We describe a computational model of social norms based on identifying values that a certain culture finds desirable such as dignity, generosity and politeness. The model quantifies these values in the form of Culture-Sanctioned Social Metrics (CSSMs) and treats social norms as the requirement to maximize these metrics from the perspective of the self, peers and public. This model can be used to create realistic social simulations, to explain or predict human behavior in specific scenarios, or as a component of robots or agents that need to interact with humans in specific social-cultural settings. We validate the model by using it to represent a complex deception scenario and showing that it can yield non-trivial insights such as the explanation of apparently irrational human behavior.
Culture and social norms can affect the emotions of humans in several ways. In some cases, social norms directly prescribe emotional reactions, by specifying the ideal affect a person should try to achieve @cite_38 . More directly, however, all cultures expect people to have an emotional response towards the fulfillment or violation of the social norms.
@cite_38
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Previous studies have found that in American culture high-arousal positive states (HAP) such as excitement are valued more and low-arousal positive states (LAP) such as calm are valued less than they are in Chinese culture. What specific factors account for these differences? The authors predicted that when people and cultures aimed to influence others (i.e., assert personal needs and change others’ behaviors to meet those needs), they would value HAP more and LAP less than when they aimed to adjust to others (i.e., suppress personal needs and change their own behaviors to meet others’ needs). They test these predictions in 1 survey and 3 experimental studies. The findings suggest that within and across American and Chinese contexts, differences in ideal affect are due to specific interpersonal goals. Overview. Part I: The Nature of Emotion. P. Shaver, J. Schwartz, D. Kirson, and C. O'Connor, Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach. N. Frijda, The Laws of Emotion. Part II: The Role of Cognition. S. Schachter and J. Singer, Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State. C. Smith and R. Lazarus, Appraisal Components, Core Relational Themes, and the Emotions. Part III: Culture and Socialization. H. Markus and S. Kitayama, The Cultural Construction of Self and Emotion: Implications for Social Behavior. Part IV: Gender Differences: Evolution, Socialization, and Stereotyping. D. Buss, R. Larsen, D. Westen, and J. Semmelroth, Sex Differences in Jealousy: Questioning the "Fitness" of the Model. M. Robinson, J. Johnson, and S. Shields, the Gender Heuristic and the Database: Factors Affecting the Perception of Gender-related Differences in the Experience and Display of Emotions. Part V: The Social Functions of Emotions. D. Keltner and J. Haidt, Social Functions of Emotions at Four Levels of Analysis. P. Salovey, C. Hsee, and J. Mayer, Emotional Intelligence and the Self-Regulation of Affect. Part VI: Emotion and Social Cognition. J. Forgas and G. Bower, Mood Effects on Person-Perception Judgements. H. Bless, G. Bohner, N. Schwarz, and F. Strack, Mood and Persuasion: A Cognitive Response Analysis. Part VII: Emotion's Effects on Others. J. Coyne, Depression and the Response of Others. V. Christophe and B. Rime, Exposure to the Social Sharing of Emotion: Emotional Impact, Listener Responses and Secondary Social Sharing. Part VIII: Emotion and Facial Expressions. P. Ekman, W. Friesen, and S. Ancoli, Facial Signs of Emotional Experience. A. Fridlund, Sociality of Solitary Smiling: Potentiation by an Implicit Audience. Part IX: Shame, Guilt, Envy, and Jealousy. J. Tagney, P. Wagner, C. Fletcher, and R. Gramzow, Shamed into Anger? The Relation of Shame and Guilt to Anger and Self-reported Aggression. R. Baumeister, A. Stillwell, and T. Heatherton, Guilt: An Interpersonal Approach. W. Parrott, The Emotional Experiences of Envy and Jealousy. Part X: The Nature of Emotion, Revisited: The Case of Anger. L. Berkowitz, On the Formation and Regulation of Anger and Aggression: A Cognitive-neoassociationistic Approach. J. Averill, Studies on Anger and Aggression: Implications for Theories of Emotion. This study addresses the question of whether any facial expressions of emotion are universal. Recent studies showing that members of literate cultures associated the same emotion concepts with the same facial behaviors could not demonstrate that at least some facial expressions of emotion are universal; the cultures compared had all been exposed to some of the same mass media presentations of facial expression, and these may have taught the people in each culture to recognize the unique facial expressions of other cultures. To show that members of a preliterate culture who had minimal exposure to literate cultures would associate the same emotion concepts with the same facial behaviors as do members of Western and Eastern literate cultures, data were gathered in New Guinea by telling subjects a story, showing them a set of three faces, and asking them to select the face which showed the emotion appropriate to the story. The results provide evidence in support of the hypothesis that the association between particular facial muscular patterns and discrete emotions is universal. Research on culture and emotion has moved beyond the once central nature–nurture. Evidence suggests that there are universal constituents of emotions – the ‘emotional potential’ – rather than universal emotions. Furthermore, the emotional constituents are assembled in culture-specific ways that are meaningful and predictable, resulting in systematic cultural differences in ‘emotional practices’ (i.e., people's actual emotional lives). Whereas emotions are not universal, the underlying rule of emotional life is: Culturally adaptive emotions are more prevalent and intense. After reviewing empirical evidence for each of these claims, we outline some of the future directions for research on culture and emotion.