In this study, we investigated multi-modal approaches using images, descriptions, and title to categorize e-commerce products on this http URL. Specifically, we examined late fusion models, where the modalities are fused at the decision level. Products were each assigned multiple labels, and the hierarchy in the labels were flattened and filtered. For our individual baseline models, we modified a CNN architecture to classify the description and title, and then modified Keras' ResNet-50 to classify the images, achieving F1 scores of 77.0 , 82.7 , and 61.0 , respectively. In comparison, our tri-modal late fusion model can classify products more accurately than single modal models can, improving the F1 score to 88.2 . Each modality complemented the shortcomings of the other modalities, demonstrating that increasing the number of modalities can be an effective method for improving the accuracy of multi-label classification problems.
@cite_22 used a convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture based on the architecture of Kim @cite_21 to classify the title of the products. The first layer uses random word embedding. In addition they used a VGG network for image classification @cite_4 . While they experimented with both early and late fusion, only the late fusion resulted in an improvement in accuracy. The image and text classifiers were trained separately to achieve maximal performance individually before being combined by a policy network. The policy network which achieved the highest accuracy is a neural network with 2 fully connected layers and takes in the top-3 class probabilities from the image and text CNNs as input. Their dataset contained 1.2 million images and 2890 possible shelves. On average, each product falls in 3 shelves. Their model is considered accurate when the network correctly outputs one of the three shelves.
@cite_21 @cite_4 @cite_22
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We propose a new method for creating computationally efficient convolutional neural networks (CNNs) by using low-rank representations of convolutional filters. Rather than approximating filters in previously-trained networks with more efficient versions, we learn a set of small basis filters from scratch; during training, the network learns to combine these basis filters into more complex filters that are discriminative for image classification. To train such networks, a novel weight initialization scheme is used. This allows effective initialization of connection weights in convolutional layers composed of groups of differently-shaped filters. We validate our approach by applying it to several existing CNN architectures and training these networks from scratch using the CIFAR, ILSVRC and MIT Places datasets. Our results show similar or higher accuracy than conventional CNNs with much less compute. Applying our method to an improved version of VGG-11 network using global max-pooling, we achieve comparable validation accuracy using 41 less compute and only 24 of the original VGG-11 model parameters; another variant of our method gives a 1 percentage point increase in accuracy over our improved VGG-11 model, giving a top-5 center-crop validation accuracy of 89.7 while reducing computation by 16 relative to the original VGG-11 model. Applying our method to the GoogLeNet architecture for ILSVRC, we achieved comparable accuracy with 26 less compute and 41 fewer model parameters. Applying our method to a near state-of-the-art network for CIFAR, we achieved comparable accuracy with 46 less compute and 55 fewer parameters. Recently, neuron activations extracted from a pre-trained convolutional neural network (CNN) show promising performance in various visual tasks. However, due to the domain and task bias, using the features generated from the model pre-trained for image classification as image representations for instance retrieval is problematic. In this paper, we propose quartet-net learning to improve the discriminative power of CNN features for instance retrieval. The general idea is to map the features into a space where the image similarity can be better evaluated. Our network differs from the traditional Siamese-net in two ways. First, we adopt a double-margin contrastive loss with a dynamic margin tuning strategy to train the network which leads to more robust performance. Second, we introduce in the mimic learning regularization to improve the generalization ability of the network by preventing it from overfitting to the training data. Catering for the network learning, we collect a large-scale dataset, namely GeoPair, which consists of 68k matching image pairs and 63k non-matching pairs. Experiments on several standard instance retrieval datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of our method. Convolutional neural network (CNN) has achieved the state-of-the-art performance in many different visual tasks. Learned from a large-scale training data set, CNN features are much more discriminative and accurate than the handcrafted features. Moreover, CNN features are also transferable among different domains. On the other hand, traditional dictionary-based features (such as BoW and spatial pyramid matching) contain much more local discriminative and structural information, which is implicitly embedded in the images. To further improve the performance, in this paper, we propose to combine CNN with dictionary-based models for scene recognition and visual domain adaptation (DA). Specifically, based on the well-tuned CNN models (e.g., AlexNet and VGG Net), two dictionary-based representations are further constructed, namely, mid-level local representation (MLR) and convolutional Fisher vector (CFV) representation. In MLR, an efficient two-stage clustering method, i.e., weighted spatial and feature space spectral clustering on the parts of a single image followed by clustering all representative parts of all images, is used to generate a class-mixture or a class-specific part dictionary. After that, the part dictionary is used to operate with the multiscale image inputs for generating mid-level representation. In CFV, a multiscale and scale-proportional Gaussian mixture model training strategy is utilized to generate Fisher vectors based on the last convolutional layer of CNN. By integrating the complementary information of MLR, CFV, and the CNN features of the fully connected layer, the state-of-the-art performance can be achieved on scene recognition and DA problems. An interested finding is that our proposed hybrid representation (from VGG net trained on ImageNet) is also complementary to GoogLeNet and or VGG-11 (trained on Place205) greatly. Deep learning methods such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) can deliver highly accurate classification results when provided with large enough data sets and respective labels. However, using CNNs along with limited labeled data can be problematic, as this leads to extensive overfitting. In this letter, we propose a novel method by considering a pretrained CNN designed for tackling an entirely different classification problem, namely, the ImageNet challenge, and exploit it to extract an initial set of representations. The derived representations are then transferred into a supervised CNN classifier, along with their class labels, effectively training the system. Through this two-stage framework, we successfully deal with the limited-data problem in an end-to-end processing scheme. Comparative results over the UC Merced Land Use benchmark prove that our method significantly outperforms the previously best stated results, improving the overall accuracy from 83.1 up to 92.4 . Apart from statistical improvements, our method introduces a novel feature fusion algorithm that effectively tackles the large data dimensionality by using a simple and computationally efficient approach. We present a tree-structured network architecture for large-scale image classification. The trunk of the network contains convolutional layers optimized over all classes. At a given depth, the trunk splits into separate branches, each dedicated to discriminate a different subset of classes. Each branch acts as an expert classifying a set of categories that are difficult to tell apart, while the trunk provides common knowledge to all experts in the form of shared features. The training of our “network of experts” is completely end-to-end: the partition of categories into disjoint subsets is learned simultaneously with the parameters of the network trunk and the experts are trained jointly by minimizing a single learning objective over all classes. The proposed structure can be built from any existing convolutional neural network (CNN). We demonstrate its generality by adapting 4 popular CNNs for image categorization into the form of networks of experts. Our experiments on CIFAR100 and ImageNet show that in every case our method yields a substantial improvement in accuracy over the base CNN, and gives the best result achieved so far on CIFAR100. Finally, the improvement in accuracy comes at little additional cost: compared to the base network, the training time is only moderately increased and the number of parameters is comparable or in some cases even lower. We conduct an in-depth exploration of different strategies for doing event detection in videos using convolutional neural networks (CNNs) trained for image classification. We study different ways of performing spatial and temporal pooling, feature normalization, choice of CNN layers as well as choice of classifiers. Making judicious choices along these dimensions led to a very significant increase in performance over more naive approaches that have been used till now. We evaluate our approach on the challenging TRECVID MED'14 dataset with two popular CNN architectures pretrained on ImageNet. On this MED'14 dataset, our methods, based entirely on image-trained CNN features, can outperform several state-of-the-art non-CNN models. Our proposed late fusion of CNN- and motion-based features can further increase the mean average precision (mAP) on MED'14 from 34.95 to 38.74 . The fusion approach achieves the state-of-the-art classification performance on the challenging UCF-101 dataset. We present a tree-structured network architecture for large scale image classification. The trunk of the network contains convolutional layers optimized over all classes. At a given depth, the trunk splits into separate branches, each dedicated to discriminate a different subset of classes. Each branch acts as an expert classifying a set of categories that are difficult to tell apart, while the trunk provides common knowledge to all experts in the form of shared features. The training of our "network of experts" is completely end-to-end: the partition of categories into disjoint subsets is learned simultaneously with the parameters of the network trunk and the experts are trained jointly by minimizing a single learning objective over all classes. The proposed structure can be built from any existing convolutional neural network (CNN). We demonstrate its generality by adapting 4 popular CNNs for image categorization into the form of networks of experts. Our experiments on CIFAR100 and ImageNet show that in every case our method yields a substantial improvement in accuracy over the base CNN, and gives the best result achieved so far on CIFAR100. Finally, the improvement in accuracy comes at little additional cost: compared to the base network, the training time is only moderately increased and the number of parameters is comparable or in some cases even lower. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) image classifiers are traditionally designed to have sequential convolutional layers with a single output layer. This is based on the assumption that all target classes should be treated equally and exclusively. However, some classes can be more difficult to distinguish than others, and classes may be organized in a hierarchy of categories. At the same time, a CNN is designed to learn internal representations that abstract from the input data based on its hierarchical layered structure. So it is natural to ask if an inverse of this idea can be applied to learn a model that can predict over a classification hierarchy using multiple output layers in decreasing order of class abstraction. In this paper, we introduce a variant of the traditional CNN model named the Branch Convolutional Neural Network (B-CNN). A B-CNN model outputs multiple predictions ordered from coarse to fine along the concatenated convolutional layers corresponding to the hierarchical structure of the target classes, which can be regarded as a form of prior knowledge on the output. To learn with B-CNNs a novel training strategy, named the Branch Training strategy (BT-strategy), is introduced which balances the strictness of the prior with the freedom to adjust parameters on the output layers to minimize the loss. In this way we show that CNN based models can be forced to learn successively coarse to fine concepts in the internal layers at the output stage, and that hierarchical prior knowledge can be adopted to boost CNN models' classification performance. Our models are evaluated to show that the B-CNN extensions improve over the corresponding baseline CNN on the benchmark datasets MNIST, CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have proven very effective in image classification and show promise for audio. We use various CNN architectures to classify the soundtracks of a dataset of 70M training videos (5.24 million hours) with 30,871 video-level labels. We examine fully connected Deep Neural Networks (DNNs), AlexNet [1], VGG [2], Inception [3], and ResNet [4]. We investigate varying the size of both training set and label vocabulary, finding that analogs of the CNNs used in image classification do well on our audio classification task, and larger training and label sets help up to a point. A model using embeddings from these classifiers does much better than raw features on the Audio Set [5] Acoustic Event Detection (AED) classification task. We introduce a novel, simple convolution neural network (CNN) architecture ‐ multi-group norm constraint CNN (MGNC-CNN) ‐ that capitalizes on multiple sets of word embeddings for sentence classification. MGNCCNN extracts features from input embedding sets independently and then joins these at the penultimate layer in the network to form a final feature vector. We then adopt a group regularization strategy that differentially penalizes weights associated with the subcomponents generated from the respective embedding sets. This model is much simpler than comparable alternative architectures and requires substantially less training time. Furthermore, it is flexible in that it does not require input word embeddings to be of the same dimensionality. We show that MGNC-CNN consistently outperforms baseline models. Despite the great success of convolutional neural networks (CNN) for the image classification task on datasets like Cifar and ImageNet, CNN's representation power is still somewhat limited in dealing with object images that have large variation in size and clutter, where Fisher Vector (FV) has shown to be an effective encoding strategy. FV encodes an image by aggregating local descriptors with a universal generative Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM). FV however has limited learning capability and its parameters are mostly fixed after constructing the codebook. To combine together the best of the two worlds, we propose in this paper a neural network structure with FV layer being part of an end-to-end trainable system that is differentiable; we name our network FisherNet that is learnable using backpropagation. Our proposed FisherNet combines convolutional neural network training and Fisher Vector encoding in a single end-to-end structure. We observe a clear advantage of FisherNet over plain CNN and standard FV in terms of both classification accuracy and computational efficiency on the challenging PASCAL VOC object classification task. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) has demonstrated promising performance in single-label image classification tasks. However, how CNN best copes with multi-label images still remains an open problem, mainly due to the complex underlying object layouts and insufficient multi-label training images. In this work, we propose a flexible deep CNN infrastructure, called Hypotheses-CNN-Pooling (HCP), where an arbitrary number of object segment hypotheses are taken as the inputs, then a shared CNN is connected with each hypothesis, and finally the CNN output results from different hypotheses are aggregated with max pooling to produce the ultimate multi-label predictions. Some unique characteristics of this flexible deep CNN infrastructure include: 1) no ground-truth bounding box information is required for training; 2) the whole HCP infrastructure is robust to possibly noisy and or redundant hypotheses; 3) the shared CNN is flexible and can be well pre-trained with a large-scale single-label image dataset, e.g., ImageNet; and 4) it may naturally output multi-label prediction results. Experimental results on Pascal VOC 2007 and VOC 2012 multi-label image datasets well demonstrate the superiority of the proposed HCP infrastructure over other state-of-the-arts. In particular, the mAP reaches 90.5 by HCP only and 93.2 after the fusion with our complementary result in [12] based on hand-crafted features on the VOC 2012 dataset. Deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) has become the most promising method for object recognition, repeatedly demonstrating record breaking results for image classification and object detection in recent years. However, a very deep CNN generally involves many layers with millions of parameters, making the storage of the network model to be extremely large. This prohibits the usage of deep CNNs on resource limited hardware, especially cell phones or other embedded devices. In this paper, we tackle this model storage issue by investigating information theoretical vector quantization methods for compressing the parameters of CNNs. In particular, we have found in terms of compressing the most storage demanding dense connected layers, vector quantization methods have a clear gain over existing matrix factorization methods. Simply applying k-means clustering to the weights or conducting product quantization can lead to a very good balance between model size and recognition accuracy. For the 1000-category classification task in the ImageNet challenge, we are able to achieve 16-24 times compression of the network with only 1 loss of classification accuracy using the state-of-the-art CNN. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have led to remarkable progress in a number of key pattern recognition tasks, such as visual scene understanding and speech recognition, that potentially enable numerous applications. Consequently, there is a significant need to deploy trained CNNs to resource-constrained embedded systems. Inference using pretrained modern deep CNNs, however, requires significant system resources, including computation, energy, and memory space. To enable efficient implementation of trained CNNs, a viable approach is to approximate the network with an implementation-friendly model with only negligible degradation in classification accuracy. We present Ristretto, a CNN approximation framework that enables empirical investigation of the tradeoff between various number representation and word width choices and the classification accuracy of the model. Specifically, Ristretto analyzes a given CNN with respect to numerical range required to represent weights, activations, and intermediate results of convolutional and fully connected layers, and subsequently, it simulates the impact of reduced word width or lower precision arithmetic operators on the model accuracy. Moreover, Ristretto can fine-tune a quantized network to further improve its classification accuracy under a given number representation and word width configuration. Given a maximum classification accuracy degradation tolerance of 1 , we use Ristretto to demonstrate that three ImageNet networks can be condensed to use 8-bit dynamic fixed point for network weights and activations. Ristretto is available as a popular open-source software project 1 and has already been viewed over 1 000 times on Github as of the submission of this brief. 1 https: github.com pmgysel caffe The convolutional neural network (CNN), which is one of the deep learning models, has seen much success in a variety of computer vision tasks. However, designing CNN architectures still requires expert knowledge and a lot of trial and error. In this paper, we attempt to automatically construct CNN architectures for an image classification task based on Cartesian genetic programming (CGP). In our method, we adopt highly functional modules, such as convolutional blocks and tensor concatenation, as the node functions in CGP. The CNN structure and connectivity represented by the CGP encoding method are optimized to maximize the validation accuracy. To evaluate the proposed method, we constructed a CNN architecture for the image classification task with the CIFAR-10 dataset. The experimental result shows that the proposed method can be used to automatically find the competitive CNN architecture compared with state-of-the-art models. The convolutional neural network (CNN), which is one of the deep learning models, has seen much success in a variety of computer vision tasks. However, designing CNN architectures still requires expert knowledge and a lot of trial and error. In this paper, we attempt to automatically construct CNN architectures for an image classification task based on Cartesian genetic programming (CGP). In our method, we adopt highly functional modules, such as convolutional blocks and tensor concatenation, as the node functions in CGP. The CNN structure and connectivity represented by the CGP encoding method are optimized to maximize the validation accuracy. To evaluate the proposed method, we constructed a CNN architecture for the image classification task with the CIFAR-10 dataset. The experimental result shows that the proposed method can be used to automatically find the competitive CNN architecture compared with state-of-the-art models. Deep Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) perform billions of operations for classifying a single input. To reduce these computations, this paper offers a solution that leverages a combination of runtime information and the algorithmic structure of CNNs. Specifically, in numerous modern CNNs, the outputs of compute-heavy convolution operations are fed to activation units that output zero if their input is negative. By exploiting this unique algorithmic property, we propose a predictive early activation technique, dubbed SnaPEA. This technique cuts the computation of convolution operations short if it determines that the output will be negative. SnaPEA can operate in two distinct modes, exact and predictive. In the exact mode, with no loss in classification accuracy, SnaPEA statically re-orders the weights based on their signs and periodically performs a single-bit sign check on the partial sum. Once the partial sum drops below zero, the rest of computations can simply be ignored, since the output value will be zero in any case. In the predictive mode, which trades the classification accuracy for larger savings, SnaPEA speculatively cuts the computation short even earlier than the exact mode. To control the accuracy, we develop a multi-variable optimization algorithm that thresholds the degree of speculation. As such, the proposed algorithm exposes a knob to gracefully navigate the trade-offs between the classification accuracy and computation reduction. Compared to a state-of-the-art CNN accelerator, SnaPEA in the exact mode, yields, on average, 28 speedup and 16 energy reduction in various modern CNNs without affecting their classification accuracy. With 3 loss in classification accuracy, on average, 67.8 of the convolutional layers can operate in the predictive mode. The average speedup and energy saving of these layers are 2.02x and 1.89x, respectively. The benefits grow to a maximum of 3.59x speedup and 3.14x energy reduction. Compared to static pruning approaches, which are complimentary to the dynamic approach of SnaPEA, our proposed technique offers up to 63 speedup and 49 energy reduction across the convolution layers with no loss in classification accuracy. We propose a simple two-step approach for speeding up convolution layers within large convolutional neural networks based on tensor decomposition and discriminative fine-tuning. Given a layer, we use non-linear least squares to compute a low-rank CP-decomposition of the 4D convolution kernel tensor into a sum of a small number of rank-one tensors. At the second step, this decomposition is used to replace the original convolutional layer with a sequence of four convolutional layers with small kernels. After such replacement, the entire network is fine-tuned on the training data using standard backpropagation process. We evaluate this approach on two CNNs and show that it is competitive with previous approaches, leading to higher obtained CPU speedups at the cost of lower accuracy drops for the smaller of the two networks. Thus, for the 36-class character classification CNN, our approach obtains a 8.5x CPU speedup of the whole network with only minor accuracy drop (1 from 91 to 90 ). For the standard ImageNet architecture (AlexNet), the approach speeds up the second convolution layer by a factor of 4x at the cost of @math increase of the overall top-5 classification error. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) currently achieve state-of-the-art accuracy in image classification. With a growing number of classes, the accuracy usually drops as the possibilities of confusion increase. Interestingly, the class confusion patterns follow a hierarchical structure over the classes. We present visual-analytics methods to reveal and analyze this hierarchy of similar classes in relation with CNN-internal data. We found that this hierarchy not only dictates the confusion patterns between the classes, it furthermore dictates the learning behavior of CNNs. In particular, the early layers in these networks develop feature detectors that can separate high-level groups of classes quite well, even after a few training epochs. In contrast, the latter layers require substantially more epochs to develop specialized feature detectors that can separate individual classes. We demonstrate how these insights are key to significant improvement in accuracy by designing hierarchy-aware CNNs that accelerate model convergence and alleviate overfitting. We further demonstrate how our methods help in identifying various quality issues in the training data. In this work, we address the human parsing task with a novel Contextualized Convolutional Neural Network (Co-CNN) architecture, which well integrates the cross-layer context, global image-level context, within-super-pixel context and cross-super-pixel neighborhood context into a unified network. Given an input human image, Co-CNN produces the pixel-wise categorization in an end-to-end way. First, the cross-layer context is captured by our basic local-to-global-to-local structure, which hierarchically combines the global semantic structure and the local fine details within the cross-layers. Second, the global image-level label prediction is used as an auxiliary objective in the intermediate layer of the Co-CNN, and its outputs are further used for guiding the feature learning in subsequent convolutional layers to leverage the global image-level context. Finally, to further utilize the local super-pixel contexts, the within-super-pixel smoothing and cross-super-pixel neighbourhood voting are formulated as natural sub-components of the Co-CNN to achieve the local label consistency in both training and testing process. Comprehensive evaluations on two public datasets well demonstrate the significant superiority of our Co-CNN architecture over other state-of-the-arts for human parsing. In particular, the F-1 score on the large dataset [15] reaches 76.95 by Co-CNN, significantly higher than 62.81 and 64.38 by the state-of-the-art algorithms, M-CNN [21] and ATR [15], respectively.