Auditory event-related potentials are related to cognition at preschool age after very preterm birth Diagnostic and Predictive Value of Auditory Evoked Responses in Preterm Infants: II. Auditory Evoked Responses Neonatal head ultrasound abnormalities in preterm infants and adolescent psychiatric disorders. The discrepancy between maturation of visual-evoked potentials and cognitive outcome at five years in very preterm infants with and without hemodynamic signs of fetal brain-sparing. Neurodevelopmental outcomes following late and moderate prematurity: a population-based cohort study Influence of perinatal, developmental and environmental factors on cognitive abilities of preterm children without major impairments at 5 years. Cognitive development in low risk preterm infants at 3–4 years of life Alterations in brain structure and neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm infants hospitalized in different neonatal intensive care unit environments. Neurodevelopmental performance among school age children in rural Guatemala is associated with prenatal and postnatal exposure to carbon monoxide, a marker for exposure to woodsmoke. Neurophysiologic correlates of deficient phonological representations and object naming in prematurely born children Construct Validity of the Neurobehavioral Assessment of Preterm Infants Psychological functioning and health-related quality of life in adulthood after preterm birth. Mental, psychomotor, neurologic, and behavioral outcomes of 2-year-old children born after preimplantation genetic screening: follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Fetal biophysical profile and cerebro-umbilical ratio in assessment of brain damage in growth restricted fetuses. Early experience alters brain function and structure. The effect of preimplantation genetic screening on neurological, cognitive and behavioural development in 4-year-old children: follow-up of a RCT. Hemisphere Differences in Speech-Sound Event-Related Potentials in Intensive Care Neonates
Background : Auditory event-related potentials ( AERP ) are neurophysiological correlates of sound perception and cognitive processes . Our aim was to study in very preterm born children at preschool age if AERP correlate with cognitive outcome . Methods : Seventy children ( mean ± SD gestational age 27.4 ± 1.9 wk , birth weight 996 ± 288 g ) were investigated at age 4.3–5.3 y with psychological testing ( WPPSI-R , four subtests of NEPSY ) . Electroencephalogram was recorded while they listened to a repeated st and ard tone , r and omly replaced by one of three deviants .  Latencies and amplitudes for AERP components and mean amplitudes in successive 50-ms AERP time windows were measured . Results : Better cognitive test results and higher gestational age correlated with shorter P1 latencies and more positive mean amplitudes 150–500 ms after stimulus change onset . Neonatal brain damage was associated with a negative displacement of AERP curves . Neonatal morbidity had an impact on earlier time windows while gestational age and brain damage on both early and later time windows . Conclusion : AERP measures were associated with cognitive outcome . Neonatal morbidity mainly affects early cortical auditory encoding , while immaturity and brain damage additionally influence higher cortical functions of auditory perception and distraction . Perinatal auditory environment might play a role in development of auditory processing In this study , the diagnostic and predictive value of brainstem , middle latency , and cortical auditory evoked responses ( BMC -AERs ) obtained in the neonatal period in 81 preterm infants was assessed in relation to neurodevelopmental outcome .  The preterm infants were neonatally classified according to risk category and gestational age . The  BMC -AERs  were analyzed with respect to detectability , latencies , and amplitudes as well as derived latency and amplitude measures . At 5 y of age the neurodevelopmental outcome was assessed from neurologic and neuropsychologic evaluations . The results showed that BMC -AER differences mainly correlated with risk category ( low risk/high risk ) and to some extent with degree of prematurity . In view of these findings the degree of prematurity and the effect of risk category have to be taken into account , when BMC -AERs are applied in the preterm period to predict neurodevelopmental outcome . In this study the BMC -AERs for infants with abnormal neurodevelopmental outcome were scarcely distinguishable from the BMC -AERs for infants with normal neurodevelopmental outcome . Thus far , this and previous reports have indicated that BMC -AERs in preterm infants are useful in maturational studies and with infants showing symptoms related to lesions or dysfunction of the peripheral and /or central auditory system . For predicting neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm infants , BMC -AERs are of limited clinical value CONTEXT Infants born prematurely are at risk for a perinatal encephalopathy characterized by white and gray matter injuries that affect subsequent cortical development and neural connectivity and potentially increase risk for later psychiatric disorder . OBJECTIVE To determine the relation of perinatal brain injury , as detected by neonatal head ultrasound , to psychiatric disorders in adolescents who were born prematurely . DESIGN Prospect i ve cohort . SETTING Community . PARTICIPANTS Adolescent survivors of a population -based low-birth-weight ( < 2000 g ; 96 % preterm ; born 1984 - 1987 ) cohort ( n = 1105 ) screened as neonates with serial head ultrasounds .  Neonatal head ultrasound abnormalities were categorized as either ( 1 ) germinal matrix and /or intraventricular hemorrhage or ( 2 ) parenchymal lesions and /or ventricular enlargement . Of 862 eligible survivors , 628 ( 72.9 % ) were assessed at age 16 years . The sample consisted of 458 nondisabled survivors assessed in person . Main Outcome Measure Adolescent current and lifetime psychiatric disorders assessed with parent report on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV . RESULTS Compared with no abnormality , germinal matrix/intraventricular hemorrhage increased risk for current major depressive disorder ( odds ratio , 2.7 ; 95 % confidence interval , 1.0 - 6.8 ) and obsessive-compulsive disorder ( 9.5 ; 3.0 - 30.1 ) . Parenchymal lesions/ventricular enlargement increased risk for current attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-inattentive type ( odds ratio , 7.6 ; 95 % confidence interval , 2.0 - 26.5 ) , tic disorders ( 8.4 ; 2.4 - 29.6 ) , and obsessive-compulsive disorder ( 7.6 ; 1.39 - 42.0 ) . Parenchymal lesions/ventricular enlargement were not related to lifetime attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-inattentive type , but all other relations were similar for lifetime disorders . Control for other early risk factors did not alter these relations . Most of these relations persisted with control for concurrent cognitive or motor problems . CONCLUSION In preterm infants , 2 distinct types of perinatal brain injury detectable with neonatal head ultrasound selectively increase risk in adolescence for psychiatric disorders in which dysfunction of subcortical-cortical circuits has been implicated OBJECTIVE After intrauterine growth restriction we found at the age of 6 months an acceleration of neurophysiologic maturation . However , at later ages impaired cognitive outcome has been reported . Therefore , we investigated in children with and without fetal hemodynamic adaptation to intrauterine growth restriction whether the accelerated neurophysiologic maturation in infancy might be associated with impaired cognitive outcome at preschool age . DESIGN At 5 years of age cognitive function was assessed using the Revision of the Amsterdam Children 's Intelligence Test in 73 preterm infants ( 26 - 33 weeks ) who were prospect ively followed from the antenatal period up to the age of 5 years . Maternal educational level was used as a background variable to estimate the confounding effects of socioeconomic status on cognitive function . Fetal Doppler studies were performed and the umbilical artery pulsatility index ( PI ) divided by the middle cerebral artery PI ratio ( U/C ratio ) was calculated . A U/C ratio > 0.725 was considered as an indication of fetal cerebral hemodynamic adaptation to a compromised placental perfusion , ie , fetal brain-sparing . Visual-evoked potentials ( VEPs ) were recorded at 6 months and 1 year of age . In addition , data on neurologic status at 3 years were available . RESULTS Mean IQ score was significantly lower for children born with a raised U/C ratio ( 87 + /- 16 ) compared with children with a normal U/C ratio ( 96 + /- 17 ) . VEP latencies decreased significantly in infants with a normal U/C ratio , whereas no decrease was found in infants with a raised U/C ratio . Variables contributing significantly to the variance of cognitive function were : U/C group , VEP latency maturation , level of maternal education , and neurodevelopmental outcome at 3 years . The linear regression model explained 33 % of the variance in cognitive function . CONCLUSIONS Both being born with a raised U/C ratio and an acceleration of VEP latencies are negatively associated with cognitive outcome at 5 years of age . Fetal brain-sparing , although a seemingly beneficial adaptive mechanism for intact neurologic survival , is , however , later associated with a poorer cognitive outcome Objective There is a paucity of data relating to neurodevelopmental outcomes in infants born late and moderately preterm ( LMPT ; 32 + 0–36 + 6 weeks ) . This paper present the results of a prospect i ve , population -based study of 2-year outcomes following LMPT birth . Design 1130 LMPT and 1255 term-born children were recruited at birth . At 2 years corrected age , parents completed a question naire to assess neurosensory ( vision , hearing , motor ) impairments  and the Parent Report of Children 's Abilities-Revised to identify cognitive impairment . Relative risks for adverse outcomes were adjusted for sex , socio-economic status and small for gestational age , and weighted to account for over-sampling of term-born multiples . Risk factors for cognitive impairment were explored using multivariable analyses . Results Parents of 638 ( 57 % ) LMPT infants and 765 ( 62 % ) controls completed question naires . Among LMPT infants , 1.6 % had neurosensory impairment compared with 0.3 % of controls ( RR 4.89 , 95 % CI 1.07 to 22.25 ) . Cognitive impairments were the most common adverse outcome : LMPT 6.3 % ; controls 2.4 % ( RR 2.09 , 95 % CI 1.19 to 3.64 ) . LMPT infants were at twice the risk for neurodevelopmental disability ( RR 2.19 , 95 % CI 1.27 to 3.75 ) . Independent risk factors for cognitive impairment in LMPT infants were male sex , socio-economic disadvantage , non-white ethnicity , preeclampsia and not receiving breast milk at discharge . Conclusions Compared with term-born peers , LMPT infants are at double the risk for neurodevelopmental disability at 2 years of age , with the majority of impairments observed in the cognitive domain . Male sex , socio-economic disadvantage and preeclampsia are independent predictors of low cognitive scores following LMPT birth The relative role of perinatal factors ( birthweight , gestational age , gender , asphyxia , mechanical ventilation and cerebral lesions ) , developmental factors ( neuromotor development during the first 18 months of life ) and environmental factors ( socio-economic status and bilingualism ) on cognitive abilities was evaluated in a cohort of preterm children who had been prospect ively examined for haemorrhage ( PVH ) and periventricular leucomalacia ( PVL ) and followed-up to 5 years of age . St and ardized neurological examinations and development assessment including tests of cognitive function were carried out . Major impairments could be ascribed to the presence of large PVL changes . Among the 226 children without major impairment , the overall incidence of neuropsychological anomalies ( neuromotor , language , visual , auditory and behaviour anomalies ) was 46.5 % and did not differ within ultrasound groups ( normal scans , PVH and small PVL ) . However , children with small changes of PVL presented more abnormal neuromotor development within the first 18 months of life and had more complex neuropsychological anomalies at 5 years . The multiple regression analysis ( General Intellectual Index ( GII ) predicted = 113.7 - coefficient x social class - 8.5 x bilingualism - 5.5 x dystonia + 1.4 x gestational age + 8 x mechanical ventilation ) showed that socioeconomic status was the most important factor affecting the General Intellectual Index ( GII ) . The contribution of sex and cerebral lesions was not significant . As children grew-up , environmental factors seemed to overcome perinatal factors Background : Major neurological h and icaps and neuropsychological disturbances are more common in ex-preterm children than their counterparts born at term . Objective : To establish in a prospect i ve study whether a characteristic neuropsychological profile exists in ex-preterm children who do not exhibit neurodevelopmental deficits on routine clinical examination . Methods : Thirty intellectually normal children born preterm ( 30–34 weeks gestation ) without major neurological disabilities and a control group of term children matched for age , sex , and parental educational and occupational status were assessed at 3–4 years of age to obtain a complete neuropsychological profile . Intellectual ability , language comprehension and expression , perceptual and visual motor function , working memory , and attention and behavioural problems were investigated . Results : Even in the absence of major neurological signs , children born preterm achieved lower mean scores than controls on the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale ( 110.8 v 121 , p<0.001 ) , visual perception test ( 33.8 v 42.7 , p<0.001 ) , visual motor integration test ( 42.6 v 47.4 , p = 0.049 ) , memory for location test ( 8.4 v 9.5 , p = 0.007 ) , sustained attention test ( 41.6 v 51.5 , p = 0.009 ) , and the picture vocabulary test ( 33.3 v 44.7 , p = 0.021 ) . Conclusions : Neuropsychological abnormalities can be detected early in childhood in apparently normal ex-preterm children and are consistent with a growing body of evidence that prematurity may be associated with long term neuropsychological morbidity in childhood and adolescence OBJECTIVE To evaluate associations between neonatal intensive care unit ( NICU ) room type ( open ward and private room ) and medical outcomes ; neurobehavior , electrophysiology , and brain structure at hospital discharge ; and developmental outcomes at 2 years of age . STUDY DESIGN In this prospect i ve longitudinal cohort study , we enrolled 136 preterm infants born < 30 weeks gestation from an urban , 75-bed level III NICU from 2007 - 2010 . Upon admission , each participant was assigned to a bedspace in an open ward or private room within the same hospital , based on space and staffing availability , where they remained for the duration of hospitalization . The primary outcome was developmental performance at 2 years of age ( n = 86 infants returned for testing , which was 83 % of survivors ) measured using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development , 3rd Edition . Secondary outcomes were : ( 1 ) medical factors throughout the hospitalization ; ( 2 ) neurobehavior ; and ( 3 ) cerebral injury and maturation ( determined by magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography ) . RESULTS At term equivalent age , infants in private rooms were characterized by a diminution of normal hemispheric asymmetry and a trend toward having lower amplitude integrated electroencephalography cerebral maturation scores ( P = .02 ; β = -0.52 [ CI -0.95 , -0.10 ] ) . At age 2 years , infants from private rooms had lower language scores ( P = .006 ; β = -8.3 [ CI -14.2 , -2.4 ] ) and a trend toward lower motor scores ( P = .02 ; β = -6.3 [ CI -11.7 , -0.99 ] ) , which persisted after adjustment for potential confounders . CONCLUSION These findings raise concerns that highlight the need for further research into the potential adverse effects of different amounts of sensory exposure in the NICU environment We investigated whether early life chronic exposure to  woodsmoke , using personal passive 48-h carbon monoxide ( CO ) as an indicator , is associated with children 's neurodevelopmental and behavioral performance . CO measures were collected every 3 months from 2002 to 2005 among mother-child dyads during the R and omized Exposure Study of Pollution Indoors and Respiratory Effects ( RESPIRE ) stove intervention trial in San Marcos , Guatemala . From March to June , 2010 , study children of age 6 - 7 years , performed a follow-up non-verbal , culturally adapted neurodevelopmental assessment . We found inverse associations between CO exposure of pregnant mothers during their 3rd trimesters ( m=3.8ppm ± 3.0ppm ; range : 0.6 - 12.5 ppm ) and child neuropsychological performance . Scores on 4 out of 11 neuropsychological tests were significantly associated with mothers ' 3rd trimester CO exposures , including visuo-spatial integration ( p<0.05 ) , short-term memory recall ( p<0.05 ) , long-term memory recall ( p<0.05 ) , and fine motor performance ( p<0.01 ) measured using the Bender Gestalt-II 's Copy , Immediate Recall , and an adapted version of a Delayed Recall Figures drawing , and the Reitan-Indiana 's Finger Tapping Tests , respectively . These 4 significant finding persisted with adjustment for child sex , age , visual acuity , and household assets ( socio-economic status ) . Summary performance scores were also significantly associated with maternal 3rd trimester CO when adjusted for these covariates . Other variables accounting for variance but were excluded in our final multiple regression models included the following : HOME environment stimulation score , child examiner , WHO height-for-age percentile , and age that the infant stopped breastfeeding . This seems to be the first study on woodsmoke exposure and neurodevelopment , and the first longitudinal birth cohort study on chronic early life CO exposures , determined by high quality measures of mothers ' and infants ' personal CO exposures , and using well-established , reliable child neuropsychological tests . Further research is needed to replicate our results and inform future interventions and air quality st and ards for woodsmoke and CO OBJECTIVE The aim of this follow-up study was to evaluate the development of object naming ability and auditory processing in prematurely born children . Furthermore , we investigated whether the mismatch negativity ( MMN ) parameters at the age of 4 years correlate with the MMN parameters and naming ability at the age of 6 years . METHODS Twelve very low birth weight ( VLBW ) preterm children ( mean age 5 years 7 months ) and matched controls were studied . Object naming was measured by the Boston naming test  . Auditory event-related potentials ( ERPs ) , especially the MMN  , were recorded for Finnish syllables ( st and ard /taa/ ; deviants /ta/ and /kaa/ ) in an oddball paradigm . RESULTS VLBW preterm children scored significantly lower in the object naming test than their controls . The MMN amplitude for consonant change was significantly smaller in the preterm group compared to the controls . The MMN amplitude at the age of 4 years correlated with the MMN amplitude at the age of 6 years . Furthermore , absence of the MMN at the age of 4 years predicted naming difficulties at the age of 6 years . CONCLUSIONS VLBW preterm children with a difficulty to preattentively discriminate changes in syllables , as indexed by the diminished change detection response , MMN , seem to have sustained naming difficulty . Therefore , it is reasonable to record the MMN along with the language development from infancy , in order to identify the children at risk for language deficiencies and to provide appropriate rehabilitation In this nonr and omized , prospect i ve cohort study , the construct validity of the Neurobehavioral Assessment of the  Preterm Infant  ( NAPI ) was examined by comparing it with measures of neonatal physiological status . A cohort of preterm infants ( n = 37 ) was tested repetitively at 32 and 36 weeks post-conceptional age ( PCA ) to determine whether there was a correlation between physiological status and NAPI scores at these ages . We anticipated fair , clinical ly significant correlations ( r = 0.25–0.50 ) between physiological and neurobehavioral status . This was found using Pearson Product Moment correlational analysis between components of the neurobehavioral performance repertoire at 32 weeks PCA , the degree of medical intervention and the early biological risks that contribute to developmental status . The finding was less marked at 36 weeks PCA when the subjects were physiologically more stable The aim of this study was to determine if preterm birth is associated with socioeconomic status ( SES ) , psychological functioning , and health-related quality of life ( HRQoL ) in adulthood . We used prospect i ve follow-up of 192 adult offspring of mothers who took part in a r and omized controlled trial of antenatal betamethasone for the prevention of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome ( 66 born at term [ 33 males , 33 females ] 126 born preterm [ 66 males , 60 females ] ) .  Cognitive functioning was assessed using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence . Working memory and attention was assessed using the Benton Visual Retention Test , the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test , and the Brown Attention Deficit Disorder Scale . Psychiatric morbidity was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory II , the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory , and the Schizotypy Traits Question naire . H and edness was assessed using the Edinburgh H and edness Inventory . HRQoL was assessed using the Short Form-36 Health Survey . Moderately preterm birth ( median gestation 34wks , mean birthweight 1946 g [ SD 463 g ] ) was not related to later marital status , educational attainment , SES , cognitive functioning , working memory , attention , or symptoms of anxiety or schizotypy at 31 years of age . Preterm birth was associated with fewer symptoms of depression and higher levels of satisfaction in three of the eight HRQoL domains measured ( bodily pain , general health perception , and social functioning ) . Adults who were born moderately preterm have SES , psychological functioning , and HRQoL consistent with those who were born at term . This good long-term outcome can not be extrapolated to those with early childhood disability or very low birthweights OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effect of preimplantation genetic screening ( PGS ) on neurodevelopmental outcomes in children . DESIGN Prospect i ve , assessor-blinded , follow-up study of children born to women r and omly assigned to in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection ( IVF/ICSI ) with or without PGS .  SETTING University Medical Center , Groningen , and Academic Medical Center , Amsterdam , the Netherl and s. PATIENT(S ) Fifty-four PGS children and 77 controls .  INTERVENTION(S ) PGS . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S ) Mental , psychomotor , neurologic , and behavioral outcomes in 2-year-old children  as measured with the Bayley Scales of Infant Development , the Hempel neurologic examination , and the Child Behavior Check List . RESULT ( S ) The mental , psychomotor , and behavioral outcomes at 2 years in children born after IVF with and without PGS were similar overall . The PGS children showed lower neurologic optimality scores than the control children . Scores on all tests were within the normal range . CONCLUSION ( S ) Conception with PGS does not seem to be associated with impaired mental , psychomotor , or behavioral outcomes by age 2 . However , the lower neurologic optimality scores found in the PGS children may signal less favorable long-term neurologic outcomes in PGS children . Our findings stress the need for safety evaluations with new assisted reproductive techniques before large-scale implementation OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship between fetal biophysical profile ( FBP ) , Doppler cerebro-umbilical ( C/U ) ratio and neonatal neurosonography in growth restricted newborns . STUDY DESIGN This prospect i ve study included 87 growth restricted fetuses from 28 to 42 weeks of gestation . The FBP and C/U ratio were assessed twice a week . Within 48h and on the seventh day after birth ,  neonatal neurosonography  was performed as the outcome parameter . RESULTS Brain damage was detected , by neurosonography , in 34 newborns with intrauterine growth restriction ( IUGR ) .  Severe periventricular echodensities ( PVE ) were ultrasonographically verified in eleven infants . Intraventricular or intraparenchymal hemorrhage ( severe intracranial hemorrhage ICH ) was detected in seven infants , and subependymal hemorrhage ( SEH ) in nine infants with IUGR . Porencephalic cysts , as a result of chronic intrauterine hypoxia , were found in four infants , and brain atrophy was detected in one case . Nonspecific ultrasonographic changes were observed in two newborns . The FBP and C/U ratio were statistically significantly associated with neurosonographicaly verified neonatal brain lesions ( P < 0.001 ) . CONCLUSIONS The FBP and the C/U ratio represent the useful indicators for early detection and assessment of fetal hypoxia . They may also be parameters for the prediction of neonatal neurosonography findings in newborns with IUGR OBJECTIVE To investigate the effects of early experience on brain function and structure . METHODS A r and omized clinical trial tested the neurodevelopmental effectiveness of the Newborn Individualized Developmental Care and Assessment Program ( NIDCAP ) .  Thirty preterm infants , 28 to 33 weeks ' gestational age ( GA ) at birth and free of known developmental risk factors , participated in the trial . NIDCAP was initiated within 72 hours of intensive care unit admission and continued to the age of 2 weeks , corrected for prematurity . Control ( 14 ) and experimental ( 16 ) infants were assessed at 2 weeks ' and 9 months ' corrected age on health status , growth , and neurobehavior , and at 2 weeks ' corrected age additionally on electroencephalogram spectral coherence , magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging , and measurements of transverse relaxation time . RESULTS The groups were medically and demographically comparable before as well as after the treatment . However , the experimental group showed significantly better neurobehavioral functioning , increased coherence between frontal and a broad spectrum of mainly occipital brain regions , and higher relative anisotropy in left internal capsule , with a trend for right internal capsule and frontal white matter . Transverse relaxation time showed no difference . Behavioral function was improved also at 9 months ' corrected age . The relationship among the 3 neurodevelopmental domains was significant . The results indicated consistently better function and more mature fiber structure for experimental infants compared with their controls . CONCLUSIONS This is the first in vivo evidence of enhanced brain function and structure due to the NIDCAP . The study demonstrates that quality of experience before term may influence brain development significantly STUDY QUESTION Does embryo biopsy inherent to preimplantation genetic screening ( PGS ) affect neurological , cognitive and behavioural development  of 4-year-old children ? SUMMARY ANSWER PGS does not seem to affect neurological , cognitive and behavioural development of 4-year-old singletons ; however , our data suggest that it may be associated with altered neurodevelopment in twins . WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Evidence concerning the safety of PGS on neurodevelopmental outcome in offspring is scarce . The present study provides information on neurodevelopmental , cognitive and behavioural outcome of 4-year-old PGS offspring . STUDY DESIGN , SIZE , DURATION A prospect i ve , assessor-blinded follow-up study of children born to women who participated in a multi-centre RCT on the effect of IVF with or without PGS .  PARTICIPANTS / MATERIAL S , SETTING , METHODS At 4 years , 49 children ( 31 singletons , 9 sets of twins ) born following IVF with PGS and 64 children ( 42 singletons , 11 sets of twins ) born following IVF without PGS ( controls ) were assessed ( post-natal attrition 18 % ) . Neurological development was evaluated with the st and ardized , age-specific and sensitive neurological examination according to Hempel , result ing in a neurological optimality score ( NOS ) , a fluency score and the rate of adverse neurological outcome . Primary outcome was the fluency score , as fluency of movements is easily reduced by subtle dysfunction of the brain . Cognitive development was evaluated with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ; behavioural development was evaluated with the Child Behavior Checklist . The effect of PGS was analysed with a mixed effects model . MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE Based on the intention to treat analysis , neurodevelopmental outcome of PGS children was similar to that of controls . However , additional analyses indicated that PGS affected neurodevelopmental outcome of twins in a different way than that of singletons . The fluency score of singletons born following PGS was similar to that of control singletons [ mean values , 95 % confidence intervals ( CIs ) : 12.2 ( 11.5;12.8 ) and 12.2 ( 11.6;12.8 ) ] , respectively , P = 0.977 ) that was also true for the other neurodevelopmental parameters . The fluency score of PGS twins was significantly lower than that of control twins [ mean values , 95 % CIs : 10.6 ( 9.8;11.3 ) and 12.3 ( 11.5;13.1 ) ] , respectively , P = 0.001 ) ; the same was true for the NOS . In addition , PGS in twins was associated with a higher sequential intelligence quotient score . On the other h and , other neurodevelopmental parameters were similar for PGS twins and control twins . Post hoc sample size calculation for the primary outcome parameter , the fluency score , indicated that the study groups , including the subgroups of singletons and twins , were adequately powered . LIMITATIONS , REASONS FOR CAUTION We assessed singletons and twins who contributed to the generalizability of the study . A limitation of our study is the relative small size of our study groups and the selective dropout in both groups ( dropouts PGS group : higher gestational age ; control group : less well-educated parents ) . These preclude the conclusion that PGS per se is not associated with neurodevelopmental , cognitive and behavioural problems in singletons and the conclusion that PGS is associated with altered neurodevelopmental outcome in twins . WIDER IMPLICATION S OF THE FINDINGS The need for careful long-term monitoring of children born following  embryo biopsy  remains , as it is still applied in the form of PGD and it is still unknown whether embryo biopsy affects long-term neurodevelopmental outcome Neurodevelopmental delays in intensive care neonates are common but difficult to predict . In children , hemisphere differences in cortical processing of speech are predictive of cognitive performance . We hypothesized that hemisphere differences in auditory event-related potentials in intensive care neonates are predictive of neurodevelopment in infancy , even in those born preterm .  Event-related potentials to speech sounds were prospect ively recorded in 57 infants ( gestational age 24 - 40 weeks ) prior to discharge . The Developmental Assessment of Young Children was performed at 6 and 12 months . Hemisphere differences in mean amplitudes increased with postnatal age ( P < .01 ) but not with gestational age . Greater hemisphere differences were associated with improved communication and cognitive scores at 6 and 12 months , but decreased in significance at 12 months after adjusting for socioeconomic and clinical factors . Auditory cortical responses can be used in intensive care neonates to help identify infants at higher risk for delays in infancy
According to our findings , auditory event‐related potentials can help to predict neurodevelopmental outcome in preterms .
Both prospect i ve and cross‐sectional studies reported a relationship between AERPs and cognitive outcome .
Our results show that larger amplitudes and shorter latencies of late AERPs are related to better cognitive outcomes .
HIGHLIGHTSPreterm birth is associated with an elevated risk for neurodevelopmental deficits .
Auditory event‐related potentials can be used to assess early cognitive functioning .
This paper represents the first systematic review investigating the predictive power of AERPs on  cognition in preterms .
ABSTRACT Prematurity is a known risk factor for later cognitive deficits .
At present there are neither behavioral nor neurological tests available to detect those preterm infants who would benefit most from early interventions .
Neurophysiologic methods , and more specifically , auditory event‐related potentials ( AERPs ) are convenient tools to investigate early cognitive functioning .
However , the capability of AERPs as a prognostic factor for mental development in preterm infants remains unclear .