The sine-cosine algorithm (SCA) is a new population-based meta-heuristic algorithm. In addition to exploiting sine and cosine functions to perform local and global searches (hence the name sine-cosine), the SCA introduces several random and adaptive parameters to facilitate the search process. Although it shows promising results, the search process of the SCA is vulnerable to local minima maxima due to the adoption of a fixed switch probability and the bounded magnitude of the sine and cosine functions (from -1 to 1). In this paper, we propose a new hybrid Q-learning sine-cosine- based strategy, called the Q-learning sine-cosine algorithm (QLSCA). Within the QLSCA, we eliminate the switching probability. Instead, we rely on the Q-learning algorithm (based on the penalty and reward mechanism) to dynamically identify the best operation during runtime. Additionally, we integrate two new operations (Le´vy flight motion and crossover) into the QLSCA to facilitate jumping out of local minima maxima and enhance the solution diversity. To assess its performance, we adopt the QLSCA for the combinatorial test suite minimization problem. Experimental results reveal that the QLSCA is statistically superior with regard to test suite size reduction compared to recent state-of-the-art strategies, including the original SCA, the particle swarm test generator (PSTG), adaptive particle swarm optimization (APSO) and the cuckoo search strategy (CS) at the 95 confidence level. However, concerning the comparison with discrete particle swarm optimization (DPSO), there is no significant difference in performance at the 95 confidence level. On a positive note, the QLSCA statistically outperforms the DPSO in certain configurations at the 90 confidence level.
@cite_30 developed a @math strategy based on the harmony search algorithm (HSS). The HSS mimics the behaviour of musicians trying to compose good music either by improvising on the best tune they remember or by random sampling. In doing so, the HSS iteratively exploits the harmonic memory to store the best solution found through a number of defined probabilistic improvisations within its local and global search processes. In each improvisation, one test case is selected for the final test suite until all the required interactions are covered. The notable feature of the HSS is that it supports constraints using the forbidden tuple approach.
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Context: Although useful, AI-based variable strength t-way strategies are lacking in terms of the support for high interaction strength. Additionally, most AI-based strategies generally do not address the support for constraints. Addressing the aforementioned issues, this paper elaborates the design, implementation, and evaluation of a novel variable-strength-based on harmony search algorithm, called Harmony Search Strategy (HSS). Objective: The objective of this work is to investigate the adoption of harmony search algorithm for constructing variable-strength t-way strategy. Method: Implemented in Java, HSS integrates the harmony search algorithm as parts of its search engine. Result: Benchmarking results demonstrate that HSS gives competitive results against most existing AI-based (and pure computational) counterparts. However, unlike other AI-based counterparts, HSS addresses the support for high interaction strength and permits the support for constraints. Conclusion: AI-based t-way strategies tend to outperform the pure computational-based strategies in terms of test size. We present a probabilistic generative model for timing deviations in expressive music performance. The structure of the proposed model is equivalent to a switching state space model. The switch variables correspond to discrete note locations as in a musical score. The continuous hidden variables denote the tempo. We formulate two well known music recognition problems, namely tempo tracking and automatic transcription (rhythm quantization) as filtering and maximum a posteriori (MAP) state estimation tasks. Exact computation of posterior features such as the MAP state is intractable in this model class, so we introduce Monte Carlo methods for integration and optimization. We compare Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods (such as Gibbs sampling, simulated annealing and iterative improvement) and sequential Monte Carlo methods (particle filters). Our simulation results suggest better results with sequential methods. The methods can be applied in both online and batch scenarios such as tempo tracking and transcription and are thus potentially useful in a number of music applications such as adaptive automatic accompaniment, score typesetting and music information retrieval. We describe how we used a data set of chorale harmonisations composed by Johann Sebastian Bach to train Hidden Markov Models. Using a probabilistic framework allows us to create a harmonisation system which learns from examples, and which can compose new harmonisations. We make a quantitative comparison of our system's harmonisation performance against simpler models, and provide example harmonisations. Machine improvisation and related style simulation problems usually consider building repre- sentations of time-based media data, such as music, either by explicit coding of rules or applying machine learning methods. Stylistic learning applies such methods to musical sequences in order to capture salient musical features and organize these features into a model. The Stylistic simulation process browses the model in order to generate variant musical sequences that are stylistically consistent with the learned ma- terial. If both the learning process and the simulation process happen in real-time, in an interactive system where the computer “plays” with musicians, then Machine Improvisation is achieved. Improvisation models have to cope with a trade-off between completeness (all the possible patterns and their continuation laws are discovered) and incrementality (the completeness is ensured only asymptotically for infinite sequences). In a previous work we devised a complete and incremental model based on the Factor Oracle Algorithm. In this paper we propose a concurrent constraints model for the Factor Oracle and show how it can be used in a concurrent learning improvisation situation. Our model is based on a non-deterministic concurrent constraint process calculus (NTCC). Such an approach allows the system to respond in a faster and more flexible manner to real-life performance situations. In addition, the declarative nature of constraints greatly simplifies the expansion of the system with improvisation rules at a higher musical level. We also describe the implementation of our model in a NTCC interpreter written in Common Lisp that is capable of real time performance. Machine learning has shown a successful component of methods for automatic music composition. Considering music as a sequence of events with multiple complex dependencies on various levels of a composition, the long short-term memory-based (LSTM) architectures have been proven to be very efficient in learning and reproducing musical styles. The “rampant force” of these architectures, however, makes them hardly useful for tasks that incorporate human input or generally constraints. Such an example is the generation of drums’ rhythms under a given metric structure (potentially combining different time signatures), with a given instrumentation (e.g. bass and guitar notes). This paper presents a solution that harnesses the LSTM sequence learner with a feed-forward (FF) part which is called the “Conditional Layer”. The LSTM and the FF layers influence (are merged into) a single layer making the final decision about the next drums’ event, given previous events (LSTM layer) and current constraints (FF layer). The resulting architecture is called the conditional neural sequence learner (CNSL). Results on drums’ rhythm sequences are presented indicating that the CNSL architecture is effective in producing drums’ sequences that resemble a learnt style, while at the same time conform to given constraints; impressively, the CNSL is able to compose drums’ rhythms in time signatures it has not encountered during training (e.g. 17 16), which resemble the characteristics of the rhythms in the original data. This paper describes a Hidden Markov Model (HMM)-based method of automatic transcription of MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) signals of performed music. The problem is formulated as recognition of a given sequence of fluctuating note durations to find the most likely intended note sequence utilizing the modern continuous speech recognition technique. Combining a stochastic model of deviating note durations and a stochastic grammar representing possible sequences of notes, the maximum likelihood estimate of the note sequence is searched in terms of Viterbi algorithm. The same principle is successfully applied to a joint problem of bar line allocation, time measure recognition, and tempo estimation. Finally, durations of consecutive spl eta n notes are combined to form a "rhythm vector" representing tempo-free relative durations of the notes and treated in the same framework. Significant improvements compared with conventional "quantization" techniques are shown. Generating music medleys is about finding an optimal permutation of a given set of music clips. Toward this goal, we propose a self-supervised learning task, called the music puzzle game, to train neural network models to learn the sequential patterns in music. In essence, such a game requires machines to correctly sort a few multisecond music fragments. In the training stage, we learn the model by sampling multiple non-overlapping fragment pairs from the same songs and seeking to predict whether a given pair is consecutive and is in the correct chronological order. For testing, we design a number of puzzle games with different difficulty levels, the most difficult one being music medley, which requiring sorting fragments from different songs. On the basis of state-of-the-art Siamese convolutional network, we propose an improved architecture that learns to embed frame-level similarity scores computed from the input fragment pairs to a common space, where fragment pairs in the correct order can be more easily identified. Our result shows that the resulting model, dubbed as the similarity embedding network (SEN), performs better than competing models across different games, including music jigsaw puzzle, music sequencing, and music medley. Example results can be found at our project website, this https URL A common task in dance, martial arts, animation, and many other movement genres is for the character to move in an innovative and yet stylistically consonant fashion. In this paper, we describe two mechanisms for automating this process and evaluate the results with a Turing Test. Our algorithms use the mathematics of chaos to achieve innovation and simple machine-learning techniques to enforce stylistic consonance. Because our goal is stylistic consonance, we used a Turing Test, rather than standard cross-validation-based approaches, to evaluate the results. This test indicated that the novel dance segments generated by these methods are nearing the quality of human-choreographed routines. The test-takers found the human-choreographed pieces to be more aesthetically pleasing than computer-choreographed pieces, but the computer-generated pieces were judged to be equally plausible and not significantly less graceful. Musical or choreographic variation—one of the most fundamental of compositional techniques—are based upon two phases of work: establishment of a grounding theme and a series of structured departures from that theme. Classic examples are Bach's Goldberg Variations for the keyboard or Balanchine's The Four Temperaments ballet. The properties of dynamical chaos provide unusual mechanisms for achieving these effects. The characteristic patterns of strange attractors can be used to capture the underlying theme of the sequence and chaos's sensitive dependence on initial conditions can be used to produce variations. This intriguing notion was proposed by Diana Dabby in the mid-1990s in the context of music and image (1, 2). Inspired by Dabby's work, we set out to apply some similar ideas to dance. The result was the pair of tools that are described in this paper: CHAOGRAPHER, which produces chaotic variations of keyframed movement sequences, and MOTIONMIND, which extracts the patterns from a corpus of movement sequences and uses those patterns to generates original and yet stylistically consonant movement. These two tools, working together, can produce novel, interesting movement. The core of CHAOGRAPHER's strategy for introducing novelty is to create a mapping that associates a sequence of body positions with a chaotic attractor, and then use that mapping to generate variations. The fixed attractor structure guarantees that the variations will resemble the original in a mathematically precise sense, while sensitive dependence on initial conditions guarantees So far, many of the computational models for rendering music performance have been proposed, but they often consist of many heuristic rules and tend to be complex. It makes difficult to generate and select the useful rules, or perform the optimization of parameters in the rules. In this study, we present a new approach that automatically learns a computational model for rendering music performance with score information as an input and the corresponding real performance data as an output. We use a Gaussian Process (GP) incorporated with a Bayesian Committee Machine to reduce naive GP's heavy computation cost, to learn those input-output relationships. We compared three normalized errors: dynamics, attack time and release time between the real and predicted performance by the trained GP to evaluate our proposed scheme. We evaluated the learning ability and the generalization ability. The results show that the trained GP has an acceptable learning ability for 'known' pieces, but show insufficient generalization ability for 'unknown' pieces, suggesting that the GP can learn the expressive music performance without setting many parameters manually, but the size of the current training dataset is not sufficiently large so as to generalize the training pieces to 'unknown' test pieces. We consider the problem of extracting essential ingredients of music signals, such as a well-defined global temporal structure in the form of nested periodicities (or meter). We investigate whether we can construct an adaptive signal processing device that learns by example how to generate new instances of a given musical style. Because recurrent neural networks (RNNs) can, in principle, learn the temporal structure of a signal, they are good candidates for such a task. Unfortunately, music composed by standard RNNs often lacks global coherence. The reason for this failure seems to be that RNNs cannot keep track of temporally distant events that indicate global music structure. Long short-term memory (LSTM) has succeeded in similar domains where other RNNs have failed, such as timing and counting and the learning of context sensitive languages. We show that LSTM is also a good mechanism for learning to compose music. We present experimental results showing that LSTM successfully learns a form of blues music and is able to compose novel (and we believe pleasing) melodies in that style. Remarkably, once the network has found the relevant structure, it does not drift from it: LSTM is able to play the blues with good timing and proper structure as long as one is willing to listen. We examined a variety of real-time responses evoked by a single piece of music, the organ Duetto BWV 805 by J S Bach. The primary data came from a concurrent probe-tone method in which the probe tone is sounded continuously with the music. Listeners judged how well the probe tone fit with the music at each point in time. The process was repeated for all probe tones of the chromatic scale. A self-organizing map (SOM) (Kohonen 1997 Self-organizing Maps (Berlin: Springer)) was used to represent the developing and changing sense of key reflected in these judgments. The SOM was trained on the probe-tone profiles for 24 major and minor keys (Krumhansl and Kessler 1982 Psychological Review 89 334^368). Projecting the concurrent probe-tone data onto the map showed changes both in the perceived keys and in their strengths. Two dynamic models of tonality induction were tested. Model 1 is based on pitch class distribu- tions. Model 2 is based on the tone-transition distributions; it tested the idea that the order of tones might provide additional information about tonality. Both models contained dynamic components for characterizing pitch strength and creating pitch memory representations. Both models produced results closely matching those of the concurrent probe-tone data. Finally real- time judgments of tension were measured. Tension correlated with distance away from the predominant key in the direction of keys built on the dominant and supertonic tones, and also correlated with dissonance. Modeling polyphonic music is a particularly challenging task because of the intricate interplay between melody and harmony. A good model should satisfy three requirements: statistical accuracy (capturing faithfully the statistics of correlations at various ranges, horizontally and vertically), flexibility (coping with arbitrary user constraints), and generalization capacity (inventing new material, while staying in the style of the training corpus). Models proposed so far fail on at least one of these requirements. We propose a statistical model of polyphonic music, based on the maximum entropy principle. This model is able to learn and reproduce pairwise statistics between neighboring note events in a given corpus. The model is also able to invent new chords and to harmonize unknown melodies. We evaluate the invention capacity of the model by assessing the amount of cited, re-discovered, and invented chords on a corpus of Bach chorales. We discuss how the model enables the user to specify and enforce user-defined constraints, which makes it useful for style-based, interactive music generation. This paper presents a probabilistic model of temporal structure in music which allows joint inference of tempo, meter and rhythmic pattern. The framework of the model naturally quantifies these three musical concepts in terms of hidden state-variables, allowing resolution of otherwise apparent ambiguities in musical structure. At the heart of the system is a probabilistic model of a hypothetical ‘bar-pointer’ which maps an input signal to one cycle of a latent, periodic rhythmical pattern. The system flexibly accommodates different input signals via two observation models: a Poisson points model for use with MIDI onset data and a Gaussian process model for use with raw audio signals. The discrete state-space permits exact computation of posterior probability distributions for the quantities of interest. Results are presented for both observation models, demonstrating the ability of the system to correctly detect changes in rhythmic pattern and meter, whilst tracking tempo. We consider the problem of transcribing polyphonic piano music with an emphasis on generalizing to unseen instruments. We use deep neural networks and propose a novel approach that predicts onsets and frames using both CNNs and LSTMs. This model predicts pitch onset events and then uses those predictions to condition framewise pitch predictions. During inference, we restrict the predictions from the framewise detector by not allowing a new note to start unless the onset detector also agrees that an onset for that pitch is present in the frame. We focus on improving onsets and offsets together instead of either in isolation as we believe it correlates better with human musical perception. This technique results in over a 100 relative improvement in note with offset score on the MAPS dataset. The paper presents a new approach to discovering general rules of expressive music performance from real performance data via inductive machine learning. A new learning algorithm is briefly presented, and then an experiment with a very large data set (performances of 13 Mozart piano sonatas) is described. The new learning algorithm succeeds in discovering some extremely simple and general principles of musical performance (at the level of individual notes), in the form of categorical prediction rules. These rules turn out to be very robust and general: when tested on performances by a different pianist and even on music of a different style (Chopin), they exhibit a surprisingly high degree of predictive accuracy. In this paper, we propose a method of phishing website detection that utilizes a meta-heuristic-based nonlinear regression algorithm together with a feature selection approach. In order to validate the proposed method, we used a dataset comprised of 11055 phishing and legitimate webpages, and select 20 features to be extracted from the mentioned websites. This research utilizes two feature selection methods: decision tree and wrapper to select the best feature subset, while the latter incurred the detection accuracy rate as high as 96.32 . After the feature selection process, two meta-heuristic algorithms are successfully implemented to predict and detect the fraudulent websites: harmony search (HS) which was deployed based on nonlinear regression technique and support vector machine (SVM). The nonlinear regression approach was used to classify the websites, where the parameters of the proposed regression model were obtained using HS algorithm. The proposed HS algorithm uses dynamic pitch adjustment rate and generated new harmony. The nonlinear regression based on HS led to accuracy rates of 94.13 and 92.80 for train and test processes, respectively. As a result, the study finds that the nonlinear regression-based HS results in better performance compared to SVM. The capacity for real-time synchronization and coordination is a common ability among trained musicians performing a music score that presents an interesting challenge for machine intelligence. Compared to speech recognition, which has influenced many music information retrieval systems, music's temporal dynamics and complexity pose challenging problems to common approximations regarding time modeling of data streams. In this paper, we propose a design for a real-time music-to-score alignment system. Given a live recording of a musician playing a music score, the system is capable of following the musician in real time within the score and decoding the tempo (or pace) of its performance. The proposed design features two coupled audio and tempo agents within a unique probabilistic inference framework that adaptively updates its parameters based on the real-time context. Online decoding is achieved through the collaboration of the coupled agents in a Hidden Hybrid Markov semi-Markov framework, where prediction feedback of one agent affects the behavior of the other. We perform evaluations for both real-time alignment and the proposed temporal model. An implementation of the presented system has been widely used in real concert situations worldwide and the readers are encouraged to access the actual system and experiment the results. This paper presents a novel stochastic optimisation approach to determining the feasible optimal solution of the economic dispatch (ED) problem considering various generator constraints. Many practical constraints of generators, such as ramp rate limits, prohibited operating zones and the valve point effect, are considered. These constraints make the ED problem a non-smooth non-convex minimisation problem with constraints. The proposed optimisation algorithm is called self-tuning hybrid differential evolution (self-tuning HDE). The self-tuning HDE utilises the concept of the 1 5 success rule of evolution strategies (ESs) in the original HDE to accelerate the search for the global optimum. Three test power systems, including 3-, 13- and 40-unit power systems, are applied to compare the performance of the proposed algorithm with genetic algorithms, the differential evolution algorithm and the HDE algorithm. Numerical results indicate that the entire performance of the proposed self-tuning HDE algorithm outperforms the other three algorithms. In the AIPS98 Planning Contest, the HSP planner showed that heuristic search planners can be competitive with state-of-the-art Graphplan and SAT planners. Heuristic search planners like HSP transform planning problems into problems of heuristic search by automatically extracting heuristics from Strips encodings. They differ from specialized problem solvers such as those developed for the 24-Puzzle and Rubik’s Cube in that they use a general declarative language for stating problems and a general mechanism for extracting heuristics from these representations. In this paper, we study a family of heuristic search planners that are based on a simple and general heuristic that assumes that action preconditions are independent. The heuristic is then used in the context of best-first and hill-climbing search algorithms, and is tested over a large collection of domains. We then consider variations and extensions such as reversing the direction of the search for speeding node evaluation, and extracting information about propositional invariants for avoiding dead-ends. We analyze the resulting planners, evaluate their performance, and explain when they do best. We also compare the performance of these planners with two state-of-the-art planners, and show that the simplest planner based on a pure best-first search yields the most solid performance over a large set of problems. We also discuss the strengths and limitations of this approach, establish a correspondence between heuristic search planning and Graphplan, and briefly survey recent ideas that can reduce the current gap in performance between general heuristic search planners and specialized solvers.  2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. An unsupervised learning algorithm for the separation of sound sources in one-channel music signals is presented. The algorithm is based on factorizing the magnitude spectrogram of an input signal into a sum of components, each of which has a fixed magnitude spectrum and a time-varying gain. Each sound source, in turn, is modeled as a sum of one or more components. The parameters of the components are estimated by minimizing the reconstruction error between the input spectrogram and the model, while restricting the component spectrograms to be nonnegative and favoring components whose gains are slowly varying and sparse. Temporal continuity is favored by using a cost term which is the sum of squared differences between the gains in adjacent frames, and sparseness is favored by penalizing nonzero gains. The proposed iterative estimation algorithm is initialized with random values, and the gains and the spectra are then alternatively updated using multiplicative update rules until the values converge. Simulation experiments were carried out using generated mixtures of pitched musical instrument samples and drum sounds. The performance of the proposed method was compared with independent subspace analysis and basic nonnegative matrix factorization, which are based on the same linear model. According to these simulations, the proposed method enables a better separation quality than the previous algorithms. Especially, the temporal continuity criterion improved the detection of pitched musical sounds. The sparseness criterion did not produce significant improvements