Effects of pure sugar vs. mixed starch fructose loads on food intake Fructose and insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes. Effect of Meal Dilution on the Postprandial Glycemic Response: Implications for glycemic testing Effect of glucose, sucrose and fructose on plasma glucose and insulin responses in normal humans: comparison with white bread Effects of high-fructose corn syrup and sucrose consumption on circulating glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin and on appetite in normal-weight women. Moderate Amounts of Fructose Consumption Impair Insulin Sensitivity in Healthy Young Men The glycaemic index of foods containing sugars: comparison of foods with naturally-occurring v. added sugars. Replacement of glycaemic carbohydrates by inulin-type fructans from chicory (oligofructose, inulin) reduces the postprandial blood glucose and insulin response to foods: report of two double-blind, randomized, controlled trials Glycemic, hormone, and appetite responses to monosaccharide ingestion in patients with type 2 diabetes. Effect of postprandial modulation of glucose availability: short- and long-term analysis. Brain functional magnetic resonance imaging response to glucose and fructose infusions in humans. Effects of fructose vs glucose on regional cerebral blood flow in brain regions involved with appetite and reward pathways. Fructose prefeeding reduces the glycemic response to a high-glycemic index, starchy food in humans. On the possibility to affect the course of glycaemia, insulinaemia, and perceived hunger/satiety to bread meals in healthy volunteers. Differential effects of fructose versus glucose on brain and appetitive responses to food cues and decisions for food rewards High-fructose corn syrup and sucrose have equivalent effects on energy-regulating hormones at normal human consumption levels. Turku sugar studies. V. Final report on the effect of sucrose, fructose and xylitol diets on the caries incidence in man.
Using a within-subject design , we gave subjects three different 520 - 530 kcal preloads in the form of puddings in a r and omized fashion at weekly intervals . The puddings contained either 50 g of fructose or glucose as the sole carbohydrate source in a protein and fat mixture , or 50 g fructose plus 15 g of starch .  Food intake was assessed 2.25 h after the preload was completed . Blood was drawn throughout and assayed for concentrations of glucose and insulin . When the preload contained fructose alone as the sole source of carbohydrate , subjects ate significantly fewer calories and less fat than when the preload contained glucose alone . When starch was added to the fructose preload , there was no significant reduction in calorie and fat intake . Effects on food intake paralleled the rise in plasma insulin levels produced by the different preloads . Implication s for use of fructose as an adjunct to weight control efforts are discussed The effect of dietary fructose ( 20 % of carbohydrate calories , 45 - 65 g day-1 for 4 weeks ) on glycaemic control , serum lipid , lipoprotein and apoprotein A-I and A-II concentrations and on insulin sensitivity was studied in 10 type 2 diabetic patients . The study was done in a r and omized , double-blind fashion with crystalline fructose or placebo administered evenly during 4 meals or snacks per day . The patients were hospitalized throughout the study periods . The fasting plasma glucose concentration decreased during the fructose ( from 10.7 + /- 1.4 mmol l-1 to 8.0 + /- 0.8 mmol l-1 , P < 0.02 ) and the control diet ( from 10.1 + /- 0.9 mmol l-1 to 8.0 + /- 0.7 mmol l-1 , P < 0.05 ) . The mean diurnal blood glucose concentration also fell both during the fructose ( from 10.8 + /- 0.5 mmol l-1 to 8.4 + /- 0.3 mmol l-1 , P < 0.001 ) and the control diet ( from 10.3 + /- 0.3 mmol l-1 to 8.8 + /- 0.9 mmol l-1 , P < 0.01 ) . The HbA1 concentration improved ( P < 0.02 ) only during the fructose diet . Insulin sensitivity increased by 34 % ( P < 0.05 ) during the fructose diet , but remained unchanged during the control period . Serum insulin , triglyceride , apoprotein A-I and A-II concentrations , body weight , blood pressure and blood lactate remained unchanged during both diets . In conclusion , substitution of moderate amounts of fructose for complex carbohydrates can improve glycaemic control and insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of varying the volume of sugar meals on the postpr and ial glycemic response ( PGR ) . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS On six separate occasions , after an overnight fast , blood glucose concentrations were measured in eight healthy subjects ( 34 ± 4 years of age , BMI 22.9 ± 0.9 kg/m2 ) after the consumption of 25 g glucose , sucrose , or fructose dissolved in either 200 or 600 ml of water .  Blood was obtained at fasting and then at times 15 , 30 , 45 , 60 , and 90 min after the start of the test meal . RESULTS PGR was found to be influenced by carbohydrate type ( P < 0.001 ) . Mean response areas ( min · mmol · l−1 ) to the three sugars were statistically different ( P < 0.05 ) . Glucose had the highest response area ( 90.0 ± 8.1 ) , followed by sucrose ( 61.3 ± 5.0 ) and then fructose ( 14.7 ± 2.8 ) . Independent of this effect , PGR was also found to be influenced by volume dose ( P < 0.01 ) . By tripling meal volume from 200 to 600 ml , PGR areas were significantly increased for all three sugars , glucose ( 79.3 ± 10.3 vs. 100.8 ± 12.0 , P = 0.035 ) , sucrose ( 52.6 ± 5.5 vs. 70 ± 7.4 , P = 0.0094 ) , and fructose ( 11.0 ± 3.8 vs. 18.4 ± 3.9 , P = 0.012 ) . Where the effects of time ( P < 0.05 ) and dose ( P < 0.05 ) were determined to be independent ( interaction nonsignificant ) for all three sugars , this increase in volume also significantly increased glycemic concentrations at 15 min , for glucose ( P = 0.033 ) and sucrose ( P = 0.026 ) , suggesting that changes in gastric emptying time may be a mechanism of action . CONCLUSIONS Varying the volume of liquid sugar meals alters PGR.Underst and ing this concept may help to reduce variability both in the glycemic testing of foods and oral glucose tolerance testing Objective : To determine the plasma glucose and insulin responses of various doses of glucose , sucrose , fructose and white bread in normal human subjects . Design : Plasma glucose and insulin were measured before and at various times after 8 subjects ate 13 different test meals in r and omized order on separate days after an overnight fast . Test meals consisted of 500 ml of tea or water to which was added either nothing , 25 , 50 , or 100 g of glucose or sucrose , 25 or 50 g fructose , 50 g glucose plus 50 g fructose , or a 25 , 50 or 100 g carbohydrate portion of white bread . The glycaemic ( GI ) and insulinaemic index ( II ) values of the sugars were calculated by expressing the incremental areas under the plasma glucose and insulin curves ( AUC ) after glucose , sucrose and fructose as a percentage of the respective AUC after white bread containing the same amount of carbohydrate . Setting : University teaching hospital clinical nutrition centre . Subjects : Lean , normal subjects ( 4 male , 4 female ) 21–33 y of age . Results : Plasma insulin responses increased nearly linearly as carbohydrate intake increased from 0 to 100 g , but glycaemic responses increased by only 68 % and 38 % as carbohydrate intake increased from 25 to 50 g and 50 to 100 g , respectively . The GI and II values of glucose , 149±16 and 147±18 , respectively , were significantly greater than those of bread ( 100 ; P<0.05 ) , while the values for fructose , 16±4 and 22±3 were significantly less than those of bread ( P<0.001 ) . GI values did not differ significantly from II values . Conclusions : It is concluded that , in normal subjects , as carbohydrate intake is increased from 0 to 100 g , plasma insulin responses increase at a greater rate than plasma glucose responses . The insulinaemic responses elicited by glucose , sucrose or fructose are similar to those that would be expected from a starchy food with the same glycaemic index . Descriptors OBJECTIVE Fructose has been implicated in obesity , partly due to lack of insulin-mediated leptin stimulation and ghrelin suppression . Most work has examined effects of pure fructose , rather than high-fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) , the most commonly consumed form of fructose . This study examined effects of beverages sweetened with HFCS or sucrose ( Suc ) , when consumed with mixed meals , on blood glucose , insulin , leptin , ghrelin , and appetite . METHODS Thirty lean women were studied on two r and omized 2-d visits during which HFCS- and Suc-sweetened beverages were consumed as 30 % of energy on isocaloric diets during day 1 while blood was sample d. On day 2 , food was eaten ad libitum . Subjects rated appetite at design ated times throughout visits . RESULTS No significant differences between the two sweeteners were seen in fasting plasma glucose , insulin , leptin , and ghrelin ( P > 0.05 ) . The within-day variation in all four items was not different between the two visits ( P > 0.05 ) . Net areas under the curve were similar for glucose , insulin , and leptin ( P > 0.05 ) . There were no differences in energy or macronutrient intake on day 2 . The only appetite variable that differed between sweeteners was desire to eat , which had a higher area under the curve the day after Suc compared with HFCS . CONCLUSION These short-term results suggest that , when fructose is consumed in the form of HFCS , the measured metabolic responses do not differ from Suc in lean women . Further research is required to examine appetite responses and to determine if these findings hold true for obese individuals , males , or longer periods OBJECTIVE Adverse effects of hypercaloric , high-fructose diets on insulin sensitivity and lipids in human subjects have been shown repeatedly . The implication s of fructose in amounts close to usual daily consumption , however , have not been well studied . This study assessed the effect of moderate amounts of fructose and sucrose compared with glucose on glucose and lipid metabolism . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Nine healthy , normal-weight male volunteers ( aged 21–25 years ) were studied in this double-blind , r and omized , cross-over trial . All subjects consumed four different sweetened beverages ( 600 mL/day ) for 3 weeks each : medium fructose ( MF ) at 40 g/day , and high fructose ( HF ) , high glucose ( HG ) , and high sucrose ( HS ) each at 80 g/day . Euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamps with [6,6]-2H2 glucose labeling were used to measure endogenous glucose production . Lipid profile , glucose , and insulin were measured in fasting sample s. RESULTS Hepatic suppression of glucose production during the clamp was significantly lower after HF ( 59.4 ± 11.0 % ) than HG ( 70.3 ± 10.5 % , P < 0.05 ) , whereas fasting glucose , insulin , and C-peptide did not differ between the interventions . Compared with HG , LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol were significantly higher after MF , HF , and HS , and free fatty acids were significantly increased after MF , but not after the two other interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . Subjects ’ energy intake during the interventions did not differ significantly from baseline intake . CONCLUSIONS This study clearly shows that moderate amounts of fructose and sucrose significantly alter hepatic insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism compared with similar amounts of glucose The primary aim of the present study was to exp and the glycaemic index ( GI ) data base by determining the GI and insulin index values of thirty-nine foods containing sugars  in healthy adults . The second aim was to examine the hypothesis that glycaemic and insulin responses to foods which contain added sugar(s ) are higher than responses to foods containing naturally-occurring sugars . Eight healthy subjects drawn from a pool of eighteen consumed 50 g carbohydrate portions ( except 25 g carbohydrate portions for fruits ) of the test foods . The GI and insulin index were determined according to st and ardized methodology and expressed on a scale on which glucose = 100 . The median GI and insulin index values of all foods tested were 56 ( range 14 to 80 ) and 56 ( range 24 to 124 ) respectively . The median GI of the foods containing added sugars was similar to that of foods containing naturally-occurring sugars ( 58 v. 53 respectively , P = 0.08 ) . Likewise , the median insulin index of the foods containing added sugars was not significantly different from that of foods containing naturally-occurring sugars ( 61 v. 56 respectively , P = 0.16 ) . There was no evidence of ' rebound hypoglycaemia ' or excessive insulin secretion relative to the glucose response . We conclude that most foods containing sugars do not have a high GI . In addition , there is often no difference in responses between foods containing added sugars and those containing naturally-occurring sugars Purpose Inulin-type fructans are recognized as prebiotic dietary fibres and classified as non-digestible carbohydrates that do not contribute to glycaemia . The aim of the present studies was to investigate the glycaemic response ( GR ) and insulinaemic response ( IR ) to foods in which sucrose was partially replaced by inulin or oligofructose from chicory . Methods In a double-blind , r and omized , controlled cross-over design , 40–42 healthy adults consumed a yogurt drink containing oligofructose or fruit jelly containing inulin and the respective full-sugar variants .  Capillary blood glucose and insulin were measured in fasted participants and at 15 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90 , and 120 min after starting to drink/eat . For each test food , the incremental area under the curve ( iAUC ) for glucose and insulin was calculated and the GR and IR determined . Results Consumption of a yogurt drink with oligofructose which was 20 % reduced in sugars significantly lowered the glycaemic response compared to the full-sugar reference ( iAUC120min 31.9 and 37.3 mmol/L/min , respectively ; p < 0.05 ) . A fruit jelly made with inulin and containing 30 % less sugars than the full-sugar variant likewise result ed in a significantly reduced blood glucose response ( iAUC120min 53.7 and 63.7 mmol/L/min , respectively ; p < 0.05 ) . In both studies , the postpr and ial insulin response was lowered in parallel ( p < 0.05 ) . The reduction of postpr and ial glycaemia was positively correlated to the proportion of sugars replaced by inulin-type fructans ( p < 0.001 ) . Conclusions In conclusion , the studies confirmed that substitution of glycaemic sugars by inulin or oligofructose from chicory may be an effective strategy to reduce the postpr and ial blood glucose response to foods To investigate the relative effects of fructose and glucose on blood glucose , plasma insulin and incretin ( glucagon-like peptide-1 [ GLP-1 ] and gastric inhibitory peptide [ GIP ] ) concentrations , and acute food intake , 10 ( 6 men , 4 women ) patients with diet-controlled type 2 diabetes ( diabetic ) ( 44 to 71 years ) and 10 age and body mass index ( BMI ) -matched ( 6 men , 4 women ) nondiabetic , control subjects with varying degrees of glucose tolerance ( nondiabetic ) , were studied on 3 days . In r and om order , they drank equienergetic preloads of glucose ( 75 g ) ( GLUC ) , fructose ( 75 g ) ( FRUCT ) or vehicle ( 300 mL water with noncaloric flavoring [ VEH ] ) 3 hours before an ad libitum buffet lunch .  Mean glucose concentrations were lower after FRUCT than GLUC in both type 2 diabetics ( FRUCT v GLUC : 7.5 + /- 0.3 v 10.8 + /- 0.4 mmol/L , P < .001 ) and nondiabetics ( FRUCT v GLUC : 5.9 + /- 0.2 v 7.2 + /- 0.3 mmol/L , P < .05 ) . Mean insulin concentrations were approximately 50 % higher after FRUCT in type 2 diabetics than in nondiabetics ( diabetics v nondiabetics : 23.1 + /- 0.7 v 15.1 + /- 1.3 microU/mL ; P < .0001 ) . Plasma GLP-1 concentrations after fructose were not different between type 2 diabetics and nondiabetics ( P > .05 ) . Glucose , but not FRUC , increased GIP concentrations , which were not different between type 2 diabetics and nondiabetics ( P > .05 ) . Food intake was suppressed 14 % by GLUC ( P < .05 v CONT ) and 14 % by FRUC ( P < .05 v CONT ) , with no difference between the amount of food consumed after GLUC and FRUC treatment in either type 2 diabetics or nondiabetics ( P > .05 ) . We have confirmed that oral fructose ingestion produces a lower postpr and ial blood glucose response than equienergetic glucose and demonstrated that ( 1 ) fructose produces greater increases in plasma insulin concentration in type 2 diabetics than nondiabetics , not apparently due to greater plasma incretin concentrations and ( 2 ) fructose and glucose have equivalent short-term satiating efficiency in both type 2 diabetics and nondiabetics . We conclude that on the basis of improved glycemic control , but not satiating efficiency , fructose may be useful as a replacement for glucose in the diet of obese patients with type 2 diabetes Low glycaemic index ( LGI ) foods have been proposed as potential means to decrease postpr and ial glucose excursions and thus to improve diabetes management . We modulated glucose availability of cereal products and thus their glycaemic index to study the metabolic effect of LGI foods on daylong glucose control acutely and in the long term following a 5-week GI intervention diet in free-living subjects . In this r and omised , parallel trial , two groups of nineteen overweight subjects followed an ad libitum 5-week intervention diet  in which usual starch was replaced by either LGI or high GI ( HGI ) starch . During the exploration days ( days 1 and 36 ) , subjects ate their assigned 13C-labelled test breakfast ( LGI or HGI ) , and total and exogenous glucose kinetics ( using stable isotopes ) , postpr and ial concentrations of glucose , insulin , lipid profile and nutrient oxidation were assessed after the test breakfast and a st and ardised lunch . At day 1 , LGI breakfast significantly decreased post-breakfast glycaemic response with a parallel decrease in exogenous and total glucose appearance ( P < 0.05 ) . Post-lunch and post-breakfast glycaemic responses were positively correlated ( r 0.79 , P < 0.0001 ) . Following the 5-week diet , difference between the groups in terms of glucose kinetics and response was maintained ( no significant interaction group x time ) but tended to decrease over time for the post-breakfast glycaemic response . Post-lunch and post-breakfast glycaemic responses remained positively correlated ( r 0.47 , P = 0.004 ) . Modulation of postpr and ial glucose availability at breakfast decreased plasma exogenous glucose appearance and improved glucose control at the subsequent lunch . After 5 weeks , these effects were maintained in healthy subjects but remained to be confirmed in the longer term AIMS In animals , intracerebroventricular glucose and fructose have opposing effects on appetite and weight regulation . In humans , functional brain magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) studies during glucose ingestion or infusion have demonstrated suppression of hypothalamic signalling , but no studies have compared the effects of glucose and fructose . We therefore sought to determine if the brain response differed to glucose vs. fructose in humans independently of the ingestive process . METHODS Nine healthy , normal weight subjects underwent blood oxygenation level dependent ( BOLD ) fMRI measurements during either intravenous ( IV ) glucose ( 0.3 mg/kg ) , fructose ( 0.3 mg/kg ) or saline , administered over 2 min in a r and omized , double-blind , crossover study . Blood was sample d every 5 min during a baseline period and following infusion for 60 min in total for glucose , fructose , lactate and insulin levels . RESULTS No significant brain BOLD signal changes were detected in response to IV saline .  BOLD signal in the cortical control areas increased during glucose infusion ( p = 0.002 ) , corresponding with increased plasma glucose and insulin levels . In contrast , BOLD signal decreased in the cortical control areas during fructose infusion ( p = 0.006 ) , corresponding with increases of plasma fructose and lactate . Neither glucose nor fructose infusions significantly altered BOLD signal in the hypothalamus . CONCLUSION In normal weight humans , cortical responses as assessed by BOLD fMRI to infused glucose are opposite to those of fructose . Differential brain responses to these sugars and their metabolites may provide insight into the neurologic basis for dysregulation of food intake during high dietary fructose intake IMPORTANCE Increases in fructose consumption have paralleled the increasing prevalence of obesity , and high-fructose diets are thought to promote weight gain and insulin resistance . Fructose ingestion produces smaller increases in circulating satiety hormones compared with glucose ingestion , and central administration of fructose provokes feeding in rodents , whereas central ly administered glucose promotes satiety . OBJECTIVE To study neurophysiological factors that might underlie associations between fructose consumption and weight gain . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS Twenty healthy adult volunteers underwent 2 magnetic resonance imaging sessions at Yale University in conjunction with fructose or glucose drink ingestion in a blinded , r and om-order , crossover design . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Relative changes in hypothalamic regional cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) after glucose or fructose ingestion . Secondary outcomes included whole-brain analyses to explore regional CBF changes , functional connectivity analysis to investigate correlations between the hypothalamus and other brain region responses , and hormone responses to fructose and glucose ingestion . RESULTS There was a significantly greater reduction in hypothalamic CBF after glucose vs fructose ingestion ( -5.45 vs 2.84 mL/g per minute , respectively ; mean difference , 8.3 mL/g per minute [ 95 % CI of mean difference , 1.87 - 14.70 ] ; P = .01 ) . Glucose ingestion ( compared with baseline ) increased functional connectivity between the hypothalamus and the thalamus and striatum . Fructose  increased connectivity between the hypothalamus and thalamus but not the striatum . Regional CBF within the hypothalamus , thalamus , insula , anterior cingulate , and striatum ( appetite and reward regions ) was reduced after glucose ingestion compared with baseline ( P < .05 significance threshold , family-wise error [ FWE ] whole-brain corrected ) . In contrast , fructose  reduced regional CBF in the thalamus , hippocampus , posterior cingulate cortex , fusiform , and visual cortex ( P < .05 significance threshold , FWE whole-brain corrected ) . In whole-brain voxel-level analyses , there were no significant differences between direct comparisons of fructose vs glucose sessions following correction for multiple comparisons . Fructose vs glucose ingestion result ed in lower peak levels of serum glucose ( mean difference , 41.0 mg/dL [ 95 % CI , 27.7 - 54.5 ] ; P < .001 ) , insulin ( mean difference , 49.6 μU/mL [ 95 % CI , 38.2 - 61.1 ] ; P < .001 ) , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 ( mean difference , 2.1 pmol/L [ 95 % CI , 0.9 - 3.2 ] ; P = .01 ) . CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE In a series of exploratory analyses , consumption of fructose compared with glucose result ed in a distinct pattern of regional CBF and a smaller increase in systemic glucose , insulin , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 levels The study objective was to determine whether a small dose of fructose administered before or simultaneously with a high glycemic index , starchy food decreases postpr and ial glycemic response .  Nondiabetic healthy adults ( n = 31 ; mean + /- SEM : age , 26 + /- 1 y ; weight , 66.1 + /- 2.6 kg ; body mass index , 23.3 + /- 0.6 kg/m(2 ) ) were studied in a r and omized crossover design . Treatments consisted of 50 g available carbohydrate from instant mashed potatoes fed alone ( control ) or with 10 g fructose fed 60 , 30 or 0 min before the potato meal . Capillary finger-stick blood sample s were analyzed for glucose concentration at -60 , -30 , 0 , 15 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90 and 120 min relative to the ingestion of the potato meal . Compared with the control , the positive incremental area under the glucose curve was reduced 25 and 27 % ( P < 0.01 ) when fructose was fed either 60 or 30 min before the meal , respectively . In contrast to previous studies demonstrating that immediate administration of a small amount of fructose lowers the glycemic response to a glucose solution , we found that fructose must be consumed before a starchy food to reduce postpr and ial glycemia Frequent hyperglycaemia is associated with oxidative stress and sub clinical inflammation , and thus increased risk of cardiovascular disease . Possibilities of modulating glycaemia , insulinaemia and perceived satiety for bread products were investigated , with emphasis on the course of glycaemia expressed as a glycaemic profile ( defined as the duration of the glucose curve above the fasting concentration divided by the incremental glucose peak ) . For this purpose  white wheat bread was supplemented with whole grain corn flour with an elevated amylose content and different types and levels of guar gum . The bread products were characterised in vitro for release of starch degradation products and content of resistant starch . Fibre related fluidity following enzyme hydrolysis was also studied . By combining medium weight guar gum and whole grain corn flour with an elevated amylose content , the course of glycaemia , insulinaemia and subjective appetite ratings were improved compared to the reference white wheat bread . In addition , the combination beneficially influenced the content of resistant starch . Fluidity measurements showed potential to predict the glycaemic profile Significance Fructose compared with glucose may be a weaker suppressor of appetite . Here we sought to determine the effects of fructose versus glucose on brain , hormone , and appetitive responses to food cues and food-approach behavior . We show that the ingestion of fructose compared with glucose result ed in smaller increases in plasma insulin levels and greater brain responses to food cues in the visual cortex and left orbital frontal cortex . Ingestion of fructose versus glucose also led to greater hunger and desire for food and a greater willingness to give up long-term monetary rewards to obtain immediate high-calorie foods . These findings suggest that ingestion of fructose relative to glucose activates brain regions involved in attention and reward processing and may promote feeding behavior . Prior studies suggest that fructose compared with glucose may be a weaker suppressor of appetite , and neuroimaging research shows that food cues trigger greater brain reward responses in a fasted relative to a fed state . We sought to determine the effects of ingesting fructose versus glucose on brain , hormone , and appetitive responses to food cues and food-approach behavior . Twenty-four healthy volunteers underwent two functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) sessions with ingestion of either fructose or glucose in a double-blinded , r and om-order cross-over design . fMRI was performed while participants viewed images of high-calorie foods and nonfood items using a block design . After each block , participants rated hunger and desire for food . Participants also performed a decision task in which they chose between immediate food rewards and delayed monetary bonuses . Hormones were measured at baseline and 30 and 60 min after drink ingestion . Ingestion of fructose relative to glucose result ed in smaller increases in plasma insulin levels and greater brain reactivity to food cues in the visual cortex ( in whole-brain analysis ) and left orbital frontal cortex ( in region-of-interest analysis ) . Parallel to the neuroimaging findings , fructose versus glucose led to greater hunger and desire for food and a greater willingness to give up long-term monetary rewards to obtain immediate high-calorie foods . These findings suggest that ingestion of fructose relative to glucose results in greater activation of brain regions involved in attention and reward processing and may promote feeding behavior Intake of high-fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) has been suggested to contribute to the increased prevalence of obesity , whereas a number of studies and organizations have reported metabolic equivalence between HFCS and sucrose . We hypothesized that HFCS and sucrose would have similar effects on energy-regulating hormones and metabolic substrates at normal levels of human consumption and that these values would not change over a 10-week , free-living period at these consumption levels . This was a r and omized , prospect i ve , double-blind , parallel group study in which 138 adult men and women consumed 10 weeks of low-fat milk sweetened with either HFCS or sucrose at levels of the 25th , 50th , and 90th percentile population consumption of fructose ( the equivalent of 40 , 90 , or 150 g of sugar per day in a 2000-kcal diet ) . Before and after the 10-week intervention , 24-hour blood sample s were collected . The area under the curve ( AUC ) for glucose , insulin , leptin , active ghrelin , triglyceride , and uric acid was measured . There were no group differences at baseline or posttesting for all outcomes ( interaction , P > .05 ) . The AUC response of glucose , active ghrelin , and uric acid did not change between baseline and posttesting ( P > .05 ) , whereas the AUC response of insulin ( P < .05 ) , leptin ( P < .001 ) , and triglyceride ( P < .01 ) increased over the course of the intervention when the 6 groups were averaged . We conclude that there are no differences in the metabolic effects of HFCS and sucrose when compared at low , medium , and high levels of consumption The purpose was to study differences in the  caries increment rate  as influenced by various sugars . The trial involved almost complete substitution of sucrose ( S ) by fructose ( F ) or xylitol ( X ) during a period of 2 years . There were no significant initial differences as to caries status between the prospect i ve sugar groups ; 35 subjects in the S-group , 38 in the F-group , and 52 in the X-group . During the entire study 10 subjects discontinued or were excluded . The clinical and radiographical observer error was reported and discussed . After 2 years the mean increment of decayed , missed and filled tooth surfaces was 7.2 in the S-group , 3.8 in the F-group , and 0.0 in the X-group . The weakness of the DMFS-index in not showing the development of new secondary caries and the increase in size of the lesions was overcome by expressing the caries activity in terms of indices showing the total quantitative and qualitative development . The results showed a massive reduction of the caries increment in relation to xylitol consumption . Fructose was found to be less cariogenic than sucrose . It was suggested that the non- and anticariogenic properties of xylitol principally depend on its lack of suitability for microbial metabolism and physico-chemical effects in plaque and saliva
There was interaction by food source , with specific food sources showing beneficial effects ( fruit and fruit juice ) or harmful effects ( sweetened milk and mixed sources ) in substitution studies and harmful effects ( sugars‐sweetened beverages and fruit juice ) in addition studies on at least one outcome .
Conclusions Energy control and food source appear to mediate the effect of fructose‐containing sugars on glycaemic control .
Although most food sources of these sugars ( especially fruit ) do not have a harmful effect in energy matched substitutions with other macronutrients , several food sources of fructose‐containing sugars ( especially sugars‐sweetened beverages ) adding excess energy to diets have harmful effects .
Objective To assess the effect of different food sources of fructose‐containing sugars  on glycaemic control at different levels of energy control .