We present Semantic WordRank (SWR), an unsupervised method for generating an extractive summary of a single document. Built on a weighted word graph with semantic and co-occurrence edges, SWR scores sentences using an article-structure-biased PageRank algorithm with a Softplus function adjustment, and promotes topic diversity using spectral subtopic clustering under the Word-Movers-Distance metric. We evaluate SWR on the DUC-02 and SummBank datasets and show that SWR produces better summaries than the state-of-the-art algorithms over DUC-02 under common ROUGE measures. We then show that, under the same measures over SummBank, SWR outperforms each of the three human annotators (aka. judges) and compares favorably with the combined performance of all judges.
Deep learning methods, able to learn sentence or document representations automatically, have recently been used to score sentences. For example, R2N2 @cite_12 uses a recursive neural network for both word level and sentence level scoring, followed by an ILP optimization strategy for selecting sentences. CNN-W2V @cite_21 is another example, which modifies a convolutional-neural-network (CNN) model of sentence classification @cite_7 to rank sentences. SummaRuNNer @cite_22 , on the other hand, treats summarizations as sequence classifications and uses a two-layer bi-directional recurrent neural network (RNN) model to extract sentences, where the first layer RNN is for words and the second layer is for sentences. Unlike unsupervised methods, the state-of-the-art deep learning approaches require a larger dataset and a significantly longer time to train a model, yet with a much lower ROUGE-1 score when evaluating on DUC dataset.
@cite_22 @cite_21 @cite_7 @cite_12
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In this paper, we present a multimodal Recurrent Neural Network (m-RNN) model for generating novel sentence descriptions to explain the content of images. It directly models the probability distribution of generating a word given previous words and the image. Image descriptions are generated by sampling from this distribution. The model consists of two sub-networks: a deep recurrent neural network for sentences and a deep convolutional network for images. These two sub-networks interact with each other in a multimodal layer to form the whole m-RNN model. The effectiveness of our model is validated on three benchmark datasets (IAPR TC-12, Flickr 8K, and Flickr 30K). Our model outperforms the state-of-the-art generative method. In addition, the m-RNN model can be applied to retrieval tasks for retrieving images or sentences, and achieves significant performance improvement over the state-of-the-art methods which directly optimize the ranking objective function for retrieval. Deep learning has gained much success in sentence-level relation classification. For example, convolutional neural networks (CNN) have delivered competitive performance without much effort on feature engineering as the conventional pattern-based methods. Thus a lot of works have been produced based on CNN structures. However, a key issue that has not been well addressed by the CNN-based method is the lack of capability to learn temporal features, especially long-distance dependency between nominal pairs. In this paper, we propose a simple framework based on recurrent neural networks (RNN) and compare it with CNN-based model. To show the limitation of popular used SemEval-2010 Task 8 dataset, we introduce another dataset refined from MIMLRE(, 2014). Experiments on two different datasets strongly indicates that the RNN-based model can deliver better performance on relation classification, and it is particularly capable of learning long-distance relation patterns. This makes it suitable for real-world applications where complicated expressions are often involved. We develop a Ranking framework upon Recursive Neural Networks (R2N2) to rank sentences for multi-document summarization. It formulates the sentence ranking task as a hierarchical regression process, which simultaneously measures the salience of a sentence and its constituents (e.g., phrases) in the parsing tree. This enables us to draw on word-level to sentence-level supervisions derived from reference summaries. In addition, recursive neural networks are used to automatically learn ranking features over the tree, with hand-crafted feature vectors of words as inputs. Hierarchical regressions are then conducted with learned features concatenating raw features. Ranking scores of sentences and words are utilized to effectively select informative and non-redundant sentences to generate summaries. Experiments on the DUC 2001, 2002 and 2004 multi-document summarization datasets show that R2N2 outperforms state-of-the-art extractive summarization approaches. Attentional, RNN-based encoder-decoder models for abstractive summarization have achieved good performance on short input and output sequences. For longer documents and summaries however these models often include repetitive and incoherent phrases. We introduce a neural network model with a novel intra-attention that attends over the input and continuously generated output separately, and a new training method that combines standard supervised word prediction and reinforcement learning (RL). Models trained only with supervised learning often exhibit "exposure bias" - they assume ground truth is provided at each step during training. However, when standard word prediction is combined with the global sequence prediction training of RL the resulting summaries become more readable. We evaluate this model on the CNN Daily Mail and New York Times datasets. Our model obtains a 41.16 ROUGE-1 score on the CNN Daily Mail dataset, an improvement over previous state-of-the-art models. Human evaluation also shows that our model produces higher quality summaries.