The effects of fiber enrichment of pasta and fat content on gastric emptying, GLP-1, glucose, and insulin responses to a meal Whole-grain pasta reduces appetite and meal-induced thermogenesis acutely: a pilot study. Wholegrain vs. refined wheat bread and pasta. Effect on postprandial glycemia, appetite, and subsequent ad libitum energy intake in young healthy adults Association of pasta consumption with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio: results from Moli-sani and INHES studies Postprandial glucose, insulin, and incretin responses to grain products in healthy subjects. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and cancer risk: results from the EPIC-Italy study High Protein Pasta is Not More Satiating than High Fiber Pasta at a Lunch Meal, Nor Does it Decrease Mid-Afternoon Snacking in Healthy Men and Women. Postprandial lipid, glucose, insulin, and cholecystokinin responses in men fed barley pasta enriched with beta-glucan. Determination of the glycaemic index of various staple carbohydrate-rich foods in the UK diet The more food young adults are served, the more they overeat. On the possibility to affect the course of glycaemia, insulinaemia, and perceived hunger/satiety to bread meals in healthy volunteers. Influence of bread volume on glycaemic response and satiety. The impact of pistachio intake alone or in combination with high-carbohydrate foods on post-prandial glycemia Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load and risk of colorectal cancer: results from the EPIC-Italy study. No effect of a diet with a reduced glycaemic index on satiety, energy intake and body weight in overweight and obese women Effect of macronutrients and fiber on postprandial glycemic responses and meal glycemic index and glycemic load value determinations. Effects of cereal breakfasts on postprandial glucose, appetite regulation and voluntary energy intake at a subsequent standardized lunch; focusing on rye products
Objective : To assess whether the addition of viscous fiber at an amount recommended by the US FDA to allow a ‘ low saturated fat , cholesterol , soluble fiber and coronary heart disease ’ , health cl aim label on a food package ( 1.7 g psyllium ) and /or fat ( 30 g sunflower oil and 3 g sodium propionate ) to a pasta meal would affect gastric emptying , postpr and ial glucose , insulin and GLP-1 concentrations . Design : Ten subjects participated in a two-by-two single blind r and omized crossover study . Four meals containing 50 g of available carbohydrate were consumed : pasta with or without psyllium enrichment served with a tomato sauce with ( 520 kcal per meal ) and without ( 240 kcal per meal ) fat . Blood sample s were taken for 240 min following the meal and all subjects consumed a buffet meal at the end of the study . Gastric empting was measured using the paracetamol absorption test . Blood was analysed for glucose , insulin , GLP-1 . Visual analog scales were used to record feelings of hunger , pleasantness and nausea . Results : The psyllium-enriched pasta had no significant effect on gastric emptying or the incremental area under the curve ( IAUC ) for GLP-1 , insulin or glucose compared with the control pasta . The addition of polyunsaturated fat and sodium propionate significantly increased the IAUC for GLP-1 ( P<0.001 ) , delaying gastric emptying ( P<0.002 ) , and decreasing glucose ( P<0.002 ) . Conclusions : A dose of 1.7 g psyllium did not evoke measurable effects on gastric emptying , postpr and ial GLP-1 , insulin or glucose metabolism . However the addition of 30 g of oil and 3 g of sodium propionate to the pasta did reduce gastric emptying , increase GLP-1 and reduce glucose and insulin concentrations . While this short-term study may have implication s in terms of reducing the risk of diabetes and improving coronary risk factor profiles the long term effects of these nutrients need to be studied . Sponsorship : This study was supported by Kellogg Company In epidemiological studies , the intake of foods rich in dietary fiber is associated with a reduced risk of developing overweight and type 2 diabetes . This work aims to identify acute strategies to regulate appetite and improve glucose control by using different pasta meals . Hence , 4 different isocaloric lunch meals , consisting of ( i ) refined-grain pasta ( RG+T ) , ( ii ) whole-grain pasta ( WG+T ) , ( iii ) lemon juice-supplemented refined-grain pasta ( LRG+T ) , and ( iv ) refined-grain pasta with legumes ( RG+L ) , were administered to 8 healthy participants in a crossover design . On the test days , participants underwent baseline measurements , including appetite sensation , blood sample , and resting energy expenditure ( EE ) , after which the test lunch was served . Subjective appetite was assessed and a blood sample was taken each hour for 240 min , and postpr and ial EE was measured for 3 h. In repeated- measures analysis of covariance ( ANCOVA ) , postpr and ial fullness ( p = 0.001 ) increased and hunger ( p = 0.038 ) decreased . WG+T had a lower EE than did both LGR+T ( p = 0.02 ) and RG+L ( p < 0.001 ) . Likewise , meal-induced thermogenesis was lower for WG+T compared with RG+L ( 58 ± 81 kJ vs 248 ± 188 kJ ; p < 0.05 ) . Plasma glucose ( p = 0.001 ) was lower for RG+T , and triacylglycerols ( p = 0.02 ) increased for LRG+T ; however , insulin , C-peptide , and ghrelin were comparable in all other meals . In conclusion , our study indicates that acute consumption of whole-grain pasta may promote fullness and reduce hunger , lowering postpr and ial thermogenesis , and adding lemon juice to the pasta or legumes does not appear to affect appetite . However , none of pasta meal alterations improved the postpr and ial metabolic profile Wholegrain foods have received much attention in recent years , and have been proposed to play a role in energy regulation through lowering of postpr and ial glycemia and appetite . This r and omized crossover single meal study in 16 young adults was conducted to test the effect of iso-caloric meals based on wholemeal wheat breads and pasta in comparison to similar refined wheat products on postpr and ial glycemia , appetite and ad libitum energy intake ( EI ) . Test meals ( 50 g carbohydrates ; 2MJ ) consisted of refined wheat bread ( RWB ) , wholegrain wheat bread ( WWB ) , refined wheat pasta ( RWP ) and wholegrain wheat pasta ( WWP ) and were served after an overnight fast . Appetite ratings and blood glucose were assessed for 180 min after which an ad libitum lunch meal was served and EI measured . The 180 min glucose responses were similar for wholemeal and refined products , but pasta meals gave significantly lower glucose responses . Only RWP had a lower glycemic index compared to RWB . WWB , but not WWP , result ed in increased satiety and reduced hunger compared to RWB . Ad libitum EI did not differ . In conclusion , the results show that wholemeal breads increased satiety measures compared to their refined counterparts ; however no significant effect on subsequent EI was observed Background / Objectives : Pasta as a traditional component of Mediterranean diet ( MeD ) in Italy has not been studied in detail in the management of body weight . This study aim ed at evaluating the association of pasta intake with body mass index ( BMI ) and waist-to-hip ratio , in two large epidemiological data sets . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 14 402 participants aged ⩾35 years r and omly recruited from the general population of the Molise region ( Moli-sani cohort ) and 8964 participants aged > 18 years from all over Italy ( Italian Nutrition & HEalth Survey , INHES ) were separately analyzed . The European Prospect i ve Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-food frequency question naire and one 24-h dietary recall were used for dietary assessment . Weight , height , waist and hip circumference were measured in Moli-sani or self-reported in INHES . Residuals methodology corrected for either total energy intake or body weight was used for the analysis of pasta intake . Results :  Higher pasta intake was associated with better adhesion to MeD in both genders ( P for both<0.001 ) . In the Moli-sani study , after multivariable analysis , pasta-energy residuals were negatively associated with BMI in women but not in men ( β-coef=−0.007 , P=0.003 for women and β-coef=−0.001 , P=0.58 for men ) . When pasta intake-body weight residuals were used , pasta  intake was significantly and negatively associated with BMI in crude and multi-adjusted models ( including adhesion to MeD ) in both genders and Moli-sani and INHES studies ( for all β-coef<0 , P<0.05 ) . In the Moli-sani study , pasta-body weight residuals were significantly and negatively associated with waist and hip circumference and waist-to-hip ratio ( for all β-coef<0 , P<0.05 ) . Conclusions : As a traditional component of MeD , pasta consumption was negatively associated with BMI , waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio and with a lower prevalence of overweight and obesity BACKGROUND Various botanical and structural characteristics of starchy food modify the postpr and ial glucose and insulin responses in humans . OBJECTIVE We investigated what factors in grain products affect human glucose and insulin responses and eluci date d the mediating mechanisms . DESIGN Ten men and 10 women [ mean age : 28 + /- 1 y ; mean body mass index ( in kg/m(2 ) ) : 22.9 + /- 0.7 ] with normal glucose tolerance were recruited . The test products were whole-kernel rye bread , whole-meal rye bread containing oat beta-glucan concentrate , dark durum wheat pasta , and wheat bread made from white wheat flour . Paracetamol , a marker of the rate of gastric emptying , was added to the breads during baking . Each product provided 50 g available carbohydrate and was served in r and om order with breakfast ( except for the beta-glucan rye bread , which was served at the last visit ) . Fasting and 8 postpr and ial blood sample s were collected at intervals of 15 - 30 min for 3 h to determine plasma glucose , glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide ( GIP ) , glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) , serum insulin , and paracetamol concentrations . The in vitro starch hydrolysis , the structural characteristics ( by light microscopy ) , and the molecular weight of beta-glucan in the test products were analyzed . RESULTS Glucose responses and the rate of gastric emptying after consumption of the 2 rye breads and pasta did not differ from those after consumption of white wheat bread . However , insulin , GIP , and GLP-1 responses , except for GLP-1 responses to the rye bread containing oat beta-glucan concentrate , were lower after the consumption of rye breads and pasta than after consumption of white wheat bread . CONCLUSIONS Postpr and ial insulin responses to grain products are determined by the form of food and botanical structure rather than by the amount of fiber or the type of cereal in the food . These effects may be mediated through GIP and GLP-1 Factors linked to glucose metabolism are involved in the etiology of several cancers . High glycemic index ( GI ) or high glycemic load ( GL ) diets , which chronically raise postpr and ial blood glucose , may increase cancer risk by affecting insulin-like growth factor . We prospect ively investigated cancer risk and dietary GI/GL in the EPIC-Italy cohort . After a median 14.9 years , 5112 incident cancers and 2460 deaths were identified among 45,148 recruited adults . High GI was associated with increased risk of colon and bladder cancer . High GL was associated with : increased risk of colon cancer ; increased risk of diabetes-related cancers ; and decreased risk of rectal cancer . High intake of carbohydrate from high GI foods was significantly associated with increased risk of colon and diabetes-related cancers , but decreased risk of stomach cancer ; whereas high intake of carbohydrates from low GI foods was associated with reduced colon cancer risk . In a Mediterranean population with high and varied carbohydrate intake , carbohydrates that strongly raise postpr and ial blood glucose may increase colon and bladder cancer risk , while the quantity of carbohydrate consumed may be involved in diabetes-related cancers . Further studies are needed to confirm the opposing effects of high dietary GL on risks of colon and rectal cancers This study compared satiety after high protein pasta ( 16 g protein , 6 g fiber ) , high fiber pasta ( 11 g protein , 8 g fiber ) or control pasta ( 11 g protein , 6 g fiber ) in a r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind crossover trial . Participants were 36 healthy and men and women from the University of Minnesota campus . Fasted men and women ate calorie controlled , but macronutrient different pastas at 12:00 pm along with 500 mL of water . The primary outcome was satiety assessed by Visual Analogue Scales at 0 , 15 , 30 , 45 , 60 , 90 , 120 , and 180 min daily after consuming the pastas . Secondary outcomes were calories consumed at an ad libitum snack at 3:00 pm , calories from food intake , gastrointestinal tolerance , and palatability . No differences were found among the pasta treatments for satiety , snacking , or gastrointestinal tolerance . Men ate significantly more calories for the rest of the ( P = 0.007 ) after the high protein pasta versus the high fiber pasta ( 1701 ± 154 compared with 1083 ± 154 ) with control pasta being intermediate to the other treatments . No significant differences were found for gastrointestinal tolerance , but the palatability ratings showed the high protein pasta was less tasty ( P = 0.03 ) and less pleasant ( P = 0.01 ) than the other 2 pastas . Satisfaction was positively associated with pleasantness and negatively associated with aftertaste . Our results do not support the idea that high protein or high fiber pasta produces a greater satiety response compared to pasta with lower amounts of either nutrient . It is likely that since pasta is already a very satiating food , the subjects were unable to differentiate between the 3 conditions BACKGROUND Fiber regulates the rate and site of lipid and carbohydrate digestion and absorption and thus can modify the alimentary responses to a meal . When fiber sources containing viscous polysaccharides are included in a meal , a slower rate of carbohydrate and lipid absorption will modify the alimentary hormone and lipid responses . OBJECTIVE We investigated in 11 healthy men the response of insulin , glucose , cholecystokinin , and lipid to 2 test meals containing beta-glucan . DESIGN One of the meals was high in fiber ( 15.7 g ) and the other meal was low in fiber ( 5.0 g ) . The low-fiber meal contained pasta made with wheat flour . The high-fiber meals contained pasta prepared by replacing 40 % of the wheat with 2 types of barley flour : barley naturally high in beta-glucan and the other a flour enriched in beta-glucan during processing . RESULTS Plasma glucose and insulin concentrations increased significantly after all meals but the insulin response was more blunted after the barley-containing meals . The test meals were low in fat ( 25 % of energy ) but elicited an increase in plasma triacylglycerol and cholecystokinin . Cholecystokinin remained elevated for a longer time after the barley-containing meals . After the low-fiber meal , plasma cholesterol concentrations did not change significantly ; however , 4 h after the barley-containing meals , the cholesterol concentration dropped below the fasting concentration and was significantly lower than that after the low-fiber meal . CONCLUSIONS Carbohydrate was more slowly absorbed from the 2 high-fiber meals . Consumption of the barley-containing meals appeared to stimulate reverse cholesterol transport , which may contribute to the cholesterol-lowering ability of barley Objective : To determine the glycaemic index ( GI ) of various staple carbohydrate-rich foods in the UK diet , and to consider the factors influencing the GI of foods . Design : Subjects were served with 25 or 50 g portions of glucose on three occasions , followed by a selection of test foods providing an equal amount of available carbohydrate , in r and om order . Each test food was consumed by 10 subjects .  Capillary blood glucose levels were measured in the fasted state and over the 120 min following commencement of consumption of the foods . Setting : The study was carried out in a research institute ( MRC Human Nutrition Research , Cambridge , UK).Subjects : Forty-two healthy adult volunteers were studied . Methods : The GI values of 33 foods were measured according to the WHO/FAO recommended methodology . These foods included various breads , breakfast cereals , pasta , rice and potatoes , all of which were commercially available in the UK . Conclusions : The results illustrate a number of factors which are important in influencing the GI of a food , highlighting the importance of measuring the GI of a food , rather than assuming a previously published value for a similar food . This is useful both to research ers analysing dietary surveys or planning intervention studies , and also to health professionals advising individuals on their diets Young and Nestle suggested that the increase in the portion size of food products evident in the United States during the past 20 years may be responsible for the epidemic of overweight and obesity . They based their conclusion on statistical correlations . The purpose of the present study was to provide experimental evidence to support their proposal . Cornell undergraduate students were given access to a buffet lunch on Monday , Wednesday , and Friday and were told this was a test of flavor enhancers . They were instructed to eat as much or as little as they wanted . On the same days of the following week , the subjects were divided into 3 groups . Each group was served either 100 % , 125 % , or 150 % of the amount of food they had consumed the previous week . When larger amounts were served , significantly greater amounts of food were consumed . Each of the 4 foods that comprised the meal ( soup , pasta , breadsticks , ice cream ) increased significantly in proportion to the portion size . The data clearly support the hypothesis proposed by Young and Nestle and support the powerful role that environment plays in determining energy intake and potential increases in body weight Frequent hyperglycaemia is associated with oxidative stress and sub clinical inflammation , and thus increased risk of cardiovascular disease . Possibilities of modulating glycaemia , insulinaemia and perceived satiety for bread products were investigated , with emphasis on the course of glycaemia expressed as a glycaemic profile ( defined as the duration of the glucose curve above the fasting concentration divided by the incremental glucose peak ) . For this purpose  white wheat bread was supplemented with whole grain corn flour with an elevated amylose content and different types and levels of guar gum . The bread products were characterised in vitro for release of starch degradation products and content of resistant starch . Fibre related fluidity following enzyme hydrolysis was also studied . By combining medium weight guar gum and whole grain corn flour with an elevated amylose content , the course of glycaemia , insulinaemia and subjective appetite ratings were improved compared to the reference white wheat bread . In addition , the combination beneficially influenced the content of resistant starch . Fluidity measurements showed potential to predict the glycaemic profile The role of carbohydrates in health and disease has received a high profile in recent years , in particular the glycaemic index ( GI ) as a physiological classification of carbohydrate foods . A common carbohydrate source in the UK is white bread , which is considered to have a high GI value and low satiety value . In the present study , the possibility of favourably altering the GI of white bread by manipulating bread structure ( loaf form ) was investigated . In a r and omised repeated- measures design , ten subjects were tested for glycaemic and satiety responses to four loaves of varying volume , but of consistent macronutrient content . Peak plasma glucose levels and GI values were shown to be significantly reduced by lowering loaf volume ( P=0.007 , P<0.001 respectively ) . In addition , a greater satiety index ( SI ) was seen with decreased loaf volume ( P<0.001 ) . In conclusion , the present study demonstrates that reducing the volume of white bread , which is generally considered to be high-GI and low-SI , can favourably alter metabolic and appetite responses . Relatively small differences in the GI of regularly consumed starch foods have been shown to have beneficial effects on health Background / Objectives : Dietary strategies that reduce post-pr and ial glycemia are important in the prevention and treatment of diabetes and coronary heart disease ( CHD ) . This may be achieved by addition of high- quality protein and fat contained in pistachio nuts , to carbohydrate-containing foods or meals . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 10 healthy volunteers ( 3 males , 7 females ) ; aged 48.3±6.4 years ; Body mass index ( BMI ) 28.0±4.8 kg/m2 participated in two studies . Study 1 assessed the dose-response effect of 28 , 56 and 84 g pistachios consumed alone or co-ingested with white bread ( 50 g available carbohydrate ) ; Study 2 assessed the effective dose ( 56 g ) of pistachios on post-pr and ial glycemia consumed with different commonly consumed carbohydrate foods ( 50 g available carbohydrate ) . Relative glycemic responses ( RGRs ) of study meals compared with white bread , were assessed over the 2 h post-pr and ial period . Results : The RGRs  of pistachios consumed alone expressed as a percentage of white bread ( 100 % ) were : 28 g ( 5.7±1.8 % ) ; 56 g ( 3.8±1.8 % ) ; 84 g ( 9.3±3.2 % ) , P<0.001 . Adding pistachios to white bread result ed in a dose-dependent reduction in the RGR of the composite meal ; 28 g ( 89.1±6.0 , P=0.100 ) ; 56 g ( 67.3±9.8 , P=0.009 ) ; 84 g ( 51.5±7.5 , P<0.001 ) . Addition of 56 g pistachios to carbohydrate foods significantly reduced the RGR : parboiled rice ( 72.5±6.0 ) versus rice and pistachios ( 58.7±5.1 ) ( P=0.031 ) ; pasta ( 94.8±11.4 ) versus pasta and pistachios ( 56.4±5.0 ) ( P=0.025 ) ; whereas for mashed potatoes ( 109.0±6.6 ) versus potatoes and pistachios , ( 87.4±8.0 ) ( P=0.063 ) the results approached significance . Conclusions : Pistachios consumed alone had a minimal effect on post-pr and ial glycemia and when taken with a carbohydrate meal attenuated the RGR . The beneficial effects of pistachios on post-pr and ial glycemia could , therefore , be part of the mechanism by which nuts reduce the risk of diabetes and CHD A carbohydrate-rich diet , result ing in high blood glucose and insulin , has been hypothesized as involved in colorectal cancer etiology . We investigated dietary glycemic index ( GI ) and glycemic load ( GL ) , in relation to colorectal cancer , in the prospect ively recruited EPIC-Italy cohort . After a median 11.7 years , 421 colorectal cancers were diagnosed among 47,749 recruited adults . GI and GL were estimated from vali date d food frequency question naires . Multivariable Cox modeling estimated hazard ratios ( HRs ) for associations between colorectal cancer and intakes of total , high GI and low GI carbohydrate and GI and GL . The adjusted HR of colorectal cancer for highest versus lowest GI quartile was 1.35 ; 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 1.03 - 1.78 ; p trend 0.031 . Increasing high GI carbohydrate intake was also significantly associated with increasing colorectal cancer risk ( HR 1.45 ; 95 % CI 1.04 - 2.03 ; p trend 0.034 ) , whereas increasing low GI carbohydrate was associated with reducing risk ( HR 0.73 ; 95 % CI 0.54 - 0.98 ; p trend 0.033 ) . High dietary GI and high GI carbohydrate were associated with increased risks of cancer at all colon sites ( HR 1.37 ; 95 % CI 1.00 - 1.88 , HR 1.80 ; 95 % CI 1.22 - 2.65 , respectively ) , whereas high GI carbohydrate and high GL were associated with increased risk of proximal colon cancer ( HR 1.94 ; 95 % CI 1.18 - 3.16 , HR 2.01 ; 95 % CI 1.08 - 3.74 , respectively ) . After stratification for waist-to-hip ratio ( WHR ) , cancer was significantly associated with GI , and high GI carbohydrate , in those with high WHR . These findings suggest that high dietary GI and high carbohydrate intake from high GI foods are associated with increased risk of colorectal cancer Objective : To investigate whether a diet with a reduced glycaemic index ( GI ) has effects on appetite , energy intake , body weight and composition in overweight and obese female subjects . Design : R and omized crossover intervention study including two consecutive 12-week periods . Lower or higher GI versions of key carbohydrate-rich foods ( breads , breakfast cereals , rice and pasta/potatoes ) were provided to subjects to be incorporated into habitual diets in ad libitum quantities . Foods intended as equivalents to each other were balanced in macronutrient composition , fibre content and energy density . Subjects : Nineteen overweight and obese women , weight-stable , with moderate hyperinsulinaemia ( age : 34–65 years , body mass index : 25–47 kg m−2 , fasting insulin : 49–156 pmol l−1 ) .  Measurements : Dietary intake , body weight and composition after each 12-week intervention . Subjectively rated appetite and short-term ad libitum energy intake at a snack and lunch meal following fixed lower and higher GI test breakfasts ( GI 52 vs 64 ) in a laboratory setting . Results : Free-living diets differed in GI by 8.4 units ( 55.5 vs 63.9 ) , with key foods providing 48 % of carbohydrate intake during both periods . There were no differences in energy intake , body weight or body composition between treatments . On laboratory investigation days , there were no differences in subjective ratings of hunger or fullness , or in energy intake at the snack or lunch meal . Conclusion : This study provides no evidence to support an effect of a reduced GI diet on satiety , energy intake or body weight in overweight/obese women . Cl aims that the GI of the diet per se may have specific effects on body weight may therefore be misleading Background : The potential confounding effect of different amounts and proportions of macronutrients across eating patterns on meal or dietary glycemic index ( GI ) and glycemic load ( GL ) value determinations has remained partially unaddressed . Objective : The study aim ed to determine the effects of different amounts of macronutrients and fiber on measured meal GI and GL values . Design : Four studies were conducted during which participants [ n = 20 - 22 ; women : 50 % ; age : 50 - 80 y ; body mass index ( in kg/m2 ) : 25 - 30 ) ] received food challenges containing different amounts of the variable nutrient in a r and om order . Added to the st and ard 50 g available carbohydrate from white bread was 12.5 , 25 , or 50 g carbohydrate ; 12.5 , 25 , or 50 g protein ; and 5.6 , 11.1 , or 22.2 g fat from rice cereal , tuna , and unsalted butter , respectively , and 4.8 or 9.6 g fiber from oat cereal . Arterialized venous blood was sample d for 2 h , and measured meal GI and GL and insulin index ( II ) values were calculated by using the incremental area under the curve ( AUCi ) method . Results : Adding carbohydrate to the st and ard white-bread challenge increased glucose AUCi ( P < 0.0001 ) , measured meal GI ( P = 0.0066 ) , and mean GL ( P < 0.0001 ) . Adding protein ( 50 g only ) decreased glucose AUCi ( P = 0.0026 ) , measured meal GI ( P = 0.0139 ) , and meal GL ( P = 0.0140 ) . Adding fat or fiber had no significant effect on these variables . Adding carbohydrate ( 50 g ) , protein ( 50 g ) , and fat ( 11.1 g ) increased the insulin AUCi or II ; fiber had no effect . Conclusions : These data indicate that uncertainty in the determination of meal GI and GL values is introduced when carbohydrate-containing foods are consumed concurrently with protein ( equal amount of carbohydrate challenge ) but not with carbohydrate- , fat- , or fiber-containing foods . Future studies are needed to evaluate whether this uncertainty also influences the prediction of average dietary GI and GL values for eating patterns . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT01023646 Background Rye products have been demonstrated to lower the acute insulin dem and , induce a low and prolonged blood glucose response ( high Glycemic Profile , GP ) and reduce sub clinical inflammation . These products may therefore contribute to a lowered risk of obesity , type 2 diabetes and cardio vascular disease . The objective of the present paper was to evaluate the mechanism for a reduced postpr and ial insulin dem and with rye products , and to explore possible appetite regulating properties . Methods 10 healthy subjects were served breakfast meals ( 50 g of available starch ) with endosperm- or whole grain rye breads , with and without lactic acid , boiled whole grain rye- ( RK ) or wheat ( WK ) kernels , or white wheat bread reference ( WWB ) in r and om order in a cross-over design . Plasma concentrations of glucose , ghrelin , serum insulin , free fatty acids , adiponectin , breath hydrogen excretion ( H2 ) , and subjective satiety was evaluated during the postpr and ial phase . 270 min after the breakfast , an ad lib lunch buffet was served and the voluntary energy intake ( EI ) was registered . Results All rye products and WK induced lower insulinemic indices ( II ) than WWB . A lower incremental insulin peak following breakfast correlated with a lower EI at lunch ( r = 0.38 ) . A low II was related to improved satiety in the early postpr and ial phase ( fullness AUC 0 - 60 min , r = -0.36 ) . RK induced a higher GP compared to WWB and WK . A higher GP was related to a lowered desire to eat before lunch ( AUC 210 - 270 ) and to a lower concentration of ghrelin in the late postpr and ial phase after breakfast ( 270 min ) , r = -0.29 and -0.29 ) , which in turn was related to a lower voluntary EI ( r = 0.43 and 0.33 ) . The RK breakfast improved satiety in the early postpr and ial phase ( 0 - 60 min ) compared to WWB , and induced a lower EI at lunch ( -16 % ) . A high content of indigestible carbohydrates in the breakfast products was related to improved satiety ( 0 - 60 min , r = 0.68 for fullness ) , and a higher breath H2 in the late postpr and ial phase ( 120 - 270 and 270 - 390 min , r = 0.46 and 0.70 ) . High H2 ( AUC 120 - 270 min ) also correlated with lower EI ( r = -0.34 ) . Conclusions Rye products , rich in indigestible carbohydrates , induce colonic fermentation already post the breakfast meal , and lowers acute insulin responses . A high excretion of breath H2 also correlated with a higher GP . Especially , rye kernels induced a high GP which was associated with a 16 % lowering of energy intake at a subsequent lunch meal . The bulking effect of rye fiber , colonically derived fermentation metabolites , a high GP and a low insulin response possibly all contributes to the benefits on glucose- and appetite regulation seen in an acute and semi-acute perspective
CONCLUSIONS Pasta in the context of low-GI dietary patterns does not adversely affect adiposity and even reduces body weight and BMI compared with higher-GI dietary patterns .
OBJECTIVE Carbohydrate staples such as pasta have been implicated in the obesity epidemic .
It is unclear whether pasta contributes to weight gain or like other low-glycaemic index ( GI ) foods contributes to weight loss .
We synthesis ed the evidence of the effect of pasta on measures of adiposity .