Long-term stimulant treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline. Common and unique therapeutic mechanisms of stimulant and nonstimulant treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Stimulant medication effects in a summer treatment program among young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Childhood hyperactivity and psychostimulants: a review of extended treatment studies. Long-term methylphenidate therapy in children with comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and chronic multiple tic disorder. Selegiline in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children: a double blind and randomized trial Impact of comorbid autism spectrum disorders on stimulant response in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a retrospective and prospective effectiveness study. Exercise impact on sustained attention of ADHD children, methylphenidate effects Long-term, open-label study of the safety and efficacy of atomoxetine in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an interim analysis. Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Combined ω3 and ω6 Supplementation in Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Refractory to Methylphenidate Treatment Five-fold increase in national prevalence rates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medications for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and other psychiatric disorders: a Danish register-based study. Differential impact of methylphenidate and atomoxetine on sustained attention in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Sustained release methylphenidate for the treatment of ADHD in amphetamine abusers: a pilot study. Effects of Methylphenidate on Impulsive Responding in Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Stimulant treatment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder moderates adolescent academic outcome.
BACKGROUND We wanted to study the effects of amphetamine on symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) over a longer period than has been reported in previous studies of central stimulants in this condition . METHODS Sixty-two children , aged 6 to 11 years , meeting DSM-III-R symptom criteria for ADHD participated in a parallel-group design , r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled study of amphetamine treatment . Treatment was not restricted to children with " pure " ADHD , ie , some had comorbid diagnoses . In the amphetamine group , children received active treatment for 15 months . RESULTS Amphetamine was clearly superior to placebo in reducing inattention , hyperactivity , and other disruptive behavior problems and tended to lead to improved results on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children -- Revised . Treatment failure rate was considerably lower and time to treatment failure was longer in the amphetamine group . Adverse effects were few and relatively mild . CONCLUSION The results of this long-term , placebo-controlled study of the central stimulant amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD indicate that there are remaining positive effects of the drug 15 months after starting treatment Twenty-two children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder underwent a double-blind , placebo-controlled , crossover evaluation of the efficacy of st and ard methylpheni date twice a day and comparable doses every morning of a sustained-release preparation of methylpheni date ( SR-20 Ritalin ) , a sustained-release form of dextroamphetamine ( Dexedrine Spansule ) , and pemoline . The children were participating in a summer treatment program in which they engaged in recreational and classroom activities . Dependent measures include evaluations of social behavior during group recreational activities , classroom performance , and performance on a continuous performance task . Results revealed generally equivalent and beneficial effects of all four medications . Dexedrine Spansule and pemoline tended to produce the most consistent effects and were recommended for 10 of the 15 children who were responders to medication . The continuous performance task results showed that all four medications had an effect within 2 hours of ingestion , and the effects lasted for 9 hours . The implication s of these results for the use of long-acting stimulant medication in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder are discussed CONTEXT Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a highly prevalent and impairing psychiatric disorder that affects both children and adults . There are Food and Drug Administration-approved stimulant and nonstimulant medications for treating ADHD ; however , little is known about the mechanisms by which these different treatments exert their therapeutic effects . OBJECTIVE To contrast changes in brain activation related to symptomatic improvement with use of the stimulant methylpheni date hydrochloride vs the nonstimulant atomoxetine hydrochloride . DESIGN Functional magnetic resonance imaging before and after 6 to 8 weeks of treatment with methylpheni date ( n = 18 ) or atomoxetine ( n = 18 ) using a parallel-groups design . SETTING Specialized ADHD clinical research program at Mount Sinai School of Medicine , New York , New York . PARTICIPANTS Thirty-six youth with ADHD ( mean [ SD ] age , 11.2 [ 2.7 ] years ; 27 boys ) recruited from r and omized clinical trials . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Changes in brain activation during a go/no-go test of response inhibition and investigator-completed ratings on the ADHD Rating Scale-IV-Parent Version . RESULTS Treatment with methylpheni date vs atomoxetine was associated with comparable improvements in both response inhibition on the go/no-go test and mean ( SD ) improvements in ratings of ADHD symptoms ( 55 % [ 30 % ] vs 57 % [ 25 % ] ) . Improvement in ADHD symptoms was associated with common reductions in bilateral motor cortex activation for both treatments . Symptomatic improvement was also differentially related to gains in task-related activation for atomoxetine and reductions in activation for methylpheni date in the right inferior frontal gyrus , left anterior cingulate/supplementary motor area , and bilateral posterior cingulate cortex . These findings were not attributable to baseline differences in activation . CONCLUSIONS Treatment with methylpheni date and atomoxetine produces symptomatic improvement via both common and divergent neurophysiologic actions in frontoparietal regions that have been implicated in the pathophysiology of ADHD . These results represent a first step in delineating the neurobiological basis of differential response to stimulant and nonstimulant medications for ADHD OBJECTIVE This study examined the effectiveness of stimulant medication on multiple domains of functioning in 36 young ( 5 to 6 years old ) children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . METHOD Five- and 6-year-old children attending a summer treatment program between 1987 and 1997 underwent a r and omized clinical assessment of the effect of two doses of methylpheni date ( 0.3 mg/kg versus 0.6 mg/kg ) and placebo on social behavior and academic performance . RESULTS Methylpheni date had an effect on all four social behaviors and improved two of the three areas of academic functioning . Dose effects were present for three of the seven dependent measures . Individual analyses indicated a therapeutic response rate between 39 % and 100 % across dependent measures . Furthermore , individual analyses of response indicated that across several important dependent measures , 39 % to 98 % of children showed little incremental improvement with the higher dose compared with the lower dose of stimulant medication . CONCLUSIONS Stimulant medication is an effective treatment for young children diagnosed with ADHD ; however , multiple domains of functioning must be assessed to determine the most effective dose for young children with ADHD ABSTRACT Clinical trials with a treatment duration of at least 3 months were review ed to determine the effect of psychostimulants on the core symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and on its commonly associated features . Eighteen studies were identified : 17 were studies of  methylpheni date  , 1 was a study of dextroamphetamine , and none involved  pemoline  or  slow-release stimulants . Eleven of these studies were r and omized controlled trials , whereas seven employed quasi-experimental design s without r and omization . The results of r and omized controlled trials showed that psychostimulants provided greater benefit than did the nonr and omized trials , suggesting that the efficacy of extended treatment may have been underestimated because more seriously disturbed children were assigned to medication treatment than to control treatments in nonr and omized trials . Evidence from the more definitive r and omized controlled trials indicates that stimulants are more effective in ameliorating the core behavioral symptoms of ADHD ( restlessness , inattentiveness , impulsiveness ) than placebos , nonpharmacological therapies , or no treatment-at least in 3 - 7-month trials . During extended psychostimulant treatment , few children become symptom-free , clinical effects may diminish with time , and improvement dissipates rapidly upon discontinuation of medication . There is minimal evidence that extended stimulant treatment improves cognitive deficits or associated problems such as conduct disturbance , low self-esteem , poor peer relationships , or academic underachievement . The belief that stimulants do not improve the long-term prognosis of  children with ADHD  may be based on weakly design ed studies that focus on associated rather than core symptoms . A failure to assign patients of similar clinical severity to different treatment conditions may also have contributed to obscuring the efficacy of extended psychostimulant treatments BACKGROUND This study examined changes in attention-deficit hyperactivity ( ADHD ) behaviors and motor and vocal tics during long-term treatment with methylpheni date . METHODS Thirty-four prepubertal children with ADHD and chronic multiple tic disorder ( who had participated in an 8-week , double-blind , placebo-controlled methylpheni date evaluation ) were evaluated at 6-month intervals for 2 years as part of a prospect i ve , nonblind , follow-up study . Treatment effects were assessed using direct observations of child behavior in a simulated ( clinic-based ) classroom and behavior rating scales completed by parents and physician . Videotapes of the simulated classroom were scored by coders who were blind to treatment status . RESULTS There was no evidence ( group data ) that motor tics or vocal tics changed in frequency or severity during maintenance therapy compared with diagnostic or initial double-blind placebo evaluations . Behavioral improvements demonstrated during the acute drug trial were maintained during follow-up . There was no evidence ( group data ) of clinical ly significant adverse drug effects on cardiovascular function or growth at the end of 2 years of treatment . CONCLUSIONS Long-term treatment with methylpheni date seems to be safe and effective for the management of ADHD behaviors in many ( but not necessarily all ) children with mild to moderate tic disorder . Nevertheless , careful clinical monitoring is m and atory to rule out the possibility of drug-induced tic exacerbation in individual patients Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a common disorder of childhood that affects 3 % to 6 % of school-age children . Conventional stimulant medications are recognized by both specialists and parents as useful symptomatic treatment . Nevertheless , approximately 30 % of ADHD children treated with them do not respond adequately or can not tolerate the associated adverse effects . Such difficulties highlight the need for alternative safe and effective medications in the treatment of this disorder . Selegiline is a type B monoamine oxidase inhibitor ( MAOI ) that is metabolized to amphetamine and methamphetamine stimulant compounds that may be useful in the treatment of ADHD . The authors undertook this study to further evaluate , under double-blind and controlled conditions , the efficacy of selegiline for ADHD in children . A total of 28 children with ADHD as defined by DSM IV were r and omized to selegiline or methylpheni date  dosed on an age and weight-adjusted basis at selegiline 5 mg/day ( under 5 years ) and 10 mg/day ( over 5 years ) ( Group 1 ) and methylpheni date 1 mg/kg/day ( Group 2 ) for a 4-week double-blind clinical trial . The principal measure of the outcome was the Teacher and Parent ADHD Rating Scale . Patients were assessed by a child psychiatrist at baseline , 14 and 28 days after the medication started . No significant differences were observed between the two protocol s on the Parent and Teacher Rating Scale scores . Although the number of dropouts in the methylpheni date group was higher than in the selegiline group , there was no significant difference between the two protocol s in terms of the dropouts . Decreased appetite , difficulty falling asleep and headaches were observed more in the methylpheni date group . The results of this study must be considered preliminary , but they do suggest that selegiline may be beneficial in the treatment of ADHD . In addition , a tolerable side effect profile may be considered as one of the advantages of selegiline in the treatment of ADHD BACKGROUND In the recent past , psychiatrists and paediatricians have avoided prescribing stimulant medication , such as methylpheni date and dexamphetamine to patients with autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) because of both doubts about efficacy and concern that these medications make stereotypies worse . Recently , a number of small trials have suggested that methypheni date does have a role in the management of hyperactivity in children with autistic spectrum disorders . METHODS Children with ASD and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , and children with ADHD without ASD received st and ard treatment with methypheni date from one specialist centre . A combination of st and ardized and novel outcome tools was used to allow both an exploratory retrospective study of 174 children and then a prospect i ve study of a further 52 children to be carried out . RESULTS After treatment with stimulants , the subjects in both groups showed statistically significant improvements in target symptoms of ' hyperactivity ' , ' impulsivity ' , ' inattention ' , ' oppositionality ' , ' aggression ' and ' intermittent explosive rage ' . The Clinical Global Impression-Improvement and efficacy index measures also improved in each group . In both the retrospective and the prospect i ve studies , there was no statistically significant difference in the degree of improvements between each group . Importantly , neither tics nor repetitive behaviours worsened in either group . Children in the ' ADHD-only ' group who were prescribed stimulants experienced significant ' nausea ' , ' giddiness ' , ' headaches ' and ' sleep difficulties ' , whereas sleep difficulties were the only side effect that emerged in children in the ASD with ADHD group . CONCLUSIONS Both studies presented here support previous findings from smaller studies that show children with autism and ADHD can respond as well to stimulants as children with ADHD alone . Although r and omized controlled trials remain the gold st and ard for efficacy studies , systems like this that allow clinicians to continue rigorous and consistent monitoring for many years have a valuable role to play . Furthermore , such monitoring systems which now exist electronically can easily accumulate large data sets and reveal details about long-term effectiveness and long-term side effects of medication that are unlikely to be discovered in short-term trials Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is related to a deficiency of central catecholamines ( CA ) in cognitive , biochemical , and physical tests , and pharmaceutical intervention may have no effect if it is not accompanied by changes in the environment . The objective of our study was to test the hypothesis that central CA are responsible for the increase in speed reaction seen after physical activity ( PA ) and to measure the impact of high intensity PA on the sustained attention of 25 children diagnosed with ADHD consistent with the Disease Statistical Mental-IV ( DSM-IV ) criteria . It is possible that practicing sports assists in the management of the disorder . The children were divided between users ( US ) and non-users ( NUS ) of methylpheni date ( MTP ) , and the groups were compared to evaluate the effect of the drug on cognition after PA . Post-exercise performance on Conner ’s Continuous Performance Test-II ( CPT ) was not affected by MTP , we observed significant improvements in response time , and we saw normalization in the impulsivity and vigilance measures . These results suggest that the improvements in cognition after physical effort are not CA dependent . Additionally , our results suggest that  children ’s attention deficits can be minimized through PA irrespective of treatment with MTP . Additional studies are necessary to confirm that exercise mitigates the harmful symptoms of ADHD BACKGROUND Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is an early-onset neuropsychiatric disorder that affects 3 % to 7 % of school-age children and 4 % of adults . Its pathophysiology is thought to involve the dopaminergic and nor-adrenergic pathways associated with attention control and impulsivity . These symptoms have largely been defined in the childhood population , but the course of the condition and expression in the adult population are not as well characterized . METHOD This is an ongoing , 3-year , open-label study consisting of adults with DSM-IV ADHD who were previously enrolled in 1 of 2 double-blind , acute-treatment studies of atomoxetine .  The results of the interim analysis reported here were derived from the study of 384 patients at 31 sites who had been studied for a period of up to 97 weeks . The primary efficacy measure was the Conners ' Adult ADHD Rating Scale-Investigator Rated : Screening Version ( CAARS-Inv : SV ) total ADHD symptom score . In addition , safety , adverse events , and vital sign measurements were assessed . RESULTS Significant improvement was noted with atomoxetine therapy , with mean CAARS-Inv : SV total ADHD symptom scores decreasing 33.2 % from 29.2 ( baseline of open-label therapy ) to 19.5 ( endpoint of open-label therapy ) ( p < .001 ) . Similar and significant decreases were noted for the secondary efficacy measures . Adverse events consisted primarily of pharmacologically ( noradrenergic ) expected effects , such as increases in heart rate and blood pressure and a slight decrease in weight . CONCLUSION The results of this interim analysis of an ongoing , open-label study of adults with ADHD support the long-term efficacy , safety , and tolerability of atomoxetine for the treatment of adult ADHD BACKGROUND Stimulants are not considered appropriate for the treatment of children with conduct disorders ( CDs ) . The postulated differences in stimulant effect between children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) and CD led to the hypothesis that methylpheni date hydrochloride , which is effective in ADHD , would not significantly improve symptoms of CD . METHODS We r and omly assigned 84 children with CD , between the ages of 6 and 15 years , to receive methylpheni date hydrochloride ( up to 60 mg/d ) or placebo for 5 weeks . Behavior was evaluated by parent , teacher , and clinician reports and by direct classroom observations . Two thirds of the children also met criteria for ADHD . RESULTS Contrary to prediction , ratings of antisocial behaviors specific to CD were significantly reduced by methylpheni date treatment . The magnitude of methylpheni date effect indicated meaningful clinical benefit . Partialling out severity of ADHD did not alter the significant superiority of methylpheni date on CD ratings specifically ( P < .001 ) . CONCLUSIONS Methylpheni date has short-term positive effects on children and adolescents with CD . Key aspects of antisocial adjustment appear to be treatment responsive . This effect was independent of severity of the children 's initial ADHD symptoms Children ( 6 - 12 years ) with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) being treated with methylpheni date and st and ard behavior therapy for more than 6 months , whose parents reported no improvement in behavior and academic learning , were r and omly assigned to receive supplementation with a combined ω3 and ω6 preparation or a placebo . Outcome was measured at 3 and 6 months after treatment using a self- assessment checklist completed by the parents . Statistically significant improvement was found in the treatment group compared with the placebo group ( P < .01 ) in the following measures : restlessness , aggressiveness , completing work , and academic performance . Statistically significant improvement was not found at 3 months of treatment between groups but was evident at 6 months of treatment ( P < .05 ) with inattention , impulsiveness , and cooperation with parents and teachers . Distractibility failed to show improvement . Effect sizes ranged from 0.3 to 1.1 at 3 months and 0.2 to 1.4 at 6 months for individual symptom variables OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to estimate the prevalence and time trends in prescriptions of methylpheni date , dexamphetamine , and atomoxetine in children and adolescents , within three diagnostic groups : 1 ) autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) , 2 ) attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , and 3 ) other psychiatric disorders . METHODS Data from six different national registers were used and merged to identify a cohort of all children and adolescents born in Denmark between 1990 and 2001 ( n=852,711 ) . Sociodemographic covariates on cohort members and their parents and lifetime prescriptions of methylpheni date , dexamphetamine , and atomoxetine were extracted from the registers . Prescriptions were also stratified by duration ( < 6 months . vs.≥ 6 months ) . RESULTS Sixteen percent of 9698 children and adolescents with ASD ( n=1577 ) , 61 % of 11,553 children and adolescents with ADHD ( n=7021 ) and 3 % of 48,468 children and adolescents with other psychiatric disorders ( n=1537 ) were treated with one or more ADHD medications . There was a significant increase in prescription rates of these medications for all three groups . From 2003 to 2010 , youth 6 - 13 years of age with ASD , ADHD , and other psychiatric disorders had 4.7-fold ( 4.4 - 4.9 ) , 6.3-fold ( 6.0 - 6.4 ) , and 5.5-fold ( 5.0 - 5.9 ) increases , respectively , in prescription rates of ADHD medications . CONCLUSION This is the largest study to date assessing stimulant treatment in children and adolescents with ASD , and is the first prospect i ve study quantifying the change over time in the prevalence of treatment with ADHD medications in a population -based national cohort of children and adolescents with ASD . The prevalence of stimulant treatment in youth with ASD of 16 % is consistent with earlier studies . The past decade has witnessed a clear and progressive increase in the prescription rates of medications typically used to treat ADHD in children and adolescents in Denmark . This increase is not limited to only those with ADHD , but includes others with neuropsychiatric disorders , including ASD . The risks and benefits of this practice await further study BACKGROUND This study examined the effects of atomoxetine ( ATX ) and OROS methylpheni date ( MPH ) on laboratory measures of inhibitory control and attention in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . It was hypothesized that performance would be improved by both treatments , but response profiles would differ because the medications work via different mechanisms . METHODS One hundred and two youth ( 77 male ; mean age = 10.5 ± 2.7 years ) with ADHD received ATX ( 1.4 ± 0.5 mg/kg ) and MPH ( 52.4 ± 16.6 mg ) in a r and omized , double-blind , crossover design . Medication was titrated in 4 - 6-week blocks separated by a 2-week placebo washout  . Inhibitory control and attention measures were obtained at baseline , following washout , and at the end of each treatment using Conners ' Continuous Performance Test II ( CPT-II ) , which provided age-adjusted T-scores for reaction time ( RT ) , reaction time variability ( RT variability ) , and errors . Repeated- measures analyses of variance were performed , with Time ( premedication , postmedication ) and Treatment type ( ATX , MPH ) entered as within-subject factors . Data from the two treatment blocks were checked for order effects and combined if order effects were not present . CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinical trials.gov : NCT00183391 . RESULTS Main effects for Time on RT ( p = .03 ) , RTSD ( p = .001 ) , and omission errors ( p = .01 ) were significant . A significant Drug × Time interaction indicated  that MPH improved RT , RTSD , and omission errors  more than ATX ( p < .05 ) . Changes in performance with treatment did not correlate with changes in ADHD symptoms . CONCLUSIONS MPH has greater effects  than ATX on CPT measures of sustained attention in youth with ADHD . However , the dissociation of cognitive and behavioral change with treatment indicates that CPT measures can not be considered proxies for symptomatic improvement . Further research on the dissociation of cognitive and behavioral endpoints for ADHD is indicated The efficacy of stimulant treatment in patients with substance use disorders and comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) has been tested for cocaine and alcohol dependence but so far no studies have been conducted in amphetamine dependent individuals . The present trial was a pilot study aim ing to test the feasibility of treating amphetamine dependent patients with comorbid ADHD with central stimulant medication . The study was a double-blind , placebo controlled trial with parallel groups design comparing the efficacy of a fixed dose ( 72 mg ) of OROS methylpheni date ( MPH ) with placebo ( PL ) in reducing ADHD symptoms in currently abstinent adults with amphetamine dependence and ADHD . Twenty-four treatment seeking patients who met the DSM IV criteria for amphetamine dependence and ADHD were r and omized to MPH/PL . The trial was conducted at an outpatient facility with twice weekly visits , measuring ADHD symptoms and drug use . Patients rated their ADHD symptoms on a weekly basis and provided supervised urine specimens for drug toxicology twice weekly . All patients participated in weekly sessions of a skills training programme . Both the groups significantly reduced their self-rated ADHD symptoms during the 12-week treatment but there was no difference between the two treatment arms . Drug use , both measured by urine toxicology and self-report did not differ between the groups . No difference was found between the two groups with regards to craving for amphetamine or in retention in treatment . Larger studies with higher doses combined with individual dosage and longer follow-up periods are warranted The present investigation examined the effects of methylpheni date on impulsivity in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . A task was design ed to measure empirically the ADHD child 's proclivity to blurt out incorrect answers before giving a final and /or correct response . Twenty-six ADHD children referred for double-blind placebo-controlled assessment of medication responsiveness and 14 non-ADHD controls were given a visual search word-matching task to assess impulsive responding . An analysis of covariance showed that ADHD children on methylpheni date made fewer impulsive errors than ADHD children on placebo . The control group made fewer impulsive errors than the ADHD children in the placebo condition , but the performance of the ADHD children on medication approximated the performance of the children without ADHD . These preliminary findings suggest that the word-matching task may be a useful tool for assessing impulsive responding and determining the benefits of stimulant medication on impulsivity . ( J Child Neurol 1993;8:157 - 163 ) Treatment with psychostimulant medication has been shown to improve scholastic functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . However , the extent to which long-term academic gains are apparent in those having received such treatment remains elusive . This study examined prospect ively the relationship of childhood stimulant treatment to academic functioning during adolescence . Children ( n = 169 ) were initially recruited and diagnosed with ADHD when they were 7 - 11 years old . A sub sample of those with childhood ADHD ( n = 90 ) was reevaluated on average 9.13 ( SD = 1.5 ) years later . Prob and s who did and did not receive treatment with stimulant medication were compared to each other and to a never-ADHD comparison group ( n = 80 ) on three subtests from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test-II ( WIAT-II ) , as well as high school grade point average ( GPA ) and number of retentions in school as derived from school records . Analyses of covariance controlling for severity of childhood ADHD symptoms indicated that prob and s treated with psychostimulant medication achieved better academic outcomes , as measured by WIAT-II subtests and high school GPA , than those not treated with psychostimulants ( p < .05 ) . However , treated prob and s did not fare as well as the never-ADHD comparison group . Psychostimulant treatment for children with ADHD may benefit long-term adolescent academic performance , although the extent of improvement is likely to vary as a function of multiple factors
These observational studies also showed positive correlations between early recognition of the disorder , stimulant treatment during childhood and favorable long-term outcome in adult ADHD patients .
In conclusion , stimulant therapy of ADHD has long-term beneficial effects and is well tolerated .
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a common disorder of childhood that often persists into adulthood .
Although stimulant medications are recommended as the first-line treatment for ADHD because of their documented short-term effects in children and adults , less is known about their effects on long-term outcome in adults .
Here we review the long-term efficacy and safety of the stimulant drugs methylpheni date and amphetamine , as well as the related compound atomoxetine .
We performed a systematic review to identify direct and indirect effects of stimulant therapy on long-term outcome in adults .