Effect of acute exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acute Physical Activity Enhances Executive Functions in Children with ADHD Effects of a selected exercise programon executive function of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Physical Activity, Affect, and Cognition in Children With Symptoms of ADHD Cognitively challenging physical activity benefits executive function in overweight children Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial. Executive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: combined type with and without a stimulant medication history. Executive function and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: stimulant medication and better executive function performance in children. Improving Executive Functioning in Children with ADHD: Training Multiple Executive Functions within the Context of a Computer Game. A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo Controlled Trial A longitudinal examination of neuropsychological and clinical functioning in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): improvements in executive functioning do not explain clinical improvement. Does increased physical activity in school affect children's executive function and aerobic fitness? Working memory training in young children with ADHD: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Pilot Physical Activity Intervention Reduces Severity of ADHD Symptoms in Young Children In-School Neurofeedback Training for ADHD: Sustained Improvements From a Randomized Control Trial A Randomized Trial Examining the Effects of Aerobic Physical Activity on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Young Children Efficacy of Cognitive-Functional (Cog-Fun) Occupational Therapy Intervention Among Children With ADHD: An RCT Balance, executive functions and falls in elderly with Alzheimer's disease (AD): a longitudinal study.
This study was conducted to determine the effect of acute aerobic exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . Forty children with ADHD were r and omly assigned into exercise or control groups . Participants in the exercise group performed a moderate intensity aerobic exercise for 30 min , whereas the control group watched a running/exercise-related video .  Neuropsychological tasks , the Stroop Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test ( WCST ) , were assessed before and after each treatment . The results indicated that acute exercise facilitated performance in the Stroop Test , particularly in the Stroop Color-Word condition . Additionally , children in the exercise group demonstrated improvement in specific WCST performances in Non-perseverative Errors and Categories Completed , whereas no influences were found in those performances in the control group . Tentative explanations for the exercise effect postulate that exercise allocates attention re sources , influences the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex , and is implicated in exercise-induced dopamine release . These findings are promising and additional investigations to explore the efficacy of exercise on executive function in children with ADHD are encouraged Acute physical activity of moderate to vigorous intensity has been shown to improve cognitive functions in children . However , the empirical evidence associated with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) in children is still limited , in particular regarding which specific cognitive functions benefit . This study investigated the effects of an acute bout of physical activity on multiple aspects of executive functions ( inhibition , switching , and visual working memory ) in children with ADHD . Forty-six children ( 8–12 years old ; 82.6 % boys ) were r and omly assigned to either 15 minutes of acute exergaming ( physical activity of moderate intensity ) or to a control condition ( sedentary )  . Executive function performance in inhibition , switching and visual working memory were assessed before and after each condition , using a modified version of both the Flanker and the Color Span Backwards Task . The results revealed that participants in the exergaming group performed significantly faster than those in the control group in terms of both inhibition and switching , but there was no significant difference in the accuracy of the two tasks nor in visual working memory performance . These findings suggest that acute physical activity utilizing exergaming has the potential to improve specific aspects of executive functions ( reaction times in inhibition and switching ) in children with ADHD Introduction . The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a Selected exercise program on the executive function of children with ADHD . Method . The participants were 40 male students , aged 7 - 11 years . The participants were r and omly assigned into two groups ( experimental and control ) . The experimental group participated in an exercise program for 24 sessions , 90 minutes per session . The control group did not receive any intervention . Before and after the exercise period , all the participants were assessed with Stroop and Go-No-Go tests , and the result ing data were analyzed by using MANCOVA . Result . The results showed that the cognitive inhibition of the children in the experimental group was significantly different compared with the control group ( p < 0.05 ) . Additionally , there was a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the behavioral inhibition ( p < 0.05 ) . Conclusion . An organized physical activity helps to improve the executive function in children with ADHD Objective : To examine the role of physical activity in determining the affect and executive functioning of children with symptoms of ADHD . Method : In Study 1 , the association between physical activity and affect in the daily lives of children with varying degrees of hyperactivity was examined . In Study 2 , children with ADHD were r and omly assigned a physical activity or a sedentary task before working on a task requiring executive control . Results : Lack of physical activity was shown to relate to depressed affect , more strongly in participants with severe hyperactivity symptoms ( Study 1 ) . The physically active participants showed improved executive functioning after only 5 min of vigorous activity ; the sedentary control participants showed no improvement ( Study 2 ) . Conclusion : These results indicate that interventions to increase the level of physical activity in children with and without ADHD might improve affect and executive functioning Abstract This study tested the association between aerobic fitness and executive function and the impact of enhanced , cognitively challenging physical activity on executive function in overweight and lean children . Seventy children aged 9–10 years were assigned to either a 6-month enhanced physical education programme including cognitively dem and ing ( open skill ) activities or curricular physical education only . Pre- and post-intervention tests assessed aerobic capacity ( Leger test ) and two components of executive function : inhibition and working memory updating ( r and om number generation task ) . Indices of inhibition and memory updating were compared in higher- and lower-fit children and intervention effects were evaluated as a function of physical activity programme ( enhanced vs. curricular ) and weight status ( lean vs. overweight ) . Results showed better inhibition in higher- than lower-fit children , extending the existing evidence of the association between aerobic fitness and executive function to new aspects of children ’s inhibitory ability . Overweight children had more pronounced pre- to post-intervention improvements in inhibition than lean children only if involved in enhanced physical education . Such intervention effects were not mediated by aerobic fitness gains . Therefore , the cognitive and social interaction challenges inherent in open skill tasks , even though embedded in a low-dose physical activity programme , may represent an effective means to promote cognitive efficiency , especially in overweight children OBJECTIVE This experiment tested the hypothesis that exercise would improve executive function . DESIGN Sedentary , overweight 7- to 11-year-old children ( N = 171 , 56 % girls , 61 % Black , M ± SD age = 9.3 ± 1.0 years , body mass index [ BMI ] = 26 ± 4.6 kg/m² , BMI z-score = 2.1 ± 0.4 ) were r and omized to 13 ± 1.6 weeks of an exercise program ( 20 or 40 min/day ) , or a control condition . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Blinded , st and ardized psychological evaluations ( Cognitive Assessment System and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III ) assessed cognition and academic achievement .  Functional MRI  measured brain activity during executive function tasks . RESULTS Intent to treat analysis revealed dose-response benefits of exercise  on executive function and mathematics achievement . Preliminary evidence of increased bilateral prefrontal cortex activity and reduced bilateral posterior parietal cortex activity attributable to exercise was also observed . CONCLUSION Consistent with results obtained in older adults , a specific improvement on executive function and brain activation changes attributable to exercise were observed . The cognitive and achievement results add evidence of dose-response and extend experimental evidence into childhood . This study provides information on an educational outcome . Besides its importance for maintaining weight and reducing health risks during a childhood obesity epidemic , physical activity may prove to be a simple , important method of enhancing aspects of children 's mental functioning that are central to cognitive development . This information may persuade educators to implement vigorous physical activity Behavioral and neuropsychological functioning in unmedicated children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) who have a history of medication treatment ( Rx ) versus those who are treatment naïve ( TN ) has , to our knowledge , not been previously studied . Ninety-four children in four groups ( ADHD/Rx , ADHD/TN , learning disabilities [ LD ] , and controls ) were evaluated , while unmedicated , on measures of achievement , neuropsychological functioning , and behavior . The ADHD/Rx group performed significantly better than the TN group on writing , Stroop interference , and measures of attention , and performed as well as the control group on executive functioning , verbal working memory , and academics . Behaviorally , the ADHD groups showed more difficulty with mood and externalizing behaviors compared with the LD and control groups , with the ADHD/TN performing the most poorly . Findings suggest that the ADHD/Rx group shows better executive and academic functioning even when unmedicated BACKGROUND Executive function deficits have been reported repeatedly in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ( ADHD ) .  Stimulant medication has been shown to be effective in improving cognitive performance on most executive function tasks , but neuropsychological tests of executive function in this population have yielded inconsistent results . Method ological limitations may explain these inconsistencies . This study aim ed to measure executive function in medicated and non-medicated children with ADHD by using a computerized battery , the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery ( CANTAB ) , which is sensitive to executive function deficits in older patients with frontostriatal neurological impairments . METHODS Executive function was assessed in 30 children with ADHD : 15 were stimulant medication naive and 15 were treated with stimulant medication .  These two groups were compared to 15 age , sex and IQ matched controls . RESULTS The unmedicated children with ADHD displayed specific cognitive impairments on executive function tasks of spatial short-term memory , spatial working memory , set-shifting ability and planning ability . Impairments were also seen on spatial recognition memory and delayed matching to sample , while pattern recognition memory remained intact . The medicated children with ADHD were not impaired on any of the above executive function tasks except for deficits in spatial recognition memory . CONCLUSIONS ADHD is associated with deficits in executive function .  Stimulant medication is associated with better executive function performance . Prospect i ve follow-up studies are required to examine these effects Introduction Executive functions ( EFs ) training interventions aim ed at ADHD-symptom reduction have yielded mixed results . Generally , these interventions focus on training a single cognitive domain ( e.g. , working memory [ WM ] , inhibition , or cognitive-flexibility ) . However , evidence suggests that most children with ADHD show deficits on multiple EFs , and that these EFs are largely related to different brain regions . Therefore , training multiple EFs might be a potentially more effective strategy to reduce EF-related ADHD symptoms . Methods Eighty-nine children with a clinical diagnosis of ADHD ( aged 8–12 ) were r and omized to either a full-active-condition where visuospatial WM , inhibition and cognitive-flexibility were trained , a partially-active-condition where inhibition and cognitive-flexibility were trained and the WM-training task was presented in placebo-mode , or to a full placebo-condition . Short-term and long-term ( 3-months ) effects of this gamified , 25-session , home-based computer-training were evaluated on multiple outcome domains . Results During training compliance was high ( only 3 % failed to meet compliance criteria ) . After training , only children in the full-active condition showed improvement on measures of visuospatial short-term-memory ( STM ) and WM . Inhibitory performance and interference control only improved in the full-active- and the partially-active condition . No Treatment-condition x Time interactions were found for cognitive-flexibility , verbal WM , complex-reasoning , nor for any parent- , teacher- , or child-rated ADHD behaviors , EF-behaviors , motivational behaviors , or general problem behaviors . Nonetheless , almost all measures showed main Time-effects , including the teacher-ratings . Conclusions Improvements on inhibition and visuospatial STM and WM were specifically related to the type of treatment received . However , transfer to untrained EFs and behaviors was mostly nonspecific ( i.e. , only interference control improved exclusively in the two EF training conditions ) . As such , in this multiple EF-training , mainly nonspecific treatment factors – as opposed to the specific effects of training EFs — seem related to far transfer effects found on EF and behavior . Trial Registration trialregister.nl NTR2728 . Registry name : improving executive functioning in children with ADHD : training executive functions within the context of a computer game ; registry number : NTR2728 BACKGROUND Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) often , but not always , persists into adulthood . Investigations of the associations between clinical and biological markers of persistence can shed light on causal pathways . It has been proposed that compensatory improvements in executive neuropsychological functioning are associated with clinical improvements . This is the first study to test this hypothesis prospect ively . METHOD The clinical and neuropsychological functioning of 17 boys with ADHD ( mean age 10.45 years at time 1 ; 14.65 years at time 2 ) and 17 typically developing ( TYP ) boys ( mean age 10.39 years at time 1 ; 14.47 years at time 2 ) was tested on two occasions , 4 years apart . This was done using a battery of st and ardized neuropsychological tests that included tasks with high and low executive dem and s. RESULTS Clinical improvements were observed over time . Neuropsychological performance improvements were also evident , with ADHD boys developing with a similar pattern to TYP boys , but with a developmental lag . Whilst there was an association between reduced symptoms and superior performance at retest for one task with a high executive dem and ( spatial working memory ) , this was not seen with two further high executive dem and tasks [ Stockings of Cambridge and intra-dimensional extra-dimensional ( ID/ED ) set shifting ] . Also , there was no association between change in executive functioning and change in symptoms . Baseline performance on the ID/ED set-shifting task predicted better clinical outcome . Only change in performance on the low executive dem and delayed matching-to- sample task predicted better clinical outcome . CONCLUSIONS These data highlight the importance of longitudinal measurements of cognition , symptoms and treatment response over time in children and adolescents with ADHD This study seeks to explore whether increased PA in school affects  children 's executive function and aerobic fitness . The " Active school " study was a 10-month r and omized controlled trial . The sample included 449 children ( 10 - 11 years old ) in five intervention and four control schools . The weekly interventions were 2 × 45 minutes physically active academic lessons , 5 × 10 minutes physically active breaks , and 5 × 10 minutes physically active homework .  Aerobic fitness was measured using a 10-minute interval running test . Executive function was tested using four cognitive tests ( Stroop , verbal fluency , digit span , and Trail Making ) . A composite score for executive function was computed and used in analyses . Mixed ANCOVA repeated measures were performed to analyze changes in scores for aerobic fitness and executive function . Analysis showed a tendency for a time × group interaction on executive function , but the results were non-significant F(1 , 344)=3.64 , P=.057 . There was no significant time × group interaction for aerobic fitness . Results indicate that increased physical activity  in school might improve children 's executive function , even without improvement in aerobic fitness , but a longer intervention period may be required to find significant effects BACKGROUND Until now , working memory training has not reached sufficient evidence as effective treatment for ADHD core symptoms in children with ADHD ; for young children with ADHD , no studies are available . To this end , a triple-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled study was design ed to assess the efficacy of Cogmed Working Memory Training ( CWMT ) in young children with ADHD . METHODS Fifty-one children ( 5 - 7 years ) with a DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of ADHD ( without current psychotropic medication ) were r and omly assigned to the active ( adaptive ) or placebo ( nonadaptive ) training condition for 25 sessions during 5 weeks . The compliance criterion ( > 20 sessions ) was met for 47 children . The primary outcome measure concerned the core behavioural symptoms of ADHD , measured with the ADHD Rating Scale IV ( ADHD-RS ) . Secondary outcome measures were neurocognitive functioning , daily executive functioning , and global clinical functioning . The influence of the increase in difficulty level ( Index-Improvement ) for the treatment group was also analysed . Clinical trial registration information - ' Working Memory Training in Young ADHD Children ' ; www . clinical trials.gov ; NCT00819611 . RESULTS A significant improvement in favour of the active condition was found on a verbal working memory task ( p = .041 ; adapted Digit Span WISC-III , backward condition ) . However , it did not survive correction for multiple testing . No significant treatment effect on any of the primary or other secondary outcome measurements was found . The Index-Improvement significantly contributed to ADHD-RS and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function , both rated by the teacher , but revealed no significant group difference . CONCLUSIONS This study failed to find robust evidence for benefits of CMWT over the placebo training on behavioural symptoms , neurocognitive , daily executive , and global clinical functioning in young children with ADHD Objective : Physical activity associates with mental health and neurocognitive function , showing potential for addressing ADHD symptoms . As a preliminary assessment of this potential , the authors piloted a before-school physical activity intervention for young children . Method : Seventeen children ( Grade s K-3 ) exhibiting four or more hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale ( Pelham , 2002 ) completed about 26 min of continuous moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily over eight school weeks . The authors administered cognitive , motor , social , and behavioral functioning measures at pre- and postprogram , assessed response inhibition weekly , and coded negative behaviors daily . Results : Several measures showed significant or marginally significant change over time ( effect size = 0.35 - 0.96 ) with additional measures showing meaningful effect size values ( ≥ 0.20 ) . Response inhibition effects were most consistent . Most participants ( 64 % to 71 % ) exhibited overall improvement according to postprogram parent , teacher , and program staff ratings . Conclusion : Physical activity shows promise for addressing ADHD symptoms in young children OBJECTIVE : To evaluate sustained improvements 6 months after a 40-session , in-school computer attention training intervention using neurofeedback or cognitive training ( CT ) administered to 7- to 11-year-olds with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . METHODS : One hundred four children were r and omly assigned to receive neurofeedback , CT , or a control condition and were evaluated 6 months postintervention . A 3-point growth model assessed change over time across the conditions on the Conners 3–Parent Assessment Report ( Conners 3-P ) , the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Parent Form ( BRIEF ) , and a systematic double-blinded classroom observation ( Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools ) . Analysis of variance assessed community-initiated changes in stimulant medication . RESULTS : Parent response rates were 90 % at the 6-month follow-up . Six months postintervention , neurofeedback participants maintained significant gains on Conners 3-P ( Inattention effect size [ ES ] = 0.34 , Executive Functioning ES = 0.25 , Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ES = 0.23 ) and BRIEF subscales including the Global Executive Composite ( ES = 0.31 ) , which remained significantly greater than gains found among children in CT and control conditions . Children in the CT condition showed delayed improvement over immediate postintervention ratings only on Conners 3-P Executive Functioning ( ES = 0.18 ) and 2 BRIEF subscales . At the 6-month follow-up , neurofeedback participants maintained the same stimulant medication dosage , whereas participants in both CT and control conditions showed statistically and clinical ly significant increases ( 9 mg [ P = .002 ] and 13 mg [ P < .001 ] , respectively ) . CONCLUSIONS : Neurofeedback participants made more prompt and greater improvements in ADHD symptoms , which were sustained at the 6-month follow-up , than did CT participants or those in the control group . This finding suggests that neurofeedback is a promising attention training treatment for children with ADHD The goal of this study was to compare the effects of before school physical activity ( PA ) and sedentary classroom-based ( SC ) interventions on the symptoms , behavior , moodiness , and peer functioning of young children ( Mage = 6.83 ) at risk for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD-risk ; n = 94 ) and typically developing children ( TD ; n = 108 ) . Children were r and omly assigned to either PA or SC and participated in the assigned intervention 31 min per day , each school day , over the course of 12 weeks . Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms ( inattention , hyperactivity/impulsivity ) , oppositional behavior , moodiness , behavior toward peers , and reputation with peers , were used as dependent variables . Primary analyses indicate that the PA intervention was more effective than the SC intervention at reducing inattention and moodiness in the home context . Less conservative follow-up analyses within ADHD status and intervention groups suggest that a PA intervention may reduce impairment associated with ADHD-risk in both home and school domains ; interpretive caution is warranted , however , given the liberal approach to these analyses . Unexpectedly , these findings also indicate the potential utility of a before school SC intervention as a tool for managing ADHD symptoms . Inclusion of a no treatment control group in future studies will enable further underst and ing of PA as an alternative management strategy for ADHD symptoms Objective : To examine the efficacy of a Cognitive-Functional ( Cog-Fun ) intervention for children with ADHD .  Method : R and om allocation of 107 children to study or control groups preceded 10 parent – child weekly Cog-Fun sessions emphasizing executive strategy training in games and daily activities . Controls received treatment after crossover . Study participants were followed up 3 months post-treatment . Outcomes included parent/teacher ratings of executive functions , ADHD symptoms , and parent ratings of quality of life . Results : Eight children withdrew prior to treatment . All children in both groups who began treatment completed it . Mixed effects ANOVA revealed significant Time × Group interaction effects on all parent-reported outcomes . Treatment effects were moderate to large , replicated after crossover in the control group and not moderated by medication . Parent-reported treatment gains in the study group were maintained at follow-up . No significant Time × Group interaction effects were found on teacher outcomes . Conclusion : Cog-Fun occupational therapy ( OT ) intervention shows positive context -specific effects on parent , but not teacher , ratings Elderly individuals with AD are more susceptible to falls , which might be associated with decrements in their executive functions and balance , among other things . We aim ed to analyze the effects of a program of dual task physical activity on falls , executive functions and balance of elderly individuals with AD . We studied 21 elderly with probable AD , allocated to two groups : the training group ( TG ) , with 10 elderly who participated in a program of dual task physical activity ; and the control group ( CG ) , with 11 elderly who were not engaged in regular practice of physical activity .  The  Clock Drawing Test ( CDT ) and the Frontal Assessment Battery ( FAB ) were used in the assessment of the executive functions , while the  Berg Balance Scale ( BBS ) and the Timed Up- and -Go (TUG)-test evaluated balance . The number of falls was obtained by means of a question naire . We observed a better performance of the TG as regards balance and executive functions . Moreover , the lower the number of steps in the TUG scale , the higher the scores in the CDT , and in the FAB . The practice of regular physical activity with dual task seems to have contributed to the maintenance and improvement of the motor and cognitive functions of the elderly with AD
Based on these 3 articles , we concluded that 30 min of physical exercise reportedly improved the executive functions of children with ADHD .
OBJECTIVE Studies have suggested that even a single session of physical exercise enhances executive functions .
ADHD is among the most common developmental disorders in childhood , but little is known about alternative treatments for this disorder .
Therefore , we performed a systematic review of the literature to analyze articles that evaluated the executive functions of children with ADHD after an acute exercise session .