Exercise and cognitive function: a randomized controlled trial examining acute exercise and free-living physical activity and sedentary effects. Differential cognitive effects of cycling versus stretching/coordination training in middle-aged adults. Effects of a Sedentary Intervention on Cognitive Function Associations Between Sedentary Behaviors and Cognitive Function: Cross-Sectional and Prospective Findings From the UK Biobank Patterns of Sedentary Behavior and Mortality in U.S. Middle-Aged and Older Adults Effect of frequent interruptions of prolonged sitting on self-perceived levels of energy, mood, food cravings and cognitive function Breaking up Sedentary Time in Overweight/Obese Adults on Work Days and Non-Work Days: Results from a Feasibility Study Replacing sedentary time with sleep, light, or moderate-to-vigorous physical activity: effects on self-regulation and executive functioning Effectiveness of a pedometer-based program using a socio-cognitive intervention on physical activity and quality of life in a setting of cardiac rehabilitation. Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and cardiovascular fitness in aging Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a controlled trial. Medium-term effects of a two-desk sit/stand workstation on cognitive performance and workload for healthy people performing sedentary work: a secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial Acute effects on cognitive performance following bouts of standing and light-intensity physical activity in a simulated workplace environment. The relationship of age and cardiovascular fitness to cognitive and motor processes. Effect of Standing or Walking at a Workstation on Cognitive Function Effect of a 24-Month Physical Activity Intervention vs Health Education on Cognitive Outcomes in Sedentary Older Adults: The LIFE Randomized Trial. Prospective Associations Between Leisure-Time Physical Activity and Cognitive Performance Among Older Adults Across an 11-Year Period
OBJECTIVE To simultaneously examine the effects of acute exercise intensity and free-living physical activity and sedentary behavior on cognitive function in young , healthy adults . PATIENTS AND METHODS Using a counterbalanced , crossover , r and omized controlled design , 87 young adults ( mean age , 21.4 years ) completed various cognitive assessment s with and without an acute bout of exercise preceding the assessment . Participants were r and omized into 1 of 4 groups to complete a 30-minute bout of acute exercise : control ( no exercise ) , light intensity ( 40%-50 % of predicted maximum heart rate [ HR(max ) ] ) , moderate intensity ( 51%-70 % of predicted HR(max ) ) , or vigorous intensity ( 71%-85 % of predicted HR(max ) ) . Subjectively and objective ly determined ( accelerometry ) physical activity and sedentary behavior were assessed to examine the association between these free-living behaviors and cognitive function . The study duration was August 26 , 2013 , to September 11 , 2014 . RESULTS Concentration-related cognition ( mean ± SD Feature Match test score ) was significantly higher after a 30-minute acute bout of moderate-intensity exercise ( 145.1±26.9 ) compared with cognitive assessment without exercise ( 121.3±19.2 ; P=.004 ) . Furthermore , question naire-determined sedentary behavior was inversely associated with visual attention and task switching ( Trail Making Test A score ) ( β=-0.23 ; P=.04 ) . Last , estimated cardiorespiratory fitness ( volume of maximum oxygen consumption ) was positively associated with reasoning-related cognitive function ( Odd One Out test score ) ( β=0.49 ; P=.05 ) ; when adding metabolic equivalent of task minutes per week to this model , the results were not significant ( β=0.47 ; P=.07 ) . CONCLUSION These findings provide some support for acute moderate-intensity exercise , sedentary behavior , and cardiorespiratory fitness being associated with executive functioning-related cognitive function in young , healthy adults OBJECTIVE Physical exercise has been linked to higher cognitive functioning and enhanced brain plasticity in aging humans . The most consistent positive effects have been reported for executive functions associated with frontal brain regions . In rodents , however , running has been shown to induce functional and structural changes in the hippocampus , a brain region known to be important for memory . It is still a matter of debate which cognitive functions are susceptible to exercise and whether an increase in cardiovascular fitness is beneficial for cognitive functioning . Moreover , little is known about the impact of exercise on cognition in middle-aged humans . METHOD Sixty-eight sedentary men and women between 40 and 56 years of age were r and omly assigned to one of two training programs : aerobic endurance training ( cycling ) or nonendurance training ( stretching/coordination ) . Both groups exercised twice a week for six months . Additionally , a sedentary control group was tested . At baseline and after six months , episodic memory , perceptual speed , executive functions , and spatial reasoning were assessed with st and ardized psychometric tests , and all participants underwent a cardiovascular fitness test . RESULTS Significant improvements in memory were observed in both the cycling and the stretching/coordination group as compared with the sedentary control group . The improvement in episodic memory correlated positively with the increase in cardiovascular fitness . The stretching/coordination training particularly improved selective attention as compared with the cycling training . CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that cardiovascular fitness has beneficial effects even in high-functioning middle-aged participants , but that these benefits are very specific to memory functions rather than a wider range of cognitive functions Purpose : To examine the effects of a free-living , sedentary-inducing intervention on cognitive function . Design : R and omized controlled , parallel group intervention . Setting : University campus . Participants : Thirty-three young adults ( n = 23 intervention ; n = 10 control ) . Measures : The intervention group was asked to eliminate all exercise and minimize steps to ≤5000 steps/day for 1 week , whereas the control group was asked to continue normal physical activity ( PA ) levels for 1 week . Both groups completed a series of  8 cognitive function assessment s ( assessing multiple parameters of cognition )  preintervention and immediately postintervention . The intervention group was asked to resume normal PA levels for 1 week postintervention and completed the cognitive assessment s for a third time at 2 weeks postintervention . Analysis : Split-plot repeated- measures analysis of variance . Results : The results of our statistical analyses showed that the group × time interaction effect was not significant ( P > .05 ) for any of the evaluated cognitive parameters . Conclusion : These findings demonstrate the need for future experimental investigations of sedentary behavior to better underst and its effects on cognitive function . However , although previous work has demonstrated favorable effects of acute and chronic PA on cognitive function , our findings suggest that a 1-week period of reduced PA does not detrimentally affect cognitive function , which may have encouraging implication s for individuals going through a temporary relapse in PA We investigated the cross-sectional and prospect i ve associations between different sedentary behaviors and cognitive function in a large sample of adults with data stored in the UK Biobank . Baseline data were available for 502,643 participants ( 2006 - 2010 , United Kingdom ) . Cognitive tests included  prospect  i  ve memory  ( baseline only : n = 171,585 ) , visual-spatial memory ( round 1 : n = 483,832 ; round 2 : n = 482,762 ) , fluid intelligence ( n = 165,492 ) , and short-term numeric memory ( n = 50,370 ) . After a mean period of 5.3 years , participants ( numbering from 12,091 to 114,373 , depending on the test ) also provided follow-up cognitive data . Sedentary behaviors ( television viewing , driving , and nonoccupational computer-use time ) were measured at baseline . At baseline , both television viewing and driving time were inversely associated with cognitive function across all outcomes ( e.g. , for each additional hour spent watching television , the total number of correct answers in the fluid intelligence test was 0.15 ( 99 % confidence interval : 0.14 , 0.16 ) lower . Computer-use time was positively associated with cognitive function across all outcomes . Both television viewing and driving time at baseline were positively associated with the odds of having cognitive decline at follow-up across most outcomes . Conversely , computer-use time at baseline was inversely associated with the odds of having cognitive decline at follow-up across most outcomes . This study supports health policies design ed to reduce television viewing and driving in adults Adults are sedentary for an alarming 9 to 10 hours per day ( 1 ) . Accordingly , the popular press has coined the phrase sitting is the new smoking to describe a current epidemic of developed nations ( 24 ) . Evidence indicates that sedentary time is associated with incident cardiovascular disease , incidence of cardiovascular diseaserelated risk factors , and mortality ( 5 , 6 ) . Of note , the risk conferred by prolonged sedentariness is eliminated only by high levels of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity ( MVPA ) ( about 60 to 75 min/d ) , which exceed physical activity recommendations ( 7 , 8) . As such , sedentary behavior is now believed to represent a clinical ly important aspect of a person 's physical activity profile and is no longer considered simply the extreme low end of the physical activity continuum ( 5 ) . Studies linking sedentary behavior to health outcomes have relied almost exclusively on self-reported  sedentary time  , which is subject to reporting bias and measurement error ( 9 ) . A 2015 systematic review ( 5 ) identified only 1 study ( NHANES [ National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ] ) that examined the association between objective ly measured sedentary time and health outcomes , a study limited by a small event rate ( 10 ) . New studies using NHANES data have since been published , with longer follow-up and higher event rates ( 1115 ) . However , some of these studies have reported an association between objective ly measured sedentary time and mortality ( 11 , 14 , 15 ) , but others have not ( 12 , 13 ) . Additional cohort studies are thus needed to rectify evidence gaps . Furthermore , studies using accelerometers to objective ly measure sedentary behavior conventionally operationalize sedentary time as the total number of sedentary minutes per day . This approach ignores patterns of accumulated sedentary behavior over time . For example , accumulation of sedentary time in a few long bouts or many short bouts represents 2 distinct patterns of sedentary time accrual . Experimental studies have shown that acute periods of prolonged , uninterrupted sedentary behavior cause greater detrimental cardiometabolic effects than sedentary behavior that is periodically interrupted ( 1618 ) , suggestive that it is not just total sedentary time that is relevant to health outcomes , but also the manner in which it is accumulated . Few longitudinal studies , however , have explored the association between prolonged , uninterrupted sedentary behavior and mortality to corroborate these findings . To inform guidelines on reducing sedentary behavior ( target reductions in overall sedentary time or target interruption of prolonged sedentary bouts ) , evidence from prospect i ve studies is needed to 1 ) confirm the association between total sedentary time and mortality using objective measures , 2 ) determine whether prolonged sedentary bouts confer risk for death , and 3 ) eluci date whether the total volume of sedentary time and its pattern of accumulation individually or jointly contribute to risk for death . The purpose of this study , therefore , was to examine the association between objective ly measured sedentary time ( both total volume and accrual in prolonged bouts ) and all-cause mortality in a national cohort of U.S. middle-aged and older adults enrolled in the REGARDS ( Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke ) study . Methods Study Population REGARDS is a population -based study design ed to examine racial and regional disparities in stroke . It comprises 30239 white and black adults aged 45 years or older enrolled between 2003 and 2007 from across the contiguous United States ( 19 , 20 ) . Detailed design and methods for REGARDS are described elsewhere ( 21 ) . Briefly , demographic and cardiovascular risk factor data were collected by telephone interview and an in-home physical assessment on enrollment . A detailed summary of baseline measures is provided in the Supplement . Participants ( or their proxies ) were then followed for 6-month intervals to ascertain vital status . Objective measurements of sedentary behavior were collected from active REGARDS participants from 2009 to 2013 ( mean time from study enrollment , 5.7 years [ SD , 1.5 ] ; range , 1.9 to 9.5 years ) ( 22 ) . A total of 7985 participants adhered to accelerometer wear requirements ( 4 days with accelerometer wear 10 hours ) , provided follow-up data , and were available for the current analyses ( Supplement Figure 1 ) . Supplement Table 1 shows the characteristics of included versus excluded REGARDS participants . The REGARDS study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of participating institutions . All participants provided informed consent . Supplement . Supplementary Material Accelerometer Data Collection Methods for accelerometer data collection are described elsewhere ( 22 ) . Briefly , participants were fitted with an Actical ( Philips Respironics ) accelerometer secured to their right hip using a nylon belt and were instructed to wear the device during waking hours for 7 consecutive days . The Actical had been vali date d formeasurement of physical activity and sedentary behavior and was shown to have acceptable reliability ( 2325 ) . Activity counts were summed over 1-minute epochs . Nonwear periods were defined as at least 150 consecutive minutes of 0 activity counts . This nonwear algorithm was previously vali date d against daily log sheets in REGARDS participants ( 26 ) . Measurements of 0 to 49 , 50 to 1064 , and at least 1065 counts per minute were defined as sedentary behavior , light-intensity physical activity , and MVPA , respectively , as determined in a laboratory-based calibration study ( 27 ) . A sedentary bout was defined as consecutive minutes in which the accelerometer registered fewer than 50 counts per minute . A sedentary break was defined as at least 1 minute in which 50 or more counts per minute were registered after a sedentary bout . Both sedentary bouts and breaks were exclusively continuous periods , with no interruptions or nonwear intervals allowed in the definition . Outcome Ascertainment All-cause mortality was the primary outcome , defined as any death after completion of the accelerometer protocol regardless of cause . Date s of death were confirmed through review of death certificates , medical records , and administrative data bases . Deaths through 4 September 2015 were included in the current analysis . Statistical Analysis Sedentary and physical activity variables were averaged across compliant days ( 10 hours of wear ) . Because of a high correlation between total sedentary time and wear time ( Supplement Figure 2 ) , we corrected for the influence of wear time by st and ardizing total sedentary time to 16 hours of wear time per day using the residuals obtained when regressing total sedentary time on wear time ( see Methods section of the Supplement ) ( 2830 ) . Participants were stratified into quartiles according to total sedentary time and , separately , mean sedentary bout duration ( a measure of overall prolonged , uninterrupted sedentary behavior ) . Cox proportional hazards regression modeling was used to calculate the hazard ratio ( HR ) for all-cause mortality associated with quartiles of total sedentary time ( and separately , mean sedentary bout length ) . Crude HRs were initially calculated . Subsequent HRs were calculated after adjustment for age , race , sex , region of residence , education , and season the accelerometer was worn ( model 1 ) , with further adjustment for current smoking , alcohol use , body mass index ( BMI ) , diabetes , hypertension , dyslipidemia , estimated glomerular filtration rate less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 , atrial fibrillation , history of coronary heart disease , and history of stroke ( model 2 ) . Models were additionally adjusted for MVPA expressed continuously ( model 3 ) . Tests for linear trend across quartiles were conducted by including the quartile for each participant as an ordinal variable in regression models . Proportional hazards assumptions were confirmed with a Kolmogorov-type supremum test ( 31 ) . The above analyses were then repeated in a fully adjusted model , testing interactions for age ( < 65 and 65 years ) , sex ( male and female ) , race ( black and white ) , BMI category ( normal weight and overweight or obese ) , and MVPA category ( < 150 min/wk and 150 min/wk ) . As a secondary analysis , we examined the continuous doseresponse relationship between each sedentary characteristic and all-cause mortality in a fully adjusted model ( model 3 ) using restricted cubic splines ( 32 ) . Cubic polynomials were fitted with the mean of each sedentary characteristic set as the reference and knots placed at the 5th , 35th , 65th , and 95th percentiles ( 33 ) . Nonlinear associations were evaluated using the likelihood ratio test . For nonlinear associations , spline models were used to describe the associations and when the association was determined to be linear , a linear model was used . Because of multicollinearity between total sedentary time and mean sedentary bout duration ( r= 0.61 ) , both variables were not included in the same model . Alternatively , to examine the individual and joint associations of total sedentary time and prolonged , uninterrupted sedentary behavior with mortality , participants were classified into 4 categories : low total sedentary time ( < 750 min/d ) and low prolonged sedentary bout time ( < 10 min/bout ) , low total sedentary time  and high prolonged sedentary bout time  ( 10 min/bout ) , high total sedentary time  ( 750 min/d ) and low prolonged sedentary bout time , and high total sedentary time and high prolonged sedentary bout time . Hazard ratios for all-cause mortality were calculated for each joint category in comparison with the lowlow group in a fully adjusted model ( model 3 ) . Thresholds for total sedentary time ( 750 min/d ) and mean sedentary bout duration ( 10 min/bout ) were selected on the basis of the restricted cubic splines and were confirmed using a method described by Contal and O'Quigley ( see Methods section of the Supplement ) ( 34 ) . To allow for the possibility that sedentary bouts Background While physical activity has been shown to improve cognitive performance and well-being , office workers are essentially sedentary . We compared the effects of physical activity performed as ( i ) one bout in the morning or ( ii ) as microbouts spread out across the day to ( iii ) a day spent sitting , on mood and energy levels and cognitive function . Methods In a r and omized crossover trial , 30 sedentary adults completed each of three conditions : 6 h of uninterrupted sitting ( SIT ) , SIT plus 30 min of moderate-intensity treadmill walking in the morning ( ONE ) , and SIT plus six hourly 5-min microbouts of moderate-intensity treadmill walking ( MICRO ) .  Self-perceived energy , mood , and appetite were assessed with visual analog scales . Vigor and fatigue were assessed with the Profile of Mood State question naire . Cognitive function was measured using a flanker task and the Comprehensive Trail Making Test . Intervention effects were tested using linear mixed models . Results Both ONE and MICRO increased self-perceived energy and vigor compared to SIT ( p < 0.05 for all ) . MICRO , but not ONE , improved mood , decreased levels of fatigue and reduced food cravings at the end of the day compared to SIT ( p < 0.05 for all ) . Cognitive function was not significantly affected by condition . Conclusions In addition to the beneficial impact of physical activity on levels of energy and vigor , spreading out physical activity throughout the day improved mood , decreased feelings of fatigue and affected appetite . Introducing short bouts of activity during the workday of sedentary office workers is a promising approach to improve overall well-being at work without negatively impacting cognitive performance . Trial registration NCT02717377 , registered 22 March 2016 Office workers are vulnerable to the adverse health effects of sedentary behavior ( i.e. , sitting time ) . Increasing physical activity and preventing time spent sitting is an occupational health priority . This r and omized crossover design study compared the short-term ( 3-days ) effects of hourly interruptions of sedentary time with 5-min micrrobouts of activity for 9 hours ( MICRO ) to a sedentary control condition ( SED ) and a duration -matched continuous single bout of physical activity ( 45-min/d , ONE ) condition on inclinometer-derived sitting-time on work and non-work days in sedentary overweight/obese adults . Differences in sitting/lying , st and ing , stepping , number of sit/st and transitions , time spent in moderate and vigorous activity ( MVPA ) , energy expenditure , self-perceived vigor and fatigue , and insulin sensitivity were also examined . Twenty-two participants ( 10M/12F ; 31.7 ± 1.3 year old BMI 30.4 ± 0.5 kg/m2 ) completed all conditions . No between-condition effects were observed in sitting-time and sit/st and transitions . Both interventions increased daily steps , MVPA and energy expenditure with increases being greater in ONE than MICRO . Feelings of vigor and fasting insulin sensitivity were also improved . Participants reported less fatigue with MICRO than SED and ONE . Both interventions increase physical activity and energy expenditure in occupational and leisure-time context s. The sustainability of these effects over the long term and on health outcomes will need to be tested in future studies Abstract Recent attention has highlighted the importance of reducing sedentary time for maintaining health and quality of life . However , it is unclear how changing sedentary behavior may influence executive functions and self-regulatory strategy use , which are vital for the long-term maintenance of a health behavior regimen . The purpose of this cross-sectional study is to examine the estimated self-regulatory and executive functioning effects of substituting 30 min of sedentary behavior with 30 min of light activity , moderate-to-vigorous physical activity ( MVPA ) , or sleep in a sample of older adults . This study reports baseline data collected from low-active healthy older adults ( N = 247 , mean age 65.4 ± 4.6 years ) recruited to participate in a 6 month r and omized controlled exercise trial examining the effects of various modes of exercise on brain health and function . Each participant completed assessment s of  physical activity self-regulatory strategy use ( i.e. ,  self-monitoring , goal - setting , social support , reinforcement , time management , and relapse prevention )  and executive functioning . Physical activity and sedentary behaviors  were measured using accelerometers during waking hours for seven consecutive days at each time point . Isotemporal substitution analyses were conducted to examine the effect on self-regulation and executive functioning should an individual substitute sedentary time with light activity , MVPA , or sleep . The substitution of sedentary time with both sleep and MVPA influenced both self-regulatory strategy use and executive functioning . Sleep was associated with greater self-monitoring ( B = .23 , p = .02 ) , goal - setting ( B = .32 , p < .01 ) , and social support ( B = .18 , p = .01 ) behaviors . Substitution of sedentary time with MVPA was associated with higher accuracy on 2-item ( B = .03 , p = .01 ) and 3-item ( B = .02 , p = .04 ) spatial working memory tasks , and with faster reaction times on single ( B = −23.12 , p = .03 ) and mixed-repeated task-switching blocks ( B = −27.06 , p = .04 ) . Substitution of  sedentary  time with sleep was associated with marginally faster reaction time on mixed-repeated task-switching blocks ( B = −12.20 , p = .07 ) and faster reaction time on mixed-switch blocks ( B = 17.21 , p = .05 ) , as well as reduced global reaction time switch cost ( B = −16.86 , p = .01 ) . Substitution for light intensity physical activity did not produce significant effects . By replacing sedentary time with sleep and MVPA , individuals may bolster several important domains of self-regulatory behavior and executive functioning . This has important implication s for the design of long-lasting health behavior interventions . Trial Registration clinical trials.gov identifier NCT00438347 BACKGROUND Physical activity contributes to improve health and quality of life . However , the prevalence of sedentary lifestyle is elevated after an acute coronary syndrome . METHODS A r and omized controlled trial was performed to evaluate the impact of a pedometer-based program associated with a socio-cognitive intervention on physical activity behaviour , cardiovascular risk factors , and quality of life during the year after an acute coronary syndrome event . During hospitalization , we r and omized 32 patients to an experimental group and 33 patients to a usual care group . The experimental intervention included 6 consultations with a clinical nurse specialist during 12 months . RESULTS Groups characteristics were comparable . At baseline , the percentage of participants considered in the active range category was similar between groups ( 31 % vs 41 % ; P = 0.915 ) . However , the proportion of participants who were still active was greater in the experimental group than in the usual care group at 6 , 9 , and 12 months follow-up ( 75 % vs 41 % ; 68 % vs 36 % , and 83 % vs 55 % , respectively ; P < 0.05 ) . After 12 months , changes in overall quality of life and in health and the functioning scores were different between groups ( interaction effects [ groups by time ] P = 0.048 and P = 0.036 , respectively ) . CONCLUSIONS The use of a pedometer concomitantly with a socio-cognitive intervention improves adherence to physical activity and quality of life during the year after an acute coronary syndrome event . This finding is relevant because physical activity and quality of life are a great concern in preventive cardiology . These results support applying this innovative approach in cardiac rehabilitation programs Physical exercise , particularly aerobic exercise , is documented as providing a low cost regimen to counter well-documented cognitive declines including memory , executive function , visuospatial skills , and processing speed in normally aging adults . Prior aging studies focused largely on the effects of medium to long term ( > 6 months ) exercise training ; however , the shorter term effects have not been studied . In the present study , we examined changes in brain blood flow , cognition , and fitness in 37 cognitively healthy sedentary adults ( 57–75 years of age ) who were r and omized into physical training or a wait-list control group .  The physical training group received supervised aerobic exercise for 3 sessions per week 1 h each for 12 weeks . Participants ' cognitive , cardiovascular fitness and resting cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) were assessed at baseline ( T1 ) , mid ( T2 ) , and post-training ( T3 ) . We found higher resting CBF in the anterior cingulate region in the physical training group as compared to the control group from T1 to T3 . Cognitive gains were manifested in the exercise group 's improved immediate and delayed memory performance from T1 to T3 which also showed a significant positive association with increases in both left and right hippocampal CBF identified earlier in the time course at T2 . Additionally , the two cardiovascular parameters , VO2 max and rating of perceived exertion ( RPE ) showed gains , compared to the control group . These data suggest that even shorter term aerobic exercise can facilitate neuroplasticity to reduce both the biological and cognitive consequences of aging to benefit brain health in sedentary adults OBJECTIVES To examine the effects of aerobic exercise on cognition and other biomarkers associated with Alzheimer disease pathology for older adults with mild cognitive impairment , and assess the role of sex as a predictor of response . DESIGN Six-month , r and omized , controlled , clinical trial . SETTING Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System clinical research unit . PARTICIPANTS Thirty-three adults ( 17 women ) with amnestic mild cognitive impairment ranging in age from 55 to 85 years ( mean age , 70 years ) . Intervention Participants were r and omized either to a high-intensity aerobic exercise or stretching control group . The aerobic group exercised under the supervision of a fitness trainer at 75 % to 85 % of heart rate reserve for 45 to 60 min/d , 4 d/wk for 6 months . The control group carried out supervised stretching activities according to the same schedule but maintained their heart rate at or below 50 % of their heart rate reserve . Before and after the study , glucometabolic and treadmill tests were performed and fat distribution was assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry . At baseline , month 3 , and month 6 , blood was collected for assay and cognitive tests were administered . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Performance measures on Symbol-Digit Modalities , Verbal Fluency , Stroop , Trails B , Task Switching , Story Recall , and List Learning . Fasting plasma levels of insulin , cortisol , brain-derived neurotrophic factor , insulinlike growth factor-I , and beta-amyloids 40 and 42 . RESULTS Six months of high-intensity aerobic exercise had sex-specific effects on cognition , glucose metabolism , and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and trophic activity despite comparable gains in cardiorespiratory fitness and body fat reduction . For women , aerobic exercise improved performance on multiple tests of executive function , increased glucose disposal during the metabolic clamp , and reduced fasting plasma levels of insulin , cortisol , and brain-derived neurotrophic factor . For men , aerobic exercise increased plasma levels of insulinlike growth factor I and had a favorable effect only on Trails B performance . CONCLUSIONS This study provides support , using rigorous controlled methodology , for a potent nonpharmacologic intervention that improves executive control processes for older women at high risk of cognitive decline . Moreover , our results suggest that a sex bias in cognitive response may relate to sex-based differences in glucometabolic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to aerobic exercise Abstract Implementing sit/st and workstations in sedentary work environments is a common way to reduce sedentary time , but their medium-term effect on cognitive performance is unclear . To address this circumstance , eighteen office workers participated in a two-arm , r and omised controlled cross-over trial ( Clinical Trials.gov Identifier : NCT02825303 ) , either working at a traditional ( sit ) or an interventional ( sit/st and ) workplace for 23 weeks . Cognitive performance ( working speed , reaction time , concentration performance , accuracy ) , workload and relevant covariates ( salivary cortisol level , heart rate , physical activity , sitting time ) were measured pre- and post-intervention under laboratory conditions . MANOVA and RMANOVA results did not show differences in performance parameters and workload , respectively , between sit/st and and traditional workplace users . Differences in text editing accuracy and cortisol levels for sit/st and workstation users indicate potential connectivity to cognitive parameters which should be further examined with large-scale studies . Practitioner summary : Medium-term effects of working at sit/st and workstations on cognitive performance and workload are unexplored . This r and omised controlled trial suggests that cognitive performance and workload are unaffected for sit/st and workstation users after 23 weeks of use . However , accuracy appeared to improve and physiological stress appeared to be altered . Abbreviations : BMI : body mass index ; IPAQ : International physical activity question naire ; MET : metabolic equivalent of task ; MANOVA : multivariate ANOVA ; NASA TLX : NASA task load index ; RMANOVA : repeated measures ANOVA GRAPHICAL OBJECTIVES To compare acute cognitive effects following bouts of st and ing ( ST AND ) , cycling ( CYCLE ) and walking ( WALK ) to a sit-only ( SIT ) condition . DESIGN R and omized cross-over full-factorial study . METHODS Nine overweight ( BMI = 29±3kg/m2 ) adults ( 30±15years ; 7 females , 2 males ) completed four conditions ( SIT , ST AND , WALK and CYCLE ) across a 6h period with a 7days washout period between conditions . SIT consisted of uninterrupted sitting . Experimental conditions included intermittent bouts of st and ing ( ST AND ) , cycling ( CYCLE ) and walking ( WALK ) . A cognitive performance battery ( Cogstate ) was completed twice in a seated position following bouts of st and ing and light-intensity physical activity . Mixed-effects models compared between-condition differences in st and ardized score ( z-score ) , accuracy ( % ) , and speed ( log10ms ) . RESULTS Cognitive performance z-score and accuracy measures were higher during ST AND , CYCLE and WALK ( P<0.05 ) conditions compared to the SIT condition . CYCLE was better than other experimental conditions . CONCLUSIONS Compared to uninterrupted sitting , short bouts of st and ing or light-intensity cycling and walking  may improve acute cognitive performance Older and younger aerobically trained and sedentary adults participated in an S1-S2-S3 paradigm design ed to elicit event-related potential ( ERP ) and behavioral responses to determine the influence of cardiovascular fitness on cognitive and motor processes . The paradigm provided warning ( S1 ) as to the difficulty level of an upcoming decision task ( S2 ) . Participants had to decide the taller of two bars on presentation of S2 but hold their response until S3 , to which they indicated their choice motorically . Results revealed age-related differences for ERP measures as older participants showed increased amplitude of the stimulus preceding negativity ( SPN ) prior to S2 , and longer latencies and equipotentiality of P3 in response to S2 . Fitness effects were also observed for the contingent negative variation ( CNV ) with decreased amplitude for fit relative to sedentary individuals . Age interacted with fitness for P3 latency to S2 as older sedentary individuals showed the longest latency followed by older fit and both younger groups . No significant group differences were observed for reaction time ( RT ) to S3 . Therefore , physical fitness is associated with attenuation of cognitive decline in older individuals and greater economy of motor preparation for both young and older participants Objective : In the present study , we examined the effect of working while seated , while st and ing , or while walking on measures of short-term memory , working memory , selective and sustained attention , and information-processing speed . Background : The advent of computer-based technology has revolutionized the adult workplace , such that average adult full-time employees spend the majority of their working day seated . Prolonged sitting is associated with increasing obesity and chronic health conditions in children and adults . One possible intervention to reduce the negative health impacts of the modern office environment involves modifying the workplace to increase incidental activity and exercise during the workday . Although modifications , such as sit-st and desks , have been shown to improve physiological function , there is mixed information regarding the impact of such office modification on individual cognitive performance and thereby the efficiency of the work environment . Method : In a fully counterbalanced r and omized control trial , we assessed the cognitive performance of 45 undergraduate students for up to a 1-hr period in each condition . Results : The results indicate that there is no significant change in the measures used to assess cognitive performance associated with working while seated , while st and ing , or while walking at low intensity . Conclusion : These results indicate that cognitive performance is not de grade d with short-term use of alternate workstations IMPORTANCE Epidemiological evidence suggests that physical activity benefits cognition , but results from r and omized trials are limited and mixed . OBJECTIVE To determine whether a 24-month physical activity program results in better cognitive function , lower risk of mild cognitive impairment ( MCI )  or dementia , or both , compared with a health education program . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS A r and omized clinical trial , the Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) study , enrolled 1635 community-living participants at 8 US centers from February 2010 until December 2011 . Participants were sedentary adults aged 70 to 89 years who were at risk for mobility disability but able to walk 400 m. INTERVENTIONS A structured , moderate-intensity physical activity program ( n = 818 ) that included walking , resistance training , and flexibility exercises or a health education program ( n = 817 ) of educational workshops and upper-extremity stretching . MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Prespecified secondary outcomes of the LIFE study included cognitive function measured by the Digit Symbol Coding ( DSC ) task subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( score range : 0 - 133 ; higher scores indicate better function ) and the revised Hopkins Verbal Learning Test ( HVLT-R ; 12-item word list recall task ) assessed in 1476 participants ( 90.3 % ) . Tertiary outcomes included global and executive cognitive function and incident MCI or dementia at 24 months . RESULTS At 24 months , DSC task and HVLT-R scores ( adjusted for clinic site , sex , and baseline values ) were not different between groups . The mean DSC task scores were 46.26 points for the physical activity group vs 46.28 for the health education group ( mean difference , -0.01 points [ 95 % CI , -0.80 to 0.77 points ] , P = .97 ) . The mean HVLT-R delayed recall scores were 7.22 for the physical activity group vs 7.25 for the health education group ( mean difference , -0.03 words [ 95 % CI , -0.29 to 0.24 words ] , P = .84 ) . No differences for any other cognitive or composite measures were observed . Participants in the physical activity group who were 80 years or older ( n = 307 ) and those with poorer baseline physical performance ( n = 328 ) had better changes in executive function composite scores compared with the health education group ( P = .01 for interaction for both comparisons ) . Incident MCI or dementia occurred in 98 participants ( 13.2 % ) in the physical activity group and 91 participants ( 12.1 % ) in the health education group ( odds ratio , 1.08 [ 95 % CI , 0.80 to 1.46 ] ) . CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Among sedentary older adults , a 24-month moderate-intensity physical activity program compared with a health education program did not result in improvements in global or domain-specific cognitive function . TRIAL REGISTRATION clinical trials.gov Identifier : NCT01072500 Background Few studies have explored the relations between naturally occurring changes in physical activity and cognitive performance in later life . This study examined prospect i ve associations between changes in physical activity and cognitive performance in a population -based sample of Taiwanese older adults during an 11-year period . Methods Analyses were based on nationally representative data from the Taiwan Health and Living Status of the Elderly Survey collected in 1996 , 1999 , 2003 , and 2007 . Data from a fixed cohort of 1160 participants who were aged 67 years or older in 1996 and followed for 11 years were included .  Cognitive performance ( outcome ) was assessed using 5 questions from the Short Portable Mental Status Question naire . Physical activity ( exposure ) was self-reported as number of sessions per week . The latent growth model was used to examine associations between changes in physical activity and cognitive performance after controlling for sociodemographic variables , lifestyle behaviors , and health status . Results With multivariate adjustment , higher initial levels of physical activity were significantly associated with better initial cognitive performance ( st and ardized coefficient β = 0.17 ) . A higher level of physical activity  at baseline ( 1996 ) was significantly related to slower decline in cognitive performance , as compared with a lower level of activity ( β = 0.22 ) . The association between changes in physical activity and changes in cognitive performance was stronger ( β = 0.36 ) than the previous 2 associations . The effect remained after excluding participants with cognitive decline before baseline . Conclusions Physical activity in later life is associated with slower age-related cognitive decline
Conclusion : These data suggest that sedentary behavior is not associated with changes in cognitive performance in interventions that intend to reduce sedentary behavior .
Background : It is now well-established that sedentarity has a negative impact on the physiological functioning and health of humans , whereas very little is known about the psychological repercussions , especially in cognitive functioning .
Yet , study ing the cognitive effects of the sedentary lifestyle is particularly relevant in the short term for productivity and in the long term for cognitive health ( accelerated aging ) .
This systematic review therefore aims to make an inventory of the potential cognitive effects of sedentarity at the workplace .
Methods : Pubmed , PsycINFO , Cochrane , Web of Science , and Scopus were search ed for English- language peer- review ed articles published between January 1 , 2000 and December 31 , 2017 to identify studies including sedentary behavior  and objective measures from cognitive domains ( cognitive inhibition , cognitive flexibility , working memory , etc . ) .