Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: risk factors for chronicity. Psychological trauma and PTSD symptoms as predictors of substance dependence treatment outcomes. Randomized controlled trial of Internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A Pilot Study Multicomponent behavioral treatment for chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. A Pilot Study of the Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Brain Response to Traumatic Reminders of Combat in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom Combat Veterans with Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Simultaneous Treatment of Neurocognitive and Psychiatric Symptoms in Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and History of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: A Pilot Study of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction. Dialectical Behaviour Therapy for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder after Childhood Sexual Abuse in Patients with and without Borderline Personality Disorder: A Randomised Controlled Trial Prevalence of Depression–PTSD Comorbidity: Implications for Clinical Practice Guidelines and Primary Care-based Interventions Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Childhood trauma among individuals with co-morbid substance use and post traumatic stress disorder. Narrative exposure therapy for PTSD increases top-down processing of aversive stimuli - evidence from a randomized controlled treatment trial A sham controlled study of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol dependence: does order of onset make a difference? Effectiveness of Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Combined with a Brief Exposure Procedure in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder – A Pilot Study
Attention and memory performances were studied in Persian Gulf War veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) diagnoses . Veterans diagnosed with PTSD showed relative performance deficiencies on  tasks of sustained attention , mental manipulation , initial acquisition of information , and retroactive interference .  Their performances were also characterized by errors of commission and intrusion . The tendency toward response disinhibition and intrusion on cognitive tasks was correlated positively with reexperiencing symptoms and negatively with avoidance-numbing symptoms . These cognitive deficit patterns are consistent with models of PTSD that emphasize the role of hyperarousal and implicate dysfunction of frontal-subcortical systems . Results suggest that intrusion of traumatic memories in PTSD may not be limited to trauma-related cognitions but instead reflects a more general pattern of disinhibition OBJECTIVE Despite progress in epidemiologic research on posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) , little is known about factors that distinguish chronic from nonchronic PTSD . In a previous report , the authors identified a set of personal predispositions associated with PTSD following traumatic events in a general population sample of young adults . The purpose of this analysis was to identify characteristics of chronic PTSD and examine whether any of the suspected risk factors for PTSD was associated specifically with chronic PTSD . METHOD A r and om sample of 1,007 21- to 30-year-old members of a large health maintenance organization in the Detroit area was interviewed , using the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule ( DIS ) , revised for DSM-III-R. The analysis was performed on data from 394 respondents who reported traumatic events , of whom 93 met criteria for PTSD . Chronic PTSD was defined as duration of symptoms for 1 year or more . RESULTS Persons with chronic PTSD ( N = 53 ) had , on the average , a significantly higher total number of PTSD symptoms and higher rates of overreactivity to stimuli that symbolized the stressor and interpersonal numbing than persons with nonchronic PTSD . The rates of one or more additional anxiety or affective disorders and a variety of medical conditions were higher in persons with chronic than nonchronic PTSD . Family history of antisocial behavior and female sex were associated specifically with chronic PTSD . CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that chronic PTSD may be associated with specific risk factors and clinical features . Longitudinal data on the course of PTSD are needed to determine whether the distinct features and the medical and psychiatric histories of persons with chronic PTSD are complications attendant on a chronic course or coexisting disturbances that inhibit recovery Psychological trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) may complicate and reduce the effectiveness of treatment for substance use disorders ( SUDs ) . This study assessed trauma history and symptoms of simple and complex PTSD at baseline in a r and omized trial of contingency management ( CM ) compared to st and ard treatment ( ST ) with 142 cocaine- or heroin-dependent out patients . History of exposure to each of eight types of psychological trauma was unrelated to treatment outcome , except for witnessed assaults and emotional abuse . Complex PTSD symptoms were inversely associated with short-term treatment outcomes , and PTSD symptoms were positively related to long-term outcome , independent of the effects of demographics , psychological distress , baseline substance use status , and treatment modality . Complex PTSD symptoms warrant further study as a potential negative prognostic factor in SUD interventions BACKGROUND Posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) is a severe and disabling condition and few receive appropriate care . Internet-based treatment of PTSD shows promise in reducing barriers to care and preliminary evidence suggests it is efficacious in treating symptoms of PTSD . METHODOLOGY Forty-two individuals with a diagnosis of PTSD confirmed by clinician interview completed a r and omized controlled comparison of Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) with a waitlist control condition . PRINCIPLE FINDINGS Large pre- to posttreatment effect sizes ( ESs ) were found for the Treatment group on measures of PTSD symptoms , depression , anxiety , and disability . A small between-group ES was found for PTSD symptoms and moderate between-group ESs were found for depression , anxiety , and disability . CONCLUSIONS Results provide preliminary support for Internet-based CBT as an efficacious treatment for individuals with a confirmed primary diagnosis of PTSD Exposure to combat experiences is associated with increased risk of developing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder . Prolonged exposure therapy and cognitive processing therapy have garnered a significant amount of empirical support for PTSD treatment ; however , they are not universally effective with some patients continuing to struggle with residual PTSD symptoms . Heart rate variability ( HRV ) is a measure of the autonomic nervous system functioning and reflects an individual ’s ability to adaptively cope with stress . A pilot study was undertaken to determine if veterans with PTSD ( as measured by the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale and the PTSD Checklist ) would show significantly different HRV prior to an intervention at baseline compared to controls ; specifically , to determine whether the HRV among veterans with PTSD is more depressed than that among veterans without PTSD . The study also aim ed at assessing the feasibility , acceptability , and potential efficacy of providing HRV biofeedback as a treatment for PTSD . The findings suggest that implementing an HRV biofeedback as a treatment for PTSD is effective , feasible , and acceptable for veterans . Veterans with combat-related PTSD displayed significantly depressed HRV as compared to subjects without PTSD . When the veterans with PTSD were r and omly assigned to receive either HRV biofeedback plus treatment as usual ( TAU ) or just TAU , the results indicated that HRV biofeedback significantly increased the HRV while reducing symptoms of PTSD . However , the TAU had no significant effect on either HRV or symptom reduction . A larger r and omized control trial to vali date these findings appears warranted This study examined the efficacy of a multicomponent cognitive-behavioral therapy , Trauma Management Therapy , which combines exposure therapy and social emotional rehabilitation , to exposure therapy only in a group of male combat veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . Thirty-five male Vietnam veterans with PTSD were r and omly assigned to receive either Trauma Management Therapy ( TMT ) or Exposure Therapy Only ( EXP ) . Participants were assessed at pre-treatment , mid-treatment , and post-treatment . Primary clinical outcomes were reduction of PTSD symptoms and improved social emotional functioning . Results indicated that veterans in both conditions showed statistically significant and clinical ly meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms from pre- to post-treatment , though consistent with a priori hypotheses there were no group differences on PTSD variables . However , compared to the EXP group , participants in the TMT group showed increased frequency in social activities and greater time spent in social activities . These changes occurred from mid-treatment ( after completion of exposure therapy ) to post-treatment ( after completion of the social emotional rehabilitation component ) ; supporting the hypothesis that TMT alone would result in improved social functioning . Although the TMT group also had a significant decrease in episodes of physical rage , that change occurred prior to introduction of the social emotional component of TMT . This study demonstrates efficacy of exposure therapy for treating the core symptoms of PTSD among combat veterans with a severe and chronic form of this disorder . Moreover , multi-component CBT shows promise for improving social functioning beyond that provided by exposure therapy alone , particularly by increasing social engagement/interpersonal functioning in a cohort of veterans with severe and chronic PTSD Objective Brain imaging studies in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) have implicated a circuitry of brain regions including the medial prefrontal cortex , amygdala , hippocampus , parietal cortex , and insula . Pharmacological treatment studies have shown a reversal of medial prefrontal deficits in response to traumatic reminders . Mindfulness-based stress reduction ( MBSR ) is a promising non-pharmacologic approach to the treatment of anxiety and pain disorders . The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of MBSR on PTSD symptoms and brain response to traumatic reminders measured with positron-emission tomography ( PET ) in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom ( OEF/OIF ) combat veterans with PTSD . We hypothesized that MBSR would show increased prefrontal response to stress and improved PTSD symptoms in veterans with PTSD . Method Twenty-six OEF/OIF combat veterans with PTSD who had recently returned from a combat zone were block r and omized to receive eight sessions of MBSR or present-centered group therapy ( PCGT ) . PTSD patients underwent assessment of PTSD symptoms with the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale ( CAPS ) , mindfulness with the Five Factor Mindfulness Question naire ( FFMQ ) and brain imaging using PET in conjunction with exposure to neutral and Iraq combat-related slides and sound before and after treatment . Nine patients in the MBSR group and 8 in the PCGT group completed all study procedures . Results Post-traumatic stress disorder patients treated with MBSR ( but not PCGT ) had an improvement in PTSD symptoms measured with the CAPS that persisted for 6 months after treatment . MBSR also result ed in an increase in mindfulness measured with the FFMQ . MBSR-treated patients had increased anterior cingulate and inferior parietal lobule and decreased insula and precuneus function in response to traumatic reminders compared to the PCGT group . Conclusion This study shows that MBSR is a safe and effective treatment for PTSD . Furthermore , MBSR treatment is associated with changes in brain regions that have been implicated in PTSD and are involved in extinction of fear responses to traumatic memories as well as regulation of the stress response Treating patient population s with significant psychiatric and neurocognitive symptomatology can present a unique clinical dilemma : progress in psychotherapy can be significantly fettered by cognitive deficits , whereas neurocognitive rehabilitation efforts can be ineffective because of psychiatric overlay . Application of mindfulness-based interventions to address either cognitive or psychiatric symptoms in isolation appears efficacious in many context s ; however , it remains unclear whether this type of intervention might help address simultaneous neurocognitive and psychiatric symptomatology . In a pre-post mixed methods design pilot study , nine Veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) and a history of mild traumatic brain injury with chronic cognitive complaints participated in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction ( MBSR ) .  Clinical interview , question naires , and attention and PTSD measures were administered immediately before , immediately after , and 3 months after MBSR completion . Qualitative and quantitative findings suggest high levels of safety , feasibility , and acceptability . Measurement of attention revealed significant improvement immediately following MBSR ( p < 0.05 , d = 0.57 ) and largely sustained improvement 3 months after completion of MBSR ( p < 0.10 , d = 0.48 ) . Significant reduction in PTSD symptoms was found immediately after MBSR ( p < 0.05 , d = -1.56 ) , and was sustained 3 months following MBSR completion ( p < 0.05 , d = -0.93 ) . These results warrant a r and omized controlled trial follow-up . Potential mechanisms for the broad effects observed will be explored Background : Post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) with co-occurring severe psychopathology such as borderline personality disorder ( BPD ) is a frequent sequel of childhood sexual abuse ( CSA ) . CSA-related PTSD has been effectively treated through cognitive-behavioural treatments , but it remains unclear whether success can be achieved in patients with co-occurring BPD . The aim of the present study was to determine the efficacy of a newly developed modular treatment programme ( DBT-PTSD ) that combines principles of dialectical behaviour therapy ( DBT ) and trauma-focused interventions . Methods : Female patients ( n = 74 ) with CSA-related PTSD were r and omised to either a 12-week residential DBT-PTSD programme or a treatment-as-usual wait list . About half of the participants met the criteria for co-occurring BPD . Individuals with ongoing self-harm were not excluded . The primary outcomes were reduction of PTSD symptoms as assessed by the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale ( CAPS ) and by the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale ( PDS ) . Hierarchical linear models were used to compare improvements across treatment groups . Assessment s were carried out by blinded raters at admission , at end of treatment , and at 6 and 12 weeks post-treatment . Results : Under DBT-PTSD the mean change was significantly greater than in the control group on both the CAPS ( 33.16 vs. 2.08 ) and the PDS ( 0.70 vs. 0.14 ) . Between-group effect sizes were large and highly significant . Neither a diagnosis of BPD nor the severity or the number of BPD symptoms was significantly related to treatment outcome . Safety analyses indicated no increase in dysfunctional behaviours during the trial . Conclusion : DBT-PTSD is an efficacious treatment of CSA-related PTSD , even in the presence of severe co-occurring psychopathology such as BPD BACKGROUND Compared to those with depression alone , depressed patients with posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) experience more severe psychiatric symptomatology and factors that complicate treatment . OBJECTIVE To estimate PTSD prevalence among depressed military veteran primary care patients and compare demographic/illness characteristics of PTSD screen-positive depressed patients ( MDD-PTSD+ ) to those with depression alone ( MDD ) . DESIGN Cross-sectional comparison of MDD patients versus MDD-PTSD+ patients . PARTICIPANTS Six hundred seventy-seven r and omly sample d depressed patients with at least 1 primary care visit in the previous 12 months . Participants composed the baseline sample of a group r and omized trial of  collaborative care for depression in 10 VA primary care practice s in 5 states . MEASUREMENTS The Patient Health Question naire-9 assessed MDD . Probable PTSD was defined as a Primary Care PTSD Screen ≥ 3 . Regression-based techniques compared MDD and MDD-PTSD+ patients on demographic/illness characteristics . RESULTS Thirty-six percent of depressed patients screened positive for PTSD . Adjusting for sociodemographic differences and physical illness comorbidity , MDD-PTSD+ patients reported more severe depression ( P < .001 ) , lower social support ( P < .001 ) , more frequent outpatient health care visits ( P < .001 ) , and were more likely to report suicidal ideation ( P < .001 ) than MDD patients . No differences were observed in alcohol consumption , self-reported general health , and physical illness comorbidity . CONCLUSIONS PTSD is more common among depressed primary care patients than previously thought . Comorbid PTSD among depressed patients is associated with increased illness burden , poorer prognosis , and delayed response to depression treatment . Providers should consider recommending psychotherapeutic interventions for depressed patients with PTSD To ascertain the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) and risk factors associated with it , we studied a r and om sample of 1007 young adults from a large health maintenance organization in the Detroit , Mich , area . The lifetime prevalence of exposure to traumatic events was 39.1 % . The rate of PTSD in those who were exposed was 23.6 % , yielding a lifetime prevalence in the sample of 9.2 % . Persons with PTSD were at increased risk for other psychiatric disorders ; PTSD had stronger associations with anxiety and affective disorders than with substance abuse or dependence . Risk factors for exposure to traumatic events included low education , male sex , early conduct problems , extraversion , and family history of psychiatric disorder or substance problems . Risk factors for PTSD following exposure included early separation from parents , neuroticism , preexisting anxiety or depression , and family history of anxiety . Life-style differences associated with differential exposure to situations that have a high risk for traumatic events and personal predispositions to the PTSD effects of traumatic events might be responsible for a substantial part of PTSD in this population OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to prospect ively evaluate the onset , overlap , and course of posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) and major depression following traumatic events . METHOD The occurrence of PTSD and major depression and the intensity of related symptoms were assessed in 211 trauma survivors recruited from a general hospital 's emergency room .  Psychometrics and structured clinical interview ( the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R and the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale ) were administered 1 week , 1 month , and 4 months after the traumatic event .  Heart rate  was assessed upon arrival at the emergency room for subjects with physical injury . Twenty-three subjects with PTSD and 35 matched comparison subjects were followed for 1 year . RESULTS Major depression and PTSD occurred early on after trauma ; patients with these diagnoses had similar recovery rates : 63 survivors ( 29.9 % ) met criteria for PTSD at 1 month , and 37 ( 17.5 % ) had PTSD at 4 months . Forty subjects ( 19.0 % ) met criteria for major depression at 1 month , and 30 ( 14.2 % ) had major depression at 4 months . Comorbid depression occurred in 44.5 % of PTSD patients at 1 month and in 43.2 % at 4 months . Comorbidity was associated with greater symptom severity and lower levels of functioning . Survivors with PTSD had higher heart rate levels at the emergency room and reported more intrusive symptoms , exaggerated startle , and peritraumatic dissociation than those with major depression . Prior depression was associated with a higher prevalence of major depression and with more reported symptoms . CONCLUSIONS Major depression and PTSD are independent sequelae of traumatic events , have similar prognoses , and interact to increase distress and dysfunction . Both should be targeted by early treatment interventions and by neurobiological research BACKGROUND : Little is known about the impact of childhood trauma ( CT ) on the clinical profile of individuals with co-occurring substance use disorder ( SUD ) and post traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . AIMS : To compare the clinical characteristics of individuals with SUD+PTSD who have a history of CT with SUD+PTSD individuals who have experienced trauma during adulthood only . METHOD : Data were collected on 103 individuals as part of a r and omised controlled trial examining the efficacy of an  integrated psychosocial treatment for SUD+PTSD . Participants were recruited from substance use treatment services , community referrals and advertising . Data were collected on demographic characteristics , substance use and treatment histories , lifetime trauma exposure , and current physical and mental health functioning . RESULTS : The vast majority ( 77 % ) of the sample had experienced at least one trauma before the age of 16 , with 55 % of those endorsing childhood sexual abuse . As expected individuals with a CT history , as compared to without , evidence d significantly longer duration of PTSD . Those with a CT history also had more extensive lifetime trauma exposure , an earlier age of first intoxication , and reported more severe substance use ( e.g. , a greater number of drug classes used in their lifetime , higher severity of dependence scores and greater number of drug treatment episodes ) . CONCLUSION : Individuals with co-morbid SUD+PTSD who have experienced CT  present with a more severe and chronic clinical profile in relation to a number of trauma and substance use characteristics , when compared to individuals with adulthood only trauma histories . It is therefore important for SUD+PTSD treatment planning that CT be carefully assessed Background Little is known about the neurobiological foundations of psychotherapy for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ( PTSD ) . Prior studies have shown that PTSD is associated with altered processing of threatening and aversive stimuli . It remains unclear whether this functional abnormality can be changed by psychotherapy . This is the first r and omized controlled treatment trial that examines whether narrative exposure therapy ( NET ) causes changes in affective stimulus processing in patients with chronic PTSD . Methods 34 refugees with PTSD were r and omly assigned to a NET group or to a waitlist control ( WLC ) group . At pre-test and at four-months follow-up , the diagnostics included the assessment of clinical variables and measurements of neuromagnetic oscillatory brain activity ( steady-state visual evoked fields , ssVEF ) result ing from exposure to aversive pictures compared to neutral pictures . Results PTSD as well as depressive symptom severity scores declined in the NET group , whereas symptoms persisted in the WLC group . Only in the NET group , parietal and occipital activity towards threatening pictures increased significantly after therapy . Conclusions Our results indicate that NET causes an increase of activity associated with cortical top-down regulation of attention towards aversive pictures . The increase of attention allocation to potential threat cues might allow treated patients to re-appraise the actual danger of the current situation and , thereby , reducing PTSD symptoms . Registration of the clinical trialNumber : NCT00563888Name : " Change of Neural Network Indicators Through Narrative Treatment of PTSD in Torture Victims " ULR : http://www . clinical BACKGROUND Posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) is a commonly occurring and often debilitating psychiatric condition . There currently is not definitive information regarding the efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( rTMS ) for PTSD . OBJECTIVE This study seeks to examine the efficacy of rTMS for PTSD . METHODS Twenty subjects with PTSD were r and omly assigned to receive either 10 rTMS sessions delivered at 1 Hz to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPRC ) or 10 sham rTMS sessions to the same area . A blinded rater assessed PTSD , depressive , anxiety , and neurocognitive symptoms before treatment , after the treatment series , and during a 2-month follow-up period . RESULTS Trancranial magnetic stimulation delivered at 1 Hz to the right DLPRC result ed in statistically and clinical ly significant improvements in core PTSD symptoms and depressive symptoms compared with sham treatments . The effectiveness showed some degradation during the 2 months after treatments were stopped . CONCLUSIONS This blinded sham controlled trial supports the efficacy of 10 sessions of right DLPRC rTMS delivered at 1 Hz for the treatment of PTSD symptoms Posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) and alcohol dependence ( AD ) are frequently comorbid and the order in which they develop may affect the clinical presentation and response to treatment . This study compared 73 treatment-seeking participants who developed PTSD prior to developing AD ( " PTSD-first " ) with 64 participants who developed AD prior to developing PTSD ( " AD-first " ) on demographics , clinical presentation , and response to treatment for PTSD and AD . All participants received BRENDA , a medication management and motivational enhancement intervention and were r and omly assigned to either prolonged exposure ( PE ) for PTSD plus BRENDA or BRENDA alone and to either naltrexone ( NAL ) for AD or placebo ( PBO ) . Results showed that participants with AD-first were more likely to report low income , meet criteria for antisocial or borderline personality disorder , report an index trauma of physical assault , compared to those with PTSD-first . Conversely , participants with PTSD-first were more likely to report an index trauma of sexual assault or a combat experience . Notably , no group differences were observed in treatment outcome despite some differences in clinical presentation BACKGROUND Post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) is a debilitating anxiety disorder induced by traumatic experiences . To date , psychotherapy and drug treatment achieve only partial success , indicating need for further development of treatment strategies . Recent research has found that impaired acquired fear extinction capability serves as an important factor at the pathogenesis of the disorder . Medial prefrontal cortex ( mPFC ) hypo-activity has been implicated in this extinction impairment , providing insight as to why some trauma exposed individuals will develop PTSD . OBJECTIVE To test whether fear extinction can be facilitated and therapeutic effect achieved by repeated mPFC deep transcranial magnetic stimulation ( DTMS ) of PTSD patients resistant to st and ard treatment . METHODS In a double-blind study , 30 PTSD patients were enrolled and r and omly assigned into 3 treatment groups : A ) DTMS after brief exposure to the traumatic event with the script-driven imagery procedure ; B ) DTMS after brief exposure to a non-traumatic event ; C ) sham stimulation after brief exposure to the traumatic event . RESULTS Significant improvement was demonstrated in the intrusive component of the CAPS scale in patients administered DTMS after exposure to the traumatic event script , while patients in the control groups showed no significant improvement . Similar trend was demonstrated in the Total-CAPS score as in the other rating scales . A significant reduction in the HR response to the traumatic script was evident in group A , further supporting the above results . CONCLUSIONS Combining brief script-driven exposure with DTMS can induce therapeutic effects in PTSD patients . A wide multi-center study is suggested to substantiate these findings . TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinical Trials.gov identifier : NCT00517400
Of the medication classes , evidence of treatment efficacy was most convincing for the SSRIs .
In addition , medication was superior to placebo in reducing  comorbid depression and disability .
Medication was also less well tolerated than placebo .
A narrative review of the 3 maintenance trials suggested that long-term medication may be required in treating PTSD .
CONCLUSION Medication treatments can be effective in treating PTSD , acting to reduce its core symptoms , as well as associated depression and disability , and should be considered as part of the treatment of this disorder .
The findings of this review support the status of SSRIs as first-line agents in the pharmacotherapy of PTSD , as well as their value in longterm treatment .
BACKGROUND Post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) is a prevalent and disabling condition .
Evidence that PTSD is characterized by specific psychobiological dysfunctions has contributed to a growing interest in use of medication in its treatment .
OBJECTIVES To assess the effects of medication in the treatment of PTSD .