Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, working memory and behavior in UK children aged 7-9: A randomized controlled trial for replication (the DOLAB II study) Docosahexaenoic Acid for Reading, Cognition and Behavior in Children Aged 7–9 Years: A Randomized, Controlled Trial (The DOLAB Study) Effect of supplementation with long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on behavior and cognition in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a randomized placebo-controlled intervention trial. Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Cognition in VLBW Infants at 8 years: an RCT Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation in Infancy Reduces Heart Rate and Positively Affects Distribution of Attention Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age. Reduced Symptoms of Inattention after Dietary Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation in Boys with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder A randomized trial of visual attention of preterm infants fed docosahexaenoic acid until two months Growth and development of term infants fed with milk with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation. Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation in Children with Autism: A Double-blind Randomized, Placebo-controlled Pilot Study The effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder—a placebo-controlled double-blind study Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, cognition, and behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Three randomized controlled trials of early long-chain polyunsaturated Fatty Acid supplementation on means-end problem solving in 9-month-olds. No Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Cognition and Mood in Individuals with Cognitive Impairment and Probable Alzheimer’s Disease: A Randomised Controlled Trial Omega-3 Fatty Acids Modify Human Cortical Visual Processing—A Double-Blind, Crossover Study Increased Erythrocyte Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Are Associated With Improved Attention and Behavior in Children With ADHD in a Randomized Controlled Three-Way Crossover Trial Omega-3 supplementation improves cognition and modifies brain activation in young adults.
Background Omega-3 fatty acids are central to brain-development of children . Evidence from clinical trials and systematic review s demonstrates the potential of long-chain Omega-3 supplementation for learning and behavior . However , findings are inconclusive and in need of robust replication studies since such work is lacking . Objectives Replication of the 2012 DOLAB 1 study findings that a dietary supplementation with the long-chain omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) had beneficial effects on the reading , working memory , and behavior of healthy schoolchildren . Design Parallel group , fixed-dose , r and omized ( minimization , 30 % r and om element ) , double-blind , placebo-controlled trial ( RCT ) . Setting Mainstream primary schools ( n = 84 ) from five counties in the UK in 2012–2015 . Participants Healthy children aged 7–9 underperforming in reading ( < 20th centile ) . 1230 invited , 376 met study criteria . Intervention 600 mg/day DHA ( from algal oil ) , placebo : taste/color matched corn/soybean oil ; for 16 weeks . Main outcome measures Age-st and ardized measures of reading , working memory , and behavior , parent-rated and as secondary outcome teacher-rated . Results 376 children were r and omized . Reading , working memory , and behavior change scores showed no consistent differences between intervention and placebo group . Some behavioral subscales showed minor group differences . Conclusions This RCT did not replicate results of the earlier DOLAB 1 study on the effectiveness of nutritional supplementation with DHA for learning and behavior . Possible reasons are discussed , particularly regarding the replication of complex interventions . Trial registration and protocol www.controlled-trials.com ( IS RCT N48803273 ) and protocol s.io ( https://dx.doi.org/10.17504/ protocol s.io.k8kczuw Background Omega-3 fatty acids are dietary essentials , and the current low intakes in most modern developed countries are believed to contribute to a wide variety of physical and mental health problems . Evidence from clinical trials indicates that dietary supplementation with long-chain omega-3 may improve child behavior and learning , although most previous trials have involved children with neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) or developmental coordination disorder ( DCD ) . Here we investigated whether such benefits might extend to the general child population . Objectives To determine the effects of dietary supplementation with the long-chain omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on the reading , working memory , and behavior of healthy schoolchildren . Design Parallel group , fixed-dose , r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled trial ( RCT ) . Setting Mainstream primary schools in Oxfordshire , UK ( n = 74 ) . Participants Healthy children aged 7–9 years initially underperforming in reading ( ≤33rd centile ) . 1376 invited , 362 met study criteria .  Intervention 600 mg/day DHA ( from algal oil ) , or taste/color matched corn/soybean oil placebo . Main Outcome Measures Age-st and ardized measures of reading , working memory , and parent- and teacher-rated behavior . Results ITT analyses showed no effect of DHA on reading in the full sample , but significant effects in the pre-planned subgroup of 224 children whose initial reading performance was ≤20th centile ( the target population in our original study design ) . Parent-rated behavior problems ( ADHD-type symptoms ) were significantly reduced by active treatment , but little or no effects were seen for either teacher-rated behaviour or working memory . Conclusions DHA supplementation appears to offer a safe and effective way to improve reading and behavior in healthy but underperforming children from mainstream schools . Replication studies are clearly warranted , as such children are known to be at risk of low educational and occupational outcomes in later life . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov NCT01066182 and Controlled-Trials.com IS RCT OBJECTIVE To determine whether supplementation with the long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) affects behavioral symptoms and cognitive impairments in children 6 - 12 years of age diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . STUDY DESIGN The r and omized , double-blind placebo-controlled 16 weeks trial was conducted with 95 children diagnosed with ADHD according to DSM-IV criteria . Behavior was assessed by parents , teachers and investigators using st and ardized rating scales and question naires . Further outcome variables were working memory , speed of information processing and various measures of attention . For a subgroup of 81 participants , erythrocyte membrane fatty acid composition was analyzed before and after the intervention . RESULTS Supplementation with the omega-3 fatty acid mix increased EPA and DHA concentrations in erythrocyte membranes and improved working memory function , but had no effect on other cognitive measures and parent- and teacher-rated behavior in the study population . Improved working memory correlated significantly with increased EPA , DHA and decreased AA ( arachidonic acid ) OBJECTIVE : To test the hypothesis that supplementation with the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ) to very low birth weight ( VLBW ) infants would improve long-term cognitive functions and influence neuroanatomical volumes and cerebral cortex measured by MRI . METHODS : The current study is a follow-up of a r and omized , double-blinded , placebo-controlled study of supplementation with high-dose DHA ( 0.86 % ) and AA ( 0.91 % ) to 129 VLBW infants fed human milk . Ninety-eight children participated at 8 years follow-up and completed a broad battery of cognitive tests .  Eighty-one children had cerebral MRI scans of acceptable quality . RESULTS : There were no significant differences between the intervention group and the control group on any of the cognitive measures . Equally , MRI data on segmental brain volumes and cerebral cortex volume , area , and thickness suggested no overall group effect . CONCLUSIONS : This study is the first long-term follow-up of a r and omized controlled trial with supplementation of DHA and AA to human milk fed VLBW infants investigating both cognitive functions and brain macrostructure measured by MRI . No cognitive or neuroanatomical effects of the supplementation were detected at 8 years of age A double-blind , r and omized , controlled , parallel-group prospect i ve trial was conducted to determine whether a dose-response existed for four different levels of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation on the cognitive performance of infants . A total of 122 term infants were fed one of four different formulas varying in their DHA composition ( 0.00 , 0.32 , 0.64 , and 0.96 % of total fatty acids as DHA ) from birth to 12 mo . The three DHA-supplemented formulas also contained 0.64 % of total fatty acids as arachidonic acid ( ARA , 20:4n-6 ) . Infants were tested at 4 , 6 , and 9 mo of age on a visual habituation protocol that yielded both behavioral and psychophysiological indices of attention . Infants in all DHA+ARA-supplemented conditions had lower heart rates than those in the unsupplemented condition ; there was no dose-response for this effect . The distribution of time that infants spent in different phases of attention ( a cognitive index derived from the convergence of behavioral and cardiac responses ) varied as a function of dosage . Infants supplemented at the two lower DHA doses spent proportionately more time engaged in active stimulus processing than infants fed the unsupplemented formula , whereas infants fed the highest dose were intermediate and did not differ from any other group BACKGROUND The beneficial effects of prenatal and early postnatal intakes of omega-3 ( n-3 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on cognitive development during infancy are well recognized . However , few studies have examined the extent to which these benefits continue to be evident in childhood . OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine the relation of n-3 PUFAs and seafood-contaminant intake with memory function in school-age children from a fish-eating community . DESIGN In a prospect i ve , longitudinal study in A rct ic Quebec , we assessed Inuit children ( n = 154 ; mean age : 11.3 y ) by using a continuous visual recognition task to measure 2 event-related potential components related to recognition memory processing : the FN400 and the late positive component ( LPC ) . Children were also examined by using 2 well-established neurobehavioral assessment s of memory : the Digit span forward from Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children , 4th edition , and the California Verbal Learning Test-Children 's Version . RESULTS Repeated- measures analyses of variance revealed that children with higher cord plasma concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , which is an important n-3 PUFA , had a shorter FN400 latency and a larger LPC amplitude ; and higher plasma DHA concentrations at the time of testing were associated with increased FN400 amplitude . Cord DHA-related effects were observed regardless of seafood-contaminant amounts . Multiple regression analyses also showed positive associations between cord DHA concentrations and performance on neurobehavioral assessment s of memory . CONCLUSION To our knowledge , this study provides the first neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of long-term beneficial effects of n-3 PUFA intake in utero on memory function in school-age children Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is one of the most common child psychiatric disorders , and is often treated with stimulant medication . Nonpharmacological treatments include dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids , although their effectiveness remains to be shown conclusively . In this study , we investigated the effects of dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on ADHD symptoms and cognitive control in young boys with and without ADHD . A total of 40 boys with ADHD , aged 8–14 years , and 39 matched , typically developing controls participated in a 16-week double-blind r and omized placebo-controlled trial . Participants consumed 10 g of margarine daily , enriched with either 650 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)/docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) each or placebo . Baseline and follow-up assessment s addressed ADHD symptoms , fMRI of cognitive control , urine homovanillic acid , and cheek cell phospholipid sampling . EPA/DHA supplementation improved parent-rated attention in both children with ADHD and typically developing children . Phospholipid DHA level at follow-up was higher for children receiving EPA/DHA supplements than placebo . There was no effect of EPA/DHA supplementation on cognitive control or on fMRI measures of brain activity . This study shows that dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids  reduces symptoms of ADHD , both for individuals with ADHD and typically developing children . This effect does not appear to be mediated by cognitive control systems in the brain , as no effect of supplementation was found here . Nonetheless , this study offers support that omega-3 supplementation may be an effective augmentation for pharmacological treatments of ADHD ( NCT01554462 : The Effects of EPA/DHA Supplementation on Cognitive Control in Children with ADHD ; http:// clinical trials.gov/show/NCT01554462 ) This was a r and omized , double-blind trial to determine if a nutrient-enriched ( preterm ) formula supplemented with 0.2 % docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA , 22∶6n−3 ) from a low eicosapentaenoic acid ( 0.06 % ) source of marine oil would enhance visual novelty preference and attention of preterm infants . Both the st and ard and experimental formulas contained 3 % of total fatty acids as linolenic acid ( 18∶3n−3 ) and were fed from approximately three days of age to two months past term . After two months , both diet groups were fed a commercially-available term formula with linolenic acid as the only source of n−3 fatty acid . At 12 mo visual recognition memory ( novelty preference ) and visual attention ( number and duration of discrete looks ) were determined with the Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence . The DHA-supplemented group compared with the control group had more and shorter duration looks in comparisons of familiar and novel stimuli , confirming earlier evidence that DHA can increase information processing speed of preterm infants who otherwise are receiving good intakes of linolenic acid . Because supplementation was stopped at two months and the effects seen at 12 mon , this study demonstrates for the first time that a relatively short period of DHA supplementation can produce significant effects on later visual attention Presently , there is growing interest in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFAs ) , which are considered a major determinant of growth , visual and neural development , and long-term health.1 Two groups of LCPUFAs have received special interest : homologues of linoleic acid ( LA ) of the n-6 series , which are precursors of arachidonic acid ( AA ) , and homologues of α-linolenic acid ( ALA ) of the n-3 series , which are precursors of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) BACKGROUND There is increasing evidence that fatty acid deficiencies or imbalances may contribute to childhood neurodevelopmental disorders . METHODS We conducted a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled 6-week pilot trial investigating the effects of 1.5 g/d of omega-3 fatty acids ( .84 g/d eicosapentaenoic acid , .7 g/d docosahexaenoic acid ) supplementation in 13 children ( aged 5 to 17 years ) with autistic disorders accompanied by severe tantrums , aggression , or self-injurious behavior . The outcome measure was the Aberrant Behavior Checklist ( ABC ) at 6 weeks . RESULTS We observed an advantage of omega-3 fatty acids compared with placebo for hyperactivity and stereotypy , each with a large effect size . Repeated- measures ANOVA indicated a trend toward superiority of omega-3 fatty acids over placebo for hyperactivity . No clinical ly relevant adverse effects were elicited in either group . CONCLUSIONS The results of this study provide preliminary evidence that omega-3 fatty acids may be an effective treatment for children with autism OBJECTIVES To investigate whether docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) supplementation was able to ameliorate attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(AD/HD ) symptoms in AD/HD children . DESIGN AND SUBJECTS A placebo-controlled double-blind study with 40 AD/HD ( including eight AD/HD-suspected ) children of 6 - 12 y of age who were mostly without medication . Subjects of a DHA group ( n=20 ) took active foods containing fish oil ( fermented soybean milk , bread rolls and steamed bread ; 3.6 g DHA/week from these foods ) for 2 months , whereas those of a control group ( n=20 ) took indistinguishable control foods without fish oil . The following items were measured at the start and end of the study : ( 1 ) attention deficit , hyperactivity and impulsivity ( AD/HD-related symptoms according to DSM-IV criteria ) ; ( 2 ) aggression assessed by both parents and teachers ; ( 3 ) visual perception ( finding symbols out of a table ) ; ( 4 ) visual and auditory short-term memory ; ( 5 ) development of visual-motor integration ; ( 6 ) continuous performance ; ( 7 ) impatience . RESULTS Changes in tests 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 and 7 over time did not significantly differ between the two groups . However , visual short-term memory and errors of commission ( continuous performance ) significantly improved in the control group compared with the changes over time in the DHA group ( P=0.02 and 0.001 , respectively ) . Recalculation without AD/HD-suspected subjects ( n=4 each group ) showed similar P-values with regard to both measures . CONCLUSION DHA supplementation did not improve AD/HD-related symptoms . Treatment of ADHD with fatty acids deserves further investigation , but careful attention should be paid as to which fatty acid(s ) is used OBJECTIVE To determine the effects of an eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)-rich oil and a docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-rich oil versus an ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich safflower oil ( control ) on literacy and behavior in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) in a r and omized controlled trial . METHODS Supplements rich in EPA , DHA , or safflower oil were r and omly allocated for 4 mo to 90 Australian children 7 to 12 y old with ADHD symptoms higher than the 90th percentile on the Conners Rating Scales . The effect of supplementation on cognition , literacy , and parent-rated behavior was assessed by linear mixed modeling . Pearson correlations determined associations between the changes in outcome measurements and the erythrocyte fatty acid content ( percentage of total ) from baseline to 4 mo . RESULTS There were no significant differences between the supplement groups in the primary outcomes after 4 mo . However , the erythrocyte fatty acid profiles indicated that an increased proportion of DHA was associated with improved word reading ( r = 0.394 ) and lower parent ratings of oppositional behavior ( r = 0.392 ) . These effects were more evident in a subgroup of 17 children with learning difficulties : an increased erythrocyte DHA was associated with improved word reading ( r = 0.683 ) , improved spelling ( r = 0.556 ) , an improved ability to divide attention ( r = 0.676 ) , and lower parent ratings of oppositional behavior ( r = 0.777 ) , hyperactivity ( r = 0.702 ) , restlessness ( r = 0.705 ) , and overall ADHD symptoms ( r = 0.665 ) . CONCLUSION Increases in erythrocyte ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids , specifically DHA , may improve literacy and behavior in children with ADHD . The greatest benefit may be observed in children who have comorbid learning difficulties This study examines whether feeding infants formula supplemented with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids ( LCPUFA ) improves cognitive function of 9-month-olds . Participants included 229 infants from 3 r and omized controlled trials . Children received either formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid , or a control formula beginning at 1 - 5 days ( 12-month feeding study ) , or following 6 weeks ( 6-week-weaning study ) or 4 - 6 months of breastfeeding ( 4-to 6-month weaning study ) . Infants were assessed with a 2-step problem solving task . In the 12-month feeding and 6-week weaning studies , supplemented children had more intentional solutions ( successful task completions ) and higher intention scores ( goal -directed behaviors ) than controls . These results suggest that LCPUFA supplementation improves means-end problem solving Findings from epidemiological and observational studies have indicated that diets high in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) such as docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) may reduce the risk of cognitive decline and Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) . To determine if increasing intake of DHA and EPA through supplementation is beneficial to cognition and mood in individuals with cognitive impairment no dementia ( CIND ) or Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) a four month , r and omised , double-blind , placebo controlled study was conducted . Fifty-seven participants with CIND and nineteen with AD were r and omised to receive either omega-3 PUFAs ( 600 mg EPA and 625 mg DHA per day ) or placebo ( olive oil ) over a four month period . Elevating depleted levels of EPA and DHA through supplementation in individuals with CIND or AD was found to have negligible beneficial effect on their cognition or mood . These findings confirm an overall negligible benefit of omega-3 PUFA supplementation for those with cognitive impairment and dementia . More intervention studies need to be undertaken with longer study duration s and larger sample sizes . It may prove fruitful to examine effects of different doses as well as effects in other dementia subtypes While cardiovascular and mood benefits of dietary omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) are manifest , direct neurophysiological evidence of their effects on cortical activity is still limited . Hence we chose to examine the effects of two proprietary fish oil products with different EPA∶DHA ratios ( EPA-rich , high EPA∶DHA ; DHA-rich ) on mental processing speed and visual evoked brain activity . We proposed that nonlinear multifocal visual evoked potentials ( mfVEP ) would be sensitive to any alteration of the neural function induced by omega-3 fatty acid supplementation , because the higher order kernel responses directly measure the degree of recovery of the neural system as a function of time following stimulation . Twenty-two healthy participants aged 18–34 , with no known neurological or psychiatric disorder and not currently taking any nutritional supplementation , were recruited . A double-blind , crossover design was utilized , including a 30-day washout period , between two 30-day supplementation periods of the EPA-rich and DHA-rich diets ( with order of diet r and omized ) . Psychophysical choice reaction times and multi-focal nonlinear visual evoked potential ( VEP ) testing were performed at baseline ( No Diet ) , and after each supplementation period . Following the EPA-rich supplementation , for stimulation at high luminance contrast , a significant reduction in the amplitude of the first slice of the second order VEP kernel response , previously related to activation in the magnocellular pathway , was observed . The correlations between the amplitude changes of short latency second and first order components were significantly different for the two supplementations . Significantly faster choice reaction times were observed psychophysically ( compared with baseline performance ) under the EPA-rich ( but not DHA-rich ) supplementation , while simple reaction times were not affected . The reduced nonlinearities observed under the EPA-rich diet suggest a mechanism involving more efficient neural recovery of magnocellular-like visual responses following cortical activation Objective : To investigate effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( n-3 PUFA ) docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) on attention , literacy , and behavior in children with ADHD . Method : Ninety children were r and omized to consume supplements high in EPA , DHA , or linoleic acid ( control ) for 4 months each in a crossover design . Erythrocyte fatty acids , attention , cognition , literacy , and Conners ’ Parent Rating Scales ( CPRS ) were measured at 0 , 4 , 8 , 12 months . Results : Fifty-three children completed the treatment . Outcome measures showed no significant differences between the three treatments . However , in children with blood sample s ( n = 76 - 46 ) , increased erythrocyte EPA + DHA was associated with improved spelling ( r = .365 , p < .001 ) and attention ( r = −.540 , p < .001 ) and reduced oppositional behavior ( r = −.301 , p < .003 ) , hyperactivity ( r = −.310 , p < .001 ) , cognitive problems ( r = −.326 , p < .001 ) , Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( 4th ed . ; DSM-IV ) hyperactivity ( r = −.270 , p = .002 ) and DSM-IV inattention ( r = −.343 , p < .001 ) . Conclusion : Increasing erythrocyte DHA and EPA via dietary supplementation may improve behavior , attention , and literacy in children with ADHD OBJECTIVE The current study aim ed to investigate the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)-rich and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-rich supplementations on  cognitive performance and functional brain activation . DESIGN A double-blind , counterbalanced , crossover design , with a 30-day washout period between two supplementation periods ( EPA-rich and DHA-rich ) was employed . Functional magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained during performance of Stroop and Spatial Working Memory tasks prior to supplementation and after each 30-day supplementation period . RESULTS Both supplementations result ed in reduced ratio of arachidonic acid to EPA levels . Following the EPA-rich supplementation , there was a reduction in functional activation in the left anterior cingulate cortex and an increase in activation in the right pre central gyrus coupled with a reduction in reaction times on the colour-word Stroop task . By contrast , the DHA-rich supplementation led to a significant increase in functional activation in the right pre central gyrus during the Stroop and Spatial Working Memory tasks , but there was no change in behavioural performance . CONCLUSIONS By extending the theory of neural efficiency to the within-subject neurocognitive effects of supplementation , we concluded that following the EPA-rich supplementation , participants ' brains worked ' less hard ' and achieved a better cognitive performance than prior to supplementation . Conversely , the increase in functional activation and lack of improvement in time or accuracy of cognitive performance following DHA-rich supplementation may indicate that DHA-rich supplementation is less effective than EPA-rich supplementation in enhancing neurocognitive functioning after a 30-day supplementation period in the same group of individuals
Reading , working memory , and behavior change scores showed no consistent differences between intervention and placebo group .
Some behavioral subscales showed minor group differences .
Conclusions This RCT did not replicate results of the earlier DOLAB 1 study on the effectiveness of nutritional supplementation with DHA for learning and behavior .
Background Omega-3 fatty acids are central to brain-development of children .
Evidence from clinical trials and systematic review s demonstrates the potential of long-chain Omega-3 supplementation for learning and behavior .
However , findings are inconclusive and in need of robust replication studies since such work is lacking .
Objectives Replication of the 2012 DOLAB 1 study findings that a dietary supplementation with the long-chain omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) had beneficial effects on the reading , working memory , and behavior of healthy schoolchildren .