Body mass index and neurocognitive functioning across the adult lifespan. Physical activity and obesity mediate the association between childhood motor function and adolescents’ academic achievement The Relationship between Obesity and Cognitive Performance in Children: A Longitudinal Study. Is obesity associated with a decline in intelligence quotient during the first half of the life course? The effect of family-based multidisciplinary cognitive behavioral treatment in children with obesity: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial Obesity is associated with reduced white matter integrity in otherwise healthy adults. Posttraumatic stress disorder and obesity: evidence for a risk association. Dynamics of obesity and chronic health conditions among children and youth. A 30-year follow-up of the effects of child abuse and neglect on obesity in adulthood. Childhood Cumulative Risk and Obesity: The Mediating Role of Self-Regulatory Ability Parental Obesity and Higher Pre-intervention BMI Reduce the Likelihood of a Multidisciplinary Childhood Obesity Program to Succeed - A Clinical Observation Parental neglect during childhood and increased risk of obesity in young adulthood Obesity in children. Part 2: Prevention and management Protocol for systematic reviews of determinants/correlates of obesity-related dietary and physical activity behaviors in young children (preschool 0 to 6 years): evidence mapping and syntheses Psychological and behavioral risk factors for obesity onset in adolescent girls: a prospective study. Early Childhood Obesity Prevention in Low-Income, Urban Communities Prospective study of the influence of social factors in childhood on risk of overweight in young adulthood.
OBJECTIVE Cognitive dysfunction and structural brain abnormalities have been observed in obese versus lean individuals , but with variability across age and weight groups . The current study was design ed to clarify the cognitive profile of obesity by examining performance across multiple cognitive domains in adults with wide-ranging age and weight status . METHOD Participants ( N = 732 ; 61 % women ; ages 18 - 88 ; BMI range 19 - 75 ) underwent assessment of cognitive functioning and relevant medical/demographic covariates .  Neuropsychological tests  were grouped by cognitive domain ( via confirmatory factor analysis ) , and st and ardized scores were averaged into composite variables . RESULTS Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed main effects for BMI on motor ( ΔR2 = .02 , β = -.15 ) and attention/processing speed ( ΔR2 = .01 , β = -.07 ) , whereas a significant interaction between BMI and age was observed ( ΔR2 = .01 , β = -.08 ) for predicting executive functioning ( p < .05 ) . BMI was not independently associated with memory or language functioning and no interaction effects were observed for these variables . Although BMI was not independently related to executive dysfunction , a significant age × BMI interaction suggests that obesity-related executive deficits may increase with age . CONCLUSIONS Overall , these findings may support an independent association between obesity and a frontal-subcortical pathology , though prospect i ve studies are needed to further clarify this possibility The global epidemic of obesity and physical inactivity may have detrimental implication s for young people ’s  cognitive function and academic achievement . This prospect i ve study investigated whether childhood motor function predicts later academic achievement via physical activity , fitness , and obesity . The study sample included 8,061 children from the Northern Finl and Birth Cohort 1986 , which contains data about parent-reported motor function at age 8 y and self-reported physical activity , predicted cardiorespiratory fitness ( cycle ergometer test ) , obesity ( body weight and height ) , and academic achievement ( grade s ) at age 16 y.  Structural equation models with unst and ardized ( B ) and st and ardized ( β ) coefficients were used to test whether , and to what extent , physical activity , cardiorespiratory fitness , and obesity at age 16 mediated the association between childhood motor function and adolescents ’ academic achievement . Physical activity was associated with a higher grade -point average , and obesity was associated with a lower grade -point average in adolescence . Furthermore , compromised motor function in childhood had a negative indirect effect on adolescents ’ academic achievement via physical inactivity ( B = –0.023 , 95 % confidence interval = –0.031 , –0.015 ) and obesity ( B = –0.025 , 95 % confidence interval = –0.039 , –0.011 ) , but not via cardiorespiratory fitness . These results suggest that physical activity and obesity may mediate the association between childhood motor function and adolescents ’ academic achievement . Compromised motor function in childhood may represent an important factor driving the effects of obesity and physical inactivity on academic underachievement BACKGROUND The relationship between obesity and academic outcomes remains unclear . We evaluated the association between obesity and cognitive performance in US children . METHODS We analyzed two nationally representative prospect i ve cohorts of children in the 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth , ages 2 through 8 at baseline and followed for 6 years , from 1988 to 1994 ( cohort 1 , n=2672 ) and 1994 to 2000 ( cohort 2 , n=1991 ) . The main exposure variable was obesity ( defined as never obese , became obese , always obese , and became nonobese ) . The main outcomes were st and ardized scores on four cognitive assessment s. Univariate regression analyses of test scores on obesity were performed . Fixed-effects regression models , controlling for measured and unmeasured time-invariant confounders , were additionally adjusted for time-variant confounders to analyze the impact of change in obesity status on change in test scores . RESULTS Unadjusted analyses revealed a significant association between obesity and Peabody Individual Achievement Test ( PIAT ) scores . In cohort 1 , always obese children had lower PIAT math scores than never obese children ( β=-7.48 ; p<0.05 ) . Always obese boys had lower PIAT math scores than those who were never obese ( β=-16.45 ; p<0.01 ) . In cohort 2 , PIAT math scores were lower in the became obese category than the never obese category ( β=-4.10 ; p<0.05 ) . Always obese girls had lower PIAT reading scores than those who were never obese ( β=-11.28 ; p<0.01 ) . Fixed-effects models additionally adjusted for Home Observation Measurement of the Environment , Short Form score and height percentile showed no significant relationship between obesity and test scores in either cohort . CONCLUSION Childhood obesity is unlikely to be causally related to cognitive performance Cross-sectional studies have found that obesity is associated with low intellectual ability and neuroimaging abnormalities in adolescence and adulthood . Some have interpreted these associations to suggest that obesity causes intellectual decline in the first half of the life course . We analyzed data from a prospect i ve longitudinal study to test whether becoming obese was associated with intellectual decline from childhood to midlife . We used data from the ongoing Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study , a population -representative birth cohort study of 1,037 children in New Zeal and who were followed prospect ively from birth ( 1972 - 1973 ) through their fourth decade of life with a 95 % retention rate .  Intelligence quotient ( IQ ) was measured in childhood and adulthood . Anthropometric measurements  were taken at birth and at 12 subsequent in-person assessment s. As expected , cohort members who became obese had lower adulthood IQ scores . However , obese cohort members exhibited no excess decline in IQ . Instead , these cohort members had lower IQ scores since childhood . This pattern remained consistent when we accounted for children 's birth weights and growth during the first years of life , as well as for childhood-onset obesity . Lower IQ scores among children who later developed obesity were present as early as 3 years of age . We observed no evidence that obesity contributed to a decline in IQ , even among obese individuals who displayed evidence of the metabolic syndrome and /or elevated systemic inflammation Background The prevalence of childhood obesity has increased rapidly during the last three decades in the Netherl and s. It is assumed that mainly environmental factors have contributed to this trend . Parental overweight and low social economic status are risk factors for childhood obesity . Childhood obesity affects self-esteem and has negative consequences on cognitive and social development . Obese children tend to become obese adults , which increases the risk for developing cardiovascular complications , type 2 diabetes mellitus , and psychosocial problems . Additionally , the secretion of several gastrointestinal hormones , responsible for appetite and food intake , is impaired in obese subjects . Weight reduction through lifestyle changes in order to change health risks is , until now , suggested as the preferred treatment for childhood obesity . The objective of this study is the effect evaluation of a family-based cognitive behavioral multidisciplinary lifestyle treatment . The intervention aims to establish long-term weight reduction and stabilization , reduction of obesity-related health consequences and improvement of self-image by change of lifestyle and learning cognitive behavioral techniques . Study design / Methods In this r and omized clinical trial newly presented children with obesity ( 8 - 17 years old ) are divided , by r and omization , in an intervention and  control  group , both consisting of 40 obese children . The intervention is carried out in groups of 8 - 11 children , and consists of respectively 7 and 5 separate group meetings for the children and their parents and 1 joint group meeting of 2 ½ hours . Main topics are education on nutrition , self-control techniques , social skills , physical activity and improvement of self-esteem . The control group is given advice on physical activity and nutrition . For normal data comparison , data were collected of 40 normal-weight children , 8 - 17 years old . Discussion Because of the increasing prevalence of childhood obesity and the impact on the individual as well as on society , prevention and treatment of obesity in children is of great importance . For evaluation of short- and long-term effects of the treatment , measurements are taken before and after 3 months of treatment , and after 12 and 24 months follow-up . During these visits clinical and biochemical data are determined , cardiovascular fitness tests are performed and quality of life question naires are completed . Trial registration International St and ard R and omised Controlled Trial Number Register IS RCT Existing work demonstrates that obesity is independently associated with cognitive dysfunction and macrostructural brain changes ; however , little is known about the association between obesity and white matter ( WM ) integrity . We explore this relationship in a large cohort of otherwise healthy subjects . The present study classified 103 adult participants from the Brain Re source International Data base between 21 and 86 years of age without history of neurological , medical , or psychiatric illness according to BMI ( normal weight , overweight , obese ) and subjected them to diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) .  Result ing fractional anisotropy ( FA ) indexes for the corpus callosum and fornix were examined in relation to BMI and age in a multiple regression framework . Results indicated that increasing BMI was independently associated with lower FA in the genu , splenium , and fornix , and a BMI × age interaction emerged for FA in the splenium and body of the corpus callosum . When categorized , obese persons demonstrated lower FA than normal and overweight persons for all WM indexes , but no FA differences emerged between overweight and normal persons . Results indicate both a direct association between obesity and reduced WM tract integrity and an interaction between obesity and aging processes on certain WM tracts in otherwise healthy adults . While such findings suggest a possible role for adiposity in WM dysfunction and associated cognitive deficits , prospect i ve studies are needed to clarify the nature of these relationships and eluci date underlying mechanisms BACKGROUND There is evidence from cross-sectional studies that posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) may be associated with obesity . The aim of this study was to examine prospect i ve longitudinal associations between PTSD and obesity in a community sample . METHODS A prospect i ve , longitudinal , epidemiologic study with a representative community sample of adolescents and young adults ( N=3021 , aged 14 - 24 years at baseline ) was conducted in Munich , Germany . Participants were assessed four times between 1995 and 2005 with the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview . Associations between obesity ( BMI > or = 30 ) and DSM-IV PTSD were evaluated in 2007 , using cross-sectional and prospect i ve data during young adulthood . RESULTS The cumulative lifetime incidence of obesity in the sample at 10-year follow-up during young adulthood was 4.3 % ( women , 4.6 % ; men , 4.0 % ) . Among women but not among men , obesity was associated with a lifetime history of PTSD ( OR=3.8 ; 95 % CI=1.4 , 10.7 ) in the cross-sectional analyses . Prospect i ve longitudinal analyses from 4-year follow-up to 10-year follow-up confirmed that obesity was predicted by antecedent subthreshold and full PTSD ( OR=3.0 ; 95 % CI=1.3 , 7.0 ) among women but not among men . There were no associations between other mental disorders and obesity in the prospect i ve analyses . CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate a possible causal pathway for the onset of obesity in females with PTSD symptoms . These findings need replication with regard to the pathophysiologic and behavioral mechanisms underlying this relationship CONTEXT Rates of  obesity  and other childhood chronic conditions  have increased over recent decades . Patterns of how conditions change over time have not been widely examined . OBJECTIVE To evaluate change in prevalence of obesity and other chronic conditions  in US children , including incidence , remission , and prevalence . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS Prospect i ve study using the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Child Cohort ( 1988 - 2006 ) of 3 nationally representative cohorts of children . Children were aged 2 through 8 years at the beginning of each study period , and cohorts were followed up for 6 years , from 1988 to 1994 ( cohort 1 , n = 2337 ) , 1994 to 2000 ( cohort 2 , n = 1759 ) , and 2000 to 2006 ( n = 905 ) . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Parent report of a child having a health condition that limited activities or schooling or required medicine , special equipment , or specialized health services and that lasted at least 12 months . Obesity was defined as a body mass index at or above the 95th percentile for age . Chronic conditions were grouped into 4 categories : obesity , asthma , other physical conditions , and behavior/learning problems . RESULTS The end- study prevalence of any chronic health condition was 12.8 % ( 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] , 11.2%-14.5 % ) for cohort 1 in 1994 , 25.1 % ( 95 % CI , 22.7%-27.6 % ) for cohort 2 in 2000 , and 26.6 % ( 95 % CI , 23.5%-29.9 % ) for cohort 3 in 2006 . There was substantial turnover in chronic conditions : 7.4 % ( 95 % CI , 6.5%-8.3 % ) of participants in all cohorts had a chronic condition at the beginning of the study that persisted to the end , 9.3 % ( 95 % CI , 8.3%-10.3 % ) reported conditions at the beginning that resolved within 6 years , and 13.4 % ( 95 % CI , 12.3%-14.6 % ) had new conditions that arose during the 6-year study period . The prevalence of having a chronic condition during any part of the 6-year study period was highest for cohort 3 ( 51.5 % ; 95 % CI , 47.3%-55.0 % ) , and there were higher rates among male ( adjusted odds ratio [ AOR ] , 1.24 ; 95 % CI , 1.07 - 1.42 ) , Hispanic ( AOR , 1.36 ; 95 % CI , 1.11 - 1.67 ) , and black ( AOR , 1.60 ; 95 % CI , 1.35 - 1.90 ) youth . CONCLUSIONS Prevalence of chronic conditions among children and youth increased from 1988 to 2006 . However , presence of these conditions was dynamic over each 6-year cohort Childhood maltreatment has been implicated as a risk factor for adult obesity . We describe the first prospect i ve assessment of adult obesity in individuals with documented histories of childhood physical and sexual abuse and neglect and a matched comparison group in a 30-year follow-up . Using a prospect i ve cohort design , children with court substantiated cases of physical and sexual abuse and neglect ( ages 0 - 11 years ) from a Midwest county during 1967 - 1971 ( n=410 ) were matched with children without histories of abuse or neglect on age , sex , race/ethnicity and approximate family social class ( n=303 ) and followed up and assessed at mean age 41 . Outcome measures include BMI and obesity assessed in 2003 - 2004 as part of a medical status examination and interview . Childhood physical abuse predicted significantly higher BMI scores in adulthood ( beta=0.14 , P<0.05 ) , even controlling for demographic characteristics , cigarette smoking , and alcohol consumption ( beta=0.16 , P<0.01 ) . Childhood sexual abuse ( beta=0.07 , not significant ) and neglect ( beta=0.02 , not significant ) were not significant predictors of adult BMI scores . These results demonstrate the long-term impact of childhood physical abuse on weight into adulthood and suggest that physically abused children may be at risk for other adverse health outcomes associated with increased weight . Health professionals need to underst and this risk for physically abused children and research ers should identify and evaluate strategies for effective interventions Objectives : We tested whether early childhood risk exposures are related to weight gain in adolescence and evaluate an underlying mechanism , self-regulatory behavior , for the risk-obesity link . Methods : Cumulative risk exposure to 9 sociodemographic ( eg , poverty ) , physical ( eg , subst and ard housing ) , and psychosocial ( eg , family turmoil ) stressors was assessed in 244 nine-year-old children .  BMI was calculated at age 9 and then 4 years later . At age 9 , children ’s ability to delay gratification as an index of self-regulatory behavior was assessed . Path analyses were then estimated to evaluate our mediational model ( Cumulative risk → Self-regulation → BMI ) over a 4-year period in a prospect i ve , longitudinal design . Results : Nine-year-old children exposed to a greater accumulation of multiple risk factors show larger gains in adiposity over the next four year period , net of their initial BMI . These gains in BMI during early adolescence are largely accounted for by deteriorated self-regulatory abilities among children facing more cumulative risks . Conclusions : Early childhood risk exposure leads to larger gains in BMI in adolescence . Given the importance of childhood adiposity to the development of obesity later in life , underst and ing the underlying mechanisms that link early experience to weight gain is an essential task . Deficiencies in self-regulation in response to chronic stress appears to be an important agent in the obesity epidemic OBJECTIVE To assess the effects and identify factors associated with success of a combined , structured multidisciplinary weight management program in obese children and adolescents . METHODS Seventy-seven obese children ( age 6 - 16 years ) participated in a 12-month combined dietary-behavioral-exercise intervention .  Thirty-seven ( age and maturity comparable ) obese children who did not participate in the structured program served as controls .  Body weight , BMI , and BMI percentiles were measured at baseline , after 6 months , and at the end of the intervention . RESULTS The combined intervention was associated with a significant decrease in BMI ( from 25.9+/-0.4 to 24.5+/-0.4 kg/m2 , p < 0.0005 ) and BMI percentile ( from 97.3+/-0.2 % to 92.6+/-0.9 % , p < 0.0005 ) . In contrast , obese children who did not participate in the structured program gained weight ( from 51.4+/-3.6 to 57.7+/-3.7 kg , p < 0.0005 ) , increased their BMI ( from 25.2+/-1.0 to 26.6+/-0.9 kg/m2 , p < 0.0005 ) , and had a non-significant increase in BMI percentiles ( from 94.9+/-0.8 % to 95.4+/-0.9 % , NS ) . Children with higher BMI percentiles and parental overweight  tended to respond less favorably to the combined multidisciplinary program ( p < 0.01 ) . CONCLUSIONS A prolonged ( 12 mo ) , combined , structured multidisciplinary intervention for childhood obesity result ed in a significant decrease in BMI and BMI percentiles . Higher pre-intervention BMI percentiles and parental obesity were associated with less favorable responses to the combined intervention The association of various features of family life with  obesity in childhood is well established , but less is known about the effect of these influences on the risk of later obesity . In this prospect i ve , population -based study , we examined the influence of parental care in childhood on the risk of obesity in the offspring in young adulthood . In 1974 , 1258 pupils aged 9 - 10 years were r and omly selected from the third grade of Copenhagen schools . Information on 987 pupils was obtained from the form teachers on family structure and the perceived support from the parents ; school medical services reported on the child 's general hygiene . 756 ( 86 % ) of the 881 eligible participants were followed up 10 years later . The influence of family factors in childhood on the risk of obesity ( body-mass index > 95th centile ) in young adulthood was estimated by odds ratios with control for age and body-mass index in 1974 , sex , and social background . Family structure ( biological or other parents and number of siblings ) did not significantly affect the risk of adult obesity . Parental neglect greatly increased the risk in comparison with harmonious support ( odds ratio 7.1 [ 95 % CI 2.6 - 19.3 ] ) . Dirty and neglected children had a much greater risk of adult obesity than averagely groomed children ( 9.8 [ 3.5 - 28.2 ] ) . However , being an only child , receiving overprotective parental support , or being well-groomed had no effect . Parental neglect during childhood predicts a great risk of obesity in young adulthood , independent of age and body-mass index in childhood , sex , and social background # # # # Summary points In the first part of this article we described how obesity in children is measured , its prevalence , whether children should be screened , and the risk factors for and consequences of obesity.1 In this part we review the current evidence on the prevention and management of childhood obesity . # # # # Sources and selection criteria This review draws on the Foresight report , guidance from the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence and the Australian National Health Medical Research Council , and Cochrane review . In April 2008 we search ed the Cochrane Library data base of review s and the Centre for Review s and Dissemination data bases using the search term “ obesity ” . We also conducted a Medline search ( ( Child$ or paediatric or pediatric or adolescent ) and ( Obes$ or overweight ) ) limited to 1 January 2005 to 6 May 2008 and “ review articles ” ; this identified 1105 articles . We read the abstract s of these articles and retrieved relevant papers . We also used articles from our own bibliographies collected over the past 10 years . The evidence to support the measurement , prevention , and management of obesity in children is still relatively weak , with few r and omised controlled trials or systematic review s. The strength of evidence is developing and the up date d Cochrane review that will be published in 2009 Background The aim of these review s is to inform the design and content of interventions to reduce obesity in young children . The behaviors that are associated with obesity/overweight have been studied extensively ; however , the factors associated with these behaviors in young children ( 0 to 6 years ) have not been systematic ally review ed . Over the past few years the focus of obesity prevention has shifted to preschool children because of the high prevalence of obesity at school entry and recognition that habits formed in early life could track into adulthood . In order to develop effective interventions and change behavior , it is important to underst and the factors that are associated with those behaviors . For example , we need to underst and whether it would be more important to target the family , childcare setting s or the wider environment and identify the most effective way of changing these energy balance related behaviors . Methods / Design Quantitative ( intervention and observational ) and qualitative literature on determinants/correlates of fruit and vegetable intake , sugar sweetened beverage and other unhealthy diet intake , and physical activity and sedentary behaviors in young children will be systematic ally identified , mapped and review ed . A common search strategy ( no language or period restrictions ) will be used to identify papers from eight electronic data bases and this will be supplemented by h and - search ing . Next , studies in developed countries that examine the factors associated with these behaviors in children aged 0 to 6 years ( at baseline ) will be screened and mapped descriptively followed by in-depth data extraction , quality assessment and synthesis . Data from quantitative studies will be summarized using either forest plots or harvest plots and narrative synthesis , and qualitative studies using thematic analysis . Qualitative evidence will be integrated with the quantitative evidence , using a parallel synthesis approach , to provide a deeper underst and ing of effective strategies to influence these energy balance related behaviors . Discussion In addition to updating and mapping current research , these review s will be the first to comprehensively synthesize and integrate both the quantitative and qualitative evidence pertaining to determinants/correlates/barriers/facilitators of obesity related behaviors in this young age group ( 0 to 6 years ) with the aim of informing future interventions . Systematic review registration International Prospect i ve Register for Systematic Review s ( PROSPERO ) Registration number : Because little is known about risk factors for obesity , the authors tested whether certain psychological and behavioral variables predicted future onset of obesity . The authors used data from a prospect i ve study of 496 adolescent girls who completed a baseline assessment at age 11 - 15 years and 4 annual follow-ups .  Self-reported dietary restraint , radical weight-control behaviors , depressive symptoms , and perceived parental obesity -- but not high-fat food consumption , binge eating , or exercise frequency-predicted obesity onset . Results provide support for certain etiologic theories of obesity , including the affect regulation model . The fact that self-reported , weight-control behaviors  identified girls at risk for obesity implies that high-risk youths are not engaging in effective weight-control methods and suggests the need to promote more effective strategies Given the disproportionately high rates of obesity-related morbidity among low-income , ethnic minority youth , obesity prevention in this population is critical . Prior efforts to curb childhood obesity have had limited public health impact . The present study evaluates an innovative approach to obesity prevention by promoting foundational parenting and child behavioral regulation . This pre – post intervention study evaluated an enhanced version of ParentCorps with 91 families of pre-Kindergarten students in low-income , urban communities . Assessment s included tests of knowledge and parent report . Consistent with findings from two r and omized controlled trials of ParentCorps , parent knowledge and use of foundational parenting practice s increased and child behavior problems decreased . Child nutrition knowledge and physical activity increased and television watching decreased ; for boys , sleep problems decreased . Comparable benefits occurred for children at high risk for obesity based on child dysregulation , child overweight , and parent overweight . Results support a “ whole child , ” family-centered approach to health promotion in early childhood The purpose of the study was to assess prospect ively the influence of social factors in childhood on risk of overweight in young adulthood , while taking into account degree of fatness in childhood . A r and om selection of children 9 - 10 years of age attending the third school grade in Copenhagen schools in 1974 was performed .  Parental school education , householder 's occupational status , and quality of dwellings in the rearing area were recorded . Ten years later a follow-up was carried out , and 756 ( 86 % ) of the 881 eligible individuals participated . The effect of the social factors on the risk of overweight in adulthood was analysed by logistic regression analysis , including gender and degree of fatness in childhood as covariates . The relationship between the traditional socio-demographic factors ( parental education and occupational ) and risk of overweight in young adulthood was insignificant , when controlling for degree of fatness in childhood and gender . However , the risk of overweight was highly increased for individuals reared in an area with poor quality of dwellings compared to those from a good area ( P less than 0.001 ) , even when controlling for the effect of parental education and occupation ( P less than 0.001 ) . In conclusion , rearing area had a much stronger influence on risk of overweight in young adulthood than parental education and occupation
Overall , we found data that support a negative relationship between obesity and various aspects of neurocognitive functioning , such as executive functioning , attention , visuo-spatial performance , and motor skill .
The existing literature is mixed on the effects among obesity , general cognitive functioning , language , learning , memory , and academic achievement .
Executive dysfunction is associated with obesity-related behaviors , such as increased intake , disinhibited eating , and less physical activity .
Physical activity is positively linked with motor skill .
Childhood obesity rates have risen dramatically over the past few decades .
Although obesity has been linked to poorer neurocognitive functioning in adults , much less is known about this relationship in children and adolescents .
Therefore , we conducted a systematic review to examine the relationship between obesity and obesity-related behaviors with neurocognitive functioning in youth .