Neural extractive summarization models usually employ a hierarchical encoder for document encoding and they are trained using sentence-level labels, which are created heuristically using rule-based methods. Training the hierarchical encoder with these labels is challenging. Inspired by the recent work on pre-training transformer sentence encoders devlin:2018:arxiv , we propose Hibert (as shorthand for HI erachical B idirectional E ncoder R epresentations from T ransformers) for document encoding and a method to pre-train it using unlabeled data. We apply the pre-trained Hibert to our summarization model and it outperforms its randomly initialized counterpart by 1.25 ROUGE on the CNN Dailymail dataset and by 2.0 ROUGE on a version of New York Times dataset. We also achieve the state-of-the-art performance on these two datasets.
Most model pre-training methods in NLP leverage the natural ordering of text. For example, word2vec uses the surrounding words within a fixed size window to predict the word in the middle with a log bilinear model. The resulting word embedding table can be used in other downstream tasks. There are other word embedding pre-training methods using similar techniques @cite_4 @cite_39 . and find even a sentence encoder (not just word embeddings) can also be pre-trained with language model objectives (i.e., predicting the next or previous word). Language model objective is unidirectional, while many tasks can leverage the context in both directions. Therefore, propose the naturally bidirectional masked language model objective (i.e., masking several words with a special token in a sentence and then predicting them). All the methods above aim to pre-train word embeddings or sentence encoders, while our method aims to pre-train the hierarchical document encoders (i.e., hierarchical transformers), which is important in summarization.
@cite_4 @cite_39
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We present models for encoding sentences into embedding vectors that specifically target transfer learning to other NLP tasks. The models are efficient and result in accurate performance on diverse transfer tasks. Two variants of the encoding models allow for trade-offs between accuracy and compute resources. For both variants, we investigate and report the relationship between model complexity, resource consumption, the availability of transfer task training data, and task performance. Comparisons are made with baselines that use word level transfer learning via pretrained word embeddings as well as baselines do not use any transfer learning. We find that transfer learning using sentence embeddings tends to outperform word level transfer. With transfer learning via sentence embeddings, we observe surprisingly good performance with minimal amounts of supervised training data for a transfer task. We obtain encouraging results on Word Embedding Association Tests (WEAT) targeted at detecting model bias. Our pre-trained sentence encoding models are made freely available for download and on TF Hub. The success of neural network methods for computing word embeddings has motivated methods for generating semantic embeddings of longer pieces of text, such as sentences and paragraphs. Surprisingly, (ICLR'16) showed that such complicated methods are outperformed, especially in out-of-domain (transfer learning) settings, by simpler methods involving mild retraining of word embeddings and basic linear regression. The method of requires retraining with a substantial labeled dataset such as Paraphrase Database (, 2013). @PARASPLIT The current paper goes further, showing that the following completely unsupervised sentence embedding is a formidable baseline: Use word embeddings computed using one of the popular methods on unlabeled corpus like Wikipedia, represent the sentence by a weighted average of the word vectors, and then modify them a bit using PCA SVD. This weighting improves performance by about 10 to 30 in textual similarity tasks, and beats sophisticated supervised methods including RNN's and LSTM's. It even improves 's embeddings. This simple method should be used as the baseline to beat in future, especially when labeled training data is scarce or nonexistent. @PARASPLIT The paper also gives a theoretical explanation of the success of the above unsupervised method using a latent variable generative model for sentences, which is a simple extension of the model in (TACL'16) with new "smoothing" terms that allow for words occurring out of context, as well as high probabilities for words like and, not in all contexts. Computer vision has benefited from initializing multiple deep layers with weights pretrained on large supervised training sets like ImageNet. Natural language processing (NLP) typically sees initialization of only the lowest layer of deep models with pretrained word vectors. In this paper, we use a deep LSTM encoder from an attentional sequence-to-sequence model trained for machine translation (MT) to contextualize word vectors. We show that adding these context vectors (CoVe) improves performance over using only unsupervised word and character vectors on a wide variety of common NLP tasks: sentiment analysis (SST, IMDb), question classification (TREC), entailment (SNLI), and question answering (SQuAD). For fine-grained sentiment analysis and entailment, CoVe improves performance of our baseline models to the state of the art. Computer vision has benefited from initializing multiple deep layers with weights pretrained on large supervised training sets like ImageNet. Natural language processing (NLP) typically sees initialization of only the lowest layer of deep models with pretrained word vectors. In this paper, we use a deep LSTM encoder from an attentional sequence-to-sequence model trained for machine translation (MT) to contextualize word vectors. We show that adding these context vectors (CoVe) improves performance over using only unsupervised word and character vectors on a wide variety of common NLP tasks: sentiment analysis (SST, IMDb), question classification (TREC), entailment (SNLI), and question answering (SQuAD). For fine-grained sentiment analysis and entailment, CoVe improves performance of our baseline models to the state of the art.