Flaxseed supplementation improved insulin resistance in obese glucose intolerant people: a randomized crossover design Dietary Milled Flaxseed and Flaxseed Oil Improve N-3 Fatty Acid Status and Do Not Affect Glycemic Control in Individuals with Well-Controlled Type 2 Diabetes Effects of brown and golden flaxseed on the lipid profile, glycemia, inflammatory biomarkers, blood pressure and body composition in overweight adolescents. Impact of weight loss diet associated with flaxseed on inflammatory markers in men with cardiovascular risk factors: a clinical study Flaxseed and Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Results from a Double Blind, Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial Daily flaxseed consumption improves glycemic control in obese men and women with pre-diabetes: a randomized study. Flaxseed dietary fibers lower cholesterol and increase fecal fat excretion, but magnitude of effect depend on food type Systemic inflammation and carotid diameter in obese patients: pilot comparative study with flaxseed powder and cassava powder. Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and ex vivo androgen and progestin activity: a controlled crossover trial. Evaluation of flaxseed formulation as a potential therapeutic agent in mitigation of dyslipidemia The relative bioavailability of enterolignans in humans is enhanced by milling and crushing of flaxseed. Flaxseed supplementation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: a pilot randomized, open labeled, controlled study Effect of flaxseed on blood lipid level in hyperlipidemic patients. Dietary flaxseed independently lowers circulating cholesterol and lowers it beyond the effects of cholesterol-lowering medications alone in patients with peripheral artery disease. Effects of a Flaxseed-Derived Lignan Supplement in Type 2 Diabetic Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Cross-Over Trial Effects of Two Dietary Fibers as Part of Ready-to-Eat Cereal (RTEC) Breakfasts on Perceived Appetite and Gut Hormones in Overweight Women High dose flaxseed oil supplementation may affect fasting blood serum glucose management in human type 2 diabetics.
Background Obesity leads to an increase in inflammation and insulin resistance . This study determined antioxidant activity of flaxseed and its role in inflammation and insulin resistance in obese glucose intolerant people . Methods Using a r and omized crossover design , nine obese glucose intolerant people consumed 40 g ground flaxseed or 40 g wheat bran daily for 12 weeks with a 4-week washout period . Plasma inflammation biomarkers ( CRP , TNF-α , and IL-6 ) , glucose , insulin , and thiobaribituric acid reactive substance ( TBARS ) were measured before and after of each supplementation . Results Flaxseed supplementation  decreased TBARS ( p = 0.0215 ) and HOMA-IR ( p = 0.0382 ) . Flaxseed or wheat bran supplementation did not change plasma inflammatory biomarkers . A positive relationship was found between TBARS and HOMA-IR ( r = 0.62 , p = 0.0003 ) . Conclusions The results of the study weakly support that decreased insulin resistance might have been secondary to antioxidant activity of flaxseed . However , the mechanism(s ) of decreased insulin resistance by flaxseed should be further determined using flaxseed lignan Objective : To determine the effects of dietary consumption of milled flaxseed or flaxseed oil on glycemic control , n-3 fatty acid status , anthropometrics , and adipokines in individuals with type 2 diabetes . Design : Thirty-four participants were r and omized into a parallel , controlled trial . Subjects : The participants were adults with type 2 diabetes ( age 52.4 ± 1.5 years , body mass index 32.4 ± 1.0 kg/m2 , n = 17 men and 17 women ) . Interventions : Participants consumed a selection of bakery products containing no flax ( control group [ CTL ] , n = 9 ) , milled flaxseed ( FXS , n = 13 ; 32 g/d ) , or flaxseed oil ( FXO , n = 12 ; 13 g/d ) daily for 12 weeks . The FXS and FXO groups received equivalent amounts of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ; 7.4 g/day ) . Measures of Outcome : The primary outcome measures were fasting plasma hemoglobin A1c , glucose , insulin , and phospholipid fatty acid composition . The secondary outcome measures were fasting circulating leptin and adiponectin , as well as body weight , body mass index , and waist circumference . Dietary intake assessment and calculations for homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance and quantified insulin sensitivity check were also completed . Results : The FXS and FXO groups had increases in plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids ( ALA , eicosapentaenoic acid [ EPA ] , or decosapentaenoic acid [ DPA ] , but not docosahexaenoic acid ) , and the FXO group had more EPA and DPA in plasma phospholipids compared to the FXS group . All groups had similar caloric intakes ; however , the CTL group experienced a 4 % weight gain compared to baseline ( p < 0.05 ) , while both flax groups had constant body weights during the study period . All other parameters , including glycemic control , were unchanged by dietary treatment . Conclusions : Milled FXS and FXO intake does not affect glycemic control in adults with well-controlled type 2 diabetes . Possible prevention of weight gain by flax consumption warrants further investigation BACKGROUND Flaxseed is a promising alternative to reduce the risk of diseases associated with body weight excess because it is rich in a-linolenic acid , lignans , and dietary fiber . Flaxseed ( Linum usitatissimum ) can be found in brown and golden varieties ; however , questions have arisen as to whether the variety may influence the health effects . OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to compare the effects of brown and golden flaxseeds on lipid profile , glycemia , blood pressure , inflammatory status , body weight , and body composition in overweight adolescents . METHODS Seventy-five overweight adolescents ( 33 boys , 42 girls ; age 13.7 ! 2.1 y ) , from Alegre-ES , Brazil , were r and omized to one of the three groups ( n ¼ 25 ) on a parallel , single-blind clinical trial . They received 28 g/d of brown flaxseed ( BF ) , golden flaxseed ( GF ) , or the equivalent amount of wheat bran ( Control , CG ) in different preparations at school from Monday to Friday for 11 wk . Blood pressure , anthropometric evaluation , and the analyses of blood total cholesterol , lipoproteins , glucose , and inflammatory markers were performed at the beginning and at the end of the intervention . The data were analyzed by ANCOVA at 5 % significance . RESULTS The groups who consumed brown and golden flaxseed showed significant reduction in diastolic blood pressure . Brown and golden flaxseed did not differentially affect plasma lipid responses , plasma glucose and inflammatory profile , although all groups ( BF , GF , and CG ) showed increased levels of TNF-a . CONCLUSIONS The adolescents consumed about half the daily amount provided , which may not have been sufficient to exert the health benefits of flaxseed reported in the literature , concerning the lipid profile , inflammation biomarkers and body composition Background Flaxseed has received attention for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant role . The present study hypothesizes if flaxseed added to a weight loss diet could improve the lipid and metabolic profiles and decrease risk factors related to cardiovascular disease . Methods In a prospect i ve , single blinded 42 days protocol , subjects were allocated into two groups with low carbohydrates intake : GriceLC ( 35 % of carbohydrate and 60 g of raw rice powder per day ) and GflaxLC ( 32 % of carbohydrate and 60 g of flaxseed powder per day ) . Blood pressure , anthropometric measures and serum levels of isoprostane , C-reactive protein , Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha , glucose , lipidic profile , uric acid , adiponectin , leptin and insulin were measured at baseline and at the end of interventions . Serum and urinary enterodiol and enterolactione were also measured . Results A total of 27 men with cardiovascular risk factors were evaluated , with mean age of 33 ± 10 years to GriceLC and 40 ± 9 years to GflaxLC . Both groups experienced weight loss and systolic blood pressure reduction . A decrease in inflammatory markers ( CRP and TNF-α ) was observed after flaxseed intake ( mean decrease of 25 % and 46 % for GflaxLC respectively ) . All groups also showed improvement in levels of total cholesterol , LDL-c , uric acid and adiponectin . Only GflaxLC group showed a decrease in triglyceride levels . Conclusion This study suggests that flaxseed added to a weight loss diet could be an important nutritional strategy to reduce inflammation markers such as CRP and TNF-α . Trial registration Clinical Trials.gov NCT02132728 Objective : Flaxseed is a rich source of alpha linolenic acid ( ALA ) , fiber and lignans , making it a potentially attractive functional food for modulating cardiovascular risk . We studied the effects of flaxseed on markers of cardiovascular risk in hypercholesterolemic adults . Methods : Sixty-two men and post-menopausal women with pre- study low density lipoprotein cholesterol ( LDL-C ) between 130 and 200 mg/dl were r and omized to 40g/day of ground flaxseed-containing baked products or matching wheat bran products for 10 weeks while following a low fat , low cholesterol diet .  Fasting lipoproteins , measures of insulin resistance , inflammation , oxidative stress , and safety were assessed at 0 , 5 and 10 weeks . Results : Flaxseed was well-tolerated , and increased serum levels of ALA ( p < 0.001 ) . Compared to wheat , flaxseed significantly reduced LDL-C at 5 weeks ( −13 % , p < 0.005 ) , but not at 10 weeks ( −7 % , p = 0.07 ) . Flaxseed  reduced lipoprotein a ( Lp[a ] ) by a net of 14 % ( p = 0.02 ) , and reduced the homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance ( HOMA-IR ) index by 23.7 % ( p = 0.03 ) compared to wheat at 10 weeks , but did not affect markers of inflammation ( IL-6 , Hs-CRP ) or oxidative stress ( ox LDL , urinary isoprostanes ) at any time points . In men , flaxseed  reduced HDL-C concentrations by a net of 16 % ( p = 0.03 ) and 9 % ( p = 0.05 ) at 5 and 10 weeks , respectively . Conclusions : Ground flaxseed has a modest but short lived LDL-C lowering effect , yet reduces Lp(a ) and improves insulin sensitivity in hyperlipidemic adults . The HDL-C lowering effect of flaxseed in men warrants additional study The study hypothesis was that fasting glucose , insulin , fructosamine , C-reactive protein , and interleukin-6 decrease and adiponectin increases with daily flaxseed consumption in overweight or obese individuals with pre-diabetes . In this r and omized , cross-over study overweight or obese men and postmenopausal women ( n = 25 ) with pre-diabetes consumed 0 , 13 , or 26 g ground flaxseed for 12 weeks . Glucose , insulin , homeostatic model assessment ( HOMA-IR ) , and normalized percent of α-linolenic fatty acid ( ALA ) were significantly different by treatment ( multiple analysis of variance , P = .036 , P = .013 , P = .008 , P = .024 respectively ) . Paired t tests showed glucose decreased on the 13 g intervention compared to the 0 g period [ 13 g = -2.10 ± 1.66 mg/L ( mean ± SEM ) , 0 g = 9.22 ± 4.44 mg/L , P = .036 ] . Insulin decreased on the 13 g intervention but not the 26 g ( P = .021 ) and 0 g ( P = .013 ) periods ( 13 g = -2.12 ± 1.00 mU/L , 26 g = 0.67 ± 0.84 mU/L , 0 g = 1.20 ± 1.16 mU/L ) . HOMA-IR decreased on the 13 g period but not on the 26 g ( P = .012 ) and 0 g ( P = .008 ) periods ( 13 g = -0.71 ± 0.31 , 26 g = 0.27 ± 0.24 , 0 g = 0.51 ± 0.35 ) . The α-linolenic fatty acid decrease for the 0 g period was different than the 13 g ( P = .024 ) and 26 g ( P = .000 ) periods ( 13 g = 0.20 ± 0.04 , 26 g = 0.35 ± 0.07 , 0 g = -0.01 ± 0.07 ) . Fructosamine , high sensitivity C-reactive protein , adiponectin , and high-sensitivity interleukin-6 had no significant  differences . Flaxseed intake  decreased glucose and insulin and improved insulin sensitivity as part of a habitual diet in overweight or obese individuals with pre-diabetes Background Dietary fibers have been proposed to play a role in cardiovascular risk as well as body weight management . Flaxseeds are a good source of dietary fibers , and a large proportion of these are water-soluble viscous fibers . Method Here , we examine the effect of flaxseed dietary fibers in different food matrices on blood lipids and fecal excretion of fat and energy in a double-blind r and omized crossover study with 17 subjects . Three different 7-d diets were tested : a low-fiber control diet ( Control ) , a diet with flaxseed fiber drink ( 3/day ) ( Flax drink ) , and a diet with flaxseed fiber bread ( 3/day ) ( Flax bread ) . Total fat and energy excretion was measured in feces , blood sample s were collected before and after each period , and appetite sensation registered 3 times daily before main meals . Results Compared to control , Flax drink lowered fasting total-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol by 12 and 15 % , respectively , ( p < 0.01 ) , whereas Flax bread only produced a reduction of 7 and 9 % , respectively ( p < 0.05 ) . Fecal fat and energy excretion increased by 50 and 23 % with Flax drink consumption compared to control ( p < 0.05 ) , but only fecal fat excretion was increased with Flax bread compared to control ( p < 0.05 ) . Conclusion Both Flax drink and Flax bread result ed in decreased plasma total and LDL-cholesterol and increased fat excretion , but the food matrix and /or processing may be of importance . Viscous flaxseed dietary fibers may be a useful tool for lowering blood cholesterol and potentially play a role in energy balance . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov : BACKGROUND Botanical omega-3 fatty acid ( alphalinolenic acid/ALA ) has been shown to alleviate the prothrombotic and proinflammatory profile of metabolic syndrome , however clinical protocol s are still scarce . Aim ing to focus an obese population , a pilot study was design ed . METHODS Morbidly obese c and i date s for bariatric surgery ( n = 29 , age 46.3 ± 5.2 years ) , 82.8 % females ( 24/29 ) , BMI 44.9 ± 5.2 kg/m² , with C-reactive protein/CRP > 5 mg/L were recruited . Twenty were r and omized and after exclusions , 16 were available for analysis . Flaxseed powder ( 60 g/day , 10 g ALA ) and isocaloric roasted cassava powder ( 60 g/day , fat-free ) were administered in a double-blind routine for 12 weeks . RESULTS During flaxseed consumption neutrophil count decreased and fibrinogen , complement C4 , prothrombin time and carotid diameter remained stable , whereas placebo ( cassava powder ) was associated with further elevation of those measurements . CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory and coagulatory markers tended to exhibit a better outlook in the flaxseed group . Also large-artery diameter stabilized whereas further increase was noticed in controls . These findings raise the hypothesis of a less deleterious cardiovascular course in seriously obese subjects receiving a flaxseed supplement BACKGROUND Currently there is considerable interest in the potential health benefits of oil seeds , such as soy and flaxseed , especially in relation to cardiovascular disease and cancer . OBJECTIVE We therefore evaluated health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed in relation to serum lipids , indicators of oxidative stress , and ex vivo sex hormone activities . DESIGN Twenty-nine hyperlipidemic subjects ( 22 men and 7 postmenopausal women ) completed two 3-wk treatment periods in a r and omized , crossover trial . Subjects were given muffins that contributed approximately 20 g fiber/d from either flaxseed ( approximately 50 g partially defatted flaxseed/d ) or wheat bran ( control ) while they consumed self-selected National Cholesterol Education Program Step II diets . Both muffins had similar macronutrient profiles . Treatment phases were separated by > or = 2 wk . RESULTS Partially defatted flaxseed reduced total cholesterol ( 4.6+/-1.2 % ; P = 0.001 ) , LDL cholesterol ( 7.6+/-1.8 % ; P < 0.001 ) , apolipoprotein B ( 5.4+/-1.4 % ; P = 0.001 ) , and apolipoprotein A-I ( 5.8+/-1.9 % ; P = 0.005 ) , but had no effect on serum lipoprotein ratios at week 3 compared with the control . There were no significant effects on serum HDL cholesterol , serum protein carbonyl content , or ex vivo and rogen or progestin activity after either treatment . Unexpectedly , serum protein thiol groups were significantly lower ( 10.8+/-3.6 % ; P = 0.007 ) at week 3 after the flaxseed treatment than after the control , suggesting increased oxidation . CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that partially defatted flaxseed is effective in lowering LDL cholesterol . No effects on lipoprotein ratios , ex vivo serum and rogen or progestin activity , or protein carbonyl content were observed . The significance of increased oxidation of protein thiol groups with flaxseed consumption requires further investigation Background : Cardiovascular diseases ( CVDs ) are an increasing health problem all over the world . The search for natural hypolipidemic agents that can be used besides the synthetic drugs is still in its experimental stage . Plant seeds , particularly flaxseed ( Linum usitatissimum ) , which is a rich source of n-3 fatty acids , lignans and phenolic compounds , have also received increasing attention for their potential role in preventing lipid disorders . The present study was undertaken to evaluate the therapeutic potential of flaxseeds in dyslipidemia . Methods : The study included 50 dyslipidemic subjects selected by purposive r and om sampling and were divided into two groups , a control and an experimental group . Both the groups were prescribed similar dietary guidelines . Subjects in the experimental group received 30 g of roasted flaxseed powder for 3 months . Anthropometric parameters , blood pressure , and blood lipid profile were estimated before the study and after completion of the study . Results : Flaxseed supplementation result ed in a remarkable improvement in anthropometric measurements , blood pressure , and lipid profile in the experimental group . Body weight and body mass index ( BMI ) of the experimental group were significantly reduced ( p < 0.01 ) . A lowering of systolic and diastolic blood pressure ( p < 0.05 ) was also recorded in the dyslipidemic subjects . Concomitantly , a highly significant reduction ( p < 0.01 ) in total cholesterol , triglycerides , low density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( LDL-C ) , and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( VLDL-C ) levels , with simultaneous elevation ( p < 0.01 ) in high density lipoprotein-cholesterol ( HDL-C ) levels was observed . Improvement in lipid levels result ed in reduction of atherogenic indices . Conclusions : The supplementation of roasted flaxseed powder for 3 months improved the BMI , blood pressure , and lipid profile of dyslipidemic subjects , thus exhibiting cardio protective effect Flaxseed is one of the richest sources of lignans and is increasingly used in food products or as a supplement . Plant lignans can be converted by intestinal bacteria into the so-called enterolignans , enterodiol and enterolactone . For a proper evaluation of potential health effects of enterolignans , information on their bioavailability is essential . The aim of this study was to investigate whether crushing and milling of flaxseed enhances the bioavailability of enterolignans in plasma . In a r and omized , crossover study , 12 healthy subjects supplemented their diet with 0.3 g whole , crushed , or ground flaxseed/(kg body weight . d ) . Each subject consumed flaxseed for 10 successive days separated by 11-d run-in/wash-out periods , in which the subjects consumed a diet poor in lignans . Blood sample s were collected at the end of each run-in/wash-out period , and at the end of each supplement period . Plasma enterodiol and enterolactone were measured using LC-MS-MS . The mean relative bioavailability of enterolignans from whole compared with ground flaxseed was 28 % ( P < or = 0.01 ) , whereas that of crushed compared with ground flaxseed was 43 % ( P < or = 0.01 ) . Crushing and milling of flaxseed substantially improve the bioavailability of the enterolignans Abstract A two-arm r and omized open labeled controlled clinical trial was conducted on 50 patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease ( NAFLD ) . Participants were assigned to take either a lifestyle modification ( LM ) , or LM + 30 g/day brown milled flaxseed for 12 weeks . At the end of the study , body weight , liver enzymes , insulin resistance and hepatic fibrosis and steatosis decreased significantly in both groups ( p < 0.05 ) ; however , this reduction was significantly greater in those who took flaxseed supplementation ( p < 0.05 ) . The significant mean differences were reached in hepatic markers  between flaxseed and control group , respectively : ALT [ −11.12 compared with −3.7 U/L ; P < 0.001 ] , AST [ −8.29 compared with −4 U/L ; p < 0.001 ] , GGT [ −15.7 compared with −2.62 U/L ; p < 0.001 ] , fibrosis score [ −1.26 compared with −0.77 kPa ; p = 0.013 ] and steatosis score [ −47 compared with −15.45 dB/m ; p = 0.022 ] . In conclusion , flaxseed supplementation plus lifestyle modification  is more effective than lifestyle modification alone for NAFLD management INTRODUCTION Hyperlipidemia is one of the most important risk factors of ischemic heart disease . Previous studies showed that flaxseed has the potential to improve lipid profiles . In this study we investigated the effects of flaxseed powder intake on lipid profiles of patients with hyperlipidemia . MATERIAL S AND METHODS This study was a r and omized controlled clinical trial . Seventy patients with hyperlipidemia participated in the research . After detailed diet and lifestyle education , blood sample s were collected from the participants . Patients with hyperlipidemia were r and omly divided in to two intervention and control groups . The intervention group received 30 g of raw flaxseed powder every day for 40 days . Serum lipids were measured again in two groups after that time . Activity and food intakes of two groups were recorded . RESULTS In the intervention group , weight and body mass index were considerably reduced . Total cholesterol was reduced in the intervention group and increased in the control group , both of which were significant . Low density lipoprotein significantly increased in the control group and reduced in intervention group ; also , triglyceride was increased in the control group and reduced in the intervention group , which were significant Table 1 . CONCLUSION Based on the findings obtained in this research , flaxseed powder intake desirably reduced serum lipids . The differences between two groups on the basis of analysis of covariance test were significant . In all cases except for the HDL-c , this is an effective intervention . Therefore , flaxseed may be regarded as a useful therapeutic food for reducing hyperlipidemia BACKGROUND Dietary flaxseed lowers cholesterol in healthy subjects with mild biomarkers of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . OBJECTIVE The aim was to investigate the effects of dietary flaxseed on plasma cholesterol in a patient population with clinical ly significant CVD and in those administered cholesterol-lowering medications ( CLMs ) , primarily statins . METHODS This double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trial examined the effects of a diet supplemented for 12 mo with foods that contained either 30 g of milled flaxseed [ milled flaxseed treatment ( FX ) group ; n = 58 ] or 30 g of whole wheat [ placebo ( PL ) group ; n = 52 ] in a patient population with peripheral artery disease ( PAD ) .  Plasma lipids were measured at 0 , 1 , 6 , and 12 mo . RESULTS Dietary flaxseed in PAD patients result ed in a 15 % reduction in circulating LDL cholesterol as early as 1 mo into the trial ( P = 0.05 ) . The concentration in the FX group ( 2.1 ± 0.10 mmol/L ) tended to be less than in the PL group ( 2.5 ± 0.2 mmol/L ) at 6 mo ( P = 0.12 ) , but not at 12 mo ( P = 0.33 ) . Total cholesterol also tended to be lower in the FX group than in the PL group at 1 mo ( 11 % , P = 0.05 ) and 6 mo ( 11 % , P = 0.07 ) , but not at 12 mo ( P = 0.24 ) . In a subgroup of patients taking flaxseed and CLM ( n = 36 ) , LDL-cholesterol concentrations were lowered by 8.5 % ± 3.0 % compared with baseline after 12 mo . This differed from the PL + CLM subgroup ( n = 26 ) , which increased by 3.0 % ± 4.4 % ( P = 0.030 ) to a final concentration of 2.2 ± 0.1 mmol/L. CONCLUSIONS Milled flaxseed lowers total and LDL cholesterol in patients with PAD and has additional LDL-cholesterol-lowering capabilities when used in conjunction with CLMs . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT00781950 Background Flaxseed consumption has been shown to improve blood lipids in humans and flaxseed-derived lignan has been shown to enhance glycemic control in animals . The study aim ed to investigate the effect of a flaxseed-derived lignan supplement on glycemic control , lipid profiles and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients . Methodology /Principal Findings This was a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , cross-over trial and it was conducted between April and December 2006 in Shanghai , China . Seventy-three type 2 diabetic patients with mild hypercholesterolemia were enrolled into the study . Patients were r and omized to supplementation with flaxseed-derived lignan capsules ( 360 mg lignan per day ) or placebo for 12 weeks , separated by an 8-week wash-out period . HbA1c , lipid profiles , insulin resistance index and inflammatory factors were measured . Sixty-eight completed the study and were included in the analyses . The lignan supplement significantly improved glycemic control as measured by HbA1c ( -0.10±0.65 % vs. 0.09±0.52 % , P = 0.001 ) compared to placebo ; however , no significant changes were observed in fasting glucose and insulin concentrations , insulin resistance and blood lipid profiles . Urinary excretion of lignan metabolites ( enterodiol and enterolactone ) was significantly higher after the lignan supplement intervention compared to baseline ( 14.2±18.1 vs. 1.2±2.4 µg/mL , P<0.001 ) . Data also suggested minimal competition between lignan and isoflavones for bioavailability when measured by the excretion concentrations . Conclusions / Significance Daily lignan supplementation result ed in modest , yet statistically significant improvements in glycemic control in type 2 diabetic patients without apparently affecting fasting glucose , lipid profiles and insulin sensitivity . Further studies are needed to vali date these findings and explore the efficacy of lignans on type 2 diabetes . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov The effects of an enzyme-hydrolyzed arabinoxylan from wheat ( AXOS ) versus an intact arabinoxylan from flax ( FLAX ) added to a ready-to-eat cereal ( RTEC ) on the postpr and ial appetitive , hormonal , and metabolic responses in overweight women ( BMI 25.0–29.9 kg/m2 ) were evaluated . Subsequent meal energy intake was also assessed . Two r and omized , double-blind , crossover design studies were completed . For trial 1 , the participants consumed the following RTEC breakfast , matched for total weight and varied in energy content : low-fiber ( LF , 4 g ) ; high-fiber ( HF , 15 g ) as either AXOS or FLAX . For trial 2 , the participants consumed LF , HF-AXOS , and HF-FLAX RTECs but also consumed another LF breakfast that was isocaloric ( LF-iso ) to that of the HF breakfasts . Perceived appetite and blood sample s ( trial 2 only ) were assessed before and after breakfast . An ad libitum lunch was offered 4 h post-breakfast . No differences in postpr and ial appetite responses were observed among any breakfasts in either trial . The HF-AXOS and HF-FLAX led to increased postpr and ial GLP-1 and peptide YY ( PYY ) concentrations vs. LF-iso . No differences were observed in lunch meal energy intake among breakfast meals in either trial . Collectively , these data suggest that 15 g of low molecular weight fiber added to RTECs did not affect perceived appetite or subsequent energy intake despite differences in satiety hormone signaling in overweight females Type 2 diabetes is characterized partially by elevated fasting blood serum glucose and insulin concentrations and the percentage of hemoglobin as HbA1c . It was hypothesized that each of blood glucose and its co-factors insulin and HbA1c and would show a more favorable profile as the result of flaxseed oil supplementation .  Patients were recruited at r and om from a population pool responding to a recruitment advertisement in the local newspaper and 2 area physicians . Completing the trial were 10 flaxseed oil males , 8 flaxseed oil females , 8 safflower ( placebo ) oil males and 6 safflower oil females . Patients visited on two pre-treatment occasions each three months apart ( visits 1 and 2 ) . At visit 2 subjects were r and omly assigned in double blind fashion and in equal gender numbers to take flaxseed oil or safflower oil for three further months until visit 3 . Oil consumption in both groups was approximately 10 g/d . ALA intake in the intervention group was approximately 5.5 g/d . Power was 0.80 to see a difference of 1 mmol of glucose /L using 12 subjects per group with a p < 0.05 . Flaxseed oil had no impact on fasting blood serum glucose , insulin or HbA1c levels . It is concluded that high doses of flaxseed oil have no effect on glycemic control in type 2 diabetics
Subgroup analyses showed that using whole flaxseed in doses ≥30 g d-1 , longer-term interventions ( ≥12 weeks ) and studies including participants with higher BMI ( ≥ 27 kg m-2 ) had positive effects on body composition  .
Whole flaxseed is a good choice for weight management particularly for weight reduction in overweight and obese participants
Flaxseed consumption may be inversely associated with obesity ; however , findings of available r and omized controlled trials ( RCTs ) are conflicting .
The present study aim ed to systematic ally review and analyse RCTs assessing the effects of flaxseed consumption on body weight and body composition .