Estimating human gaze from natural eye images only is a challenging task. Gaze direction can be defined by the pupil- and the eyeball center where the latter is unobservable in 2D images. Hence, achieving highly accurate gaze estimates is an ill-posed problem. In this paper, we introduce a novel deep neural network architecture specifically designed for the task of gaze estimation from single eye input. Instead of directly regressing two angles for the pitch and yaw of the eyeball, we regress to an intermediate pictorial representation which in turn simplifies the task of 3D gaze direction estimation. Our quantitative and qualitative results show that our approach achieves higher accuracies than the state-of-the-art and is robust to variation in gaze, head pose and image quality.
Early works in appearance-based methods were restricted to laboratory settings with fixed head pose @cite_25 @cite_2 . These initial constraints have become progressively relaxed, notably by the introduction of new datasets collected in everyday settings @cite_36 @cite_13 or in simulated environments @cite_3 @cite_40 @cite_46 . The increasing scale and complexity of training data has given rise to a wide variety of learning-based methods including variations of linear regression @cite_41 @cite_38 @cite_23 , random forests @cite_3 , @math -nearest neighbours @cite_3 @cite_46 , and CNNs @cite_36 @cite_13 @cite_9 @cite_33 @cite_40 @cite_14 . CNNs have proven to be more robust to visual appearance variations, and are capable of person-independent gaze estimation when provided with sufficient scale and diversity of training data. Person-independent gaze estimation can be performed without a user calibration step, and can directly be applied to areas such as visual attention analysis on unmodified devices @cite_47 , interaction on public displays @cite_16 , and identification of gaze targets @cite_27 , albeit at the cost of increased need for training data and computational cost.
@cite_38 @cite_47 @cite_14 @cite_33 @cite_36 @cite_41 @cite_9 @cite_3 @cite_40 @cite_27 @cite_23 @cite_2 @cite_46 @cite_16 @cite_13 @cite_25
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Learning-based methods are believed to work well for unconstrained gaze estimation, i.e. gaze estimation from a monocular RGB camera without assumptions regarding user, environment, or camera. However, current gaze datasets were collected under laboratory conditions and methods were not evaluated across multiple datasets. Our work makes three contributions towards addressing these limitations. First, we present the MPIIGaze that contains 213,659 full face images and corresponding ground-truth gaze positions collected from 15 users during everyday laptop use over several months. An experience sampling approach ensured continuous gaze and head poses and realistic variation in eye appearance and illumination. To facilitate cross-dataset evaluations, 37,667 images were manually annotated with eye corners, mouth corners, and pupil centres. Second, we present an extensive evaluation of state-of-the-art gaze estimation methods on three current datasets, including MPIIGaze. We study key challenges including target gaze range, illumination conditions, and facial appearance variation. We show that image resolution and the use of both eyes affect gaze estimation performance while head pose and pupil centre information are less informative. Finally, we propose GazeNet, the first deep appearance-based gaze estimation method. GazeNet improves the state of the art by 22 percent (from a mean error of 13.9 degrees to 10.8 degrees) for the most challenging cross-dataset evaluation. Learning-based methods are believed to work well for unconstrained gaze estimation, i.e. gaze estimation from a monocular RGB camera without assumptions regarding user, environment, or camera. However, current gaze datasets were collected under laboratory conditions and methods were not evaluated across multiple datasets. Our work makes three contributions towards addressing these limitations. First, we present the MPIIGaze dataset, which contains 213,659 full face images and corresponding ground-truth gaze positions collected from 15 users during everyday laptop use over several months. An experience sampling approach ensured continuous gaze and head poses and realistic variation in eye appearance and illumination. To facilitate cross-dataset evaluations, 37,667 images were manually annotated with eye corners, mouth corners, and pupil centres. Second, we present an extensive evaluation of state-of-the-art gaze estimation methods on three current datasets, including MPIIGaze. We study key challenges including target gaze range, illumination conditions, and facial appearance variation. We show that image resolution and the use of both eyes affect gaze estimation performance, while head pose and pupil centre information are less informative. Finally, we propose GazeNet, the first deep appearance-based gaze estimation method. GazeNet improves on the state of the art by 22 percent (from a mean error of 13.9 degrees to 10.8 degrees) for the most challenging cross-dataset evaluation. Inferring human gaze from low-resolution eye images is still a challenging task despite its practical importance in many application scenarios. This paper presents a learning-by-synthesis approach to accurate image-based gaze estimation that is person- and head pose-independent. Unlike existing appearance-based methods that assume person-specific training data, we use a large amount of cross-subject training data to train a 3D gaze estimator. We collect the largest and fully calibrated multi-view gaze dataset and perform a 3D reconstruction in order to generate dense training data of eye images. By using the synthesized dataset to learn a random regression forest, we show that our method outperforms existing methods that use low-resolution eye images. Quality, diversity, and size of training data are critical factors for learning-based gaze estimators. We create two datasets satisfying these criteria for near-eye gaze estimation under infrared illumination: a synthetic dataset using anatomically-informed eye and face models with variations in face shape, gaze direction, pupil and iris, skin tone, and external conditions (2M images at 1280x960), and a real-world dataset collected with 35 subjects (2.5M images at 640x480). Using these datasets we train neural networks performing with sub-millisecond latency. Our gaze estimation network achieves 2.06(±0.44)° of accuracy across a wide 30°×40° field of view on real subjects excluded from training and 0.5° best-case accuracy (across the same FOV) when explicitly trained for one real subject. We also train a pupil localization network which achieves higher robustness than previous methods. In this paper, we address the problem of free head motion in appearance-based gaze estimation. This problem remains challenging because head motion changes eye appearance significantly, and thus, training images captured for an original head pose cannot handle test images captured for other head poses. To overcome this difficulty, we propose a novel gaze estimation method that handles free head motion via eye image synthesis based on a single camera. Compared with conventional fixed head pose methods with original training images, our method only captures four additional eye images under four reference head poses, and then, precisely synthesizes new training images for other unseen head poses in estimation. To this end, we propose a single-directional (SD) flow model to efficiently handle eye image variations due to head motion. We show how to estimate SD flows for reference head poses first, and then use them to produce new SD flows for training image synthesis. Finally, with synthetic training images, joint optimization is applied that simultaneously solves an eye image alignment and a gaze estimation. Evaluation of the method was conducted through experiments to assess its performance and demonstrate its effectiveness. In this paper we present a convolutional neural network (CNN)-based model for human head pose estimation in low-resolution multi-modal RGB-D data. We pose the problem as one of classification of human gazing direction. We further fine-tune a regressor based on the learned deep classifier. Next we combine the two models (classification and regression) to estimate approximate regression confidence. We present state-of-the-art results in datasets that span the range of high-resolution human robot interaction (close up faces plus depth information) data to challenging low resolution outdoor surveillance data. We build upon our robust head-pose estimation and further introduce a new visual attention model to recover interaction with the environment . Using this probabilistic model, we show that many higher level scene understanding like human-human scene interaction detection can be achieved. Our solution runs in real-time on commercial hardware. Tracking multiple persons in a monocular video of a crowded scene is a challenging task. Humans can master it even if they loose track of a person locally by re-identifying the same person based on their appearance. Care must be taken across long distances, as similar-looking persons need not be identical. In this work, we propose a novel graph-based formulation that links and clusters person hypotheses over time by solving an instance of a minimum cost lifted multicut problem. Our model generalizes previous works by introducing a mechanism for adding long-range attractive connections between nodes in the graph without modifying the original set of feasible solutions. This allows us to reward tracks that assign detections of similar appearance to the same person in a way that does not introduce implausible solutions. To effectively match hypotheses over longer temporal gaps we develop new deep architectures for re-identification of people. They combine holistic representations extracted with deep networks and body pose layout obtained with a state-of-the-art pose estimation model. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our formulation by reporting a new state-of-the-art for the MOT16 benchmark. The code and pre-trained models are publicly available. We introduce a novel method for 3D object detection and pose estimation from color images only. We first use segmentation to detect the objects of interest in 2D even in presence of partial occlusions and cluttered background. By contrast with recent patch-based methods, we rely on a “holistic” approach: We apply to the detected objects a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) trained to predict their 3D poses in the form of 2D projections of the corners of their 3D bounding boxes. This, however, is not sufficient for handling objects from the recent T-LESS dataset: These objects exhibit an axis of rotational symmetry, and the similarity of two images of such an object under two different poses makes training the CNN challenging. We solve this problem by restricting the range of poses used for training, and by introducing a classifier to identify the range of a pose at run-time before estimating it. We also use an optional additional step that refines the predicted poses. We improve the state-of-the-art on the LINEMOD dataset from 73.7 [2] to 89.3 of correctly registered RGB frames. We are also the first to report results on the Occlusion dataset [1 ] using color images only. We obtain 54 of frames passing the Pose 6D criterion on average on several sequences of the T-LESS dataset, compared to the 67 of the state-of-the-art [10] on the same sequences which uses both color and depth. The full approach is also scalable, as a single network can be trained for multiple objects simultaneously. Learning-based methods for appearance-based gaze estimation achieve state-of-the-art performance in challenging real-world settings but require large amounts of labelled training data. Learning-by-synthesis was proposed as a promising solution to this problem but current methods are limited with respect to speed, appearance variability, and the head pose and gaze angle distribution they can synthesize. We present UnityEyes, a novel method to rapidly synthesize large amounts of variable eye region images as training data. Our method combines a novel generative 3D model of the human eye region with a real-time rendering framework. The model is based on high-resolution 3D face scans and uses real-time approximations for complex eyeball materials and structures as well as anatomically inspired procedural geometry methods for eyelid animation. We show that these synthesized images can be used to estimate gaze in difficult in-the-wild scenarios, even for extreme gaze angles or in cases in which the pupil is fully occluded. We also demonstrate competitive gaze estimation results on a benchmark in-the-wild dataset, despite only using a light-weight nearest-neighbor algorithm. We are making our UnityEyes synthesis framework available online for the benefit of the research community. T o infer human gaze from eye appearance, various methods have been proposed. However, most of them assume a fixed head pose because allowing free head motion adds 6 degrees of freedom to the problem and requires a prohibitively large number of training samples. In this paper, we aim at solving the appearance-based gaze estimation problem under free head motion without significantly increasing the cost of training. The idea is to decompose the problem into subproblems, including initial estimation under fixed head pose and subsequent compensations for estimation biases caused by head rotation and eye appearance distortion. Then each subproblem is solved by either learning-based method or geometric-based calculation. Specifically, the gaze estimation bias caused by eye appearance distortion is learnt effectively from a 5-seconds video clip. Extensive experiments were conducted to verify the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Existing appearance-based gaze estimation methods suffer from tedious calibration and appearance variation caused by head movement. In this paper, to handle this problem, we propose a novel appearance-based gaze estimation method by introducing supervised adaptive feature extraction and hierarchical mapping model. Firstly, an adaptive feature learning method is proposed to extract topology-preserving (TOP) feature individually. Then hierarchical mapping method is proposed to localize gaze position based on coarse-to-fine strategy. Appearance synthesis approach is used to increase the refer sample density. Experiments show that under the condition of sparse calibration, proposed method has better performance in accuracy than existing methods under fixed head pose without chinrest. Moreover, our method can be easily extended for head pose-varying gaze estimation. In this paper, the recognition of the visual focus of attention (VFOA) of meeting participants (as defined by their eye gaze direction) from their head pose is addressed. To this end, the head pose observations are modeled using an hidden Markov model (HMM) whose hidden states corresponds to the VFOA. The novelties are threefold. First, contrary to previous studies on the topic, in our set-up, the potential VFOA of a person is not restricted to other participants only, but includes environmental targets (a table and a projection screen), which increases the complexity of the task, with more VFOA targets spread in the pan and tilt (as well) gaze space. Second, the HMM parameters are set by exploiting results from the cognitive science on saccadic eye motion, which allows to predict what the head pose should be given an actual gaze target. Third, an unsupervised parameter adaptation step is proposed which accounts for the specific gazing behaviour of each participant. Using a publicly available corpus of 8 meetings featuring 4 persons, we analyze the above methods by evaluating, through objective performance measures, the recognition of the VFOA from head pose information obtained either using a magnetic sensor device or a vision based tracking system. We present a box-free bottom-up approach for the tasks of pose estimation and instance segmentation of people in multi-person images using an efficient single-shot model. The proposed PersonLab model tackles both semantic-level reasoning and object-part associations using part-based modeling. Our model employs a convolutional network which learns to detect individual keypoints and predict their relative displacements, allowing us to group keypoints into person pose instances. Further, we propose a part-induced geometric embedding descriptor which allows us to associate semantic person pixels with their corresponding person instance, delivering instance-level person segmentations. Our system is based on a fully-convolutional architecture and allows for efficient inference, with runtime essentially independent of the number of people present in the scene. Trained on COCO data alone, our system achieves COCO test-dev keypoint average precision of 0.665 using single-scale inference and 0.687 using multi-scale inference, significantly outperforming all previous bottom-up pose estimation systems. We are also the first bottom-up method to report competitive results for the person class in the COCO instance segmentation task, achieving a person category average precision of 0.417. Appearance-based gaze estimation is promising for unconstrained real-world settings, but the significant variability in head pose and user-camera distance poses significant challenges for training generic gaze estimators. Data normalization was proposed to cancel out this geometric variability by mapping input images and gaze labels to a normalized space. Although used successfully in prior works, the role and importance of data normalization remains unclear. To fill this gap, we study data normalization for the first time using principled evaluations on both simulated and real data. We propose a modification to the current data normalization formulation by removing the scaling factor and show that our new formulation performs significantly better (between 9.5 and 32.7 ) in the different evaluation settings. Using images synthesized from a 3D face model, we demonstrate the benefit of data normalization for the efficiency of the model training. Experiments on real-world images confirm the advantages of data normalization in terms of gaze estimation performance. Most eye gaze estimation systems rely on explicit calibration, which is inconvenient to the user, limits the amount of possible training data and consequently the performance. Since there is likely a strong correlation between gaze and interaction cues, such as cursor and caret locations, a supervised learning algorithm can learn the complex mapping between gaze features and the gaze point by training on incremental data collected implicitly from normal computer interactions. We develop a set of robust geometric gaze features and a corresponding data validation mechanism that identifies good training data from noisy interaction-informed data collected in real-use scenarios. Based on a study of gaze movement patterns, we apply behavior-informed validation to extract gaze features that correspond with the interaction cue, and data-driven validation provides another level of crosschecking using previous good data. Experimental evaluation shows that the proposed method achieves an average error of 4.06o, and demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed gaze estimation method and corresponding validation mechanism. We propose an end-to-end architecture for joint 2D and 3D human pose estimation in natural images. Key to our approach is the generation and scoring of a number of pose proposals per image, which allows us to predict 2D and 3D poses of multiple people simultaneously. Hence, our approach does not require an approximate localization of the humans for initialization. Our Localization-Classification-Regression architecture, named LCR-Net, contains 3 main components: 1) the pose proposal generator that suggests candidate poses at different locations in the image; 2) a classifier that scores the different pose proposals; and 3) a regressor that refines pose proposals both in 2D and 3D. All three stages share the convolutional feature layers and are trained jointly. The final pose estimation is obtained by integrating over neighboring pose hypotheses, which is shown to improve over a standard non maximum suppression algorithm. Our method recovers full-body 2D and 3D poses, hallucinating plausible body parts when the persons are partially occluded or truncated by the image boundary. Our approach significantly outperforms the state of the art in 3D pose estimation on Human3.6M, a controlled environment. Moreover, it shows promising results on real images for both single and multi-person subsets of the MPII 2D pose benchmark. We introduce a new dataset, Human3.6M, of 3.6 Million accurate 3D Human poses, acquired by recording the performance of 5 female and 6 male subjects, under 4 different viewpoints, for training realistic human sensing systems and for evaluating the next generation of human pose estimation models and algorithms. Besides increasing the size of the datasets in the current state-of-the-art by several orders of magnitude, we also aim to complement such datasets with a diverse set of motions and poses encountered as part of typical human activities (taking photos, talking on the phone, posing, greeting, eating, etc.), with additional synchronized image, human motion capture, and time of flight (depth) data, and with accurate 3D body scans of all the subject actors involved. We also provide controlled mixed reality evaluation scenarios where 3D human models are animated using motion capture and inserted using correct 3D geometry, in complex real environments, viewed with moving cameras, and under occlusion. Finally, we provide a set of large-scale statistical models and detailed evaluation baselines for the dataset illustrating its diversity and the scope for improvement by future work in the research community. Our experiments show that our best large-scale model can leverage our full training set to obtain a 20 improvement in performance compared to a training set of the scale of the largest existing public dataset for this problem. Yet the potential for improvement by leveraging higher capacity, more complex models with our large dataset, is substantially vaster and should stimulate future research. The dataset together with code for the associated large-scale learning models, features, visualization tools, as well as the evaluation server, is available online at http: vision.imar.ro human3.6m . We address the problem of recovering 3D human pose from single 2D images, in which the pose estimation problem is formulated as a direct nonlinear regression from image observation to 3D joint positions. One key issue that has not been addressed in the literature is how to estimate 3D pose when humans in the scenes are partially or heavily occluded. When occlusions occur, features extracted from image observations (e.g., silhouettes-based shape features, histogram of oriented gradient, etc.) are seriously corrupted, and consequently the regressor (trained on un-occluded images) is unable to estimate pose states correctly. In this paper, we present a method that is capable of handling occlusions using sparse signal representations, in which each test sample is represented as a compact linear combination of training samples. The sparsest solution can then be efficiently obtained by solving a convex optimization problem with certain norms (such as l1-norm). The corrupted test image can be recovered with a sparse linear combination of un-occluded training images which can then be used for estimating human pose correctly (as if no occlusions exist). We also show that the proposed approach implicitly performs relevant feature selection with un-occluded test images. Experimental results on synthetic and real data sets bear out our theory that with sparse representation 3D human pose can be robustly estimated when humans are partially or heavily occluded in the scenes. This paper considers the task of articulated human pose estimation of multiple people in real world images. We propose an approach that jointly solves the tasks of detection and pose estimation: it infers the number of persons in a scene, identifies occluded body parts, and disambiguates body parts between people in close proximity of each other. This joint formulation is in contrast to previous strategies, that address the problem by first detecting people and subsequently estimating their body pose. We propose a partitioning and labeling formulation of a set of body-part hypotheses generated with CNN-based part detectors. Our formulation, an instance of an integer linear program, implicitly performs non-maximum suppression on the set of part candidates and groups them to form configurations of body parts respecting geometric and appearance constraints. Experiments on four different datasets demonstrate state-of-the-art results for both single person and multi person pose estimation. Models and code available at this http URL. In this paper we report on the context and evaluation of a system for an automatic interpretation of sightings of individual western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) as captured in facial field photography in the wild. This effort aligns with a growing need for effective and integrated monitoring approaches for assessing the status of biodiversity at high spatio-temporal scales. Manual field photography and the utilisation of autonomous camera traps have already transformed the way ecological surveys are conducted. In principle, many environments can now be monitored continuously, and with a higher spatio-temporal resolution than ever before. Yet, the manual effort required to process photographic data to derive relevant information delimits any large scale application of this methodology. The described system applies existing computer vision techniques including deep convolutional neural networks to cover the tasks of detection and localisation, as well as individual identification of gorillas in a practically relevant setup. We evaluate the approach on a relatively large and challenging data corpus of 12,765 field images of 147 individual gorillas with image-level labels (i.e. missing bounding boxes) photographed at Mbeli Bai at the Nouabal-Ndoki National Park, Republic of Congo. Results indicate a facial detection rate of 90.8 AP and an individual identification accuracy for ranking within the Top 5 set of 80.3 . We conclude that, whilst keeping the human in the loop is critical, this result is practically relevant as it exemplifies model transferability and has the potential to assist manual identification efforts. We argue further that there is significant need towards integrating computer vision deeper into ecological sampling methodologies and field practice to move the discipline forward and open up new research horizons.