Bit By Bit - Samar da haɗin gizon - Abinda za a karanta a gaba
Gabatarwa (sashe na 5.1)
Gudanarwar masarawa ta haɓaka ra'ayoyi daga kimiyya na jama'a , taron jama'a , da kuma bayanan sirri . Kimiyya na 'yanci na nufin amfani da' '' '' '' '' '' '' jama'a '(watau maƙaryata) a cikin tsarin kimiyya; Don ƙarin bayani, duba Crain, Cooper, and Dickinson (2014) da Bonney et al. (2014) . Crowdsourcing yana nufin nufin magance matsalar da aka warware a cikin wata kungiya kuma a maimakon ta ba da shi ga taron; don ƙarin, duba Howe (2009) . Ƙungiyoyin gama gari yana nufin ƙungiyoyi masu aiki tare a hanyoyi da suke da hankali; Don ƙarin bayani, duba Malone and Bernstein (2015) . Nielsen (2012) wani littafi ne mai gabatarwa ga ikon yin hadin gwiwar binciken kimiyya.
Akwai nau'o'in nau'in haɗin gwiwar da ba su dace ba cikin sassa uku da na kawo shawara, kuma ina tsammanin uku daga cikin waɗannan sun cancanci kulawa ta musamman saboda suna iya amfani da su a cikin bincike na zamantakewa. Ɗaya daga cikin misalai shine kasuwanni masu tsinkaya, inda mahalarta ke saya da kwangilar ciniki wanda za'a iya sakewa bisa ga sakamakon da ke faruwa a duniya. Ana amfani da kasuwanni masu ba da shawara ga masana'antu da gwamnatoci don tanadi, kuma masu amfani da labarun zamantakewa sun yi amfani da su don su yi la'akari da yiwuwar binciken da aka wallafa a cikin ilimin halayyar mutum (Dreber et al. 2015) . Don ƙarin bayani game da kasuwanni na hasashen, duba Wolfers and Zitzewitz (2004) da Arrow et al. (2008) .
Misali na biyu wanda bai dace ba a cikin tsari na ƙaddamarwa shine aikin PolyMath, inda masu bincike suka hada kai ta amfani da shafukan yanar gizo da wikis don tabbatar da sababbin matakan lissafi. Ayyukan PolyMath na cikin wasu hanyoyi da suka dace da kyautar Netflix, amma a cikin wannan aikin mahalarta sun haɓaka da rayayye a kan mafita na wasu. Don ƙarin bayani akan aikin PolyMath, duba Gowers and Nielsen (2009) , Cranshaw and Kittur (2011) , Nielsen (2012) , da Kloumann et al. (2016) .
Misali na uku wanda bai dace ba cikin tsari na ƙaddamarwa shine na ƙungiyoyi masu zaman kansu na zamani kamar Ƙarƙashin Cibiyar Kasuwancin Tsaro (DARPA) (watau Red Balloon Challenge). Don ƙarin bayani a kan waɗannan masu tarawa masu gangami kan ganin Pickard et al. (2011) , Tang et al. (2011) , da Rutherford et al. (2013) .
Ƙididdigar mutum (sashe na 5.2)
Kalmar "ƙimar mutum" ta fito ne daga aikin da masana kimiyyar kwamfuta suka yi, da kuma fahimtar mahallin bayan wannan bincike zai inganta ikonka na samo matsalolin da zasu dace da ita. Don wasu ayyuka, kwakwalwa suna da ƙarfin gaske, tare da damar da suka fi ƙarfin waɗanda ke da mararrun mutane. Alal misali, a cikin kaya, kwakwalwa na iya kalubalanci maɗaukaki mafi girma. Amma-kuma wannan ba shi da kyau ga masana kimiyyar zamantakewar al'umma - don wasu ayyuka, kwakwalwa suna da kyau fiye da mutane. A wasu kalmomi, a halin yanzu kun fi kwarewar kwamfutar da ta fi dacewa a wasu ayyuka da suka shafi aiki da hotuna, bidiyo, jihohi, da rubutu. Masana kimiyya da ke aiki a kan wadannan ƙwaƙwalwar-kwakwalwa-aiki-da-dan adam sun gane cewa zasu iya haɗawa da mutane a cikin tsarin aikin su. Ga yadda Luis von Ahn (2005) kwatanta bayanan ɗan adam lokacin da ya fara rubuta kalmar a cikin rubutunsa: "tsari na amfani da ikon sarrafa dan Adam don magance matsalolin da kwakwalwa ba za ta iya warwarewa ba." mafi mahimmancin ma'anar wannan kalma, a duba Law and Ahn (2011) .
Bisa ga ma'anar da aka gabatar a Ahn (2005) Foldit-abin da na bayyana a cikin sashe a kan kira na bude - ana iya la'akari da aikin lissafin mutum. Duk da haka, na zaɓa don rarraba Foldit a matsayin kira mai bude saboda yana buƙatar ƙwarewar musamman (ko da yake ba dole ba ne horo) kuma yana ɗaukar mafi kyaun bayani da ke ba da gudummawa, maimakon yin amfani da ma'anar haɗin kai.
Ana amfani da kalmar "haɗin ƙaddamarwa" wanda Wickham (2011) yayi amfani da shi don bayyana tsarin dabarun ƙididdigar lissafi, amma yana kama da tsarin da yawa na lissafi na mutane. Sakamakon haɗin kai-tsaren yana kama da tsarin MapReduce da aka bunkasa a Google; don ƙarin bayani akan MapReduce, duba Dean and Ghemawat (2004) da Dean and Ghemawat (2008) . Don ƙarin bayani game da sauran kamfanonin sarrafawa, duba Vo and Silvia (2016) . Babi na 3 na Law and Ahn (2011) yana da tattaunawa game da ayyukan da suka hada da matakan haɗari da wadanda suka hada da wannan a cikin wannan babi.
A cikin ayyukan ƙididdigar mutum wanda na tattauna a cikin babi, mahalarta sun san abin da ke faruwa. Wasu wasu ayyuka, duk da haka, suna nema su kama "aikin" da ke faruwa (kamar eBird) kuma ba tare da fahimtar ɗan takara ba. Duba, misali, Game da ESP (Ahn and Dabbish 2004) da kuma reCAPTCHA (Ahn et al. 2008) . Duk da haka, waɗannan ayyukan biyu suna tayar da tambayoyi masu kyau saboda mahalarta basu san yadda ake amfani da bayanai ba (Zittrain 2008; Lung 2012) .
Shahararrun Wasannin ESP, masu bincike sun yi ƙoƙarin samar da wasu "wasanni tare da manufar" (Ahn and Dabbish 2008) (watau "wasan kwaikwayo na mutum" (Pe-Than, Goh, and Lee 2015) ) wanda zai iya zama amfani da su don magance matsaloli masu yawa. Abin da waɗannan "wasanni tare da manufar" suna da ita shi ne cewa suna ƙoƙarin yin aikin da ke cikin lissafin mutum yana jin dadi. Saboda haka, yayinda ESP Game ke ba da wannan tsari tare da Galaxy Zoo, ya bambanta da yadda mahalarta ke motsawa-fun da sha'awar taimakawa kimiyya. Don ƙarin wasanni tare da manufar, ga Ahn and Dabbish (2008) .
Magana game da Galaxy Zoo tana jawo hankalin Nielsen (2012) , Adams (2012) , Clery (2011) , da Hand (2010) , da kuma gabatar da burin bincike na Galaxy Zoo ya sauƙaƙe. Don ƙarin bayani game da tarihin tarihin galaxy a cikin astronomy da yadda Galaxy Zoo ta ci gaba da wannan al'ada, ga Masters (2012) da Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) . Gina a kan Zoo Zoo, masu binciken sun kammala Zoo Zoo 2 wanda ya tattara fiye da miliyan 60 da ke tattare da sabbin masu aikin sa kai (Masters et al. 2011) . Bugu da ƙari, sun haɗu da matsaloli a waje da ilimin galaxy, ciki har da bincike kan lunar Moon, neman saman taurari, da kuma rubutun tsohon takardu. A halin yanzu, ana tattara duk ayyukan su a shafin yanar gizo na Zooniverse (Cox et al. 2015) . Ɗaya daga cikin ayyukan-Serengeti Hotuna-ba da tabbacin cewa za a iya aiwatar da ayyukan Tsarin Hotuna na Zoo-type na Zoo (Swanson et al. 2016) .
Don masu bincike sun shirya amfani da kasuwancin aiki na microtask (misali, Amazon Mechanical Turk) don tsarin aikin mutum, Chandler, Paolacci, and Mueller (2013) da kuma J. Wang, Ipeirotis, and Provost (2015) suna ba da kyakkyawan shawara game da zane-zane. wasu batutuwa masu dangantaka. Porter, Verdery, and Gaddis (2016) ba da misalai da shawara da aka mayar da hankali game da amfani da kasuwancin kasuwancin microtask don abin da suke kira "karin bayanai." Rigon tsakanin bayanai augmentation da tattara bayanai yana da matukar damuwa. Don ƙarin bayani game da tattarawa da yin amfani da takardu don kulawa da rubutu don rubutu, duba Grimmer and Stewart (2013) .
Masu bincike masu sha'awar samar da abin da na kira tsarin tsarin lissafi na mutum (misali, tsarin da ke amfani da alamu na ɗan adam don horar da samfurin ilmantarwa) zai iya sha'awar Shamir et al. (2014) (misali misali ta amfani da audio) da Cheng and Bernstein (2015) . Har ila yau, ana iya kiran samfurori na na'ura a cikin waɗannan ayyukan tare da kira masu kira, inda masu bincike suke ƙoƙari su ƙirƙirar ƙirar na'ura tare da mafi girma. Alal misali, kungiyar Zoo ta Zoo ta gudanar da kira mai mahimmanci kuma ta samo sabuwar hanyar da ta samo asali a cikin Banerji et al. (2010) ; duba Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) don cikakkun bayanai.
Kiran budewa (sashe na 5.3)
Kiran da aka buɗe basu da sabo. A gaskiya ma, daya daga cikin sanannun kiran da aka fi sani da shi ya koma 1714 lokacin da majalisar dokokin Birtaniya ta kafa lambar yabo ta Longitude ga duk wanda zai iya samar da wata hanyar da za ta gano tsawon tsawon jirgin ruwa a teku. Matsalar ta dade da yawa daga cikin manyan masana kimiyya na kwanakin, ciki har da Isaac Newton, kuma John Harrison, mai gabatarwa daga cikin kullun, ya gabatar da maganganun da ya fuskanci matsala ta daban daga masana kimiyya wanda aka mayar da hankali kan wani bayani wanda zai iya kasancewa da ilimin lissafi ; Don ƙarin bayani, duba Sobel (1996) . Kamar yadda wannan misalin ya nuna, daya dalili da cewa ana kiran kira na budewa sosai don samar da damar yin amfani da mutane da ra'ayoyi daban-daban da kuma basira (Boudreau and Lakhani 2013) . Dubi Hong and Page (2004) da Page (2008) don ƙarin bayani game da muhimmancin bambancin dake warware matsalar.
Kowace takardun kira a cikin babi na buƙatar ƙarin bayani game da dalilin da yasa yake cikin wannan rukuni. Na farko, hanyar da zan bambanta tsakanin lissafin mutum da ayyukan kira na budewa shine ko fitarwa ya zama kusan dukkanin mafita (lissafin mutum) ko mafi kyawun bayani (kira na budewa). Kyautar Netflix ta daɗaɗaɗɗa a wannan batun domin mafi kyawun bayani ya zama wani kyakkyawan matsakaiciyar sauye-sauye na mutum, wani tsarin da ake kira daɗaɗɗen bayani (Bell, Koren, and Volinsky 2010; Feuerverger, He, and Khatri 2012) . Daga hanyar Netflix, duk da haka, duk abin da suke da shi shine ya sami mafi kyawun bayani. Don ƙarin bayani game da kyautar Netflix, duba Bennett and Lanning (2007) , Thompson (2008) , Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) , da Feuerverger, He, and Khatri (2012) .
Na biyu, game da wasu ma'anar lissafi na mutum (misali, Ahn (2005) ), dole ne a yi la'akari da tsarin aikin mutum. Duk da haka, na zaɓi in rarraba shi a matsayin kira mai kira saboda yana buƙatar ƙwarewa na musamman (ko da yake ba dole ba ne horo na musamman) kuma yana ɗaukar mafi kyau bayani, maimakon yin amfani da dabarun tsaftacewa. Don ƙarin bayani a kan Foldit duba, Cooper et al. (2010) , Khatib et al. (2011) , da Andersen et al. (2012) ; Magana na Foldit yana faɗakarwa a kan bayanin a Bohannon (2009) , Hand (2010) , da Nielsen (2012) .
A ƙarshe, wanda zai iya jayayya cewa Batu-to-Patent misali ne na rarraba bayanai. Na zaɓa in haɗa shi a matsayin kira mai bude saboda yana da tsari mai hamayya kamar yadda aka yi amfani da shi kawai, amma tare da rarraba bayanai, ra'ayin nagarta da mummunan gudunmawar ba shi da cikakke. Don ƙarin bayani a kan Peer-to-Patent, duba Noveck (2006) , Ledford (2007) , Noveck (2009) , da Bestor and Hamp (2010) .
Game da yin amfani da kira ta bude a binciken bincike na zamantakewa, sakamakon kama da na Glaeser et al. (2016) , an ruwaito su a sura na 10 na Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier (2013) inda New York City ke iya amfani da samfurin ƙaddamarwa don haifar da babbar nasara ga masu samar da gidaje. A Birnin New York, waɗannan ma'aikatan gari sun gina su, amma a wasu lokuta, mutum zai iya tunanin cewa za a iya kirkiro su ko inganta su tare da kira na bude (misali, Glaeser et al. (2016) ). Duk da haka, babban damuwa da tsarin da ake amfani dashi don rarraba albarkatu shi ne cewa waɗannan samfurori suna da yiwuwar ƙarfafa abubuwan da suke ciki. Yawancin masu bincike sun riga sun san "datti a, datti," tare da tsinkaye masu tsinkaya zai iya kasancewa "tsinkaya a ciki." Dubi Barocas and Selbst (2016) da kuma O'Neil (2016) don karin bayani game da haɗarin halayen da aka tsara tare da bayanan horarwa.
Wata matsalar da za ta iya hana gwamnatoci ta yin amfani da gayyatar da aka samu shine cewa wannan yana buƙatar saki bayanai, wanda zai iya haifar da keta hakkin sirri. Don ƙarin bayani game da tsare sirri da saki bayanai a cikin kira na bude, ga Narayanan, Huey, and Felten (2016) da kuma tattaunawa a babi na 6.
Don ƙarin bayani game da bambancin ra'ayi da kamance tsakanin furucin da bayanin, duba Breiman (2001) , Shmueli (2010) , Watts (2014) , da kuma Kleinberg et al. (2015) . Don ƙarin bayani game da rawar da aka yi a cikin bincike na zamantakewa, duba Athey (2017) , Cederman and Weidmann (2017) , Hofman, Sharma, and Watts (2017) , ( ??? ) , da Yarkoni and Westfall (2017) .
Don nazarin ayyukan kira na budewa a cikin ilmin halitta, ciki har da shawarwari na zane, ga Saez-Rodriguez et al. (2016) .
Rarraba bayanan bayanai (sashe na 5.4)
Abinda nake bayanin eBird yana gabatarwa a kan batu a Bhattacharjee (2005) , Robbins (2013) , da kuma Sullivan et al. (2014) . Don ƙarin bayani game da yadda masu bincike suke amfani da tsarin kididdiga don nazarin bayanan eBird duba Fink et al. (2010) da Hurlbert and Liang (2012) . Don ƙarin bayani game da ƙwarewar mahalarta eBird, duba Kelling, Johnston, et al. (2015) . Don ƙarin bayani game da tarihin kimiyya na jama'a a cikin konithology, duba Greenwood (2007) .
Don ƙarin bayani game da Shirin Labarun Malawi, duba Watkins and Swidler (2009) da Kaler, Watkins, and Angotti (2015) . Don ƙarin bayani game da aikin da ake bi a Afirka ta Kudu, duba Angotti and Sennott (2015) . Don ƙarin misalan bincike da yin amfani da bayanai daga Labarun Labarun Malawi duba Kaler (2004) da kuma Angotti et al. (2014) .
Zayyana naka (sashi na 5.5)
Hanyata na bayar da shawarwari na zane-zane yana cikin haɓaka, bisa ga misalai na nasara da rashin nasarar aikin haɗin gwiwar da na ji game da. Har ila yau, akwai wata hanyar bincike na bincike da za a yi amfani da ka'idodin zamantakewa na zamantakewa na zamantakewar al'umma don tsara zane-zane na yanar gizo wanda ke da alaƙa da zartar da ayyukan haɗin gwiwar, duba, misali, Kraut et al. (2012) .
Game da motsawa mahalarta, yana da mahimmanci don gane ainihin dalilin da ya sa mutane ke shiga ayyukan hadin gwiwa (Cooper et al. 2010; Nov, Arazy, and Anderson 2011; Tuite et al. 2011; Raddick et al. 2013; Preist, Massung, and Coyle 2014) . Idan kun yi niyyar motsa mahalarta tare da biyan kuɗi a kan kasuwar aiki na microtask (misali, Amazon Mechanical Turk), Kittur et al. (2013) yana bada wasu shawarwari.
Game da abubuwan mamaki, don ƙarin misalan binciken da ba a gane ba daga cikin ayyukan Zooiverse, duba Marshall, Lintott, and Fletcher (2015) .
Game da kasancewa mai kirki, wasu gabatarwar da suka dace a kan batutuwan da suka shafi shi ne Gilbert (2015) , Salehi et al. (2015) , Schmidt (2013) , Williamson (2016) , Resnik, Elliott, and Miller (2015) , da Zittrain (2008) . Don al'amurra da suka shafi batun shari'a da ma'aikata, duba Felstiner (2011) . O'Connor (2013) ba da tambayoyi game da kula da bincike na al'ada lokacin da matsayin masu bincike da masu halartar taron suka damu. Don al'amurran da suka danganci raba bayanan yayin kare mahalarta a ayyukan kimiyya na jama'a, ga Bowser et al. (2014) . Dukansu Purdam (2014) da Windt and Humphreys (2016) suna da wasu tattaunawa game da batutuwan da ke cikin rarraba bayanai. A ƙarshe, yawancin ayyukan sun amince da gudunmawar amma ba su ba da kyautar marubuta ga mahalarta ba. A cikin Foldit, ana buga sunayen 'yan wasan a matsayin marubucin (Cooper et al. 2010; Khatib et al. 2011) . A wasu ayyukan kira na budewa, mai ba da gudummawa zai iya rubuta takarda da ke nuna mafita (misali, Bell, Koren, and Volinsky (2010) da Dieleman, Willett, and Dambre (2015) ).