator number two. When you put more copies of that gene in, just put in one more copy, the yeast cells live 30% longer and suppress the cause of aging, which was the dysregulation of information in the cell. And then, so fast forward to now, I've been looking in humans and mice, because they live shorter and cheaper to study, where the loss of information in our bodies is a root cause of aging, and I think it is. Your boldness in viewing biology in this way is fascinating because that also leads to a kind of, it's almost like allows for a theory of aging, like you could boil it down to a single equation, and it leads to perhaps a metric that allows you to optimize aging, sort of in the fight against entropy, to figure out which mechanisms, like you said, the silent information regulator, which mechanisms allow you to preserve information without injecting noise, without creating entropy, without creating degradation of that information. For some reason, converting biology, which I thought was mostly impossible, into an engineering problem, feels like it makes it amenable to optimization, to solving problems, to creating technology that can, whether that's genetic engineering or AI, it makes it possible to create the technology that would improve the degradation of information and aging. Is there more concrete ways you think about the kind of information we want to preserve, and also, is there good ideas about regulators of that information, about ways to prevent the distortion and degradation of that information? Right, so we have silent information regulator genes in our bodies, we have seven of them, SIRT1 through seven they're called, and we found in mice, one way to slow down the loss of information is to just give more of these, to upregulate these genes. So we made a mouse that has more of this SIRT1 gene, turned it on, and that slowed down the aging of the brain and preserved their information. Now, what information am I talking about, you might ask? Well, again, you can simplify biology. There are two types of information in the cell primarily. The one we all read about and know about is the DNA, the genome, and that's base four information, A, T, C, G, the four chemicals that make up the various sequences of the genome, billions of letters. And that also degrades over time, but what's been fascinating is that we find that that information is pretty much intact in old animals and people. You can clone a dog, one of my friends in LA just cloned his dog three times. So this is doable, right? It means that the genome can be intact, but what's the other type of information? It's the epigenome, the regulators of the genetic information. And physically, that's really just how the DNA is wrapped up or looped out for the cell to access it and read it. So it's similar to, and excuse this analogy, but it's a good one, a compact disc or a DVD. Those pits in the foil are the digital information, that's the genome. And the epigenome is the reader of that information. And in a different cell, you'd read different music, different songs, different symphonies. And that's what gets laid down when we're in the womb and that makes a skin cell forever a skin cell and not a brain cell tomorrow. Thank God, otherwise our brains wouldn't work very well. But over time, what we see is that the brain cells start to look more like skin cells and the kidney cells start to look more like liver cells. And they, what we call X-differentiate, this is a term that we use in my lab, but isn't yet widely used, but we needed a term to explain this. And those, that process of X-differentiation, the loss of the reader of the CD or the DVD, we liken that to scratches on the DVD so that the reader cannot fully access the information. Now we can slow down the scratches, as I mentioned, we can turn on these genes, we can even put in molecules into the cell or even eat them and turn on those pathways, which my father and I have been trying to do for about a decade to slow things down. But the question that I've had is, is there a repository of information still in the body? Because anyone who knows anything about the loss of information or even has tried to copy a cassette tape or photocopy or Xerox anything, knows that over time you lose that information irreparably. So I've been looking for a backup copy, inspired largely by Claude Shannon's work at MIT as well in the 1940s, his mathematical theory of communication is just brilliant. And so I've been looking for what he called the observer, which is the backup copy. We today might call that the TCPIP protocol of the internet that stores information in case it doesn't make it to your computer, it will fill in the gaps. And we've been spending about the last five years to try and find if there really is a backup copy in the body to reset the epigenome and polish those scratches away. That's incredible. So finding the backup, so whenever there are too many scratches pile up, you can just write a new version. Like write, not a new version, but go to the backup and restore it. Right, that's really all we're talking about. It's not that hard once you know the trick. And for people that actually remember like DVDs and scratches on them, how frustrating it is, that's a brilliant metaphor for aging. And then the reader is the thing that skips and then it could destroy your experience, the richness of the experience that is listening to your favorite song. Right, but in biology, it's even worse because you'll lose your memory, your kidneys will fail, you'll get diabetes, your heart will fail. And we call that aging and age-related diseases. So most people forget that diseases that we get when we get old are 80 to 90% caused by aging. And we've been trying to fix things with band-aids after they occur without even generally talking about the root cause of the problem. Is there the scratches? Do those come from, are those programmed or are they failures? Meaning is it, so if it's by design, then there's like a encoded timeline schedule that the body's just on purpose degrading the whole thing. And then there's the just the wear and tear of like the scratches in a disc that happen through time. Which one is it that's the source of aging? It's more akin to wear and tear. There isn't a program. Getting back to evolution, there's no selection for aging. We're not designed to age, we just live as long as we need to. And then we're at the whim of entropy, basically. Second law of thermodynamics, stuff falls apart. We live a bit longer than age 40 only because there are robust resilient systems, but eventually they fail as well. Current limit to a human lifespan where they completely fail is 122. But I don't like to think of it as wear and tear because there's two aspects to it. There's a system that's built to keep us alive when we're young, but actually comes back to bite us as we get older. And we call this issue antagonistic pleiotropy. What's good for you when you're young can cause problems when you're older. So we've been looking what is the cause of the main causes of the noise? And we've found two of them definitively. The first one is broken chromosomes. When a chromosome breaks, the cell has to panic because that's either gonna cause a cancer or kill the cell. There's only two outcomes, it's pretty much a problem. And so what the cell does is it reorganizes the epigenome in a massive way. What that leads to is think of it as a tennis match or a ping pong game. The proteins are the balls and they now leave where they should be, which is regulating the genes that make the cell type, whatever it is. And they have a dual function, they actually go to the break, the chromosome will break and fix that. And then they come back. You might ask, well, why is it set up that way? Well, it's a beautiful system. It coordinates gene expression, the control systems with the repair. You want them coordinated. Problem is as we get older, this ping pong game, some of the balls get lost. They don't come back to where they originally started. And that's what we think is the main noise for aging. And we've also, the other cause of aging that we found is cell stress. We damage nerves and they age rapidly. So that's the other issue. There's probably others. Smoking chemicals, for example, we know accelerates biological age pretty dramatically. But the question is, can you slow that down or can you reset them to get those ping pong balls to go back to where they originally started in the game? And we think we found a way to do that. Well, can you give me hints? Whose fault is it in the balls not coming back? Is it the proteins themselves? Like are they starting? Again, I've been obsessed with the protein folding problem from the AI perspective. So is it the proteins or is it something else? Well, we know who hits the balls and recruits them so that the break is recognized by proteins who send out a signal through phosphorylation is typical way cells talk to other proteins. And that recruits those repair factors, those ping pong balls to the break. So the cell's actively doing this to try and help itself. But we don't know who's to blame for them not coming back. That could just be a flaw in the quote unquote design. I don't think that there's something saying, well, 1% of you balls proteins never go back. I just think it's hard to reset a system that's constantly changing. We have in our bodies close to a trillion DNA breaks every day and imagine that over 80 years, what damage that does to our epigenomic information. Now we know that this is, well, we never know anything in biology, but we have strong evidence that this is true because we can mess with animals. We can create DNA breaks and tickle them with a few breaks, maybe raise it by three fold over background levels of normal breakage. And if we're right, those mice should get old and they do. We can actually, we've created these breaks in a way that's titratable. We can, it's like a rheostat, we can send it to 11. I drove my Tesla here, I'm a big fan of spinal tap two, go into 11. If we go to 11, we can make a mouse old in a matter of months. We prefer to go to a level of about four and it gets old in 10 months, but it's definitely old. It's got all of the hallmarks of aging. It's got diseases. It looks old, its skin is old, it's got gray hair, but importantly, we can now measure age by looking at the scratches. We can look at the epigenome, we can measure it and use machine learning to give us a number. And those mice are 50% older than normal. So you can replicate the aging process in a controlled way. You can, I mean, in a way that, I mean, you could accelerate it in a controlled way and measure how much exactly it's aging. And that gives you step one of a two-step process to when you can then figure out, well, how can we reverse this? And now we're reversing those mice. Is there a good, I love what you said. I mean, in biology, you really don't know. It's such a beautiful mess. Is there ideas how to do that? Is that on the genetic engineering level? Is it like, what can you mess with? Is it going to the, trying to discover the backup copies and restoring from them? Like what's, if it's possible to convert it to natural language words, what are the ideas here? What is the observer and how do we contact it? Exactly, what's the observer and how do you contact? Or if there's other ideas, how to reverse the boss getting lost process. Yeah, well, you can slow it down. Slow it. But we found that a reset switch recently, we just published this in the December, 2020 issue of Nature. And what we found is that there are three embryonic genes that we could put into the adult animal to reset the age of the tissues. And it only takes four to eight weeks to work well. And we can take a blind mouse that's lost its vision due to aging. Neurons aren't working well towards the brain. Reset those neurons back to a younger age and now the mice can see again. These three genes are famous actually because they're a set of four genes discovered by Shinya Yamanaka, who won the Nobel Prize in 2016 for discovering that those four genes when turned on at high levels in adult cells can generate stem cells. And this is, I think, well known now that we can create stem cells from adult tissue. But what wasn't known is can you partially take age back without becoming a tumor or generating a stem cell in the eye, which would be a disaster. And the answer is yes. There is a system in the body that can take the age of a cell back to a certain point, but no further safely and reset the age. And we're now using that to reset the age of the brain of those mice that we aged prematurely and they're getting their ability to learn back. This is really exciting, right? Like what's the downside of this? Well, the downside is if you overdo it and you don't get it right, you might cause tumors. But we do it very carefully. And we also know that in the eye, it's very safe. We also injected these, we deliver them by viruses. So we can control where and when they get turned on. And in this paper, we published that if we put high levels in the mouse, into their veins, throughout the body, they don't get cancer for over a year. So I'm so optimistic that we're going into human studies in less than two years from now. Is there a place where AI can help? Sorry to inject one of the things I'm very excited about and passionate about. So Google DeepMind recently had a big breakthrough with AlphaFold 2, but also AlphaFold two years ago with achieving sort of a state of the art performance on the protein folding problem, single protein folding. But it also paints a hopeful picture of what's possible to do in terms of simulating the folding of proteins, but also simulating biological systems through AI. Is there something to you combined with this brilliant work on the biology side that you're hopeful about where AI can be a tool to help? Where isn't that a tool? I mean, if you're not using AI right now in biology, you're getting left behind. We use it all the time. We're using it to generate these biological clocks to be able to read those scratches. We're using it to predict the folding of proteins so we can target molecules and modulate their activity. We're using it to assemble genomes of different species. What else? We use it to predict the longevity of a mouse based on how it reacts to certain things, hearing, eyesight, generally frailty. So we just put out a paper last year on that. The other thing we can use it for, which is a little off the track here, but we use it for predicting which microorganisms are in your body, actually not predicting, telling you. So our daughter, Natalie, was infected with Lyme disease a few years ago, almost went blind from it, and the test took four days. And I thought, just give me the DNA from her spinal fluid. I'll go tell you what's in it. If it's Lyme disease or not, they refused. And so at that point I said, this has to be done better. So I started a company that now can take a sample of any part of your body. It's typically done now with liver transplant patients to detect viruses that come out of their organs. But that's another area that AI is extremely important for. I think if you're not, in five years, if you're not using deep learning, you've got a problem. Because the amount of data that we generate now as biologists is just terabytes. It can be terabytes per week, it'll eventually be terabytes per day. And then we just go from there. And I actually have trouble recruiting enough bioinformaticians. A lot of our work is now just number crunching. A part of that is collecting the data, which is kind of something we've talked a little bit about. But is there something you can say about how we can collect more and more data? Not just on the one person level, like for you to understand your various markers, but to create huge data sets, to understand how we can detect certain pathogens, detect certain properties, characteristics of whether it's aging or all the other ways that the human body can fail. It seems like with biology, there's a kind of privacy concerns that, well, actually not privacy concerns, it's almost like regulation that kind of prevents hospitals from sharing data. I'm not sure exactly how to say it, but it seems like when you look at autonomous vehicles, people are much more willing to share data. When you look at human biology system, people are much less willing to share data. Is there a hopeful path forward where we can share more and more data at a large scale that ultimately ends up helping us understand the human body and then treat problems with the human body? So we are right in the middle. We're living through what's gonna be seen as one of the biggest revolutions in human health, through the gathering of data about our bodies. And 20 years ago, people didn't wanna go on social media. They're worried about it now. You have to, if you're a kid, that's for sure. Same with medical records. These are becoming all digitized and expanded. Ultimately, we're going to, even if we don't want to, have to be monitored. There's gonna be a court case that, I bet two, three years from now, someone's gonna say, "'How come my father died from a heart attack?' "'You had these biosensors, 20 bucks, and you didn't use it.' Lawsuit right there, and suddenly all hospitals have to give you one of these. There'll be a reversal, like to where, it's your fault if you don't collect the data. That's brilliant. That's absolutely right. I mean, that's absolutely right. That's the frustration I feel when going to the doctor, is like, it's almost negligent to not collect the data, because you're making, there's something really wrong with me, and you're making decisions based on very few tests. That's almost negligent, when you have the opportunity to collect a huge amount more data. Well, let me tell you something. I've got this inside tracker data for myself over a decade, and you'd think my doctor would roll his eyes at this. Oh, he's gone to a consumer company, blah, blah, blah. I had my first checkup in a year with him through video conference, and he was running blind. He really didn't know what was going on with me. He asked the usual things. How am I sleeping? How am I eating? These kind of usual things. And I said, well, I've got new tests back from inside tracker. And he said, great, I'd love to see them. So I'd share screen, and we look at the graphs, look at the data, and he's loving it, because he cannot order these tests willy-nilly. So I said, well, let's order a HbA1c blood glucose levels, because I'm very interested in that. That tracks with longevity. And he said, well, I have no reason to order that. Do you have a family history? No. Do you have any symptoms of diabetes? No. Well, I can't order the test. I almost wanted to reach through the computer and strangle him. But instead, I pay a little bit to get these tests done, and then he looks at them. So that's now the way consumer health is going, is that you can get better data than your doctor can, but they like you to do that. Quick human question. Maybe you can educate me. I think doctors sometimes have a little bit of an ego. I understand that the doctor's super experienced with a lot of things, but this is a fundamental question of human variability. Like I know a lot of specific details about like, I mean, it depends of course what we're talking about, but I bring a lot of knowledge. And if I have data with me, then I have like several orders of magnitude more knowledge. And I think there's an aspect to it where the doctor has to put their expert hat, like take it off and actually be a curious, open-minded person and study and look at that data. Do you think it's possible to sort of change the culture of the medical system to where the doctors are almost, as you said, are excited to see the data? Or is that already happening? It's really happening. Now we've probably lost the last generation. There are no hope is, but so I teach at Harvard Medical School and they're excited about this. They're excited about aging, which is a new aspect to medicine. Oh, wow, we can do something about that. And then, yeah, all this data, what do we do with it? There's still the traditional pathology and all that stuff, which they need to know, but time will change their mindset. I'm not worried about that. And like we were discussing, this isn't a question of if, it's just a matter of when. And I have a front row seat on all of this. I had breakfast with a CEO who is making this happen just yesterday. I can tell you for sure that most people have no idea that this revolution is occurring and is happening so quickly. If you're running a hospital and you can save $2,000 per cardiac patient, what are you gonna do? You have to use it. Otherwise, the hospital down the road's gonna be beating you. And there are large hospital aggregations, so there's Ascension and others that just have to go this way for budgetary reasons. And right now the US spends 17% of their GDP on healthcare. Let's say one of these buttons on my chest costs 20 bucks, it's rechargeable, and it can predict people's health and save on antibiotics to prevent heart attacks. How many billions, if not trillions of dollars will that save over the next decade? Yeah, so when the public wakes up to this, they'll almost demand it. Like this should be accepted everywhere. This is obvious. It's gonna save a lot of money. It's gonna improve the quality of life. Well, and the CFOs of hospital groups will have to. And insurance companies are gonna wanna get in on this. So now that gets to privacy, right? Should an insurance company have access to your data? I would say no, but you could voluntarily show them some of it if they give you a discount. And that's also being worked on right now. I hope we do create kind of systems where I can volunteer to share my data and I can also take the data back, meaning like delete the data, request deletion of data, and then maybe policy creates rules to where you can share data, you could delete the data. And I think if I have the option to delete all my data that a particular company has, then I'll share my data with everyone. I feel like if, because that gives me the tools to be a consumer, an intelligent consumer, of awarding my data to a company that deserves it and taking it back when the company is misbehaving. And in that way, encourage as a consumer in the capitalist system, encourage the companies that are doing great work with that data. Well, yeah, healthcare data security is number one. On my mind, InsideTracker made sure that that was true. But these buttons on your chest, there's very private stuff they can probably tell if you're having sex one night, right? So this is not the kind of stuff you want leaked. So I don't know whether it's blockchain or something. Speak for yourself, I don't want this public. Yeah. Live streamed. I guess it depends on how you go, but. Yeah. You know, there's a lot of stuff you don't want out there and this definitely has to be number one because it's one thing to have your credit card information stolen, it's another thing your health records are permanently out there. Yeah. So there's, on the biology side, super exciting ways to slow aging, but there's also on the lifestyle side. I've recently did a 72 hour fast, just an opportunity to take a pause and be, you know, appreciate life. Think about, there's something about fasting that encourages you to reflect deeper than you otherwise might. The time kind of slows and you also realize that you're human because your body needs food and you start to see your body's almost as a machine that takes food and produces thoughts. And then ends, breathe. I mean, you start to, depending who you are, if you're like engineering minded, you start to think of this whole thing as a kind of, yeah, as a machine. And then also feelings fill this machine, feelings of gratitude, of love, but also the uglier things of jealousy and greed and hate and all those kinds of things. You start to think, okay, how do I manage this body to create a rich experience? All of that comes from fasting for me. Anyway, but there's also health benefits to fasting. I intermittent fast a lot. I eat just one meal a day most of the time. Is there something you could say about the benefits of fasting in your own life and in general, the anti-aging process? Well, you're a philosopher too. Sorry, I apologize. No, I'm impressed. True Renaissance man, it's a joy to be here. So when it comes to fasting, this is being abstinuous is one of the oldest ways to improve health. Probably they knew this 5,000 plus years ago. So that's not new, but what we're figuring out is what is optimal and how does it work? And one of the things we helped contribute to, which I can speak to with some authority is that these longevity genes we work on, we showed back in the early 2000s are turned on by fasting. And at least in yeast, we were the first to show that how calorie restriction fasting works to extend lifespan. And that was the first for any species. Something similar happens in our bodies. When we're hungry or put our bodies under any other perceived adversity, such as running, our bodies think, wow, we're getting run chased by a saber tooth cat or something. If we're really hot or cold, these probably also work to put our bodies in this defensive state, to activate these genes in the way that whales do and mice don't. And so hunger is the best way to do that. In fact, I don't think you have to feel hungry. You can get used to it. But if there was one thing I would recommend to anybody to slow down aging would be to skip a meal or two a day. Now, it doesn't mean you don't have to live well. You can go out. I go to restaurants, I eat regular food. I try to be as healthy as possible. But I've gone from skipping breakfast most of my life now to skipping lunch as well. And I have my physique back that I had when I was 20. I feel 20 mentally. I'm much sharper. I don't feel tired anymore. I sleep well. So I'm a huge fan of the one meal a day thing. Where I'm not good at is going beyond one day. But if you do three days- Have you ever fasted longer than 24 hours? I tried doing two days. I might've made it to the third and given up. I just find that I'm not very, I don't have a lot of willpower. I also hate exercise. So I'm not sure how long I'm gonna live. But I've managed to do one meal a day. So if I can do that, seriously, anybody can do that. To your listeners and viewers, I would say, don't try to do it all at once. You can't go from snacking and eating three meals a day to what I do easily. Work your way up to it, but also compensate with drinking. If you like tea, if you like coffee, put some milk in it. That's fine. You can fill your stomach up with liquids. Diet sodas, I get criticized for drinking, but I'm gonna continue to have those. But then, I power through the day. I definitely don't feel tired. I don't have a lag anymore, but also give it at least two weeks because there's a habit as well. Having something in your mouth, chewing, feeling that fullness, you can break that habit. And within two, three weeks, you'll have done it. Absolutely. So I'm not actually even that strict about it. You said diet soda. Yeah, people are very kind of weirdly strict about fasting, the rules in fasting. Like for example, I drank Element electrolytes when I was fasting, and that has like five calories. And so technically, it's not fasting. Or people will say like, if you drink coffee, there's caffeine, and they'll say, that's technically not fasting because there's some kind of biological effects of caffeine, but whatever. Of course, there's like biological benefits that you can argue about, but there's also just experiential benefits. Just calorie restriction broadly has a certain experience to it that like for me personally, just as you said, has made me feel really good. That said, especially I've gained quite a bit of weight, like maybe even like 15 pounds, something like that, since I moved to Austin, Texas. And I still keep the same diet, but I eat a lot of meat in that one just because it's delicious, because it's also the amazing people I met in Texas. It's just, there's like a camaraderie, a friendship, a love to the people that like makes you really enjoy the atmosphere of eating the brisket and the meat. Is this Joe Rogan insisting? Joe is, I mean, he's very different. Joe loves bread and pasta. Like he knows that his body feels best doing keto or carnivore. So that's what he usually tries to stick to, but he also does not hold back. And he'll just eat pasta when he does pasta. And he sort of enjoys life in that way. I can't, I don't know how to enjoy life in that way. I also love pasta, but I'm just not going to enjoy it because I know my body ultimately does not feel good with pasta. So it's a funny kind of dichotomies. I would like to cheat, I guess, by eating more meat than I, you know, like overeating on the things that I know my body feels good on as opposed to eating stuff I shouldn't, like cake and all those kinds of things. I tend to find happiness in overeating the good stuff versus eating the bad stuff. And that's the kind of balance. Him, he's like, fuck it. Every once in a while you got to enjoy it. And then also coupled with that for him is just exercise, like then face his demons the next day and just like burn a huge amount of calories, which is, I mean, whatever's up with that guy's mind, there's an, there's a ability to fully experience life, which is represented by the pasta and the ability to just like fight the demons, which is represented by all the crazy kettle balls and running the hills and all this kind of stuff that he does. That takes a lot out of you doing that kind of insane exercise. And I think I'm more like you, or at least towards your direction is like, I really hate exercise. So I do it, but I really hate it. And so it's a balance that you have to strike. Is there something you could say about the diet side of that for you personally, but in general, in order to achieve calorie restriction? Like for me eating, I know it may not sound healthy, but eating carnivore, eating mostly meat has been, has made me feel really good, both mentally and physically. Is there something you could say about the kinds of diets that may improve longevity, but also enable calorie restriction? Well, sure. I mean, the first thing that's important to know is that while many people are interested slash obsessed with what they eat, the data that's come out of animal studies at least is it's far more important when you eat than what you eat. And this was a fantastic study a few years ago by my friend, Rafael de Cabo at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda. And he had 10,000 mice on different diets, hoping to find the perfect mix of carbs, protein and fat. And it turns out that the only ones that lived longer were the ones that only ate once a day. And so that, if we're not mice, but I think that we're close enough to mice that this tells us a lot. But okay, but I still think the best bang for the longevity buck is to do both well. Eat less often and eat the right things. Now I'll preface this to say, I'm not a nut about this. I will eat occasional, very occasionally a dessert. Usually I steal from others, which doesn't count, right? Exactly. But you gotta live life, right? What's a long life if it's not enjoyable anyway? But what I've, I also have found, and this is, I'll get to your question in a second, but my microbiome right now and stomach is at a point where if I try to overeat on a steak, which I did a couple of days ago, I actually had a chicken, a fried chicken specifically. For two days I felt terrible. I couldn't sleep, it wouldn't go down. So I'm now at a point where even if I want to binge on meat and fried foods, I just can't, it just feels bad. But what do I recommend? Well, what the data says, which I try to follow is that plant-based foods will be better than meat-based foods. And I know that there are a lot of people who disagree, but one of the facts is, well, there's a few facts. One is that people who live a long time tend to eat those type of diets, Mediterranean Okinawa diet. They're eating mostly plants with a little bit of meat and not a lot of red meat. And the other fact is that in animals we know that there's a mechanism that's called mTOR, little m, capital T-O-R, that responds to certain amino acids that are found in more abundance in meat. And when it responds, it actually shortens lifespan. And the converse, if you starve it of those three amino acids mostly in meat, then it extends lifespan. And there's a drug called rapamycin, which some people are experimenting with that does that. So you might be able to, I'm just saying this here from all my colleagues, we don't know the results here, but you could potentially take a rapamycin-like drug and counteract the effects of meat in the long run. Don't know, we should try that actually. We could do that in the lab. But getting to the bottom of this, what I think is going on is that just like testosterone and growth hormone, you will get temporary, maybe not temporary, immediate health benefits. You'll feel great, you'll get more muscle energy. But the problem is I think it's at the expense of long-term health and longevity. Well, this is actually something I worry about in terms of long-term effects or the cost in terms of longevity. It's very difficult to know how your choices affect your longevity because the impact is down the line. Just because something makes me feel good now, like eating only meat makes me feel good now, I wonder what are the costs down the line? Well, think about what I was saying about the trade-offs between growth and reproduction, which is what a mouse does, and a whale that grows slowly, reproduces slowly, lives a long time. It's called the disposable soma theory. Kirkwood just proposed that in the 70s. What meat probably does is put you in the mouse category, super fertile, grow fast, heal fast. And then if you wanna be a whale, you should restrict meat and do things that promote the preservation of your body. Is it difficult to eat a plant-based diet that you perform well under, so mentally and physically? Just almost, I'm asking almost like a anecdotal question, unless you know the science. Well, the science is still being worked out, but from the synthesis of everything that I've read, I try to eat a diet that's definitely full of leafy greens, particularly spinach is great because it's got the iron that we need, plenty of vitamins. I also try to avoid too much fruit and berries, particularly fruit juice, definitely avoid that sugar high. Spiking your sugar is not healthy in the long run. The other thing that's interesting is we discovered what we call xenohormetic molecules. Let me unpack that, because it's a terrible name, and I take full responsibility with my friend Conrad Howitz. The xeno means cross species, and hormesis is the term that what doesn't kill you makes you live longer and be healthier. And so we're getting cross species health improvements by molecules that plants make. And plants make these molecules when they're also under adversity or perceived adversity. For instance, I understand if you want really healthy, good oranges, you can drive nails into the bark of the tree before you harvest. Same with wine, you typically want them to be dry before you harvest or covered in fungus. And that's because these plants make these colorful and xenohormetic molecules that make themselves stress resistant, turn on their sirtuin defenses, the sirtuins, remember. And when we eat them, we get those same benefits. That's the idea. And we've evolved to do so. This isn't a coincidence. It's my theory, our theory that we want to know when our food supplies is under adversity, because we need to get ready for a famine. And so we hunker down and preserve our body. And by eating these colored foods, so what practically speaking, if it's full of color, or if there's been some chewing by a caterpillar, organic grown locally in local farms, I'll eat that versus a watery insipid, light colored lettuce that's been grown in California. So you want vegetables that have suffered. You want the David Goggins as a vegetables. That's the xenohormetic molecules. I love that term. I'm going to take that one with me. Thank you. Yeah. Oh, I follow him on Instagram. He's always screaming. So you want the, that he's basically the xenohormetic version of a human. I like it. So these are the molecules that are representative of the stress that's been, that a plant has been under. Yeah. The best example of that is resveratrol, which many people, including myself, take as a supplement, grapes or grapevines produce that in abundance when they're dried out or they have too much light or fungus. And that we've shown activates the Surtu enzyme in our bodies, which remember is what extends lifespan in yeast and slows down aging in the brain. That's beautiful. Yeah. I tend to avoid fruit as well. So green veggies, anything that's not very sweet. So I would just say you're relatively low. Like you try to avoid sugary things as well. Yeah. I'm fairly militant about that. I rarely would add sugar to anything. Occasionally I would eat a slice of cheesecake, but that would be maybe once or twice a year. You have to give in occasionally, but yeah, anything that's sweet, I would rather substitute something like stevia if I need a sugar hit. What about exercise? Your favorite topic. Is there a- I don't mind talking about it. Yeah. Okay, great. As their benefits to longevity from exercise. Well, no doubt that's proven. Just like fasting, it's pretty clear that that works. For example, there are studies of cyclists. It was something like people that cycle over 80 miles a week have a 40% reduction in a variety of diseases, certainly heart disease. So that's not even a question, but what's interesting is that we're learning that you don't need much to have a big benefit. It's an asymptotic curve. And in fact, if you overdo it, you probably have reduced benefits, particularly if you start to wear out joints, that kind of thing. But just 10 minutes on a treadmill a few times a week, getting your, lose your breath, get hypoxic as it's called, seems to be very beneficial for long-term health. And that's the kind of exercise that I like to do, aerobic. Though I do enjoy lifting weights. So that is what I call my exercise, which has other benefits, including maintaining hormone levels, male hormone levels. But also really why I do it is I want to be able to counteract the effect of sitting for most of the day. And as you get older, you lose muscle mass. It's a percent or so a year. And I don't want to be frail when I'm older and fall over and break my hip, which happens every 20 seconds in this country. So maintaining that strength, but also doing the cardio for the longevity for the avoiding the heart disease. Yeah, I definitely, just like with fasting, have the philosophical benefit of running long and running slow. I enjoy it because it kind of clears the mind and allows you to think, actually listen to brown noise as I run. It really helps remove myself from the world and just like zoom in on particular thoughts. What is brown noise? It's like white noise, but deeper. So like white noise is like shh, and then brown noise is more like, like ocean. That sounds great. I might try that. Yeah. Yeah, it's a- It's more soothing probably. I'm not sure. There could be science to this. I need to look this up. I've been meaning to, but when I started, this is maybe like five years ago, I started listening to brown noise when I work. And the first time I listened to it, something happened to my mind where it just went like zoomed in to like in a way that it felt like really weird, but like how precisely it was able to sort of remove the distractions of the world and really help my mind. Obviously, like the mind is trying to focus and then it just enabled that process of trying to focus on a particular problem. I don't know if this is generalizable to others. People should definitely try it. If you're listening to this, maybe it's just my own mind, but it's funny. Like it made me, brown noise made me realize that there's probably hacks out there that work for me that I should be constantly looking for. It's almost like an encouraging and motivating event that maybe there's other stuff out there. Maybe there's other brown noise like things out there that truly like almost immediately make me feel better. I don't know if it's generalizable to others, but it does seem that it's the case that there's probably for many others, things like that that could be discovered. And so it's always disappointing when I find things in life that I wish I would found earlier. Like I got Lasik eye surgery a few years ago and the first thought I had like the next day when I woke up is like, damn it, why didn't I do this way earlier? There's all this stuff of that nature that are yet to be discovered. So it pays to explore. Yeah, though you have a different mind. You have quite a beautiful mind. So I suspect brown noise helps you focus and cause you're probably all over the place if you don't control it. Yeah, exactly. I mean, it's something about it. It's a programmer thing. I don't, programming is a really difficult mental journey cause you have to keep a lot of things in mind. You have to, so you're constantly designing things then you have to be extremely precise by making those things concrete in code. You also have to look stuff up on the internet to sort of feed like information and looking up stuff on the internet, internet is full of like distracting things. You have to be really focused in the way you look stuff up in pulling that information in. So it requires a certain discipline and a certain focus that I've been very much exploring how to do. Like I do it really well in the morning, coffee is involved, all those kinds of things. You're trying to optimize, keeping very positive inspired, no social media, all those kinds of things and trying to optimize for, and everybody has their own kind of little journey that they try to understand. You get this from like writers, when you read about the habits of writers, like the habits they do in the morning, they usually write like two, three, four hours a day and that's it. It's like they optimize that ritual. And then there's always Conor Thompson. So sometimes it pays off to be wild. What about sleep? How important is sleep for longevity? I would guess based on the evidence that it's really important and because we don't know for sure, but what we know from animal studies is the following. If you restrict sleep from a rat for just two weeks, it'll develop type two diabetes, it's that important. So that's the main thing. What we also know is at the molecular level, that if you disrupt your sleep wake cycle, so we actually have proteins that go up and down that control our sleep wake. All of us, most of our cells do that. If you disrupt that, you'll get premature aging. And guess what? The opposite is true. That as you get older, that cycle, the amplitude becomes diminished. And this is why it's harder to get to sleep as you get older and then you got all sorts of problems. And I think what's going on is there's positive feedback which is a disaster in your old age, which is you're aging, you can't at this moment, totally prevent that. And then it's disrupting your sleep and you get not enough sleep and then that's gonna accelerate your aging process. And so it's known that people who are shift workers are more susceptible to certain age-related diseases. So your bottom line, you definitely wanna work on that. It's one of the reasons I have this ring on my finger, which helps me optimize my sleep and learn what I do the day before if it was a bad idea and I'll stop doing that like eating a fried chicken. I see you're still carrying the burdens of that decision. But yeah, sleep is one of those things that's making me wonder about the variability between humans a little bit and how science is often focused on, like it's not often focused on high performers in a particular way. And it's looking at the aggregate versus the individual cases. For example, like for me, I don't know what the exact hours are, but like power naps are incredible. I tend to look at the metric of stress and happiness and joy and try to optimize those. So decreasing stress, increasing happiness and using sleep as just one of the tools to do that. Because like hitting the five, six, seven, eight, nine hour mark or whatever the correct mark is, I find that to be stress inducing for me versus stress relieving. Like thinking about that, I feel best if I sleep sometimes for eight hours, sometimes for four hours in the power nap. And as long as I have a stupid, private usually smile on my face, that's when I'm doing good as opposed to getting a perfect amount of sleep according to whatever the latest blog post is. And I also pull all nighters still. I also think there's something about the body, like as long as you do it regularly, it's not as stress inducing. Like you know what it is. The reason I pull all nighters isn't for like, I'm playing Diablo three or something is because I'm doing something I'm truly passionate about. Well, I'm also a love video games, but I'm doing something I'm truly passionate about. And it's almost like there's the Jacko Willing feeling of when I'm up at 7 a.m. and I haven't slept all night and still I'm working on it, there's a kind of a celebration of the human spirit that I really enjoy it. Like, and that's happiness. And to sort of then, and I usually don't tell that kind of stuff to people because their first statement will be like, you should get more sleep. It's like, no, I'm doing stuff I love. You should get more love in your life, bro. That's right. So, but that said in aggregate, when you look at the full span of life, is probably you should be getting a consistent amount of sleep. And it seems like it's in that seven, eight hour range. Yeah, but it's similar to food. It's the quality, not the quantity. And when you get it. So I look at my data pretty often and what makes a difference to me is not the amount of hours, but the quality, the depth, and the deep sleep is what'll do it. So if I have a lot of alcohol before going to sleep and I can see my heart rate being different, but what really kills me is that I don't get a lot of that deep sleep and I wake up, barely remembering stuff. So that, like you say, if you're happy and contented and you don't have these cortisol chemicals going through your body, you will more naturally get into that deep state. And even if you just get four hours, way better than eight hours of none of that. Yeah, that's beautiful. And some of that could be genetic. For me, I just fall asleep like this. If you want me to fall asleep right now, I can do it. It's no, I have no problem with it. Combined with coffee, I just had two energy drinks. I can probably sleep. So that, I don't know if that's genetics or it's kind of, I don't know what it is. Or maybe that I don't have kids and I'm single. So I don't have, I'm almost listening to some kind of biological signal versus societal signal. I'm not supposed to go to sleep. So I just go to sleep whenever I feel like going to sleep. Well, that's cause you're self-employed. Self-employed. Most people don't have that luxury, but we're lucky, the two of us, that we can make our own hours. Yeah. But yeah, it's super important. And those people who have shift work, I mean, they really need to change the way that works because they're literally killing those people. Is there something you could say about the mind and stress, in terms of the effect on longevity, sort of? Cause I don't know if you think about it this way, but when you talk about the biological machine, it's always these mechanisms that don't, are not necessarily directly connected to the brain or the operation of the brain. Like what's the role about stress and happiness and yeah, the sort of higher cognitive things going on in the brain on longevity. Right. Well, that's a great point. The brain is the center for longevity actually. We do know that. First off, when I'm stressed, I can see, mentally stressed, then I can see it in my body. Heart rate, hormones, it's clear. That's no true surprise. So you've got to work on your brain first and foremost. If you are totally freaked out, agitated all the time, you will live shorter. I'm certain of it. You know, I keep fish. I'm a big aquarium guy. And you can see the difference between the fish that's having a good time and dominant and the one that gets picked on. Yeah. It just looks like crap. You don't want to be that, the little fish getting picked on if you can help it. So I used to be extremely stressed as a kid. I was a perfectionist, very shy, always worried about being a failure. If I didn't get an A plus, you know, I was crying in my bedroom, that kind of sad existence. I got into my twenties, then in my thirties and realized that's not the way to live. So I've worked very hard to get to this point where I almost never get stressed, never. There's nothing that, I've never gotten angry in my lab. I've got 20 kids. Sometimes it's like a, most of the time it's like a kindergarten. I haven't lost my temper. I'm very calm, but that's intentional. And I don't worry about stuff, millions of dollars, billions of dollars at stake sometimes. Keep it cool. It's only life. We're all headed to the same place anyway. Don't worry about it. But the, to answer your question, I think in a better way, if you manipulate the brain of an animal, I'll give you an example. If we turn on this sort of gene that I mentioned, sort of one, we, a good friend of mine at WashU, Sheena Mai did this. They upregulate that, upregulated that gene just in the neurons of the animal. It lived longer. So that's sufficient to extend lifespan. We also know that you can manipulate the part of the brain called the hypothalamus, which leeches a lot of chemicals into the body and proteins, most of which we don't know yet, but just changing the inflammation of that little organ or part of the brain is sufficient to make animals live longer as well. So get your brain in order first before you tackle anything else, I would say. So you kind of mentioned this with the inside tracker, there's a ability to take blood measurement and then infer from that a bunch of different things about your body and how you can improve, how you can improve the longevity. And you've also mentioned saliva and more efficient ways to get data. What does that involve? What's the future of data collection for the human biological system? Right, well, yeah, the issue with blood is you need someone to take it. Or you prick your finger, which hurts. So you've got to have something better. So I think what the future looks like is that you'll spit onto a little piece of paper and stick it in a machine and it'll do that for you. But we're not there yet. So the intermediate future that I'm building right now is that you would take a swab of the inside of your mouth, which is the easiest way to take cells out of your body and just ship them off. Okay, so it's called a buckle swab. I think we became very used to that, right? Right now, because of COVID, people don't like going to the doctor as much. They don't like going out. They just want to have home tests. And so that, I think, is the next 10 years where you'll get a kit in the mail, you'll swab your cheeks, stick it back in an envelope, send it off, and a week later, you have either a doctor's report or a health recommendation. And what can you get off a cheek swab? Well, you can get anything. You can get hormones, stress levels, stress hormones, blood glucose levels. You can also tell your age reasonably accurately doing that, actually quite accurately. And those clocks cannot just tell you how you're doing over time, but can be used to give you recommendations to slow that process down. Because some people sometimes are 10 years older biologically than their actual chronological age. I mean, why does it matter how many times the Earth's gone around the sun, seriously? Who cares about birthdays? It's how long your body's clock has been ticking and how fast. So I could take a cheek swab from you today, like take it back to my lab, and we then by tomorrow tell you how old you are biologically based on what we call the epigenetic clock. And you might be freaked out, you might be happy, but either way, we can advise you on how to improve the trajectory. Because we know that smoking increases the speed of that clock. We also know that fasting and people who eat the right foods have a slower clock. Without that knowledge, you're flying blind. But I like the idea of a swab because it's just so easy. A lot of us have done something like that for COVID tests. It's not a big deal. Yeah, I've been doing a nonstop rapid antigen test. So let me say that particular one rapid antigen test, they've been a source of frustration for me because like everybody should be doing it. It's so easy. We've also been working in my lab on democratizing these tests to bring them down from a few hundred bucks to a dollar. So just to clarify, you're talking about not research, you're talking about like company stuff, like actual consumer facing things. Well, right. The research on bringing the price down has occurred in my lab at Harvard. And then that intellectual property is being licensed and has been licensed out to a company that will be consumer facing. So anybody for a small amount of money can do this. Well, you got subscriber number one obsessed. I think that's a beautiful, beautiful idea. So somebody who maybe I would have been more hesitant about it until COVID, but home tests are super easy. I almost wanted to share that data with the world, like in some way, not the entirety of the data, but like some visualization of like how I'm doing. Like it's almost like, you know, when you share, if you had like a long run or something like that, I wish I could share, because it inspires others. And then you can have a conversation about like, well, what are the hacks that you've tried and have a conversation about like how to improve lifestyle and those kinds of things that's grounded in data? That's exactly, that's what's gonna happen. Now, everything's anonymous, of course. We talked about security there, but once it's anonymized, you can then plot these numbers. And I've plotted my epigenetic age versus hundreds of other people who have taken this test now. And I can tell you where I fit relative to others in terms of my biological age. And I'm happy to share that with you all because it's pretty low. You can choose to share it, of course, not everyone wants to share that. But when you go to the doctor, first of all, your doctor does treat you as though you're an average person, and none of us are average, there's no such thing. But second of all, we never know how we're doing relative to others, because we all, most of us, we don't share our information. So we might have this number and that number, but do you know that your numbers are good for your age or not? You have no idea. Even your doctor probably doesn't even know. So this graph that I'm talking about is the beginning of a world where you can say, how am I doing? I'm, you know, for the two of us, we're white and we're male and we're this age, and we do this. Are we good? Are we doing the right things or the wrong things? Do we need to fix certain things? And this is what the future is. Forget about just experimenting and not knowing the result. I mean, who doesn't experiment and doesn't look at the data? No one, it makes no sense. So we're gonna enter a world where we have a dashboard on our body, the swabs, the blood tests, the biosensors, where our doctors can look at that, but we can also look at it and they can recommend, go to this restaurant down the road, they've got this great meal. It's high in whatever you need today because you're lacking vitamin D and vitamin K2. Go for it. Ridiculous question or perhaps not. If you look maybe 50 years from now or a hundred years from now, a person born then, what do you think is a good goal in terms of how long a person would live? Like what is the maximum longevity that we can achieve through the methods that we have today of, or are developing some of the things we've been talking about in terms of genetics, in terms of biology? Is there a number? Right, well, so it changes all the time because technology is changing so quickly. I keep revising the number upward. But I would say that if you do the right things during your life and start at an early age, let's say 25, we don't want malnutrition, starvation, that's not what I'm talking about. But in your 20s, start eating the kind of diets that I talked about, skipping meals. In animals, that gives you an extra 20 to 30%. We don't know if that's true for humans, and that would, even 5% more would be a good, a big deal for the planet. I think that we should all aim to at least reach a century. I'm a little bit behind. I was born too early to benefit the most from all of this discovery. Those of you who are in your 20s, you should definitely aim to reach 100. I don't see why not. Consider this, this is really important. The average lifespan of a human that looks after themselves but doesn't pay attention is about 80, okay? Japan, that's the average age for a male, a bit higher. If you do the right things in your life, which is eat healthy food, don't overeat, don't become obese, do a bit of exercise, get good sleep and don't stress, that gives you on average 14 extra years. That gets you to 94. So getting to 100, if you just focus on what I'm talking about, it's not a big deal. So what's the maximum? Well, we know that one human made it to 122 and a number of them make it into their teens. I think that's also the next level of where we can get to with the types of technologies that I'm talking about. Medicines, like I mentioned rapamycin, there's one called metformin, which is the diabetes drug which I take, that in combination with these lifestyle changes should get us beyond 100. How long can we ultimately live? Well, there's no maximum limit to human lifespan. Why can a whale live 300 years, but we cannot, we're basically the same structure. We just need to learn from them. So anyone who says, oh, you max out at X, I think is full of it. There's nothing that I've seen that says biological organisms have to die. There are trees that live for thousands of years and their biochemistry is pretty close to ours. What do you think it means to live for a very long time? Let's say if it's 200 years we're talking about or a thousand years, there's some sense, you could argue that there is immortal organisms already living on earth, like there's bacteria. So there's certain living organisms that in some fundamental way do not die because they keep replicating their genetic, they keep like cloning themselves. Is it the same human if we can somehow persist the human mind, like copy, clone certain aspects and just keep replacing body parts? Do you think that's another way to achieve a mortality, to achieve a prolonged sort of increased longevity is to replace the parts that break easily and keep, because actually from your theory of aging as a degradation of information, so an information theory view of aging, like what is the key information that makes a human? Can we persist that information and just replace the trivial parts? Yeah, I mean, the short answer is yes. We're already replacing body parts, but what makes us human is our brain. Everything else is suboptimal, except our brain. The ability to replace actual neurons is really hard. All right, I think it might be easier to upload rather than replace neurons because they're so tight, it's such a network and just perturbing the system. It's fruging this cat. You change everything once you get in there. The problem is, well, I guess the solution, let me go to the solution, that's more interesting. What we're learning is that if you reverse the age of nerve cells, it looks like they get their memories back. So the memories are not lost, they're just that the cells don't know how to interpret them and function correctly. And this is one of the things we're studying in my lab, if you take an old mouse that has learned something when it was young, but forgotten, does it get that back? And all evidence points to that being true. So I'd rather go in and rejuvenate the brain as it sits rather than replace individual cells, which would be really hard. What do you think about efforts like Neuralink, which basically you mentioned uploading, are trying to figure out, so creating brain computer interfaces, they're trying to figure out how to communicate with the brain, but one of the features of that is trying to record the human brain more and more accurately. Do you have hope for that to, of course, it will lead to us better understanding from a neuroscience perspective, the human mind, but do you have hope for it increasing longevity in terms of how it's used? I think that it can help with certain diseases, but I see at least within our lifetime, that's the best use of it is to be able to replace parts of the body that are not functioning, such as the retina and other parts, the visual cortex back here. That's going to be doable. In terms of longevity, maybe we could put something on the hypothalamus and start secreting those hormones and get that back. Ultimately, I think the best way to preserve the brain is going to be to record it, but also I think it's going to require death, unfortunately, to then do very detailed scans, even if you have enough time and money, atomic microscopy and rebuild the brain from scratch. Rebuild from scratch, yeah. We are living more and more in a digital world. I wonder if the scanning is good enough for the critical things in terms of memories, in terms of the particular quirks of your cognitive processes. They're not. They're not. Yeah. We're not close, yes, but we've made quite a bit of progress. So if you're an exponential type of person. Yeah, well, let's dream a little here. Yes, that's the point. The way it would work that I could see it working is, so you take a single cell slice through your dead brain and we can now, the problem with the engineering aspect is that the engineering is, the physical aspect of the brain is not even half the problem. The problem is which genes are switched on and off. This experience that we're having here is altering certain genes in neurons that will be preserved hopefully for a number of decades, but you cannot see that with a microscope easily, but there are technologies invented actually just down the hall in the building I'm at, George Church invented a way, his lab invented a way to look at which genes are switched on and off, not only in a single cell, which any lab can do these days, but in situ, where it's situated in the brain. So you can say, okay, this nerve cell, had these genes switched on and these switched off, we can recreate that, but just scanning the brain and looking how the nerves are touching each other is not gonna do it. Wow, okay. So you have to scan the full biology, the full details. And look at the epigenome. At the epigenome too. Yeah, which genes are on and off. It's just easier to reset the epigenome and get them to work like they used to. True, true. We're doing that now. Use the hardware we already have, just figure out how to make that hardware last longer. Right, ultimately information will be lost, even genetic information degrades slowly through mutation. So immortality is not achievable through that means, though I think we could potentially reset the body hundreds of times and live for thousands of years. Okay, so we talked about biology. Let's forgive me, but let's talk about philosophy for just a brief moment. So somebody I've enjoyed reading, Ernest Becker wrote the Denial of Death. There's also Martin Heidegger. There's a bunch of philosophers who claim that most people live life in denial of death. We don't fully internalize the idea that we're going to die. Because if we did, as they say, there will be a kind of terror of, I mean, a deep fear of death. The fact that we don't know what's, like we almost don't know what to do with non-existence, with disappearing. Like the way we draw meaning from life seems to be grounded in the fact that we exist and that we at some point will not exist is terrifying. And so we live in an illusion that we're not going to die and we run from that terror. That's what Ernest Becker would say. Do you think there's any truth to that? Oh, I know there's truth to that. I experienced it every day when I talked to people. We have to live that way, although unfortunately I can't, but for most people, it's extremely distressing to think about their own mortality. We think about it occasionally. And if we really thought about it every day, we'd probably be brought to tears how much we not just miss ourselves, but miss our family, our friends. We are all living life forms have evolved to not want to die. And when I mean want, biochemically, genetically, physically, that yeast cell, the cells that I studied at MIT, they were fighting for their lives. They didn't think, but our brain has evolved the same survival aspect. Of course, we don't want to die, but the problem for us, unfortunately, it's a curse and a blessing is that we're now conscious. We know that we're going to die. Most species that have ever existed don't. That's a burden, that's a curse. And so what I think's happened is we've evolved certainly to want to live for a long time, perhaps never want to die. But the thought about dying is so traumatic that there isn't an innate part of our brains. And it's probably genetically wired to not think about it. I really think that's part of being human. Because, you know, think about tribes that obsessed with longevity every day and that we're going to die. They probably didn't make much technological progress because they were just crying in their huts every day or, you know, on the savanna. I really think that we've evolved to naturally deny aging. And it's one of the problems that I face in my career. And, you know, when I speak publicly and on social media is that it's shocking. People don't want to think about their age, but I think it's getting better. I think my book has helped. These tests that we're developing should help people understand it's not a problem to think about your long-term health. In fact, if you don't, you're going to reach 80 and really regret it. And the other side of it, so again, Ernest Becker, but also Victor Frank, I'll recommend to highly man search for meaning. Bernard Williams is a moral philosopher. They kind of argue that this knowledge of death, even if we often don't contemplate it, we do at times. And the very, what you call the curse, which I agree with you, it's a curse and a blessing that we're able to contemplate our own mortality. That gives meaning to life. So death gives meaning to life. As what Victor Frankles argues, I would probably argue the same. There's something about the scarcity of life and contemplating that, that makes each moment that much sweeter. Is there something to that? I think it's individual. In my case, it's completely wrong. I appreciate you saying that. I don't get joy out of every day because I think I'm going to die. I get joy out of every day because every day is joyous and I make it that way. And even if I thought I was going to live forever, I would still be enjoying this moment just as much. And I bet you would too. Well, I think about that a lot. I think it's very difficult to know. I'm almost afraid that I wouldn't enjoy it as much if I was immortal. I'm almost afraid to want to be immortal or to live longer because it perhaps is a kind of justification for me to accept that I'm going to die. It's saying like, oh, if I was immortal, I wouldn't be able to enjoy life as much as I do. But it's very possible that I would enjoy just as much. Of course, enjoying life, whether you're mortal or not, takes work. Like it requires you to have the right kind of frame of mind. You can focus your mind on the ugliness of life. There's plenty of ugly things in this world and you can focus on them. You can complain. Whenever like, if it's raining outside, you can focus on the fact that you have shelter and enjoy the hell out of it. Or you can enjoy running in the rain when it's warm and like the beauty of nature, just being one with nature. Or you can just complain this fucking weather again in Boston and then it's either always raining or freezing, damn it. And like the same thing with like Wi-Fi going out on airplanes. Like you can either complain about like stupid Wi-Fi on JetBlue or something. Or you could say like how incredible it is that I can fly through the sky and in a matter of hours be anywhere else in the world. And then I could also on occasion watch, like check email and even watch movies while connecting through satellites that are flying through space. So it's a matter of perspective and perhaps there's an extra level of work required when you're immortal because it's easier when you're immortal or live longer to be lazy, to delay stuff. But if you're not, you can still derive the same amount of joy. It's possible, it's possible. It's definitely possible. In my life, I went from being the nothing's working to every day's great to wake up to. And I think even if you think you're gonna live forever, you can enjoy every day. What I do is everything's relative. We can compare ourselves to our neighbor who has more money or to the flight that should have had wifi or which is what I do, I'm still six years old remember. What a six year old does says, look, I can, when I tell my fingers to form a fist, they actually do that. That's really cool. That's how I live my life. I can pick up on your desk here, this metal object. It's a metal cube about an inch by an inch by an inch. And I tell myself not about cubes, but about inanimate objects. Probably once a day I'll say, I'm a living thing. I can think, I can move, I can eat. I am full of energy. And there's that leaf or this cube here that will never be alive. That's what I look at and compare myself to. And for as long as I live, if it's forever, of course it won't be, but even if it was forever, the relative to this lump of metal on this table here, we are wondrous things in the universe and probably the most wondrous things in the universe. Yeah, we're able to deeply appreciate the leaf or the cube and deeply appreciate ourselves, which is, it can be a curse, but it's mostly a gift. Especially when you're, it's such a beautiful poem. Now I'm six, I'm as clever as clever. So I think I'll be six now forever and ever. That's a good thing to aspire to. Your grandmother was onto something. David, this was an incredible conversation. I'm a huge fan of your work. So thank you for wasting your valuable time with me today. I really, really appreciate it. This was awesome. Thank you for having me on, Lex, appreciate it. Thanks for listening to this conversation with David Sinclair. I thank you to On It, Clear, National Instruments, Simply Safe, and Linode. Check them out in the description to support this podcast. And now let me leave you some words from Arthur Schopenhauer. All truth passes through three stages. First, it is ridiculed. Second, it is violently opposed. Third, it is accepted as being self-evident. Thank you for listening and hope to see you next time.
 The following is a conversation with David Sinclair.
 He's a professor in the Department of Genetics at Harvard
 and co-director of the Paul F. Glenn Center
 for the Biology of Aging at Harvard Medical School.
 He's the author of the book,
 Lifespan and co-founder of several biotech companies.
 He works on turning age into an engineering problem
 and solving it, driven by a vision of a world
 where billions of people can live much longer
 and much healthier lives.
 Quick mention of our sponsors,
 Onnit, Clear, National Instruments,
 and I, Simply Safe and Linode.
 Check them out in the description to support this podcast.
 As a side note, let me say that longevity research
 challenges us to think how science and engineering
 will change society.
 Imagine if you can live 100,000 years,
 even under controlled conditions, like in a spaceship, say,
 then suddenly a trip to Alpha Centauri
 that is 4.37 light years away takes a single human lifespan.
 And on the psychological, maybe even philosophical level,
 as the horizons of death drifts farther into the distance,
 how will our search for meaning change?
 Does meaning require death
 or does it merely require struggle?
 Reprogramming our biology will require us to delve deeper
 into understanding the human mind and the robot mind.
 Both of these efforts are as exciting of a journey
 as I can imagine.
 This is the Lex Friedman podcast,
 and here is my conversation with David Sinclair.
 I usually feel like the same person when I was 12,
 like when I, right now, as I think about myself,
 I feel like exactly the same person
 that I was when I was 12,
 and yet I am getting older, both body and mind,
 and still feel like time hasn't passed at all.
 Do you feel this tension in yourself
 that you're the same person and yet you're aging?
 Yeah, I have this tension that I'm still a kid,
 but that helps in my career.
 Scientists need to have a wonder about the world,
 and you don't wanna grow up,
 a 12-year-old and even younger,
 I would say six, seven-year-olds,
 I've still got that boy in me, and I can look at things.
 It's a gift, I think, that I can see things
 for the first time if I choose to,
 and then explain them as I would to a six-year-old,
 because I am that mentally.
 But on the other hand, I'm getting older, right?
 I run a lab of 20 people at Harvard.
 I've got a book, I've got science to do, companies to run,
 and so I have to, on most days,
 just pretend to be a grownup and be mature,
 but I definitely don't feel that way.
 There's something I really appreciated.
 In the opening of your book,
 you talked about your grandmother,
 and on this kind of theme, on this kind of topic,
 she, first of all, had a big influence on you.
 My grandmother had a big influence on me.
 You also mentioned this poem by the author of Winnie the Pooh,
 Alan Alexander Milne.
 Maybe I can read it real quick,
 because I love,
 on the topic of being children,
 when I was one, I had just begun.
 When I was two, I was nearly new.
 When I was three, I was hardly me.
 When I was four, I was not much more.
 When I was five, I was just alive, but now I am six.
 I am as clever as clever, so I think I'll be six,
 now, forever and ever.
 So this idea of being six and staying six forever,
 being youthful, being curious,
 being childlike, this and other things,
 what influence has your grandmother had
 in your thinking about life, about death, about love?
 Yeah, I was getting misty-eyed as you read that,
 because that poem was read to me very often,
 if not every day, by my grandmother,
 who partially raised me.
 And she was as much a bohemian as an artist, philosopher,
 and she's one of those people
 that wouldn't talk about the little things.
 She said, I hate small talk.
 Don't talk to me about politics or the weather.
 Yeah, talk to me about human beings and culture.
 So I was raised on that, and this poem was one
 that she read to me often, because she knew
 that the mind of a child is precious, it's honest,
 it's pure, and she grew up during the Second World War,
 and in Hungary and Budapest, witnessed the worst of humanity.
 She was trying to save a whole group of Jewish friends
 in her apartment, saw what happened after the World War,
 which was, the Russians were in control,
 and locals weren't necessarily treated well
 if they were rebellious, which she was.
 And then there was the revolution in 56,
 which she was part of and had to escape the country.
 So she saw what can happen when humans do their worst.
 And her words to me, expressed in part through that poem,
 was David, always stay young and innocent
 and have wonder about the world,
 and then do your best to make humanity the best it can be.
 And that's who I am, that's what I live for,
 that's what I get up in the morning to do,
 is to leave the world a better place,
 and show to whoever's watching us,
 whether it's aliens or some future human historian,
 that we can do better than we did in the 20th century.
 You know, you mentioned offline this idea
 of bringing people back to life
 through artificial intelligence, sort of,
 I don't know if you've seen videos
 of basically animating people back to life.
 Meaning, whether it's, for me personally,
 I've been working on specifically about Albert Einstein,
 but also Alan Turing, Isaac Newton, and Richard Feynman.
 And it's an opportunity to bring people
 that meant a lot to others in the world,
 and animate them, and be able to have
 a conversation with them.
 At first, to try to visually,
 visually explore the full richness of character
 that they had as they struggle
 with the ideas of the modern age.
 Sort of, it's less about bringing back their mind,
 and more bringing back the visual quirks
 that made them who they are.
 And then maybe in the future,
 it's using the textual, the visual,
 the video, the audio data to actually compress
 down the person for who they are,
 and be able to generate text.
 There's a few companies, there's Replica,
 which is a chat engine, that was born out of the idea
 of bringing, the founder lost her friend,
 to, he got ran over by a car.
 And the initial reason she founded the company
 was trying to just have a conversation with her friend.
 She trained machine learning, natural language system,
 on the text that they exchanged with each other,
 and try, she had a conversation with him,
 sort of after he was gone.
 And it's very, the conversation was very trivial,
 it was obvious that it's, you know, AI agent,
 but it gave her solace, it made her actually
 feel really good.
 And that's the way I wonder if it's possible
 to bring back people that are,
 that mean something to us personally.
 Not just Einstein, but people that we've lost,
 and in that way, achieve a kind of small,
 artificial immortality.
 I don't know if you think about this kind of stuff.
 Well, I definitely think about a lot of things.
 That one's a really good one.
 There's a great Black Mirror episode
 about the wife who brings back the boyfriend or husband.
 I think one of the challenges
 with bringing back Richard Feynman would be to capture
 his sense of humor, but that would be awesome.
 But yeah, bringing back loved ones would be great,
 especially if they're young and they die early.
 Though it may hold you back from moving on,
 that's another thing that could happen as a negative.
 But I think that's great.
 And I also think that it's gonna be possible,
 especially when we're recording some of us,
 every aspect of our lives, whether it's our face
 or things we see, eventually one day,
 everything we see can be recorded.
 And then you can build somebody's experience
 and thoughts, speech, and you will have replicas
 of everybody, at least digitally,
 and physically you could do that too one day.
 But that's a good idea, especially because there are people
 that I'd like to meet, and I think it's easier
 than building a time machine.
 One person I'd love to meet is Benjamin Franklin.
 Really?
 Well, I wouldn't go back in time, I would,
 but I'd prefer to bring him into the future and say,
 can you believe we have this thinking machine
 in our pockets now?
 And just see the look on his face
 as to where humanity has come.
 Because I think of him as a modern guy
 that just was before his time.
 Yeah, so you're thinking Benjamin Franklin is a scientist,
 not Benjamin Franklin the political thing,
 because he'd be very upset with Congress right now.
 Right.
 So maybe talk to him about science and technology,
 not politics, or maybe just don't get him on Twitter,
 because he'll be very upset with human civilization.
 You know, I wonder what their personalities are like.
 Isaac Newton, it does seem complicated
 to figure out what their personality is like.
 Even Friedrich Nietzsche, who I also thought about.
 Feynman is, we just have enough video
 where we get the full kind of,
 I mean, it shows you how important it is to get
 not the official kind of book level presentation
 of a human, but the authentic,
 the full spectrum of humanity.
 You mentioned collecting data about a person,
 collecting the whole thing, the whole of life,
 the ups and downs, the embarrassing stuff,
 the beautiful stuff, not just the things
 that's condensed into a book.
 And then with Feynman, you start to see that a little bit
 through conversations, you start to see peaks
 of like that genius, and then through stories
 about him from others.
 And then certainly you, the sad thing about Alan Turing,
 for example, is there's very little,
 if any, recording of him.
 In fact, I haven't been able to find recording,
 allegedly there's supposed to be a recording of him
 doing some kind of radio broadcast,
 but I haven't been able to find anything.
 And so that's truly sad.
 That it feels like it makes you realize
 how the upside, how nice it is to collect data
 about a person, to capture that person.
 That's the upside of the modern internet age,
 the digital age, that that information,
 yeah, creates a kind of immortality.
 And then you can choose to highlight the best parts
 of the person, maybe throw away the ugly parts
 and celebrate them even after they're gone.
 So that's a really interesting opportunity.
 You've also mentioned to me offline
 that you're really excited about all the different wearables
 and all the different ways we can collect information
 about our bodies, about the whole thing.
 What's most exciting to you in terms of collecting
 the biological data about a human being?
 Well, so I'm a biologist.
 I find animals and humans as machines very interesting.
 It's one of the reasons I didn't become an engineer
 or a surgeon, I wanted to understand
 how we actually are built.
 And so I think a lot about machines merging with humans.
 And the first of that are the bio-wearables.
 And so I talked a lot about this, I wrote about it
 in Lifespan, the book, and pictured a future
 where you would be monitored constantly
 so that you wouldn't suddenly have a heart attack,
 you'd know that was coming, or you wouldn't go to the doctor
 and they don't know if you need an antibiotic or not.
 Long-term, how old are you, how to fix things,
 what should you eat, what should you take,
 what should you talk to do?
 These devices, I predicted, would be smarter,
 better educated than your physician
 and would augment them, and then there'd be a human
 that would just tick off to see if it's correct
 and they approve.
 I also was predicting in the book
 that we would have video conferences with our doctors
 and that medicines would be delivered,
 initially by courier, but eventually by drones,
 and get it to you sometimes in an emergency.
 And that we could even have pills
 that were synthesized or delivered in your kitchen,
 and combined, certainly.
 What's amazing about that is that, what are we now,
 two years since the book came out, even less,
 and that future is basically here already, COVID-19.
 Accelerated.
 Accelerated that incredibly.
 So where we're at now in society is,
 if you want to pay for it, you can have a blood test
 that will detect cancer 10, 20 years earlier than it would
 before it forms a tumor.
 You can, of course, do your genome very cheaply
 for less than $100 now.
 There are bio-wearables already.
 I wear this ring from Aura
 that I have a number of years of data.
 I've been doing blood tests for the last 12 years
 with a company called InsideTracker, which I consult for.
 And so I have all of that data as well,
 and there's 34 different parameters on my testosterone,
 my blood glucose, my inflammation.
 And I use all that data to, of course,
 I wear a watch that measures things as well.
 I use that data to keep my body in optimal shape.
 So I'm now 51.
 And according to those parameters,
 I'm at least as good as someone in their early 40s.
 And if I really work at it,
 I can get my biochemistry down to early to mid 30s,
 though I like to now eat a little dessert once in a while.
 So that's the future we're in right now.
 Anyone can do what I just said.
 But in the very near future, just in the next few years,
 you can be wearing wearables.
 So I'm currently wearing a little,
 what's called a bio sticker.
 This one I just put on last night.
 It's about an inch long, a few millimeters.
 Yeah, for people just listening, it's on David's chest.
 It's just, how does it attach?
 It's just kinda-
 It sticks on. Sticks on.
 Yeah, so on one side you have an on button that you press,
 the lights come on, flashes four times, it's good to go.
 It immediately syncs to your phone.
 And this one, it's called a bio button, nice name.
 And there's another one that I have
 that I haven't tried yet that does EKG on your heart.
 This is mainly for doctors to monitor patients
 that go home after a heart attack or surgery.
 But that's medical grade, FDA approved device.
 So there will be a day, in fact, it's already here,
 that doctors are using these to get patients
 to go home and save a week in hospital,
 $2,000 at least for each patient.
 That's massive savings for the hospital.
 But ultimately, what I'm excited about is a future
 that isn't that far off where everybody,
 certainly in developed countries,
 eventually these will cost a few cents and rechargeable.
 The only cost will be the software subscription
 that can be monitored constantly.
 And to give you an idea what this is measuring me
 at a thousand times a second is my vibrations as I speak,
 my orientation, it already has told me this morning
 how I slept, where I slept, what side I slept on.
 We've got sneezing, coughing, body temperature, heart rate,
 heart of other parameters of the heart
 that would indicate heart health.
 These data are being used to now to predict sickness.
 So eventually we'll have just in the next year or so,
 the ability to predict whether something
 or diagnose whether something is pneumonia
 or just a rhinovirus that can be treated or not.
 This is really going to not just revolutionize medicine,
 but I think extend lives dramatically.
 Because if I'm gonna have a heart attack next week,
 and that's possible, this device should know that
 and I'll be in hospital before I even have it.
 Maybe you can talk a little bit about InsideTracker
 because I saw that there's some really cool things in there.
 Like it actually, so maybe you can talk about,
 I guess that you're collecting blood to give it the data.
 So, and it has like basic recommendations
 on how to improve your life.
 So we're not just talking about diseases, right?
 Like anticipating having a particular disease,
 but it's almost like guiding your trajectory to life,
 how to, whether it's extend your life
 or just live a more fulfilling,
 like improve the quality of life.
 I suppose this is the right way to say it.
 What, how does InsideTracker work?
 What the heck is it?
 Because I saw the results are pretty cool.
 Yeah.
 What is it?
 Is it something other people can use?
 You can definitely use it.
 You can sign up it's consumer.
 It's like a company consumer facing company.
 It is, yeah.
 Okay, cool.
 And I also want to democratize the ability
 to just take a mouth swab eventually.
 We don't need to have a blood test necessarily,
 but for now it's a blood test
 and you'd go to a lab core request in the US.
 It's also available overseas.
 You can upload your own data for minimal cost
 and get the algorithms, the AI in the background
 to take that data, plot where you are against others
 in your age group as in terms of health
 and longevity at bio age, they call it, inner age.
 But also it provides recommendations.
 And this isn't just a bunch of BS.
 It sounds like it might be to say,
 I'll go eat this or go to that restaurant in order that,
 but it's actually based on,
 they basically, this company has entered hundreds.
 Now it would be thousands of scientific papers
 into their database
 and hundreds of thousands of human data points.
 And they have tens of thousands of individuals
 that have been tracked over time.
 And anonymously that data is used to say what works
 and what doesn't.
 If you eat that, what works.
 If you take that supplement, what works.
 And I was a co-author on a paper that showed
 that the recommendations for food and supplements
 was better than the leading drug for type two diabetes.
 That's so cool.
 The idea that you can connect,
 like skipping the human having to do this work,
 you can connect the scientific papers,
 almost like meta-analysis of the science
 connected to the individual data.
 And then based on that, sort of connect your data
 to whatever the proper group is
 within whatever the scientific paper is
 to make the suggestion of how that work applies to your life.
 And then that ultimately maps to a recommendation
 of what you should do with your life.
 It all like this giant system that ultimately recommends
 you should drink more coffee or less.
 Right, and we'll have the genome in there as well.
 You can upload that.
 And so these programs will know us way better than we do
 and our doctors as well.
 The idea of going to a doctor once a year
 for an annual checkup and having,
 males get a finger up their butt and you cough.
 That to me is a joke.
 That's medieval medicine.
 And that's very soon going to be seen as medieval.
 Yeah, to me as a computer science person,
 it's always upsetting to go to the doctor
 and just look at him and realize,
 you know nothing about me.
 You're making your opinions based on,
 it is very valuable, years of intuition building
 about basic symptoms, but you're just like,
 it is medieval.
 They're very good at it.
 In fact, doctors in medieval times were probably damn good
 at working with very little.
 But the thing is, I'd rather prefer a doctor
 that doesn't really know what they're doing,
 but has a huge amount of data to work with.
 Well, you're right.
 And many of my good friends are doctors.
 I work at Harvard.
 So I'm not against the profession at all,
 but I think that they need just as much help
 as anyone else does.
 We wouldn't drive a car without a dashboard.
 We wouldn't think of it.
 So why would doctors do the same?
 If we could, can we step back to the big, profound,
 philosophical, both tragic and beautiful question about age?
 How and why do we age?
 Is it from an engineer perspective,
 you said you like the biological machine.
 Is that a feature or a bug of the biological machine?
 It is both a bug and a feature.
 Evolutionarily speaking, we only live as long as we need to
 to replace ourselves efficiently.
 If you're a mouse, you're only gonna live
 two and a half years, three years.
 You're probably gonna die of starvation, predation,
 freezing in the winter.
 So they divert most of their resources
 to reproducing rapidly, but they don't put a lot of energy
 into preserving their soma, which is their body.
 Conversely, a baleen type of whale, a bowhead whale
 in particular will live hundreds of years
 because they're at the top of the food chain
 and they can live as long as they want.
 So they breed slowly and build a body that lasts.
 We're somewhere in between.
 Because we've really only just come out of the savannahs
 where we could be picked off by a cat.
 We were pretty wimpy going back six million years ago.
 So we actually need to evolve quicker than evolution will.
 And that's why we can use our oversized brains
 and intuition to give us what evolution
 not only didn't give us, but took away from us.
 We're pathetic, look at our bodies.
 These arms, if any of us, even the strongest person
 in the world went in a cage with a chimpanzee,
 the chimp could knock that person's head off, no question.
 So we're pathetic.
 So we need to engineer ourselves
 to be healthier and longer lived.
 So getting to aging, we can do better, right?
 Whales do way better.
 We're trying to learn how whales do that.
 And if you ask really anybody in the field now, professor,
 they'll say there are eight or nine hallmarks of aging,
 which are really, it's a word for causes of aging.
 So that you probably have heard of some of these.
 Your listeners will have loss of telomeres,
 the ends of the chromosomes,
 like the little ends of shoelaces, that kind of thing.
 They get too short, cells stop dividing, become senescent.
 They become, they put out what are called mitogens
 that cause cancer and inflammatory molecules.
 So that's another aspect of aging, cellulose senescence.
 Another one is loss of the energetics,
 so mitochondria, the battery packs, wind down.
 There's a whole bunch, stem cells, proteostasis.
 Well, these are our Achilles heels that I'm talking about.
 They're a common amongst all life forms, really.
 But if you want me to jump to the chase is to where,
 what is the upstream defining factor?
 If we boil it down, what do we get?
 So most biologists would say you can't boil it down.
 It's too complex.
 I would say you can boil it down to an equation,
 which is the preservation of information
 and loss due to entropy, i.e. noise.
 And that is the basis of my research.
 It originally came out of discoveries in yeast cells,
 where I went to MIT in the 1990s.
 You studied bread.
 I kind of did.
 I studied the makers of bread,
 little yeast called Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
 which at the time was one of the hottest,
 excuse the pun, organisms to work on.
 But we figured out in the lab why yeast cells get old
 and found genes that control that process
 and made them live longer,
 which was an amazing four years of my life.
 One of those genes had a name with an acronym SIR2.
 Now the two is irrelevant.
 The SIR is important, and the most important letter out
 of all of those three is I, which stands for information.
 Silent information regulator number two.
 When you put more copies of that gene in,
 just put in one more copy,
 the yeast cells live 30% longer
 and suppress the cause of aging,
 which was the dysregulation of information in the cell.
 And then, so fast forward to now,
 I've been looking in humans and mice,
 because they live shorter and cheaper to study,
 where the loss of information in our bodies
 is a root cause of aging, and I think it is.
 Your boldness in viewing biology in this way is fascinating
 because that also leads to a kind of,
 it's almost like allows for a theory of aging,
 like you could boil it down to a single equation,
 and it leads to perhaps a metric
 that allows you to optimize aging,
 sort of in the fight against entropy,
 to figure out which mechanisms,
 like you said, the silent information regulator,
 which mechanisms allow you to preserve information
 without injecting noise, without creating entropy,
 without creating degradation of that information.
 For some reason, converting biology,
 which I thought was mostly impossible,
 into an engineering problem,
 feels like it makes it amenable to optimization,
 to solving problems, to creating technology that can,
 whether that's genetic engineering or AI,
 it makes it possible to create the technology
 that would improve the degradation of information and aging.
 Is there more concrete ways you think about
 the kind of information we want to preserve,
 and also, is there good ideas about regulators
 of that information, about ways to prevent the distortion
 and degradation of that information?
 Right, so we have silent information regulator genes
 in our bodies, we have seven of them,
 SIRT1 through seven they're called,
 and we found in mice, one way to slow down
 the loss of information is to just give more of these,
 to upregulate these genes.
 So we made a mouse that has more of this SIRT1 gene,
 turned it on, and that slowed down the aging of the brain
 and preserved their information.
 Now, what information am I talking about, you might ask?
 Well, again, you can simplify biology.
 There are two types of information in the cell primarily.
 The one we all read about and know about
 is the DNA, the genome, and that's base four information,
 A, T, C, G, the four chemicals that make up
 the various sequences of the genome, billions of letters.
 And that also degrades over time,
 but what's been fascinating is that we find
 that that information is pretty much intact
 in old animals and people.
 You can clone a dog, one of my friends in LA
 just cloned his dog three times.
 So this is doable, right?
 It means that the genome can be intact,
 but what's the other type of information?
 It's the epigenome, the regulators of
 the genetic information.
 And physically, that's really just how the DNA is wrapped up
 or looped out for the cell to access it and read it.
 So it's similar to, and excuse this analogy,
 but it's a good one, a compact disc or a DVD.
 Those pits in the foil are the digital information,
 that's the genome.
 And the epigenome is the reader of that information.
 And in a different cell, you'd read different music,
 different songs, different symphonies.
 And that's what gets laid down when we're in the womb
 and that makes a skin cell forever a skin cell
 and not a brain cell tomorrow.
 Thank God, otherwise our brains wouldn't work very well.
 But over time, what we see is that the brain cells
 start to look more like skin cells
 and the kidney cells start to look more like liver cells.
 And they, what we call X-differentiate,
 this is a term that we use in my lab,
 but isn't yet widely used,
 but we needed a term to explain this.
 And those, that process of X-differentiation,
 the loss of the reader of the CD or the DVD,
 we liken that to scratches on the DVD
 so that the reader cannot fully access the information.
 Now we can slow down the scratches, as I mentioned,
 we can turn on these genes,
 we can even put in molecules into the cell
 or even eat them and turn on those pathways,
 which my father and I have been trying to do
 for about a decade to slow things down.
 But the question that I've had is,
 is there a repository of information still in the body?
 Because anyone who knows anything
 about the loss of information
 or even has tried to copy a cassette tape
 or photocopy or Xerox anything,
 knows that over time you lose that information irreparably.
 So I've been looking for a backup copy,
 inspired largely by Claude Shannon's work at MIT as well
 in the 1940s, his mathematical theory of communication
 is just brilliant.
 And so I've been looking for what he called the observer,
 which is the backup copy.
 We today might call that the TCPIP protocol
 of the internet that stores information
 in case it doesn't make it to your computer,
 it will fill in the gaps.
 And we've been spending about the last five years
 to try and find if there really is a backup copy
 in the body to reset the epigenome
 and polish those scratches away.
 That's incredible.
 So finding the backup,
 so whenever there are too many scratches pile up,
 you can just write a new version.
 Like write, not a new version,
 but go to the backup and restore it.
 Right, that's really all we're talking about.
 It's not that hard once you know the trick.
 And for people that actually remember
 like DVDs and scratches on them,
 how frustrating it is,
 that's a brilliant metaphor for aging.
 And then the reader is the thing that skips
 and then it could destroy your experience,
 the richness of the experience
 that is listening to your favorite song.
 Right, but in biology, it's even worse
 because you'll lose your memory,
 your kidneys will fail, you'll get diabetes,
 your heart will fail.
 And we call that aging and age-related diseases.
 So most people forget that diseases that we get
 when we get old are 80 to 90% caused by aging.
 And we've been trying to fix things with band-aids
 after they occur without even generally talking
 about the root cause of the problem.
 Is there the scratches?
 Do those come from,
 are those programmed or are they failures?
 Meaning is it, so if it's by design,
 then there's like a encoded timeline schedule
 that the body's just on purpose degrading the whole thing.
 And then there's the just the wear and tear
 of like the scratches in a disc that happen through time.
 Which one is it that's the source of aging?
 It's more akin to wear and tear.
 There isn't a program.
 Getting back to evolution,
 there's no selection for aging.
 We're not designed to age,
 we just live as long as we need to.
 And then we're at the whim of entropy, basically.
 Second law of thermodynamics, stuff falls apart.
 We live a bit longer than age 40
 only because there are robust resilient systems,
 but eventually they fail as well.
 Current limit to a human lifespan
 where they completely fail is 122.
 But I don't like to think of it as wear and tear
 because there's two aspects to it.
 There's a system that's built to keep us alive
 when we're young, but actually comes back to bite us
 as we get older.
 And we call this issue antagonistic pleiotropy.
 What's good for you when you're young
 can cause problems when you're older.
 So we've been looking what is the cause
 of the main causes of the noise?
 And we've found two of them definitively.
 The first one is broken chromosomes.
 When a chromosome breaks, the cell has to panic
 because that's either gonna cause a cancer
 or kill the cell.
 There's only two outcomes, it's pretty much a problem.
 And so what the cell does is it reorganizes
 the epigenome in a massive way.
 What that leads to is think of it as a tennis match
 or a ping pong game.
 The proteins are the balls
 and they now leave where they should be,
 which is regulating the genes that make the cell type,
 whatever it is.
 And they have a dual function,
 they actually go to the break,
 the chromosome will break and fix that.
 And then they come back.
 You might ask, well, why is it set up that way?
 Well, it's a beautiful system.
 It coordinates gene expression,
 the control systems with the repair.
 You want them coordinated.
 Problem is as we get older, this ping pong game,
 some of the balls get lost.
 They don't come back to where they originally started.
 And that's what we think is the main noise for aging.
 And we've also, the other cause of aging that we found
 is cell stress.
 We damage nerves and they age rapidly.
 So that's the other issue.
 There's probably others.
 Smoking chemicals, for example,
 we know accelerates biological age pretty dramatically.
 But the question is, can you slow that down
 or can you reset them to get those ping pong balls
 to go back to where they originally started in the game?
 And we think we found a way to do that.
 Well, can you give me hints?
 Whose fault is it in the balls not coming back?
 Is it the proteins themselves?
 Like are they starting?
 Again, I've been obsessed with the protein folding problem
 from the AI perspective.
 So is it the proteins or is it something else?
 Well, we know who hits the balls
 and recruits them so that the break
 is recognized by proteins who send out a signal
 through phosphorylation is typical way cells talk
 to other proteins.
 And that recruits those repair factors,
 those ping pong balls to the break.
 So the cell's actively doing this to try and help itself.
 But we don't know who's to blame for them not coming back.
 That could just be a flaw in the quote unquote design.
 I don't think that there's something saying,
 well, 1% of you balls proteins never go back.
 I just think it's hard to reset a system
 that's constantly changing.
 We have in our bodies close to a trillion DNA breaks
 every day and imagine that over 80 years,
 what damage that does to our epigenomic information.
 Now we know that this is, well,
 we never know anything in biology,
 but we have strong evidence that this is true
 because we can mess with animals.
 We can create DNA breaks and tickle them with a few breaks,
 maybe raise it by three fold over background levels
 of normal breakage.
 And if we're right, those mice should get old and they do.
 We can actually, we've created these breaks
 in a way that's titratable.
 We can, it's like a rheostat, we can send it to 11.
 I drove my Tesla here, I'm a big fan of spinal tap two,
 go into 11.
 If we go to 11, we can make a mouse old
 in a matter of months.
 We prefer to go to a level of about four
 and it gets old in 10 months, but it's definitely old.
 It's got all of the hallmarks of aging.
 It's got diseases.
 It looks old, its skin is old, it's got gray hair,
 but importantly, we can now measure age
 by looking at the scratches.
 We can look at the epigenome, we can measure it
 and use machine learning to give us a number.
 And those mice are 50% older than normal.
 So you can replicate the aging process in a controlled way.
 You can, I mean, in a way that, I mean,
 you could accelerate it in a controlled way
 and measure how much exactly it's aging.
 And that gives you step one of a two-step process
 to when you can then figure out, well,
 how can we reverse this?
 And now we're reversing those mice.
 Is there a good, I love what you said.
 I mean, in biology, you really don't know.
 It's such a beautiful mess.
 Is there ideas how to do that?
 Is that on the genetic engineering level?
 Is it like, what can you mess with?
 Is it going to the, trying to discover the backup copies
 and restoring from them?
 Like what's, if it's possible to convert it
 to natural language words, what are the ideas here?
 What is the observer and how do we contact it?
 Exactly, what's the observer and how do you contact?
 Or if there's other ideas,
 how to reverse the boss getting lost process.
 Yeah, well, you can slow it down.
 Slow it.
 But we found that a reset switch recently,
 we just published this in the December, 2020 issue
 of Nature.
 And what we found is that there are three embryonic genes
 that we could put into the adult animal
 to reset the age of the tissues.
 And it only takes four to eight weeks to work well.
 And we can take a blind mouse that's lost its vision
 due to aging.
 Neurons aren't working well towards the brain.
 Reset those neurons back to a younger age
 and now the mice can see again.
 These three genes are famous actually
 because they're a set of four genes
 discovered by Shinya Yamanaka,
 who won the Nobel Prize in 2016
 for discovering that those four genes
 when turned on at high levels in adult cells
 can generate stem cells.
 And this is, I think, well known now
 that we can create stem cells from adult tissue.
 But what wasn't known is can you partially take age back
 without becoming a tumor
 or generating a stem cell in the eye,
 which would be a disaster.
 And the answer is yes.
 There is a system in the body
 that can take the age of a cell back to a certain point,
 but no further safely and reset the age.
 And we're now using that to reset the age of the brain
 of those mice that we aged prematurely
 and they're getting their ability to learn back.
 This is really exciting, right?
 Like what's the downside of this?
 Well, the downside is if you overdo it
 and you don't get it right, you might cause tumors.
 But we do it very carefully.
 And we also know that in the eye, it's very safe.
 We also injected these, we deliver them by viruses.
 So we can control where and when they get turned on.
 And in this paper, we published that
 if we put high levels in the mouse, into their veins,
 throughout the body, they don't get cancer for over a year.
 So I'm so optimistic that we're going into human studies
 in less than two years from now.
 Is there a place where AI can help?
 Sorry to inject one of the things
 I'm very excited about and passionate about.
 So Google DeepMind recently had a big breakthrough
 with AlphaFold 2, but also AlphaFold two years ago
 with achieving sort of a state of the art performance
 on the protein folding problem, single protein folding.
 But it also paints a hopeful picture
 of what's possible to do in terms of simulating
 the folding of proteins, but also simulating
 biological systems through AI.
 Is there something to you combined with this brilliant work
 on the biology side that you're hopeful about
 where AI can be a tool to help?
 Where isn't that a tool?
 I mean, if you're not using AI right now in biology,
 you're getting left behind.
 We use it all the time.
 We're using it to generate these biological clocks
 to be able to read those scratches.
 We're using it to predict the folding of proteins
 so we can target molecules and modulate their activity.
 We're using it to assemble genomes of different species.
 What else?
 We use it to predict the longevity of a mouse
 based on how it reacts to certain things,
 hearing, eyesight, generally frailty.
 So we just put out a paper last year on that.
 The other thing we can use it for,
 which is a little off the track here,
 but we use it for predicting which microorganisms
 are in your body, actually not predicting, telling you.
 So our daughter, Natalie, was infected with Lyme disease
 a few years ago, almost went blind from it,
 and the test took four days.
 And I thought, just give me the DNA from her spinal fluid.
 I'll go tell you what's in it.
 If it's Lyme disease or not, they refused.
 And so at that point I said, this has to be done better.
 So I started a company that now can take a sample
 of any part of your body.
 It's typically done now with liver transplant patients
 to detect viruses that come out of their organs.
 But that's another area that AI is extremely important for.
 I think if you're not, in five years,
 if you're not using deep learning, you've got a problem.
 Because the amount of data that we generate now
 as biologists is just terabytes.
 It can be terabytes per week,
 it'll eventually be terabytes per day.
 And then we just go from there.
 And I actually have trouble
 recruiting enough bioinformaticians.
 A lot of our work is now just number crunching.
 A part of that is collecting the data,
 which is kind of something we've talked a little bit about.
 But is there something you can say
 about how we can collect more and more data?
 Not just on the one person level,
 like for you to understand your various markers,
 but to create huge data sets,
 to understand how we can detect certain pathogens,
 detect certain properties, characteristics
 of whether it's aging or all the other ways
 that the human body can fail.
 It seems like with biology,
 there's a kind of privacy concerns that,
 well, actually not privacy concerns,
 it's almost like regulation
 that kind of prevents hospitals from sharing data.
 I'm not sure exactly how to say it,
 but it seems like when you look at autonomous vehicles,
 people are much more willing to share data.
 When you look at human biology system,
 people are much less willing to share data.
 Is there a hopeful path forward
 where we can share more and more data at a large scale
 that ultimately ends up helping us understand the human body
 and then treat problems with the human body?
 So we are right in the middle.
 We're living through what's gonna be seen
 as one of the biggest revolutions in human health,
 through the gathering of data about our bodies.
 And 20 years ago, people didn't wanna go on social media.
 They're worried about it now.
 You have to, if you're a kid, that's for sure.
 Same with medical records.
 These are becoming all digitized and expanded.
 Ultimately, we're going to, even if we don't want to,
 have to be monitored.
 There's gonna be a court case that,
 I bet two, three years from now,
 someone's gonna say,
 "'How come my father died from a heart attack?'
 "'You had these biosensors, 20 bucks, and you didn't use it.'
 Lawsuit right there,
 and suddenly all hospitals have to give you one of these.
 There'll be a reversal, like to where,
 it's your fault if you don't collect the data.
 That's brilliant.
 That's absolutely right.
 I mean, that's absolutely right.
 That's the frustration I feel when going to the doctor,
 is like, it's almost negligent to not collect the data,
 because you're making,
 there's something really wrong with me,
 and you're making decisions based on very few tests.
 That's almost negligent,
 when you have the opportunity
 to collect a huge amount more data.
 Well, let me tell you something.
 I've got this inside tracker data for myself over a decade,
 and you'd think my doctor would roll his eyes at this.
 Oh, he's gone to a consumer company, blah, blah, blah.
 I had my first checkup in a year with him
 through video conference, and he was running blind.
 He really didn't know what was going on with me.
 He asked the usual things.
 How am I sleeping?
 How am I eating?
 These kind of usual things.
 And I said, well, I've got new tests back
 from inside tracker.
 And he said, great, I'd love to see them.
 So I'd share screen, and we look at the graphs,
 look at the data, and he's loving it,
 because he cannot order these tests willy-nilly.
 So I said, well, let's order a HbA1c blood glucose levels,
 because I'm very interested in that.
 That tracks with longevity.
 And he said, well, I have no reason to order that.
 Do you have a family history?
 No.
 Do you have any symptoms of diabetes?
 No.
 Well, I can't order the test.
 I almost wanted to reach through the computer
 and strangle him.
 But instead, I pay a little bit to get these tests done,
 and then he looks at them.
 So that's now the way consumer health is going,
 is that you can get better data than your doctor can,
 but they like you to do that.
 Quick human question.
 Maybe you can educate me.
 I think doctors sometimes have a little bit of an ego.
 I understand that the doctor's super experienced
 with a lot of things,
 but this is a fundamental question of human variability.
 Like I know a lot of specific details about like,
 I mean, it depends of course what we're talking about,
 but I bring a lot of knowledge.
 And if I have data with me,
 then I have like several orders of magnitude more knowledge.
 And I think there's an aspect to it
 where the doctor has to put their expert hat,
 like take it off and actually be a curious,
 open-minded person and study and look at that data.
 Do you think it's possible to sort of change the culture
 of the medical system to where the doctors are almost,
 as you said, are excited to see the data?
 Or is that already happening?
 It's really happening.
 Now we've probably lost the last generation.
 There are no hope is,
 but so I teach at Harvard Medical School
 and they're excited about this.
 They're excited about aging,
 which is a new aspect to medicine.
 Oh, wow, we can do something about that.
 And then, yeah, all this data, what do we do with it?
 There's still the traditional pathology and all that stuff,
 which they need to know,
 but time will change their mindset.
 I'm not worried about that.
 And like we were discussing, this isn't a question of if,
 it's just a matter of when.
 And I have a front row seat on all of this.
 I had breakfast with a CEO who is making this happen
 just yesterday.
 I can tell you for sure that most people have no idea
 that this revolution is occurring
 and is happening so quickly.
 If you're running a hospital
 and you can save $2,000 per cardiac patient,
 what are you gonna do?
 You have to use it.
 Otherwise, the hospital down the road's gonna
 be beating you.
 And there are large hospital aggregations,
 so there's Ascension and others
 that just have to go this way for budgetary reasons.
 And right now the US spends 17% of their GDP on healthcare.
 Let's say one of these buttons on my chest costs 20 bucks,
 it's rechargeable,
 and it can predict people's health
 and save on antibiotics to prevent heart attacks.
 How many billions, if not trillions of dollars
 will that save over the next decade?
 Yeah, so when the public wakes up to this,
 they'll almost demand it.
 Like this should be accepted everywhere.
 This is obvious.
 It's gonna save a lot of money.
 It's gonna improve the quality of life.
 Well, and the CFOs of hospital groups will have to.
 And insurance companies are gonna wanna get in on this.
 So now that gets to privacy, right?
 Should an insurance company have access to your data?
 I would say no,
 but you could voluntarily show them some of it
 if they give you a discount.
 And that's also being worked on right now.
 I hope we do create kind of systems
 where I can volunteer to share my data
 and I can also take the data back,
 meaning like delete the data,
 request deletion of data,
 and then maybe policy creates rules
 to where you can share data, you could delete the data.
 And I think if I have the option to delete all my data
 that a particular company has,
 then I'll share my data with everyone.
 I feel like if,
 because that gives me the tools to be a consumer,
 an intelligent consumer,
 of awarding my data to a company that deserves it
 and taking it back when the company is misbehaving.
 And in that way,
 encourage as a consumer in the capitalist system,
 encourage the companies
 that are doing great work with that data.
 Well, yeah, healthcare data security is number one.
 On my mind, InsideTracker made sure that that was true.
 But these buttons on your chest,
 there's very private stuff they can probably tell
 if you're having sex one night, right?
 So this is not the kind of stuff you want leaked.
 So I don't know whether it's blockchain or something.
 Speak for yourself, I don't want this public.
 Yeah.
 Live streamed.
 I guess it depends on how you go, but.
 Yeah.
 You know, there's a lot of stuff you don't want out there
 and this definitely has to be number one
 because it's one thing to have your credit card
 information stolen,
 it's another thing your health records
 are permanently out there.
 Yeah.
 So there's, on the biology side,
 super exciting ways to slow aging,
 but there's also on the lifestyle side.
 I've recently did a 72 hour fast,
 just an opportunity to take a pause and be, you know,
 appreciate life.
 Think about, there's something about fasting that
 encourages you to reflect deeper than you otherwise might.
 The time kind of slows and you also realize
 that you're human because your body needs food
 and you start to see your body's almost as a machine
 that takes food and produces thoughts.
 And then ends, breathe.
 I mean, you start to, depending who you are,
 if you're like engineering minded,
 you start to think of this whole thing as a kind of,
 yeah, as a machine.
 And then also feelings fill this machine,
 feelings of gratitude, of love,
 but also the uglier things of jealousy and greed
 and hate and all those kinds of things.
 You start to think, okay,
 how do I manage this body to create a rich experience?
 All of that comes from fasting for me.
 Anyway, but there's also health benefits to fasting.
 I intermittent fast a lot.
 I eat just one meal a day most of the time.
 Is there something you could say about the benefits
 of fasting in your own life and in general,
 the anti-aging process?
 Well, you're a philosopher too.
 Sorry, I apologize.
 No, I'm impressed.
 True Renaissance man, it's a joy to be here.
 So when it comes to fasting,
 this is being abstinuous is one of the oldest ways
 to improve health.
 Probably they knew this 5,000 plus years ago.
 So that's not new,
 but what we're figuring out is what is optimal
 and how does it work?
 And one of the things we helped contribute to,
 which I can speak to with some authority
 is that these longevity genes we work on,
 we showed back in the early 2000s
 are turned on by fasting.
 And at least in yeast,
 we were the first to show that how calorie restriction
 fasting works to extend lifespan.
 And that was the first for any species.
 Something similar happens in our bodies.
 When we're hungry or put our bodies
 under any other perceived adversity,
 such as running, our bodies think, wow,
 we're getting run chased by a saber tooth cat or something.
 If we're really hot or cold,
 these probably also work to put our bodies
 in this defensive state, to activate these genes
 in the way that whales do and mice don't.
 And so hunger is the best way to do that.
 In fact, I don't think you have to feel hungry.
 You can get used to it.
 But if there was one thing I would recommend to anybody
 to slow down aging would be to skip a meal or two a day.
 Now, it doesn't mean you don't have to live well.
 You can go out.
 I go to restaurants, I eat regular food.
 I try to be as healthy as possible.
 But I've gone from skipping breakfast most of my life
 now to skipping lunch as well.
 And I have my physique back that I had when I was 20.
 I feel 20 mentally.
 I'm much sharper.
 I don't feel tired anymore.
 I sleep well.
 So I'm a huge fan of the one meal a day thing.
 Where I'm not good at is going beyond one day.
 But if you do three days-
 Have you ever fasted longer than 24 hours?
 I tried doing two days.
 I might've made it to the third and given up.
 I just find that I'm not very,
 I don't have a lot of willpower.
 I also hate exercise.
 So I'm not sure how long I'm gonna live.
 But I've managed to do one meal a day.
 So if I can do that, seriously, anybody can do that.
 To your listeners and viewers, I would say,
 don't try to do it all at once.
 You can't go from snacking and eating three meals a day
 to what I do easily.
 Work your way up to it, but also compensate with drinking.
 If you like tea, if you like coffee, put some milk in it.
 That's fine.
 You can fill your stomach up with liquids.
 Diet sodas, I get criticized for drinking,
 but I'm gonna continue to have those.
 But then, I power through the day.
 I definitely don't feel tired.
 I don't have a lag anymore,
 but also give it at least two weeks
 because there's a habit as well.
 Having something in your mouth, chewing,
 feeling that fullness, you can break that habit.
 And within two, three weeks, you'll have done it.
 Absolutely.
 So I'm not actually even that strict about it.
 You said diet soda.
 Yeah, people are very kind of weirdly strict
 about fasting, the rules in fasting.
 Like for example, I drank Element electrolytes
 when I was fasting, and that has like five calories.
 And so technically, it's not fasting.
 Or people will say like, if you drink coffee,
 there's caffeine, and they'll say,
 that's technically not fasting
 because there's some kind of biological effects
 of caffeine, but whatever.
 Of course, there's like biological benefits
 that you can argue about,
 but there's also just experiential benefits.
 Just calorie restriction broadly
 has a certain experience to it
 that like for me personally, just as you said,
 has made me feel really good.
 That said, especially I've gained quite a bit of weight,
 like maybe even like 15 pounds, something like that,
 since I moved to Austin, Texas.
 And I still keep the same diet,
 but I eat a lot of meat in that one
 just because it's delicious,
 because it's also the amazing people I met in Texas.
 It's just, there's like a camaraderie,
 a friendship, a love to the people
 that like makes you really enjoy
 the atmosphere of eating the brisket and the meat.
 Is this Joe Rogan insisting?
 Joe is, I mean, he's very different.
 Joe loves bread and pasta.
 Like he knows that his body feels best
 doing keto or carnivore.
 So that's what he usually tries to stick to,
 but he also does not hold back.
 And he'll just eat pasta when he does pasta.
 And he sort of enjoys life in that way.
 I can't, I don't know how to enjoy life in that way.
 I also love pasta, but I'm just not going to enjoy it
 because I know my body ultimately
 does not feel good with pasta.
 So it's a funny kind of dichotomies.
 I would like to cheat, I guess,
 by eating more meat than I, you know, like overeating
 on the things that I know my body feels good on
 as opposed to eating stuff I shouldn't,
 like cake and all those kinds of things.
 I tend to find happiness in overeating the good stuff
 versus eating the bad stuff.
 And that's the kind of balance.
 Him, he's like, fuck it.
 Every once in a while you got to enjoy it.
 And then also coupled with that for him is just exercise,
 like then face his demons the next day
 and just like burn a huge amount of calories,
 which is, I mean, whatever's up with that guy's mind,
 there's an, there's a ability to fully experience life,
 which is represented by the pasta
 and the ability to just like fight the demons,
 which is represented by all the crazy kettle balls
 and running the hills and all this kind of stuff
 that he does.
 That takes a lot out of you doing
 that kind of insane exercise.
 And I think I'm more like you,
 or at least towards your direction is like,
 I really hate exercise.
 So I do it, but I really hate it.
 And so it's a balance that you have to strike.
 Is there something you could say about the diet side
 of that for you personally, but in general,
 in order to achieve calorie restriction?
 Like for me eating, I know it may not sound healthy,
 but eating carnivore, eating mostly meat
 has been, has made me feel really good,
 both mentally and physically.
 Is there something you could say about the kinds of diets
 that may improve longevity,
 but also enable calorie restriction?
 Well, sure.
 I mean, the first thing that's important to know is that
 while many people are interested slash obsessed
 with what they eat,
 the data that's come out of animal studies at least
 is it's far more important when you eat than what you eat.
 And this was a fantastic study a few years ago
 by my friend, Rafael de Cabo
 at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda.
 And he had 10,000 mice on different diets,
 hoping to find the perfect mix of carbs, protein and fat.
 And it turns out that the only ones that lived longer
 were the ones that only ate once a day.
 And so that, if we're not mice,
 but I think that we're close enough to mice
 that this tells us a lot.
 But okay, but I still think the best bang
 for the longevity buck is to do both well.
 Eat less often and eat the right things.
 Now I'll preface this to say, I'm not a nut about this.
 I will eat occasional, very occasionally a dessert.
 Usually I steal from others, which doesn't count, right?
 Exactly.
 But you gotta live life, right?
 What's a long life if it's not enjoyable anyway?
 But what I've, I also have found,
 and this is, I'll get to your question in a second,
 but my microbiome right now and stomach is at a point
 where if I try to overeat on a steak,
 which I did a couple of days ago,
 I actually had a chicken, a fried chicken specifically.
 For two days I felt terrible.
 I couldn't sleep, it wouldn't go down.
 So I'm now at a point where even if I want to binge on meat
 and fried foods, I just can't, it just feels bad.
 But what do I recommend?
 Well, what the data says,
 which I try to follow is that plant-based foods
 will be better than meat-based foods.
 And I know that there are a lot of people who disagree,
 but one of the facts is, well, there's a few facts.
 One is that people who live a long time
 tend to eat those type of diets,
 Mediterranean Okinawa diet.
 They're eating mostly plants with a little bit of meat
 and not a lot of red meat.
 And the other fact is that in animals we know
 that there's a mechanism that's called mTOR,
 little m, capital T-O-R,
 that responds to certain amino acids
 that are found in more abundance in meat.
 And when it responds, it actually shortens lifespan.
 And the converse, if you starve it of those three amino acids
 mostly in meat, then it extends lifespan.
 And there's a drug called rapamycin,
 which some people are experimenting with that does that.
 So you might be able to,
 I'm just saying this here from all my colleagues,
 we don't know the results here,
 but you could potentially take a rapamycin-like drug
 and counteract the effects of meat in the long run.
 Don't know, we should try that actually.
 We could do that in the lab.
 But getting to the bottom of this,
 what I think is going on is that just like testosterone
 and growth hormone, you will get temporary,
 maybe not temporary, immediate health benefits.
 You'll feel great, you'll get more muscle energy.
 But the problem is I think it's at the expense
 of long-term health and longevity.
 Well, this is actually something I worry about
 in terms of long-term effects or the cost
 in terms of longevity.
 It's very difficult to know how your choices
 affect your longevity because the impact is down the line.
 Just because something makes me feel good now,
 like eating only meat makes me feel good now,
 I wonder what are the costs down the line?
 Well, think about what I was saying about the trade-offs
 between growth and reproduction,
 which is what a mouse does,
 and a whale that grows slowly, reproduces slowly,
 lives a long time.
 It's called the disposable soma theory.
 Kirkwood just proposed that in the 70s.
 What meat probably does is put you in the mouse category,
 super fertile, grow fast, heal fast.
 And then if you wanna be a whale,
 you should restrict meat and do things
 that promote the preservation of your body.
 Is it difficult to eat a plant-based diet
 that you perform well under, so mentally and physically?
 Just almost, I'm asking almost like a anecdotal question,
 unless you know the science.
 Well, the science is still being worked out,
 but from the synthesis of everything that I've read,
 I try to eat a diet that's definitely full of leafy greens,
 particularly spinach is great
 because it's got the iron that we need, plenty of vitamins.
 I also try to avoid too much fruit and berries,
 particularly fruit juice, definitely avoid that sugar high.
 Spiking your sugar is not healthy in the long run.
 The other thing that's interesting is we discovered
 what we call xenohormetic molecules.
 Let me unpack that, because it's a terrible name,
 and I take full responsibility
 with my friend Conrad Howitz.
 The xeno means cross species,
 and hormesis is the term that what doesn't kill you
 makes you live longer and be healthier.
 And so we're getting cross species health improvements
 by molecules that plants make.
 And plants make these molecules
 when they're also under adversity or perceived adversity.
 For instance, I understand if you want really healthy,
 good oranges, you can drive nails into the bark of the tree
 before you harvest.
 Same with wine, you typically want them to be dry
 before you harvest or covered in fungus.
 And that's because these plants make these colorful
 and xenohormetic molecules
 that make themselves stress resistant,
 turn on their sirtuin defenses, the sirtuins, remember.
 And when we eat them, we get those same benefits.
 That's the idea.
 And we've evolved to do so.
 This isn't a coincidence.
 It's my theory, our theory that we want to know
 when our food supplies is under adversity,
 because we need to get ready for a famine.
 And so we hunker down and preserve our body.
 And by eating these colored foods,
 so what practically speaking, if it's full of color,
 or if there's been some chewing by a caterpillar,
 organic grown locally in local farms,
 I'll eat that versus a watery insipid, light colored
 lettuce that's been grown in California.
 So you want vegetables that have suffered.
 You want the David Goggins as a vegetables.
 That's the xenohormetic molecules.
 I love that term.
 I'm going to take that one with me.
 Thank you.
 Yeah.
 Oh, I follow him on Instagram.
 He's always screaming.
 So you want the, that he's basically
 the xenohormetic version of a human.
 I like it.
 So these are the molecules that are representative
 of the stress that's been,
 that a plant has been under.
 Yeah. The best example of that is resveratrol,
 which many people, including myself,
 take as a supplement, grapes or grapevines produce that
 in abundance when they're dried out
 or they have too much light or fungus.
 And that we've shown activates the Surtu enzyme
 in our bodies, which remember is what extends lifespan
 in yeast and slows down aging in the brain.
 That's beautiful.
 Yeah. I tend to avoid fruit as well.
 So green veggies, anything that's not very sweet.
 So I would just say you're relatively low.
 Like you try to avoid sugary things as well.
 Yeah. I'm fairly militant about that.
 I rarely would add sugar to anything.
 Occasionally I would eat a slice of cheesecake,
 but that would be maybe once or twice a year.
 You have to give in occasionally, but yeah,
 anything that's sweet, I would rather substitute
 something like stevia if I need a sugar hit.
 What about exercise?
 Your favorite topic. Is there a-
 I don't mind talking about it.
 Yeah. Okay, great.
 As their benefits to longevity from exercise.
 Well, no doubt that's proven.
 Just like fasting, it's pretty clear that that works.
 For example, there are studies of cyclists.
 It was something like people that cycle
 over 80 miles a week have a 40% reduction
 in a variety of diseases, certainly heart disease.
 So that's not even a question,
 but what's interesting is that we're learning
 that you don't need much to have a big benefit.
 It's an asymptotic curve.
 And in fact, if you overdo it,
 you probably have reduced benefits,
 particularly if you start to wear out joints,
 that kind of thing.
 But just 10 minutes on a treadmill a few times a week,
 getting your, lose your breath, get hypoxic as it's called,
 seems to be very beneficial for long-term health.
 And that's the kind of exercise that I like to do, aerobic.
 Though I do enjoy lifting weights.
 So that is what I call my exercise,
 which has other benefits,
 including maintaining hormone levels, male hormone levels.
 But also really why I do it is I want to be able
 to counteract the effect of sitting for most of the day.
 And as you get older, you lose muscle mass.
 It's a percent or so a year.
 And I don't want to be frail when I'm older
 and fall over and break my hip,
 which happens every 20 seconds in this country.
 So maintaining that strength,
 but also doing the cardio for the longevity
 for the avoiding the heart disease.
 Yeah, I definitely, just like with fasting,
 have the philosophical benefit of running long
 and running slow.
 I enjoy it because it kind of clears the mind
 and allows you to think,
 actually listen to brown noise as I run.
 It really helps remove myself from the world
 and just like zoom in on particular thoughts.
 What is brown noise?
 It's like white noise, but deeper.
 So like white noise is like shh,
 and then brown noise is more like,
 like ocean.
 That sounds great.
 I might try that.
 Yeah.
 Yeah, it's a-
 It's more soothing probably.
 I'm not sure.
 There could be science to this.
 I need to look this up.
 I've been meaning to,
 but when I started,
 this is maybe like five years ago,
 I started listening to brown noise when I work.
 And the first time I listened to it,
 something happened to my mind
 where it just went like zoomed in
 to like in a way that it felt like really weird,
 but like how precisely it was able to sort of remove
 the distractions of the world
 and really help my mind.
 Obviously, like the mind is trying to focus
 and then it just enabled that process
 of trying to focus on a particular problem.
 I don't know if this is generalizable to others.
 People should definitely try it.
 If you're listening to this,
 maybe it's just my own mind,
 but it's funny.
 Like it made me,
 brown noise made me realize
 that there's probably hacks out there
 that work for me
 that I should be constantly looking for.
 It's almost like an encouraging and motivating event
 that maybe there's other stuff out there.
 Maybe there's other brown noise like things out there
 that truly like almost immediately make me feel better.
 I don't know if it's generalizable to others,
 but it does seem that it's the case
 that there's probably for many others,
 things like that that could be discovered.
 And so it's always disappointing
 when I find things in life
 that I wish I would found earlier.
 Like I got Lasik eye surgery a few years ago
 and the first thought I had like the next day
 when I woke up is like,
 damn it, why didn't I do this way earlier?
 There's all this stuff of that nature
 that are yet to be discovered.
 So it pays to explore.
 Yeah, though you have a different mind.
 You have quite a beautiful mind.
 So I suspect brown noise helps you focus
 and cause you're probably all over the place
 if you don't control it.
 Yeah, exactly.
 I mean, it's something about it.
 It's a programmer thing.
 I don't, programming is a really difficult mental journey
 cause you have to keep a lot of things in mind.
 You have to, so you're constantly designing things
 then you have to be extremely precise
 by making those things concrete in code.
 You also have to look stuff up on the internet
 to sort of feed like information
 and looking up stuff on the internet,
 internet is full of like distracting things.
 You have to be really focused in the way you look stuff up
 in pulling that information in.
 So it requires a certain discipline and a certain focus
 that I've been very much exploring how to do.
 Like I do it really well in the morning,
 coffee is involved, all those kinds of things.
 You're trying to optimize, keeping very positive inspired,
 no social media, all those kinds of things
 and trying to optimize for,
 and everybody has their own kind of little journey
 that they try to understand.
 You get this from like writers,
 when you read about the habits of writers,
 like the habits they do in the morning,
 they usually write like two, three, four hours a day
 and that's it.
 It's like they optimize that ritual.
 And then there's always Conor Thompson.
 So sometimes it pays off to be wild.
 What about sleep?
 How important is sleep for longevity?
 I would guess based on the evidence
 that it's really important
 and because we don't know for sure,
 but what we know from animal studies is the following.
 If you restrict sleep from a rat for just two weeks,
 it'll develop type two diabetes, it's that important.
 So that's the main thing.
 What we also know is at the molecular level,
 that if you disrupt your sleep wake cycle,
 so we actually have proteins that go up and down
 that control our sleep wake.
 All of us, most of our cells do that.
 If you disrupt that, you'll get premature aging.
 And guess what?
 The opposite is true.
 That as you get older, that cycle,
 the amplitude becomes diminished.
 And this is why it's harder to get to sleep
 as you get older and then you got all sorts
 of problems.
 And I think what's going on is there's positive feedback
 which is a disaster in your old age,
 which is you're aging, you can't at this moment,
 totally prevent that.
 And then it's disrupting your sleep
 and you get not enough sleep
 and then that's gonna accelerate your aging process.
 And so it's known that people who are shift workers
 are more susceptible to certain age-related diseases.
 So your bottom line, you definitely wanna work on that.
 It's one of the reasons I have this ring on my finger,
 which helps me optimize my sleep and learn
 what I do the day before if it was a bad idea
 and I'll stop doing that like eating a fried chicken.
 I see you're still carrying the burdens of that decision.
 But yeah, sleep is one of those things
 that's making me wonder about the variability
 between humans a little bit
 and how science is often focused on,
 like it's not often focused on high performers
 in a particular way.
 And it's looking at the aggregate
 versus the individual cases.
 For example, like for me,
 I don't know what the exact hours are,
 but like power naps are incredible.
 I tend to look at the metric of stress and happiness
 and joy and try to optimize those.
 So decreasing stress, increasing happiness
 and using sleep as just one of the tools to do that.
 Because like hitting the five, six, seven, eight,
 nine hour mark or whatever the correct mark is,
 I find that to be stress inducing for me
 versus stress relieving.
 Like thinking about that,
 I feel best if I sleep sometimes for eight hours,
 sometimes for four hours in the power nap.
 And as long as I have a stupid,
 private usually smile on my face,
 that's when I'm doing good
 as opposed to getting a perfect amount of sleep
 according to whatever the latest blog post is.
 And I also pull all nighters still.
 I also think there's something about the body,
 like as long as you do it regularly,
 it's not as stress inducing.
 Like you know what it is.
 The reason I pull all nighters isn't for like,
 I'm playing Diablo three or something
 is because I'm doing something I'm truly passionate about.
 Well, I'm also a love video games,
 but I'm doing something I'm truly passionate about.
 And it's almost like there's the Jacko Willing feeling
 of when I'm up at 7 a.m. and I haven't slept all night
 and still I'm working on it,
 there's a kind of a celebration of the human spirit
 that I really enjoy it.
 Like, and that's happiness.
 And to sort of then,
 and I usually don't tell that kind of stuff to people
 because their first statement will be like,
 you should get more sleep.
 It's like, no, I'm doing stuff I love.
 You should get more love in your life, bro.
 That's right.
 So, but that said in aggregate,
 when you look at the full span of life,
 is probably you should be getting
 a consistent amount of sleep.
 And it seems like it's in that seven, eight hour range.
 Yeah, but it's similar to food.
 It's the quality, not the quantity.
 And when you get it.
 So I look at my data pretty often
 and what makes a difference to me
 is not the amount of hours,
 but the quality, the depth,
 and the deep sleep is what'll do it.
 So if I have a lot of alcohol before going to sleep
 and I can see my heart rate being different,
 but what really kills me is that I don't get a lot
 of that deep sleep and I wake up,
 barely remembering stuff.
 So that, like you say, if you're happy and contented
 and you don't have these cortisol chemicals
 going through your body,
 you will more naturally get into that deep state.
 And even if you just get four hours,
 way better than eight hours of none of that.
 Yeah, that's beautiful.
 And some of that could be genetic.
 For me, I just fall asleep like this.
 If you want me to fall asleep right now, I can do it.
 It's no, I have no problem with it.
 Combined with coffee, I just had two energy drinks.
 I can probably sleep.
 So that, I don't know if that's genetics
 or it's kind of, I don't know what it is.
 Or maybe that I don't have kids and I'm single.
 So I don't have, I'm almost listening
 to some kind of biological signal versus societal signal.
 I'm not supposed to go to sleep.
 So I just go to sleep whenever I feel like going to sleep.
 Well, that's cause you're self-employed.
 Self-employed.
 Most people don't have that luxury,
 but we're lucky, the two of us,
 that we can make our own hours.
 Yeah.
 But yeah, it's super important.
 And those people who have shift work,
 I mean, they really need to change the way that works
 because they're literally killing those people.
 Is there something you could say about the mind and stress,
 in terms of the effect on longevity, sort of?
 Cause I don't know if you think about it this way,
 but when you talk about the biological machine,
 it's always these mechanisms that don't,
 are not necessarily directly connected to the brain
 or the operation of the brain.
 Like what's the role about stress and happiness
 and yeah, the sort of higher cognitive things
 going on in the brain on longevity.
 Right.
 Well, that's a great point.
 The brain is the center for longevity actually.
 We do know that.
 First off, when I'm stressed, I can see, mentally stressed,
 then I can see it in my body.
 Heart rate, hormones, it's clear.
 That's no true surprise.
 So you've got to work on your brain first and foremost.
 If you are totally freaked out, agitated all the time,
 you will live shorter.
 I'm certain of it.
 You know, I keep fish.
 I'm a big aquarium guy.
 And you can see the difference
 between the fish that's having a good time and dominant
 and the one that gets picked on.
 Yeah.
 It just looks like crap.
 You don't want to be that,
 the little fish getting picked on if you can help it.
 So I used to be extremely stressed as a kid.
 I was a perfectionist, very shy,
 always worried about being a failure.
 If I didn't get an A plus, you know,
 I was crying in my bedroom, that kind of sad existence.
 I got into my twenties, then in my thirties
 and realized that's not the way to live.
 So I've worked very hard to get to this point
 where I almost never get stressed, never.
 There's nothing that, I've never gotten angry in my lab.
 I've got 20 kids.
 Sometimes it's like a, most of the time
 it's like a kindergarten.
 I haven't lost my temper.
 I'm very calm, but that's intentional.
 And I don't worry about stuff,
 millions of dollars, billions of dollars at stake sometimes.
 Keep it cool.
 It's only life.
 We're all headed to the same place anyway.
 Don't worry about it.
 But the, to answer your question,
 I think in a better way,
 if you manipulate the brain of an animal,
 I'll give you an example.
 If we turn on this sort of gene that I mentioned,
 sort of one, we, a good friend of mine at WashU,
 Sheena Mai did this.
 They upregulate that, upregulated that gene
 just in the neurons of the animal.
 It lived longer.
 So that's sufficient to extend lifespan.
 We also know that you can manipulate the part of the brain
 called the hypothalamus,
 which leeches a lot of chemicals into the body
 and proteins, most of which we don't know yet,
 but just changing the inflammation of that little organ
 or part of the brain is sufficient
 to make animals live longer as well.
 So get your brain in order first
 before you tackle anything else, I would say.
 So you kind of mentioned this with the inside tracker,
 there's a ability to take blood measurement
 and then infer from that a bunch of different things
 about your body and how you can improve,
 how you can improve the longevity.
 And you've also mentioned saliva
 and more efficient ways to get data.
 What does that involve?
 What's the future of data collection
 for the human biological system?
 Right, well, yeah, the issue with blood
 is you need someone to take it.
 Or you prick your finger, which hurts.
 So you've got to have something better.
 So I think what the future looks like
 is that you'll spit onto a little piece of paper
 and stick it in a machine and it'll do that for you.
 But we're not there yet.
 So the intermediate future that I'm building right now
 is that you would take a swab of the inside of your mouth,
 which is the easiest way to take cells out of your body
 and just ship them off.
 Okay, so it's called a buckle swab.
 I think we became very used to that, right?
 Right now, because of COVID,
 people don't like going to the doctor as much.
 They don't like going out.
 They just want to have home tests.
 And so that, I think, is the next 10 years
 where you'll get a kit in the mail,
 you'll swab your cheeks, stick it back in an envelope,
 send it off, and a week later,
 you have either a doctor's report
 or a health recommendation.
 And what can you get off a cheek swab?
 Well, you can get anything.
 You can get hormones, stress levels,
 stress hormones, blood glucose levels.
 You can also tell your age reasonably accurately doing that,
 actually quite accurately.
 And those clocks cannot just tell you
 how you're doing over time,
 but can be used to give you recommendations
 to slow that process down.
 Because some people sometimes are 10 years older biologically
 than their actual chronological age.
 I mean, why does it matter how many times
 the Earth's gone around the sun, seriously?
 Who cares about birthdays?
 It's how long your body's clock has been ticking
 and how fast.
 So I could take a cheek swab from you today,
 like take it back to my lab,
 and we then by tomorrow tell you
 how old you are biologically
 based on what we call the epigenetic clock.
 And you might be freaked out, you might be happy,
 but either way, we can advise you
 on how to improve the trajectory.
 Because we know that smoking increases
 the speed of that clock.
 We also know that fasting and people
 who eat the right foods have a slower clock.
 Without that knowledge, you're flying blind.
 But I like the idea of a swab because it's just so easy.
 A lot of us have done something like that for COVID tests.
 It's not a big deal.
 Yeah, I've been doing a nonstop rapid antigen test.
 So let me say that particular one rapid antigen test,
 they've been a source of frustration for me
 because like everybody should be doing it.
 It's so easy.
 We've also been working in my lab
 on democratizing these tests
 to bring them down from a few hundred bucks to a dollar.
 So just to clarify, you're talking about not research,
 you're talking about like company stuff,
 like actual consumer facing things.
 Well, right.
 The research on bringing the price down
 has occurred in my lab at Harvard.
 And then that intellectual property is being licensed
 and has been licensed out to a company
 that will be consumer facing.
 So anybody for a small amount of money can do this.
 Well, you got subscriber number one obsessed.
 I think that's a beautiful, beautiful idea.
 So somebody who maybe I would have been more hesitant
 about it until COVID, but home tests are super easy.
 I almost wanted to share that data with the world,
 like in some way, not the entirety of the data,
 but like some visualization of like how I'm doing.
 Like it's almost like, you know, when you share,
 if you had like a long run or something like that,
 I wish I could share, because it inspires others.
 And then you can have a conversation about like,
 well, what are the hacks that you've tried
 and have a conversation about like
 how to improve lifestyle and those kinds of things
 that's grounded in data?
 That's exactly, that's what's gonna happen.
 Now, everything's anonymous, of course.
 We talked about security there,
 but once it's anonymized, you can then plot these numbers.
 And I've plotted my epigenetic age versus
 hundreds of other people who have taken this test now.
 And I can tell you where I fit relative to others
 in terms of my biological age.
 And I'm happy to share that with you all
 because it's pretty low.
 You can choose to share it, of course,
 not everyone wants to share that.
 But when you go to the doctor,
 first of all, your doctor does treat you
 as though you're an average person,
 and none of us are average, there's no such thing.
 But second of all, we never know how we're doing
 relative to others, because we all,
 most of us, we don't share our information.
 So we might have this number and that number,
 but do you know that your numbers are good
 for your age or not?
 You have no idea.
 Even your doctor probably doesn't even know.
 So this graph that I'm talking about
 is the beginning of a world where you can say,
 how am I doing?
 I'm, you know, for the two of us,
 we're white and we're male and we're this age,
 and we do this.
 Are we good?
 Are we doing the right things or the wrong things?
 Do we need to fix certain things?
 And this is what the future is.
 Forget about just experimenting and not knowing the result.
 I mean, who doesn't experiment and doesn't look at the data?
 No one, it makes no sense.
 So we're gonna enter a world
 where we have a dashboard on our body,
 the swabs, the blood tests, the biosensors,
 where our doctors can look at that,
 but we can also look at it and they can recommend,
 go to this restaurant down the road,
 they've got this great meal.
 It's high in whatever you need today
 because you're lacking vitamin D and vitamin K2.
 Go for it.
 Ridiculous question or perhaps not.
 If you look maybe 50 years from now
 or a hundred years from now, a person born then,
 what do you think is a good goal
 in terms of how long a person would live?
 Like what is the maximum longevity
 that we can achieve through the methods
 that we have today of,
 or are developing some of the things
 we've been talking about in terms of genetics,
 in terms of biology?
 Is there a number?
 Right, well, so it changes all the time
 because technology is changing so quickly.
 I keep revising the number upward.
 But I would say that if you do the right things
 during your life and start at an early age,
 let's say 25, we don't want malnutrition, starvation,
 that's not what I'm talking about.
 But in your 20s, start eating the kind of diets
 that I talked about, skipping meals.
 In animals, that gives you an extra 20 to 30%.
 We don't know if that's true for humans,
 and that would, even 5% more would be a good,
 a big deal for the planet.
 I think that we should all aim to at least reach a century.
 I'm a little bit behind.
 I was born too early to benefit the most
 from all of this discovery.
 Those of you who are in your 20s,
 you should definitely aim to reach 100.
 I don't see why not.
 Consider this, this is really important.
 The average lifespan of a human
 that looks after themselves but doesn't pay attention
 is about 80, okay?
 Japan, that's the average age for a male, a bit higher.
 If you do the right things in your life,
 which is eat healthy food, don't overeat,
 don't become obese, do a bit of exercise,
 get good sleep and don't stress,
 that gives you on average 14 extra years.
 That gets you to 94.
 So getting to 100, if you just focus
 on what I'm talking about, it's not a big deal.
 So what's the maximum?
 Well, we know that one human made it to 122
 and a number of them make it into their teens.
 I think that's also the next level of where we can get to
 with the types of technologies that I'm talking about.
 Medicines, like I mentioned rapamycin,
 there's one called metformin, which is the diabetes drug
 which I take, that in combination
 with these lifestyle changes should get us beyond 100.
 How long can we ultimately live?
 Well, there's no maximum limit to human lifespan.
 Why can a whale live 300 years, but we cannot,
 we're basically the same structure.
 We just need to learn from them.
 So anyone who says, oh, you max out at X,
 I think is full of it.
 There's nothing that I've seen that says
 biological organisms have to die.
 There are trees that live for thousands of years
 and their biochemistry is pretty close to ours.
 What do you think it means to live for a very long time?
 Let's say if it's 200 years we're talking about
 or a thousand years, there's some sense,
 you could argue that there is immortal organisms
 already living on earth, like there's bacteria.
 So there's certain living organisms
 that in some fundamental way do not die
 because they keep replicating their genetic,
 they keep like cloning themselves.
 Is it the same human if we can somehow persist
 the human mind, like copy, clone certain aspects
 and just keep replacing body parts?
 Do you think that's another way to achieve a mortality,
 to achieve a prolonged sort of increased longevity
 is to replace the parts that break easily
 and keep, because actually from your theory of aging
 as a degradation of information,
 so an information theory view of aging,
 like what is the key information that makes a human?
 Can we persist that information
 and just replace the trivial parts?
 Yeah, I mean, the short answer is yes.
 We're already replacing body parts,
 but what makes us human is our brain.
 Everything else is suboptimal, except our brain.
 The ability to replace actual neurons is really hard.
 All right, I think it might be easier to upload
 rather than replace neurons because they're so tight,
 it's such a network and just perturbing the system.
 It's fruging this cat.
 You change everything once you get in there.
 The problem is, well, I guess the solution,
 let me go to the solution, that's more interesting.
 What we're learning is that if you reverse the age
 of nerve cells, it looks like they get their memories back.
 So the memories are not lost,
 they're just that the cells don't know how to interpret them
 and function correctly.
 And this is one of the things we're studying in my lab,
 if you take an old mouse that has learned something
 when it was young, but forgotten, does it get that back?
 And all evidence points to that being true.
 So I'd rather go in and rejuvenate the brain as it sits
 rather than replace individual cells,
 which would be really hard.
 What do you think about efforts like Neuralink,
 which basically you mentioned uploading,
 are trying to figure out,
 so creating brain computer interfaces,
 they're trying to figure out how to communicate
 with the brain, but one of the features of that
 is trying to record the human brain more and more accurately.
 Do you have hope for that to,
 of course, it will lead to us better understanding
 from a neuroscience perspective, the human mind,
 but do you have hope for it increasing longevity
 in terms of how it's used?
 I think that it can help with certain diseases,
 but I see at least within our lifetime,
 that's the best use of it is to be able to replace
 parts of the body that are not functioning,
 such as the retina and other parts,
 the visual cortex back here.
 That's going to be doable.
 In terms of longevity,
 maybe we could put something on the hypothalamus
 and start secreting those hormones and get that back.
 Ultimately, I think the best way to preserve the brain
 is going to be to record it,
 but also I think it's going to require death, unfortunately,
 to then do very detailed scans,
 even if you have enough time and money,
 atomic microscopy and rebuild the brain from scratch.
 Rebuild from scratch, yeah.
 We are living more and more in a digital world.
 I wonder if the scanning is good enough
 for the critical things in terms of memories,
 in terms of the particular quirks
 of your cognitive processes.
 They're not.
 They're not.
 Yeah.
 We're not close, yes,
 but we've made quite a bit of progress.
 So if you're an exponential type of person.
 Yeah, well, let's dream a little here.
 Yes, that's the point.
 The way it would work that I could see it working is,
 so you take a single cell slice through your dead brain
 and we can now,
 the problem with the engineering aspect
 is that the engineering is,
 the physical aspect of the brain
 is not even half the problem.
 The problem is which genes are switched on and off.
 This experience that we're having here
 is altering certain genes in neurons
 that will be preserved hopefully for a number of decades,
 but you cannot see that with a microscope easily,
 but there are technologies invented
 actually just down the hall in the building I'm at,
 George Church invented a way,
 his lab invented a way to look at
 which genes are switched on and off,
 not only in a single cell,
 which any lab can do these days,
 but in situ, where it's situated in the brain.
 So you can say, okay, this nerve cell,
 had these genes switched on and these switched off,
 we can recreate that,
 but just scanning the brain
 and looking how the nerves are touching each other
 is not gonna do it.
 Wow, okay.
 So you have to scan the full biology,
 the full details.
 And look at the epigenome.
 At the epigenome too.
 Yeah, which genes are on and off.
 It's just easier to reset the epigenome
 and get them to work like they used to.
 True, true.
 We're doing that now.
 Use the hardware we already have,
 just figure out how to make that hardware last longer.
 Right, ultimately information will be lost,
 even genetic information degrades slowly through mutation.
 So immortality is not achievable through that means,
 though I think we could potentially reset the body
 hundreds of times and live for thousands of years.
 Okay, so we talked about biology.
 Let's forgive me, but let's talk about philosophy
 for just a brief moment.
 So somebody I've enjoyed reading,
 Ernest Becker wrote the Denial of Death.
 There's also Martin Heidegger.
 There's a bunch of philosophers
 who claim that most people live life in denial of death.
 We don't fully internalize the idea that we're going to die.
 Because if we did, as they say,
 there will be a kind of terror of,
 I mean, a deep fear of death.
 The fact that we don't know what's,
 like we almost don't know what to do with non-existence,
 with disappearing.
 Like the way we draw meaning from life
 seems to be grounded in the fact that we exist
 and that we at some point will not exist is terrifying.
 And so we live in an illusion that we're not going to die
 and we run from that terror.
 That's what Ernest Becker would say.
 Do you think there's any truth to that?
 Oh, I know there's truth to that.
 I experienced it every day when I talked to people.
 We have to live that way, although unfortunately I can't,
 but for most people, it's extremely distressing
 to think about their own mortality.
 We think about it occasionally.
 And if we really thought about it every day,
 we'd probably be brought to tears
 how much we not just miss ourselves,
 but miss our family, our friends.
 We are all living life forms have evolved
 to not want to die.
 And when I mean want,
 biochemically, genetically, physically,
 that yeast cell, the cells that I studied at MIT,
 they were fighting for their lives.
 They didn't think,
 but our brain has evolved the same survival aspect.
 Of course, we don't want to die,
 but the problem for us, unfortunately,
 it's a curse and a blessing is that we're now conscious.
 We know that we're going to die.
 Most species that have ever existed don't.
 That's a burden, that's a curse.
 And so what I think's happened is we've evolved certainly
 to want to live for a long time, perhaps never want to die.
 But the thought about dying is so traumatic
 that there isn't an innate part of our brains.
 And it's probably genetically wired to not think about it.
 I really think that's part of being human.
 Because, you know, think about tribes
 that obsessed with longevity every day
 and that we're going to die.
 They probably didn't make much technological progress
 because they were just crying in their huts every day
 or, you know, on the savanna.
 I really think that we've evolved to naturally deny aging.
 And it's one of the problems that I face in my career.
 And, you know, when I speak publicly and on social media
 is that it's shocking.
 People don't want to think about their age,
 but I think it's getting better.
 I think my book has helped.
 These tests that we're developing should help people
 understand it's not a problem
 to think about your long-term health.
 In fact, if you don't,
 you're going to reach 80 and really regret it.
 And the other side of it, so again, Ernest Becker,
 but also Victor Frank,
 I'll recommend to highly man search for meaning.
 Bernard Williams is a moral philosopher.
 They kind of argue that this knowledge of death,
 even if we often don't contemplate it, we do at times.
 And the very, what you call the curse,
 which I agree with you, it's a curse and a blessing
 that we're able to contemplate our own mortality.
 That gives meaning to life.
 So death gives meaning to life.
 As what Victor Frankles argues,
 I would probably argue the same.
 There's something about the scarcity of life
 and contemplating that,
 that makes each moment that much sweeter.
 Is there something to that?
 I think it's individual.
 In my case, it's completely wrong.
 I appreciate you saying that.
 I don't get joy out of every day
 because I think I'm going to die.
 I get joy out of every day because every day is joyous
 and I make it that way.
 And even if I thought I was going to live forever,
 I would still be enjoying this moment just as much.
 And I bet you would too.
 Well, I think about that a lot.
 I think it's very difficult to know.
 I'm almost afraid that I wouldn't enjoy it as much
 if I was immortal.
 I'm almost afraid to want to be immortal or to live longer
 because it perhaps is a kind of justification
 for me to accept that I'm going to die.
 It's saying like, oh, if I was immortal,
 I wouldn't be able to enjoy life as much as I do.
 But it's very possible that I would enjoy just as much.
 Of course, enjoying life, whether you're mortal or not,
 takes work.
 Like it requires you to have
 the right kind of frame of mind.
 You can focus your mind on the ugliness of life.
 There's plenty of ugly things in this world
 and you can focus on them.
 You can complain.
 Whenever like, if it's raining outside,
 you can focus on the fact that you have shelter
 and enjoy the hell out of it.
 Or you can enjoy running in the rain when it's warm
 and like the beauty of nature, just being one with nature.
 Or you can just complain this fucking weather again
 in Boston and then it's either always raining
 or freezing, damn it.
 And like the same thing with like Wi-Fi
 going out on airplanes.
 Like you can either complain about like
 stupid Wi-Fi on JetBlue or something.
 Or you could say like how incredible it is
 that I can fly through the sky
 and in a matter of hours be anywhere else in the world.
 And then I could also on occasion watch,
 like check email and even watch movies
 while connecting through satellites
 that are flying through space.
 So it's a matter of perspective
 and perhaps there's an extra level of work required
 when you're immortal
 because it's easier when you're immortal
 or live longer to be lazy, to delay stuff.
 But if you're not,
 you can still derive the same amount of joy.
 It's possible, it's possible.
 It's definitely possible.
 In my life, I went from being the nothing's working to
 every day's great to wake up to.
 And I think even if you think you're gonna live forever,
 you can enjoy every day.
 What I do is everything's relative.
 We can compare ourselves to our neighbor who has more money
 or to the flight that should have had wifi
 or which is what I do, I'm still six years old remember.
 What a six year old does says,
 look, I can, when I tell my fingers to form a fist,
 they actually do that.
 That's really cool.
 That's how I live my life.
 I can pick up on your desk here, this metal object.
 It's a metal cube about an inch by an inch by an inch.
 And I tell myself not about cubes,
 but about inanimate objects.
 Probably once a day I'll say,
 I'm a living thing.
 I can think, I can move, I can eat.
 I am full of energy.
 And there's that leaf or this cube here
 that will never be alive.
 That's what I look at and compare myself to.
 And for as long as I live, if it's forever,
 of course it won't be, but even if it was forever,
 the relative to this lump of metal on this table here,
 we are wondrous things in the universe
 and probably the most wondrous things in the universe.
 Yeah, we're able to deeply appreciate the leaf or the cube
 and deeply appreciate ourselves,
 which is, it can be a curse, but it's mostly a gift.
 Especially when you're, it's such a beautiful poem.
 Now I'm six, I'm as clever as clever.
 So I think I'll be six now forever and ever.
 That's a good thing to aspire to.
 Your grandmother was onto something.
 David, this was an incredible conversation.
 I'm a huge fan of your work.
 So thank you for wasting your valuable time with me today.
 I really, really appreciate it.
 This was awesome.
 Thank you for having me on, Lex, appreciate it.
 Thanks for listening to this conversation
 with David Sinclair.
 I thank you to On It, Clear, National Instruments,
 Simply Safe, and Linode.
 Check them out in the description
 to support this podcast.
 And now let me leave you some words from Arthur Schopenhauer.
 All truth passes through three stages.
 First, it is ridiculed.
 Second, it is violently opposed.
 Third, it is accepted as being self-evident.
 Thank you for listening and hope to see you next time.