Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of breakfast predict cognitive function and mood in school children: a randomised controlled trial. Breakfast glycaemic index and exercise: Combined effects on adolescents' cognition Postprandial Effects of Breakfast Glycemic Index on Vascular Function among Young Healthy Adults: A Crossover Clinical Trial Effects of long-term intervention with low- and high-glycaemic-index breakfasts on food intake in children aged 8-11 years. The delivery rate of dietary carbohydrates affects cognitive performance in both rats and humans Effect of glycemic index on obesity control. Four-week low-glycemic index breakfast with a modest amount of soluble fibers in type 2 diabetic men. High glycemic index foods, overeating, and obesity. The influence on cognition of the interaction between the macro-nutrient content of breakfast and glucose tolerance Low glycemic index breakfasts and reduced food intake in preadolescent children. Ingesting breakfast meals of different glycaemic load does not alter cognition and satiety in children Effect of the glycemic index and content of indigestible carbohydrates of cereal-based breakfast meals on glucose tolerance at lunch in healthy subjects. Effects of dietary glycemic index on brain regions related to reward and craving in men. Second-meal effect: low-glycemic-index foods eaten at dinner improve subsequent breakfast glycemic response. Effect of postprandial modulation of glucose availability: short- and long-term analysis. Taking a Low Glycemic Index Multi-Nutrient Supplement as Breakfast Improves Glycemic Control in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial Influence of two breakfast meals differing in glycemic load on satiety, hunger, and energy intake in preschool children
The macronutrient composition of a breakfast that could facilitate performance after an overnight fast remains unclear . As glucose is the brain 's major energy source , the interest is in investigating meals differing in their blood glucose-raising potential . Findings vary due to unaccounted differences in glucoregulation , arousal and cortisol secretion . We investigated the effects of meals differing in glycaemic index ( GI ) and glycaemic load ( GL ) on cognition and mood in school children . A total of seventy-four school children were matched and r and omly allocated either to the  high-GL or low-GL  group . Within each GL group , children received high-GI and low-GI breakfasts .  Cognitive function ( CF ) and mood were measured 95 - 140 min after breakfast . Blood glucose and salivary cortisol were measured at baseline , before and after the CF tests . Repeated- measures ANOVA was used to identify differences in CF , mood , glucose and cortisol levels between the breakfasts . Low-GI meals predicted feeling more alert and happy , and less nervous and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) ; high-GL meals predicted feeling more confident , and less sluggish , hungry and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) . High-GL ( P < 0·001 ) and high-GI ( P = 0·05 ) meals increased glucose levels 90 min after breakfast , and high-GI meals increased cortisol levels ( P < 0·01 ) . When baseline mood , glucose and cortisol levels were considered , low-GI meals predicted better declarative-verbal memory ( P = 0·03 ) , and high-GI meals better vigilance ( P < 0·03 ) ; observed GI effects were valid across GL groups . GI effects on cognition appear to be domain specific . On balance , it would appear that the low-GI high-GL breakfast may help to improve learning , and of potential value in informing government education policies relating to dietary recommendations and implementation concerning breakfast The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effects of breakfast glycaemic index ( GI ) and a mid-morning bout of exercise on  adolescents ' cognitive function . Participants were r and omly allocated to a high or low GI breakfast group in a mixed research design , where each participant completed two experimental trials ( exercise and resting ) . Forty-two adolescents ( 12.4±0.5 years old ) , undertook a bout of exercise ( ten repeats of level one of the multi-stage fitness test ; exercise trial ) or continued to rest ( resting trial ) following consumption of either a high or low GI breakfast . A battery of cognitive function tests ( visual search test , Stroop test and Sternberg paradigm ) was completed 30 min before and 45 min following the  exercise . Average heart rate during exercise was 170±15 beats·min(-1 ) . On the complex level of the Stroop test , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast on both the exercise and resting trials , though the improvement was greatest on the exercise trial . However , response times only improved on the resting trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.012 ) . On the 5 letter level of the Sternberg paradigm , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast ( regardless of exercise ) and only on the exercise trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.019 ) . The findings of the present study suggest that the combined effects of breakfast GI and exercise in adolescents depend upon the component of cognitive function examined . A low GI breakfast and mid-morning bout of exercise were individually beneficial for response times on the Sternberg paradigm , whereas they conferred additional benefits for response times on the Stroop test This study aim ed to evaluate the postpr and ial effects of high and low glycemic index ( GI ) breakfasts on vascular function . It was a crossover trial that included 40 young healthy adults ( 50 % women ) , aged 20–40 years , who were recruited at primary care setting s. They consumed three experimental breakfasts in r and omized order , each one separated by a 1-week washout period : ( 1 ) control conditions ( only water ) ; ( 2 ) low GI ( LGI ) breakfast ( 29.4 GI and 1489 KJ energy ) ; and ( 3 ) high GI ( HGI ) breakfast ( 64.0 GI and 1318 KJ energy ) . Blood sample s were collected at 60 and 120 min after each breakfast to determine glucose and insulin levels . Vascular parameters were measured at 15 min intervals . Augmentation index ( AIx ) was studied as a primary outcome . Secondary outcomes comprised glucose , insulin , heart rate ( HR ) and pulse pressures ( PPs ) . We found a trend toward increased AIx , HR and PPs for the HGI versus the LGI breakfast . A significant interaction between the type of breakfast consumed and all measured parameters was identified ( p < 0.05 ) except for central PP . Stratifying data by sex , this interaction remained significant for AIx and augmentation pressure only in males ( p < 0.05 ) . In conclusion , breakfast GI could affect postpr and ial vascular responses in young healthy adults The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of long-term intervention of low-glycaemic-index ( GI ) v. high-GI breakfasts on energy and macronutrient intakes in children aged 8 - 11 years . Preadolescent children were assigned to one of two groups in a r and om cross-over design . Each group was given low-GI and high-GI breakfasts on two non-consecutive days per week for 10 weeks per breakfast type . Each breakfast provided approximately 1273 kJ ( 300 kcal ) and was closely matched for macronutrient and dietary fibre content . Subsequent food intake at an ad libitum buffet lunch was recorded and daily energy and macronutrient intakes were measured by 24 h recall and 3 d food diaries . There was a tendency towards a reduced energy intake at lunch following the low-GI breakfast compared with the high-GI breakfast , although the mean difference of 75 kJ ( 18 kcal ) was not significant ( P = 0.406 ) . In particular , there was a trend towards a reduced energy intake in the low-GI arm compared with the high-GI arm among boys . In addition , data from the 3 d food diaries showed that there was a tendency towards a reduced energy intake during the low-GI compared with the high-GI study period . In conclusion , although the difference in energy intake following the low-GI and high-GI breakfasts was not statistically significant , the reduced energy intake following the low-GI breakfast is encouraging . Both dietary fibre and carbohydrate type may affect GI , thus their potential and relative modulating effect on appetite requires further investigation Rationale . Glucose is the main metabolic fuel of the brain . The rate of glucose delivery from food to the bloodstream depends on the nature of carbohydrates in the diet , which can be summarized as the glycaemic index ( GI ) . Objectives . To assess the benefit of a low versus high GI breakfast on cognitive performances within the following 4 h. Methods . The influence of the GI of the breakfast on verbal memory of young adults was measured throughout the morning in parallel to the assessment of blood glucose levels . The learning abilities of rats performing an operant-conditioning test 3 h after a breakfast-like meal of various GI was also examined . Results . A low GI rather than high GI diet improved memory in humans , especially in the late morning ( 150 and 210 min after breakfast ) . Similarly , rats displayed better learning performance 180 min after they were fed with a low rather than high GI diet . Conclusion . Although performances appeared to be only remotely related to blood glucose , our data provide evidence that a low GI breakfast allows better cognitive performances later in the morning OBJECTIVE Evaluate the effect of glycemic index ( GI ) on biochemical parameters , food intake , energy metabolism , anthropometric measures and body composition in overweight subjects . MATERIAL S AND METHODS Simple blind study , in which nineteen subjects were r and omly assigned to consume in the laboratory two daily low GI ( n = 10 ) or high GI ( n = 9 ) meals , for forty-five consecutive days . Habitual food intake was assessed at baseline . Food intake , anthropometric measures and body composition were assessed at each 15 days . Energy metabolism and biochemical parameters were evaluated at baseline and the end of the study . RESULTS Low GI meals increased fat oxidation , and reduced waist circumference and HOMA-IR , while high GI meals increased daily dietary fiber and energy intake compared to baseline . There was a higher reduction on waist circumference and body fat , and a higher increase on postpr and ial fat oxidation in response to the LGI meals than after high GI meals . High GI meals increased fasting respiratory coefficient compared to baseline and low GI meals . CONCLUSION The results of the present study showed that the consumption of two daily low GI meals for forty-five consecutive days has a positive effect on obesity control , whereas , the consumption of high GI meals result has the opposite effect Low-glycemic index diets are associated with a wide range of benefits when followed on a chronic basis . The chronic effects , however , of the substitution of 1 meal per day are not well known in diabetic subjects . Therefore , we aim ed to evaluate whether the chronic use of a low-glycemic index breakfast ( low-GIB ) rich in low-GI carbohydrates and a modest amount of soluble fibers could have an effect on lipemia at a subsequent lunch , and improve glucose and lipid metabolism in men with type 2 diabetes . A total of 13 men with type 2 diabetes were r and omly allocated in a double-blind cross-over design to a 4-week daily intake of a low-GI versus a high-GI breakfast separated by a 15-day washout interval . The low-GI breakfast was composed of whole grain bread and muesli containing 3 g beta-glucan from oats . Low-GIB induced lower postpr and ial plasma glucose peaks than the high-GIB at the beginning ( baseline , P < .001 ) and after the 4-week intake ( P < .001 ) . The incremental area under the plasma glucose curve was also lower ( P < .001 , P < .01 , baseline , and 4 weeks , respectively ) . There was no effect on fasting plasma glucose , insulin , fructosamine , or glycosylated hemoglobin ( HbA(1c ) ) . Fasting plasma cholesterol , as well as the incremental area under the cholesterol curve , were lower ( P < .03 , P < .02 ) after the 4-week low-GIB period than after the high-GIB period . Apolipoprotein B ( apo B ) was also decreased by the 4-week low-GIB . There was no effect of the low-GI breakfast on triacylglycerol excursions or glucose and insulin responses at the second meal . The high-GIB , however , tended to decrease the amount of mRNA of leptin in abdominal adipose tissue , but had no effect on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ( PPARgamma ) and cholesterylester transfer protein ( CETP ) mRNA amounts . In conclusion , the intake of a low-GI breakfast containing a modest amount ( 3 g ) of beta-glucan for 4 weeks allowed good glycemic control and induced low plasma cholesterol levels in men with type 2 diabetes . The decrease in plasma cholesterol associated with low-GI breakfast intake may reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular complications in subjects with type 2 diabetes OBJECTIVE The prevalence of obesity has increased dramatically in recent years . However , the role of dietary composition in body weight regulation remains unclear . The purpose of this work was to investigate the acute effects of dietary glycemic index ( GI ) on energy metabolism and voluntary food intake in obese subjects . METHODS Twelve obese teenage boys were evaluated on three separate occasions using a crossover study protocol . During each evaluation , subjects consumed identical test meals at breakfast and lunch that had a low , medium , or high GI . The high- and medium-GI meals were design ed to have similar macronutrient composition , fiber content , and palatability , and all meals for each subject had equal energy content . After breakfast , plasma and serum concentrations of metabolic fuels and hormones were measured . Ad libitum food intake was determined in the 5-hour period after lunch . RESULTS Voluntary energy intake after the high-GI meal ( 5.8 megajoule [ mJ ] ) was 53 % greater than after the medium-GI meal ( 3.8 mJ ) , and 81 % greater than after the low-GI meal ( 3.2 mJ ) . In addition , compared with the low-GI meal , the high-GI meal result ed in higher serum insulin levels , lower plasma glucagon levels , lower postabsorptive plasma glucose and serum fatty acids levels , and elevation in plasma epinephrine . The area under the glycemic response curve for each test meal accounted for 53 % of the variance in food intake within subjects . CONCLUSIONS The rapid absorption of glucose after consumption of high-GI meals induces a sequence of hormonal and metabolic changes that promote excessive food intake in obese subjects . Additional studies are needed to examine the relationship between dietary GI and long-term body weight regulation Previously it has been found that both missing breakfast and having poorer glucose tolerance were associated with better memory . The present study therefore examined the impact of eight breakfasts , in a factorial design , that contained either high or low levels of carbohydrate , fat or protein . The meals were design ed to vary the rate of release of glucose into the blood stream . Memory , reaction times and vigilance were assessed 30 , 75 and 120 min following breakfast . Using fasting blood glucose levels as a measure of glucose tolerance , better memory was found to be associated with better glucose tolerance and the consumption of meals that more slowly release glucose into the blood . The effects of the meals on reaction times and vigilance were opposite to those with memory in that higher levels of blood glucose tended to be associated with better performance . It was concluded that individual differences in glucose tolerance interact with the glycaemic load of a meal to influence cognitive functioning OBJECTIVE Recent reports have suggested that a low glycemic index ( GI ) diet may have a role in the management of obesity through its ability to increase the satiety value of food and modulate appetite . To date , no long-term clinical trials have examined the effect of dietary GI on body weight regulation . The majority of evidence comes from single-day studies , most of which have been conducted in adults . The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of 3 test breakfasts-low-GI , low-GI with 10 % added sucrose , and high-GI-on  ad libitum lunch intake , appetite , and satiety and to compare these with baseline values when habitual breakfast was consumed . METHODS A 3-way crossover study using block r and omization of breakfast type was conducted in a school that already ran a breakfast club . A total of 37 children aged 9 to 12 years ( 15 boys and 22 girls ) completed the study . The proportion of nonoverweight to overweight/obese children was 70:30 . Children were divided into 5 groups , and a rolling program was devised whereby , week by week , each group would r and omly receive 1 of 3 test breakfasts for 3 consecutive days , with a minimum of 5 weeks between the test breakfasts . Participants acted as their own control . The 3 test breakfasts were devised to match the energy and nutritional content of an individual 's habitual breakfast as far as possible . All test breakfasts were composed of fruit juice , cereal , and milk with/without bread and margarine ; foods with an appropriate GI value were selected . After each test breakfast , children were instructed not to eat or drink anything until lunchtime , except water and a small serving of fruit supplying approximately 10 g of carbohydrate , which was provided . Breakfast palatability , satiation after breakfast , and satiety before lunch were measured using rating scales based on previously used tools . Lunch was a buffet-style meal , and children were allowed free access to a range of foods . Lunch was served in the school hall where the rest of the schoolchildren were eating . Food intake at lunch was unobtrusively observed and recorded . Leftovers and food swapping were recorded , and plate waste was estimated . Lunch intakes were analyzed using a multilevel regression model for repeated measures data . The likelihood ratio statistic was used to determine whether the type of breakfast eaten had a significant effect on lunch intake after allowing for sex and weight status . RESULTS The type of breakfast eaten had a statistically significant effect on mean energy intake at lunchtime : lunch intake was lower after low-GI and low-GI with added sucrose breakfasts compared with lunch intake after high-GI and habitual breakfasts ( which were high-GI ) . Overweight and sex did not have a significant effect on lunch intake . Pairwise comparisons among the 3 types of test breakfasts and between each test breakfast and habitual breakfast were made . Lunch intake after the high-GI breakfast was significantly higher than after the low-GI breakfast and low-GI breakfast with added sucrose . The details of the pairwise comparisons were as follows : high-GI versus low-GI = 145 + /- 54 kcal ; high-GI versus low-GI plus sucrose = 119 + /- 53 kcal ; low-GI plus sucrose versus low-GI = 27 + /- 54 kcal . Lunch intake after the low-GI breakfast and the low-GI breakfast with added sucrose was significantly lower than after the habitual breakfast . The details of the pairwise comparisons were as follows : low-GI versus habitual = -109 + /- 75 kcal ; low-GI plus sucrose versus habitual = -83 + /- 75 kcal ; high-GI versus habitual = 36 + /- 75 kcal . There were no significant differences between the test breakfasts in immediate satiation . The high-GI breakfasts were rated to be more palatable than the low-GI breakfasts . At lunchtime , hunger ratings were greater after the high-GI breakfast compared with the other 2 test breakfasts on 2 of the 3 experimental days . Prelunch satiety scales were inversely related to subsequent food intake . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that low-GI foods eaten at breakfast have a significant impact on food intake at lunch . This is the first study to observe such an effect in a group of normal and overweight children and adds to the growing body of evidence that low-GI foods may have an important role in weight control and obesity management . The potentially confounding effect of differences in the macronutrient and dietary fiber content of the test breakfasts warrants additional study . In addition , the impact of GI on food intake and body weight regulation in the long term needs to be investigated Background / Objectives : The effect of Glycaemic Index ( GI ) and Load ( GL ) of breakfasts on satiety and aspects of cognitive function in children is inconclusive . We aim ed to assess if isocaloric breakfasts differing in GL ( by replacing high-GI carbohydrate foods with dairy protein foods ) acutely alter cognitive function and satiety in 10- to 12-year-old children . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 39 children , aged 11.6±0.7 years with body mass index 18.9±3.0 kg/m2 ( Mean±s.e . ) participated in a r and omised crossover trial of three isocaloric breakfasts ( 1.3 MJ ) : high GL ( HGL : 7 g protein , 9 g fat , 50 g carbohydrate , GL 33 ) ; medium GL ( MGL : 14 g protein , 9 g fat , 45 g carbohydrate , GL 24 ) and low GL ( LGL : 18 g protein , 10 g fat , 38 g carbohydrate , GL 18 ) . Blood glucose was recorded using a continuous glucose monitor . Subjective hunger and cognitive performance were measured before and hourly after consuming the test breakfast via a computer-delivered battery . Ad libitum intake at a buffet lunch meal was measured at 3 h at the end of testing . Results : Incremental area under the glucose curve ( iAUC ) was significantly different with HGL > MGL > LGL ( P<0.001 ) . Glucose concentrations fell below baseline after 83±6 min for HGL , 63±5 min ( MGL ) and 67±5 min (LGL)(P=0.009 ) . Breakfast GL did not significantly alter changes in cognitive function or self-reported satiety throughout testing . Energy intake at lunch was not significantly different between treatments ( HGL 2943±168 kJ ; MGL 2949±166 kJ ; LGL 2993±191 kJ ) . Conclusions : Reducing breakfast GL by replacing carbohydrate with protein does not alter satiety or cognition over 3 h in 10- to 12-year-old children BACKGROUND Diets with a low glycemic index ( GI ) have been shown to improve glucose tolerance in both healthy and diabetic subjects . Two potential mechanisms are discussed in relation to long-term metabolic effects : a decreased dem and for insulin in the postpr and ial phase and formation of short-chain fatty acids from fermentation of indigestible carbohydrates in the colon . OBJECTIVE The objective was to study the effect of the GI and the indigestible carbohydrate -- resistant starch ( RS ) and dietary fiber (DF)--content of cereal-based breakfasts on glucose tolerance at a second meal ( lunch ) in healthy subjects . DESIGN The effects of 7 test breakfasts with known GIs ( GI : 52 - 99 ) and RS + DF contents ( 2 - 36 g ) were evaluated . White-wheat bread was used as a reference breakfast ( high GI , low RS + DF content ) . Glucose and insulin responses after the second meal were measured in healthy subjects . In addition , the satiating capacity of 4 of the 7 test breakfasts was estimated before and during the second meal . RESULTS Two of the 4 low-GI breakfasts improved glucose tolerance at the second meal . Only these 2 breakfasts were capable of postponing the in-between-meal fasting state . There was no measurable effect of fermentable carbohydrates on glucose tolerance at the second meal . The highest satiety score was associated with the barley breakfast that had a low GI and a high RS + DF content . CONCLUSIONS Glucose tolerance can improve in a single day . Slow absorption and digestion of starch from the breakfast meal , but not the content of indigestible carbohydrates in the breakfast meal , improved glucose tolerance at the second meal ( lunch ) BACKGROUND Qualitative aspects of diet influence eating behavior , but the physiologic mechanisms for these calorie-independent effects remain speculative . OBJECTIVE We examined effects of the glycemic index ( GI ) on brain activity in the late postpr and ial period after a typical intermeal interval . DESIGN With the use of a r and omized , blinded , crossover design , 12 overweight or obese men aged 18 - 35 y consumed high- and low-GI meals controlled for calories , macronutrients , and palatability on 2 occasions . The primary outcome was cerebral blood flow as a measure of resting brain activity , which was assessed by using arterial spin-labeling functional magnetic resonance imaging 4 h after test meals . We hypothesized that brain activity would be greater after the high-GI meal in prespecified regions involved in eating behavior , reward , and craving . RESULTS Incremental venous plasma glucose ( 2-h area under the curve ) was 2.4-fold greater after the high- than the low-GI meal ( P = 0.0001 ) . Plasma glucose was lower ( mean ± SE : 4.7 ± 0.14 compared with 5.3 ± 0.16 mmol/L ; P = 0.005 ) and reported hunger was greater ( P = 0.04 ) 4 h after the high- than the low-GI meal . At this time , the high-GI meal elicited greater brain activity centered in the right nucleus accumbens ( a prespecified area ; P = 0.0006 with adjustment for multiple comparisons ) that spread to other areas of the right striatum and to the olfactory area . CONCLUSIONS Compared with an isocaloric low-GI meal , a high-GI meal decreased plasma glucose , increased hunger , and selectively stimulated brain regions associated with reward and craving in the late postpr and ial period , which is a time with special significance to eating behavior at the next meal . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT01064778 The effects of the glycemic index ( GI ) of carbohydrate eaten the previous night on the glycemic response to a st and ard test meal eaten subsequently in the morning ( breakfast ) was studied . On separate evenings normal subjects ate low- or high-GI test meals of the same nutrient composition . The dinners consisted of single foods in two experiments and mixed meals containing several foods in the third . The differences between the observed glycemic responses to low- and high-GI dinners were predicted by their GIs . The glycemic responses to breakfast were significantly lower on mornings after low-GI dinners than after high-GI dinners . Eating , at dinner , foods with different fiber contents but the same GI had no effect on postbreakfast glycemia . We conclude that the GI predicts the difference between glycemic responses of mixed dinner meals ; breakfast carbohydrate tolerance is improved when low-GI foods are eaten the previous evening Low glycaemic index ( LGI ) foods have been proposed as potential means to decrease postpr and ial glucose excursions and thus to improve diabetes management . We modulated glucose availability of cereal products and thus their glycaemic index to study the metabolic effect of LGI foods on daylong glucose control acutely and in the long term following a 5-week GI intervention diet in free-living subjects . In this r and omised , parallel trial , two groups of nineteen overweight subjects followed an ad libitum 5-week intervention diet  in which usual starch was replaced by either LGI or high GI ( HGI ) starch . During the exploration days ( days 1 and 36 ) , subjects ate their assigned 13C-labelled test breakfast ( LGI or HGI ) , and total and exogenous glucose kinetics ( using stable isotopes ) , postpr and ial concentrations of glucose , insulin , lipid profile and nutrient oxidation were assessed after the test breakfast and a st and ardised lunch . At day 1 , LGI breakfast significantly decreased post-breakfast glycaemic response with a parallel decrease in exogenous and total glucose appearance ( P < 0.05 ) . Post-lunch and post-breakfast glycaemic responses were positively correlated ( r 0.79 , P < 0.0001 ) . Following the 5-week diet , difference between the groups in terms of glucose kinetics and response was maintained ( no significant interaction group x time ) but tended to decrease over time for the post-breakfast glycaemic response . Post-lunch and post-breakfast glycaemic responses remained positively correlated ( r 0.47 , P = 0.004 ) . Modulation of postpr and ial glucose availability at breakfast decreased plasma exogenous glucose appearance and improved glucose control at the subsequent lunch . After 5 weeks , these effects were maintained in healthy subjects but remained to be confirmed in the longer term Dietary therapy is the mainstay of treatment for diabetes . This study examined the effect of a low glycemic index ( GI ) multi-nutrient supplement , consumed in place of breakfast , on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus ( T2DM ) . A total of 71 participants were r and omized at a 2:1 ratio into either a breakfast replacement group or a normal breakfast group for a 12-week interventional study . The primary outcome measure was change in hemoglobin A1c ( HbA1c ) . Nutrition status and somatometry were studied as secondary outcomes . The breakfast replacement group displayed a −0.2 % absolute reduction in HbA1c ( 95 % CI ( confidence interval ) , −0.38 % to −0.07 % , p = 0.004 ) , while the HbA1c of the control group increased 0.3 % ( 95 % CI , 0.1 % to 0.5 % , p = 0.005 ) . The baseline Mini Nutritional Assessment score for both groups was 26.0 and no significant changes occurred following intervention . However , there was a statistically significant difference in body mass index between the treatment and control groups ( p = 0.032 ) due to the weight gain in the control group ( increased 0.5 kg , 95 % CI was 0.2 to 0.9 , p = 0.007 ) . These data suggest that breakfast replacement with a low GI multi-nutrient supplement can improve glycemic and weight control in T2DM Background Glycemic load ( GL ) is the product of glycemic index of a food and amount of available carbohydrate in that food divided by 100 . GL represents quality and quantity of dietary carbohydrate . Little is known about the role of GL in hunger , satiety , and food intake in preschool children . The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of two breakfast meals differing in GL on hunger , satiety , and subsequent food intake at lunch in preschool children aged 4 - 6 y. Methods Twenty three subjects consumed low-GL ( LGL ) and high-GL ( HGL ) breakfast meals  according to a r and omized crossover design followed by an ad libitum lunch 4 h after consumption of breakfast . Children were asked to consume meals until they are full . Each treatment was repeated twice in non-consecutive days and data were averaged . Results Children in LGL group consumed significantly lower amounts of GL , total carbohydrate , energy , energy density , and dietary fiber and higher amounts of protein and fat at the breakfast compared to those in HGL group . Prior to lunch , children were hungrier in the HGL intervention group compared to the LGL intervention group ( P < 0.03 ) . However , no significant difference was observed between LGL and HGL intervention groups in the amount of food and energy consumed during lunch . Conclusions Decreased hunger in children prior to lunch in LGL group is likely due to higher protein and fat content of LGL breakfast . Diets that are low in GL can be recommended as part of healthy diet for preschool children
In summary , GI breakfasts do not affect cognitive domains in children and adolescents
This systematic review and meta- analysis aims to compare the effect of High-Glycemic Index ( GI ) versus Low-GI breakfasts on cognitive functions , including memory and attention , of children and adolescents .