Background diet influences the anti-inflammatory effect of alpha-linolenic acid in dyslipidaemic subjects. Inflammatory cytokines, endothelial markers and adhesion molecules in rheumatoid arthritis: effect of intensive anti-inflammatory treatment Simple advice on lifestyle habits and long-term changes in biomarkers of inflammation and vascular adhesion in healthy middle-aged men Increased α-linolenic acid intake lowers C-reactive protein, but has no effect on markers of atherosclerosis The effect of diet enriched with alpha-linolenic acid on soluble cellular adhesion molecules in dyslipidaemic patients. Oral glucose tolerance test effects on endothelial inflammation markers in healthy subjects and diabetic patients. Effects of acute ingestion of different fats on oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight and obese adults Postprandial variations of plasma inflammatory markers in abdominally obese men. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid decreases C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and interleukin-6 in dyslipidaemic patients. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid inhibits proinflammatory cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Inhibition of circulating immune cell activation: a molecular antiinflammatory effect of the Mediterranean diet. Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha as predictors of mortality in frail, community-living elderly individuals. Influence of dietary supplementation with long-chain n−3 or n−6 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood inflammatory cell populations and functions and on plasma soluble adhesion molecules in healthy adults A high intake of trans fatty acids has little effect on markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in humans. Assessment of inflammatory resilience in healthy subjects using dietary lipid and glucose challenges Chronic effects of a high-fat diet enriched with virgin olive oil and a low-fat diet enriched with alpha-linolenic acid on postprandial endothelial function in healthy men. Postprandial endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in type 2 diabetic patients: role of fat and carbohydrate meals.
Long-chain n-3 PUFA from fish oils are known to have anti-inflammatory effects . We evaluated the effect of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) , precursor of n-3 fatty acids , on serum inflammatory markers and soluble cellular adhesion molecules ( sCAM ) of dyslipidaemic males , relative to their background diet . Participants were assigned to two groups , based upon food intake patterns : ( a ) twenty-one dyslipidaemic subjects who habitually ate a Mediterranean-Cretan-type diet ; ( b ) nineteen dyslipidaemic subjects who normally ate a Westernised Greek diet .  All were supplemented with 8.1 g ALA/d for 12 weeks . We determined serum amyloid A ( SAA ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , macrophage colony-stimulating factor ( MCSF ) , IL-6 , soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 ) , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and soluble E-selectin concentrations at the beginning and the end of the ALA supplementation period . Serum baseline concentrations of inflammatory markers and sCAM were similar across the diet groups . Type of diet had a significant impact on the response of inflammatory markers to ALA supplementation . The Westernised Greek diet group showed a reduction in SAA ( P<0.001 ) , CRP ( P=0.002 ) , MCSF ( P=0.005 ) and IL-6 ( P=0.04 ) concentrations . The Mediterranean-Cretan-type background diet group showed a significant reduction only in MCSF concentrations ( P=0.003 ) . The sVCAM-1 concentrations were significantly reduced in both the Westernised Greek diet group ( P=0.001 ) and the Mediterranean-Cretan-type diet group ( P<0.001 ) . The present study demonstrated that ALA supplementation lowered the serum concentrations of inflammatory markers more profoundly when the background diet was rich in saturated fatty acids and poor in MUFA Tumour necrosis factor alpha ( TNF-α ) and interlekin-6 ( IL-6 ) are key inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis ( RA ) , a disease also associated with endothelial perturbation and increased serum levels of adhesion molecules . As relationships between these processes and molecules are unclear , we tested the hypotheses ( a ) that TNF-α and IL-6 are linked to endothelial activation/damage and levels of soluble adhesion molecules , and ( b ) that intensive anti-inflammatory treatment improves levels of these indices . We recruited 66 patients with RA , 48 community controls ( CC ) , and 25 disease controls ( DC ) .  Plasma TNF-α and IL-6 were compared to markers of vascular biology ( vWF , sE-sel ) , soluble adhesion molecules ( sICAM , sVCAM ) and routine inflammatory markers ( CRP and ESR ) . Blood was obtained at baseline and at 1 week and again 4 weeks after anti-inflammatory treatment in a subgroup of 29 patients with RA . With the exception of sE-selectin , RA patients had increased levels of all plasma markers compared to the HCs , whilst levels in the DCs were largely intermediate between RA and the CCs . Within the RA group , sEsel correlated with both CRP and ESR whilst TNF-α correlated with sVCAM ( all r > 0.32 , P < 0.01 ) . After 1 week of combined anti-inflammatory therapy , only CRP , ESR , sEsel and sVCAM were significantly reduced ( all P < 0.05 ) . In RA , endothelial activation ( as sEsel ) correlates with classical markers of inflammation and is reduced by intensive anti-inflammatory medications Background / Objectives : Lifestyle habits , vascular function and inflammation are components in the development of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . We investigated whether simple advice on dietary and exercise habits given ( at a single time point ) to hypercholesterolemic men affects circulating biomarkers of inflammation and vascular adhesion . Subjects/ Methods : In total , 157 men ( age 46±5 years ) with mild hypercholesterolemia were r and omized to four intervention groups , diet ( D , n=40 ) , exercise ( E , n=39 ) , diet and exercise ( DE , n=39 ) or controls ( C , n=39 ) and serum concentrations of C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 ( sICAM-1 ) , soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 ( sVCAM-1 ) and soluble E-selectin ( sE-selectin ) were quantified at baseline and after a 6-month intervention period . Results : The intervention applied in this study , that is , simple advice on lifestyle changes given at a single time point , had a modest effect on inflammatory biomarkers and soluble vascular adhesion molecules . The most apparent alterations were found for individuals in group DE , who responded with significant reductions in sICAM-1 , −28 ( −41 to −14 μg/l ) and sE-selectin , −3.6 ( −6.9 to −0.3 μg/l ) after 6 months . None of the groups had altered their concentrations of sVCAM-1 , CRP or IL-6 significantly after the intervention . In all individuals combined , we found changes in apolipoprotein B ( apoB ) to predict alterations in sICAM-1 ( β=0.21 ) and sE-selectin ( β=0.26 ) , independently of changes in inflammation and other adhesion molecules . Conclusions : These observations indicate that even small efforts to improve diet and physical activity can influence biomarkers of vascular function in individuals at increased risk for CVD . ApoB was identified as an important determinant of this improvement , which adds further support to the notion of apoB as a critical target in cardiovascular prevention Objective : To investigate the effects of increased alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)-intake on intima – media thickness ( IMT ) , oxidized low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) antibodies , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , and interleukins 6 and 10 . Design : R and omized double-blind placebo-controlled trial . Subjects : Moderately hypercholesterolaemic men and women ( 55±10 y ) with two other cardiovascular risk factors (n=103).Intervention : Participants were assigned to a margarine enriched with ALA ( fatty acid composition 46 % LA , 15 % ALA ) or linoleic acid ( LA ) ( 58 % LA , 0.3 % ALA ) for 2 y. Results : Dietary ALA intake was 2.3 en% among ALA users , and 0.4 en% among LA users . The 2-y progression rate of the mean carotid IMT  ( ALA and LA : + 0.05 mm ) and femoral IMT ( ALA:+0.05 mm ; LA:+0.04 mm ) was similar , when adjusted for confounding variables . After 1 and 2 y , ALA users had a lower CRP level than LA users ( net differences −0.53 and −0.56 mg/l , respectively , P<0.05 ) . No significant effects were observed in oxidized LDL antibodies , and levels of sICAM-1 , interleukins 6 and 10 . Conclusions : A six-fold increased ALA intake lowers CRP , when compared to a control diet high in LA . The present study found no effects on markers for atherosclerosis . Sponsorship : The Dutch ‘ Praeventiefonds ’ BACKGROUND Leukocyte adhesion and transendothelial migration , the critical pathogenic components in the development of atherosclerotic lesions , are largely mediated by cellular adhesion molecules ( CAMs ) . We examined whether dietary supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA , 18:3n-3 ) affects the levels of soluble forms of CAMs in dyslipidaemic patients . METHODS We recruited 90 male dyslipidaemic patients ( mean age=51+/-8 years ) following a typical Greek diet . They were r and omly assigned either to 15 ml of linseed oil ( rich in ALA ) per day ( n=60 ) or to 15 ml of safflower oil ( rich in linoleic acid [ LA , 18:2n-6 ] ) per day ( n=30 ) . The ratio of n-6:n-3 in linseed oil supplemented group was 1.3:1 and in safflower oil supplemented group 13.2:1 . Dietary intervention lasted for 12 weeks . Blood lipids , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) , soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 ) and soluble E-selectin ( sE-selectin ) were measured . RESULTS Dietary supplementation with ALA significantly decreased sVCAM-1 levels ( median decrease 18.7 % [ 577.5 ng/ml versus 487 ng/ml , P=0.0001 ] ) . In the LA supplemented group , sVCAM-1 was also significantly decreased but to a lesser extent ( median decrease 10.6 % [ 550.5 ng/ml versus 496 ng/ml , P=0.0001 ] ) . After controlling for smoking habits , no significant difference was observed in the reduction of sVCAM-1 levels between the two treatment arms ( P=0.205 ) . The decrease of sVCAM-1 was independent of lipid changes in both groups . CONCLUSIONS Dietary supplementation with ALA for 12 weeks significantly decreases sVCAM-1 levels in dyslipidaemic patients . This effect presents a potential mechanism for the beneficial effect of plant n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the prevention of coronary artery disease . In addition , dietary supplementation with LA significantly decreases sVCAM-1 levels , an effect which requires further investigation The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of an oral glucose tolerance test ( OGTT ) on the level of endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation markers in healthy subjects ( H ) and diabetic overweight patients ( D ) . We enrolled 256 healthy subjects and 274 type 2 diabetic patients . We evaluated blood glucose ( BG ) , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , high-sensitivity C reactive protein ( hsCRP ) , soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 ) , soluble E-selectin ( sE-selectin ) , and tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha )  at baseline and after OGTT . We observed that BG , sICAM-1 , IL-6 , hs-CRP , sVCAM-1 , sE-selectin , and TNF-alpha values were higher in D group than in H group . In a large sample of adult healthy subjects and type 2 diabetics we observed that both answer to an OGTT with a significant increase in biomarkers of systemic low- grade inflammation and endothelial dysfunction such as hsCRP , IL-6 , TNF-alpha , sICAM-1 , sVCAM-1 , and sE-selectin . Type 2 diabetics experienced , however , a more significant increase in TNF-alpha , and sE-selectin Background Studies show that obese individuals have prolonged elevations in postpr and ial lipemia and an exacerbated inflammatory response to high fat meals , which can increase risk for cardiovascular diseases . As epidemiological studies indicate an association between type of fat and circulating inflammatory markers , the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effect of different fat sources on inflammation and oxidative stress in overweight and obese individuals . Methods Eleven overweight and obese subjects consumed three high fat milkshakes rich in monounsaturated fat ( MFA ) , saturated fat ( SFA ) , or long-chain omega 3 polyunsaturated fat ( O3FA ) in r and om order . Blood sample s collected at baseline , 1 , 2 , 4 , and 6 hours postpr and ial were analyzed for markers of inflammation ( soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ) , vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ) , tumor necrosis factor- α ( TNF-α ) , and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) ) , oxidative stress ( 8-epi-prostagl and in-F2α ( 8-epi ) and nuclear factor-κB ( NF-κB ) ) , and metabolic factors ( glucose , insulin , non-esterified free fatty acids , and triglycerides ( TG ) ) . Results O3FA enhanced NF-kB activation compared to SFA , but did not increase any inflammatory factors measured . Conversely , SFA led to higher ICAM-1 levels than MFA ( p = 0.051 ) , while MFA increased TG more than SFA ( p < 0.05 ) . CRP increased while TNF-α and 8-epi decreased with no difference between treatments . Conclusions While most of the inflammatory factors measured had modest or no change following the meal , ICAM-1 and NF-κB responded differently by meal type . These results are provocative and suggest that type of fat in meals may differentially influence postpr and ial inflammation and endothelial activation OBJECTIVE Abdominal obesity is associated with a fasting proinflammatory condition . However , not much is known of the potential variations in circulating inflammatory markers after food intake . The purpose of the present study was to examine postpr and ial changes in plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha , interleukin (IL)-6 , and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) concentrations in men and their potential associations with fat distribution and metabolic profile variables . RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES Thirty-eight men were given a high-fat meal in the morning after an overnight fast , and TNF-alpha , IL-6 , and CRP levels were measured in plasma at 0 , 4 , and 8 hours after the meal . Physical and metabolic profiles were also assessed for each participant . RESULTS We observed a substantial increase in circulating IL-6 levels ( p < 0.0001 ) after the meal . Although postpr and ial variations in circulating TNF-alpha levels across time failed to reach statistical significance ( p = 0.02 ) , we noted a significant decrease in plasma TNF-alpha concentrations 4 hours ( -10 % , p < 0.001 vs. 0 hours ) after food intake . Plasma CRP levels were not affected by the fat load . We also noted that insulin-sensitive individuals displayed a less pronounced inflammatory response after food intake than insulin-resistant subjects . DISCUSSION Results of the present study show that consumption of a high-fat meal leads to an increase in plasma IL-6 concentrations and transient decrease in circulating TNF-alpha levels in overweight men . Our results suggest a possible role of insulin resistance in the modulation of the postpr and ial inflammatory response , which could , in turn , contribute to worsen the state of insulin resistance BACKGROUND Inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of coronary artery disease . We examined whether dietary supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA , 18:3n-3 ) affects the levels of inflammatory markers in dyslipidaemic patients . METHODS We recruited 76 male dyslipidaemic patients ( mean age=51+/-8 years ) following a typical Greek diet . They were r and omly assigned either to 15 ml of linseed oil ( rich in ALA ) per day ( n=50 ) or to 15 ml of safflower oil ( rich in linoleic acid ( LA , 18:2n-6 ) ) per day ( n=26 ) . The ratio of n-6:n-3 in linseed oil supplemented group was 1.3:1 and in safflower oil supplemented group 13.2:1 . Dietary intervention lasted for 3 months . Blood lipids and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , serum amyloid A ( SAA ) , and interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) levels were determined prior and after intervention . CRP and SAA were measured by nephelometry and IL-6 by immunoassay . RESULTS Dietary supplementation with ALA decreased significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 levels . The median decrease of CRP was 38 % ( 1.24 vs. 0.93 mg/l , P=0.0008 ) , of SAA 23.1 % ( 3.24 vs. 2.39 mg/l , P=0.0001 ) and of IL-6 10.5 % ( 2.18 vs. 1.7 pg/ml , P=0.01 ) . The decrease of inflammatory markers was independent of lipid changes . Dietary supplementation with LA did not affect significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 concentrations but decreased cholesterol levels . CONCLUSIONS Dietary supplementation with ALA for 3 months decreases significantly CRP , SAA and IL-6 levels  in dyslipidaemic patients . This anti-inflammatory effect may provide a possible additional mechanism for the beneficial effect of plant n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in primary and secondary prevention of coronary artery disease BACKGROUND Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease . We previously reported that a diet high in alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) reduces lipid and inflammatory cardiovascular disease risk factors in hypercholesterolemic subjects . OBJECTIVE The objective was to evaluate the effects of a diet high in ALA on serum proinflammatory cytokine concentrations and cytokine production by cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells ( P BMC s ) from subjects fed the experimental diets . DESIGN A r and omized , controlled , 3-diet , 3-period crossover study design was used . Hypercholesterolemic subjects ( n = 23 ) were assigned to 3 experimental diets : a diet high in ALA ( ALA diet ; 6.5 % of energy ) , a diet high in linoleic acid ( LA diet ; 12.6 % of energy ) , and an average American diet ( AAD ) for 6 wk . Serum interleukin (IL)-6 , IL-1beta , and tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha ) concentrations and the production of IL-6 , IL-1beta , and TNF-alpha by P BMC s were measured . RESULTS IL-6 , IL-1beta , and TNF-alpha production by P BMC s and serum TNF-alpha concentrations were lower ( P < 0.05 and P < 0.08 , respectively ) with the ALA diet than with the LA diet or AAD .  P BMC production of TNF-alpha was inversely correlated with ALA ( r = -0.402 , P = 0.07 ) and with eicosapentaenoic acid ( r = -0.476 , P = 0.03 ) concentrations in P BMC lipids with the ALA diet . Changes in serum ALA were inversely correlated with changes in TNF-alpha produced by P BMC s ( r = -0.423 , P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS Increased intakes of dietary ALA elicit antiinflammatory effects by inhibiting IL-6 , IL-1beta , and TNF-alpha production in cultured P BMC s. Changes in P BMC ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid ( derived from dietary ALA ) are associated with beneficial changes in TNF-alpha release . Thus , the cardioprotective effects of ALA are mediated in part by a reduction in the production of inflammatory cytokines BACKGROUND Adherence to the Mediterranean diet ( Med-Diet ) is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . However , the molecular mechanisms involved are not fully understood . OBJECTIVE The objective was to compare the effects of 2 Med-Diets with those of a low-fat diet on immune cell activation and soluble inflammatory biomarkers related to atherogenesis in subjects at high risk of CVD . DESIGN In a controlled study , we r and omly assigned 112 older subjects with diabetes or > or =3 CVD risk factors to 3 dietary intervention groups : Med-Diet with supplemental virgin olive oil ( VOO ) , Med-Diet with supplemental nuts , and low-fat diet . Changes from baseline in cellular and serum inflammatory biomarkers were assessed at 3 mo . RESULTS One hundred six participants ( 43 % women ; average age : 68 y ) completed the study . At 3 mo , monocyte expression of CD49d , an adhesion molecule crucial for leukocyte homing , and of CD40 , a proinflammatory lig and , decreased ( P < 0.05 ) after both Med-Diets but not after the low-fat diet . Serum interleukin-6 and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 , inflammatory mediators crucial in firm adhesion of leukocytes to endothelial surfaces , decreased ( P < 0.05 ) in both Med-Diet groups . Soluble vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 and C-reactive protein decreased only after the Med-Diet with VOO ( P < 0.05 ) , whereas interleukin-6 , soluble vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 , and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 increased ( P < 0.05 ) after the low-fat diet . CONCLUSIONS Med-Diets supplemented with VOO or nuts down-regulate cellular and circulating inflammatory biomarkers related to atherogenesis in subjects at high risk of CVD . The results support the recommendation of the Med-Diet as a useful tool against CVD UNLABELLED To investigate whether interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-α ) protein levels predict all-cause mortality in older persons living in the community . DESIGN Prospect i ve cohort study . SETTING Data were from the Aging and Longevity Study in the Sirente Geographic Area , a prospect i ve cohort study . PARTICIPANTS Individuals aged 80 and older living in an Italian mountain community ( N = 362 ) . MEASUREMENTS Participants were classified according to the median value of the three inflammation markers ( IL-6 , 2.08 pg/mL ; TNF-α , 1.43 pg/mL ; CRP , 3.08 mg/L ) . A composite summary score of inflammation was also created . The main outcome was risk of death after 4 years of follow-up . RESULTS One hundred fifty deaths occurred during 4 years of follow-up . In the unadjusted model , high levels of each of the three markers were associated with greater mortality . After adjusting for potential confounders , high levels of IL-6 ( hazard ratio ( HR ) = 2.18 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) = 1.29 - 3.69 ) and CRP ( HR = 2.58 , 95 % CI = 1.52 - 4.40 ) were associated with a significantly greater risk of death , whereas the association between TNF-α protein levels and mortality was no longer significant ( HR = 1.26 , 95 % CI = 0.74 - 2.15 ) . The composite summary score of inflammation was strongly associated with mortality , with the highest risk estimated for individuals with all three inflammatory markers above the median . CONCLUSION Low levels of inflammatory markers are associated with better survival in older adults , independent of age and other clinical and functional variables Greatly increasing the amounts of flaxseed oil [ rich in α-linolenic acid ( ALNA ) ] or fish oil ( FO ) ; [ rich in eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] in the diet can decrease inflammatory cell functions and so might impair host defense . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with moderate levels of ALNA , γ-linolenic acid ( GLA ) , arachidonic acid ( ARA ) , DHA , or FO on inflammatory cell numbers and functions and on circulating levels of soluble adhesion molecules .  Healthy subjects aged 55 to 75 yr consumed nine capsules per day for 12 wk . The capsules contained placebo oil ( an 80∶20 mix of palm and sunflowerseed oils ) or blends of placebo oil with oils rich in ALNA , GLA , ARA , or DHA or FO . Subjects in these groups consumed 2 g ALNA ; approximately 700 mg GLA , ARA , or DHA ; or 1 g EPA plus DHA ( 720 mg EPA+280 mg DHA ) daily from the capsules . Total fat intake from the capsules was 4 g per day . None of the treatments affected inflammatory cell numbers in the bloodstream ; neutrophil and monocyte phagocytosis or respiratory burst in response to E. coli ; production of tumor necrosis factor-α , interleukin-1β , and interleukin-6 in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide ; or plasma concentrations of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 . In contrast , the ALNA and FO treatments decreased the plasma concentrations of soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( 16 and 28 % decrease , respectively ) and soluble E-selectin ( 23 and 17 % decrease , respectively ) . It is concluded that , in contrast to previous reports using higher amounts of these fatty acids , a moderate increase in consumption of long-chain n−6 or n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids does not significantly affect inflammatory cell numbers or neutrophil and monocyte responses in humans and so would not be expected to cause immune impairment . Furthermore , we conclude that moderate levels of ALNA and FO , which could be incorporated into the diet , can decrease some markers of endothelial activation and that this mechanism of action may contribute to the reported health benefits of n−3 fatty acids Consumption of industrial trans fatty acids ( iTFA ) increases LDL cholesterol , decreases HDL cholesterol , and is strongly associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . However , changes in circulating cholesterol can not explain the entire effect . Therefore , we studied whether iTFA and conjugated linoleic acid ( CLA ) affect markers of inflammation and oxidative stress .  Sixty-one healthy adults consumed each of 3 diets for 3 wk , in r and om order . Diets were identical except for 7 % of energy provided by oleic acid ( control diet ) , iTFA , or CLA . At the end of the 3 wk , we measured plasma inflammatory markers IL-6 , C-reactive protein , tumor necrosis factor receptors I and II ( TNF-RI and -RII ) , monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and E-selectin , and urinary 8-iso-PGF(2α ) , a marker of lipid peroxidation . Consumption of iTFA caused 4 % lower TNF-RI concentrations and 6 % higher E-selectin concentrations compared with oleic acid ( control ) and had no significant effect on other inflammatory markers . CLA did not significantly affect inflammatory markers . The urine concentration of 8-iso-PGF(2α ) [ geometric mean ( 95 % CI ) ] was greater after the iTFA [ 0.54 ( 0.48 , 0.60 ) nmol/mmol creatinine ] and the CLA [ 1.2 ( 1.1 , 1.3 ) nmol/mmol creatinine ] diet periods than after the control period [ 0.45 ( 0.41 , 0.50 ) nmol/mmol creatinine ; P < 0.05 ] . In conclusion , high intakes of iTFA and CLA did not substantially affect plasma concentrations of inflammatory markers , but they increased the urine 8-iso-PGF(2α ) concentration . However , it is unlikely this plays a major role in the mechanism by which iTFA increase the risk of CVD . However , more research is needed to fully underst and the implication s of these findings Background Resilience or the ability of our body to cope with daily-life challenges has been proposed as a new definition of health , with restoration of homeostasis as target result ant of various physiological stress responses . Challenge models may thus be a sensitive measure to study the body ’s health . The objective of this study was to select a dietary challenge model for the assessment of inflammatory resilience . Meals are a challenge to metabolic homeostasis and are suggested to affect inflammatory pathways , yet data in literature are limited and inconsistent . Method The kinetic responses of three different dietary challenges and a water control challenge were assessed on various metabolic and inflammatory markers in 14 healthy males and females using a full cross-over study design . The dietary challenges included glucose ( 75 g glucose in 300 ml water ) , lipids ( 200 ml whipping cream ) and a mix of glucose and lipids ( same amounts as above ) , respectively . Blood sample s were collected at baseline and at 0.5 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 and 10 h after consumption of the treatment products . Inflammation ( IFNγ , IL-1β , IL-6 , IL-8 , IL-10 , IL-12p70 , TNF-α CRP , ICAM-1 , VCAM-1 , SAA , E-selectin , P-selectin , thrombomodulin , leukocytes , neutrophils , lymphocytes ) and clinical ( e.g. glucose , insulin , triglycerides ) markers as well as gene expression in blood cells and plasma oxylipin profiles were measured . Results All three dietary challenges induced changes related to metabolic control such as increases in glucose and insulin after the glucose challenge and increases in triglycerides after the lipid challenge . In addition , differences between the challenges were observed for precursor oxylipins and some downstream metabolites including DiHETrE ’s and HODE ’s . However , none of the dietary challenges induced an acute inflammatory response , except for a modest increase in circulating leukocyte numbers after the glucose and mix challenges . Furthermore , subtle , yet statistically significant increases in vascular inflammatory markers ( sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1 ) were found after the mix challenge , when compared to the water control challenge . Conclusions This study shows that dietary glucose and lipid challenges did not induce a strong acute inflammatory response in healthy subjects , as quantified by an accurate and broad panel of parameters Traditional cardiovascular risk factors are associated with endothelial dysfunction . The vascular endothelium plays a key role in local vascular tone regulation and can be modulated by dietary fat . We propose to determine the chronic effect of three diets with different fat compositions on postpr and ial endothelial function and inflammatory biomarkers . Twenty healthy men followed three 4-week diets in a r and omised cross-over design : a Western diet , rich in saturated fat ( 22 % SFA , 12 % MUFA and 0.4 % alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) , all fractions are % of energy ) ; a Mediterranean diet , rich in MUFA ( < 10 % SFA , 24 % MUFA and 0.4 % ALA ) ; a low-fat diet enriched in ALA ( < 10 % SFA , 12 % MUFA and 2 % ALA ) . At the end of each dietary period all subjects underwent a postpr and ial study . Plasma concentrations of lipid parameters , soluble intercellular cell-adhesion molecule-1 , soluble vascular cell-adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 ) , nitrates and nitrites ( NOx ) and endothelial function studied by laser Doppler were examined at 0 , 2 , 4 , 6 and 8 h. The endothelium-dependent vasodilatory response was greater 4 h after the ingestion of the MUFA-rich diet than after the SFA or ALA low-fat diets ( P = 0.031 ) . The 4 h postpr and ial plasma sVCAM-1 levels were lower after the MUFA meals than after the ALA low-fat diet ( P = 0.043 ) . The bioavailability of NOx was higher following the MUFA diet than after the SFA and ALA low-fat diets ( P = 0.027 ) . We found no differences in the other parameters measured . Chronic ingestion of a Mediterranean diet avoids the postpr and ial deterioration of endothelial function associated with Westernised diets in healthy individuals OBJECTIVES To compare the effect of a high-fat meal and a high-carbohydrate meal ( pizza ) , with and without antioxidant vitamins , on endothelial activation in healthy subjects and in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus . BACKGROUND The postpr and ial state is becoming increasingly acknowledged to affect some early events of atherogenesis . METHODS In a r and omized , observer-blinded , crossover study , 20 newly diagnosed type 2 diabetic patients and 20 age- and gender-matched healthy subjects received two meals at one-week intervals : a high-fat meal ( 760 calories ) and an isoenergetic high-carbohydrate meal ( non-cheese pizza ) . In all subjects , the same meals were repeated immediately following ingestion of vitamin E , 800 IU , and ascorbic acid , 1,000 mg . RESULTS In normal subjects , the high-fat meal increased the plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha ( TNF-alpha ) , interleukin-6 ( IL-6 ) , intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( ICAM-1 ) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( VCAM-1 ) , which were prevented by vitamins . No change in these parameters occurred after pizza ingestion or pizza ingestion with vitamins . In diabetic patients , basal concentrations of glucose , cytokines and adhesion molecules were significantly higher than in nondiabetic controls . Both meals significantly increased cytokine and adhesion molecule levels , but the increase was more sustained following the high-fat meal . There was no significant change from baseline when vitamin supplementation accompanied each meal . There was a relationship between changes in serum triglycerides and changes in TNF-alpha ( r = 0.39 , p < 0.01 ) , IL-6 ( r = 0.28 , p < 0.05 ) and VCAM-1 ( r = 0.25 , p < 0.05 ) , and between changes in plasma glucose and changes in IL-6 ( r = 0.36 , p < 0.01 ) and ICAM-1 ( r = 0.31 , p < 0.02 ) . CONCLUSIONS An oxidative mechanism mediates endothelial activation induced by post-meal hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia
Subgroup analysis revealed that increasing dietary ALA tends to elevate CRP concentration  in healthy subjects .
However , the null effect of ALA supplementation on other inflammatory markers was not changed in various subgroups , indicating that the results are stable .
Meta-regression results revealed a negative relationship between the effect size on CRP and its baseline concentration .
No significant publication bias was observed for all inflammatory markers as suggested by funnel plot and Begg ’s test .
Conclusion Our meta- analysis did not find any beneficial effect of ALA supplementation  on reducing inflammatory markers including TNF , IL-6 , CRP , sICAM-1 , and sVCAM-1 .
However , in healthy subjects  , ALA supplementation might increase CRP concentration
Purpose The aim of the current meta- analysis was to investigate the effect of increasing dietary ALA intake on the blood concentration of inflammatory markers including tumor necrosis factor ( TNF ) , interleukin 6 ( IL-6 ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 ( sICAM-1 ) , and soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 ( sVCAM-1 )  in adults .