Learning visual representations with self-supervised learning has become popular in computer vision. The idea is to design auxiliary tasks where labels are free to obtain. Most of these tasks end up providing data to learn specific kinds of invariance useful for recognition. In this paper, we propose to exploit different self-supervised approaches to learn representations invariant to (i) inter-instance variations (two objects in the same class should have similar features) and (ii) intra-instance variations (viewpoint, pose, deformations, illumination, etc). Instead of combining two approaches with multi-task learning, we argue to organize and reason the data with multiple variations. Specifically, we propose to generate a graph with millions of objects mined from hundreds of thousands of videos. The objects are connected by two types of edges which correspond to two types of invariance: "different instances but a similar viewpoint and category" and "different viewpoints of the same instance". By applying simple transitivity on the graph with these edges, we can obtain pairs of images exhibiting richer visual invariance. We use this data to train a Triplet-Siamese network with VGG16 as the base architecture and apply the learned representations to different recognition tasks. For object detection, we achieve 63.2 mAP on PASCAL VOC 2007 using Fast R-CNN (compare to 67.3 with ImageNet pre-training). For the challenging COCO dataset, our method is surprisingly close (23.5 ) to the ImageNet-supervised counterpart (24.4 ) using the Faster R-CNN framework. We also show that our network can perform significantly better than the ImageNet network in the surface normal estimation task.
Self-supervised learning is another popular stream for learning invariant features. Visual invariance can be captured by the same instance scene taken in a sequence of video frames @cite_4 @cite_6 @cite_54 @cite_58 @cite_60 @cite_23 @cite_11 @cite_17 @cite_30 @cite_35 . For example, Wang and Gupta @cite_4 leverage tracking of objects in videos to learn visual invariance within individual objects; Jayaraman and Grauman @cite_54 train a Siamese network to model the ego-motion between two frames in a scene; Mathieu al @cite_60 propose to learn representations by predicting future frames; Pathak al @cite_17 train a network to segment the foreground objects where are acquired via motion cues. On the other hand, common characteristics of different object instances can also be mined from data @cite_40 @cite_63 @cite_9 @cite_1 @cite_55 . For example, relative positions of image patches @cite_40 may reflect feasible spatial layouts of objects; possible colors can be inferred @cite_63 @cite_9 if the networks can relate colors to object appearances. Rather than rely on temporal changes in video, these methods are able to exploit still images.
@cite_30 @cite_35 @cite_4 @cite_60 @cite_54 @cite_9 @cite_1 @cite_17 @cite_6 @cite_55 @cite_40 @cite_23 @cite_63 @cite_58 @cite_11
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Learning visual representations with self-supervised learning has become popular in computer vision. The idea is to design auxiliary tasks where labels are free to obtain. Most of these tasks end up providing data to learn specific kinds of invariance useful for recognition. In this paper, we propose to exploit different self-supervised approaches to learn representations invariant to (i) inter-instance variations (two objects in the same class should have similar features) and (ii) intra-instance variations (viewpoint, pose, deformations, illumination, etc.). Instead of combining two approaches with multi-task learning, we argue to organize and reason the data with multiple variations. Specifically, we propose to generate a graph with millions of objects mined from hundreds of thousands of videos. The objects are connected by two types of edges which correspond to two types of invariance: “different instances but a similar viewpoint and category” and “different viewpoints of the same instance”. By applying simple transitivity on the graph with these edges, we can obtain pairs of images exhibiting richer visual invariance. We use this data to train a Triplet-Siamese network with VGG16 as the base architecture and apply the learned representations to different recognition tasks. For object detection, we achieve 63.2 mAP on PASCAL VOC 2007 using Fast R-CNN (compare to 67.3 with ImageNet pre-training). For the challenging COCO dataset, our method is surprisingly close (23.5 ) to the ImageNet-supervised counterpart (24.4 ) using the Faster R-CNN framework. We also show that our network can perform significantly better than the ImageNet network in the surface normal estimation task. Learning visual representations with self-supervised learning has become popular in computer vision. The idea is to design auxiliary tasks where labels are free to obtain. Most of these tasks end up providing data to learn specific kinds of invariance useful for recognition. In this paper, we propose to exploit different self-supervised approaches to learn representations invariant to (i) inter-instance variations (two objects in the same class should have similar features) and (ii) intra-instance variations (viewpoint, pose, deformations, illumination, etc). Instead of combining two approaches with multi-task learning, we argue to organize and reason the data with multiple variations. Specifically, we propose to generate a graph with millions of objects mined from hundreds of thousands of videos. The objects are connected by two types of edges which correspond to two types of invariance: "different instances but a similar viewpoint and category" and "different viewpoints of the same instance". By applying simple transitivity on the graph with these edges, we can obtain pairs of images exhibiting richer visual invariance. We use this data to train a Triplet-Siamese network with VGG16 as the base architecture and apply the learned representations to different recognition tasks. For object detection, we achieve 63.2 mAP on PASCAL VOC 2007 using Fast R-CNN (compare to 67.3 with ImageNet pre-training). For the challenging COCO dataset, our method is surprisingly close (23.5 ) to the ImageNet-supervised counterpart (24.4 ) using the Faster R-CNN framework. We also show that our network can perform significantly better than the ImageNet network in the surface normal estimation task. Is strong supervision necessary for learning a good visual representation? Do we really need millions of semantically-labeled images to train a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)? In this paper, we present a simple yet surprisingly powerful approach for unsupervised learning of CNN. Specifically, we use hundreds of thousands of unlabeled videos from the web to learn visual representations. Our key idea is that visual tracking provides the supervision. That is, two patches connected by a track should have similar visual representation in deep feature space since they probably belong to same object or object part. We design a Siamese-triplet network with a ranking loss function to train this CNN representation. Without using a single image from ImageNet, just using 100K unlabeled videos and the VOC 2012 dataset, we train an ensemble of unsupervised networks that achieves 52 mAP (no bounding box regression). This performance comes tantalizingly close to its ImageNet-supervised counterpart, an ensemble which achieves a mAP of 54.4 . We also show that our unsupervised network can perform competitively in other tasks such as surface-normal estimation. Over the last years, deep convolutional neural networks (ConvNets) have transformed the field of computer vision thanks to their unparalleled capacity to learn high level semantic image features. However, in order to successfully learn those features, they usually require massive amounts of manually labeled data, which is both expensive and impractical to scale. Therefore, unsupervised semantic feature learning, i.e., learning without requiring manual annotation effort, is of crucial importance in order to successfully harvest the vast amount of visual data that are available today. In our work we propose to learn image features by training ConvNets to recognize the 2d rotation that is applied to the image that it gets as input. We demonstrate both qualitatively and quantitatively that this apparently simple task actually provides a very powerful supervisory signal for semantic feature learning. We exhaustively evaluate our method in various unsupervised feature learning benchmarks and we exhibit in all of them state-of-the-art performance. Specifically, our results on those benchmarks demonstrate dramatic improvements w.r.t. prior state-of-the-art approaches in unsupervised representation learning and thus significantly close the gap with supervised feature learning. For instance, in PASCAL VOC 2007 detection task our unsupervised pre-trained AlexNet model achieves the state-of-the-art (among unsupervised methods) mAP of 54.4 that is only 2.4 points lower from the supervised case. We get similarly striking results when we transfer our unsupervised learned features on various other tasks, such as ImageNet classification, PASCAL classification, PASCAL segmentation, and CIFAR-10 classification. The code and models of our paper will be published on: this https URL . Over the last years, deep convolutional neural networks (ConvNets) have transformed the field of computer vision thanks to their unparalleled capacity to learn high level semantic image features. However, in order to successfully learn those features, they usually require massive amounts of manually labeled data, which is both expensive and impractical to scale. Therefore, unsupervised semantic feature learning, i.e., learning without requiring manual annotation effort, is of crucial importance in order to successfully harvest the vast amount of visual data that are available today. In our work we propose to learn image features by training ConvNets to recognize the 2d rotation that is applied to the image that it gets as input. We demonstrate both qualitatively and quantitatively that this apparently simple task actually provides a very powerful supervisory signal for semantic feature learning. We exhaustively evaluate our method in various unsupervised feature learning benchmarks and we exhibit in all of them state-of-the-art performance. Specifically, our results on those benchmarks demonstrate dramatic improvements w.r.t. prior state-of-the-art approaches in unsupervised representation learning and thus significantly close the gap with supervised feature learning. For instance, in PASCAL VOC 2007 detection task our unsupervised pre-trained AlexNet model achieves the state-of-the-art (among unsupervised methods) mAP of 54.4 that is only 2.4 points lower from the supervised case. We get similar striking results when we transfer our unsupervised learned features on various other tasks, such as ImageNet classification, PASCAL classification, PASCAL segmentation, and CIFAR-10 classification. We propose a self-supervised framework that learns to group visual entities based on their rate of co-occurrence in space and time. To model statistical dependencies between the entities, we set up a simple binary classification problem in which the goal is to predict if two visual primitives occur in the same spatial or temporal context. We apply this framework to three domains: learning patch affinities from spatial adjacency in images, learning frame affinities from temporal adjacency in videos, and learning photo affinities from geospatial proximity in image collections. We demonstrate that in each case the learned affinities uncover meaningful semantic groupings. From patch affinities we generate object proposals that are competitive with state-of-the-art supervised methods. From frame affinities we generate movie scene segmentations that correlate well with DVD chapter structure. Finally, from geospatial affinities we learn groups that relate well to semantic place categories. We assess the applicability of several popular learning methods for the problem of recognizing generic visual categories with invariance to pose, lighting, and surrounding clutter. A large dataset comprising stereo image pairs of 50 uniform-colored toys under 36 azimuths, 9 elevations, and 6 lighting conditions was collected (for a total of 194,400 individual images). The objects were 10 instances of 5 generic categories: four-legged animals, human figures, airplanes, trucks, and cars. Five instances of each category were used for training, and the other five for testing. Low-resolution grayscale images of the objects with various amounts of variability and surrounding clutter were used for training and testing. Nearest neighbor methods, support vector machines, and convolutional networks, operating on raw pixels or on PCA-derived features were tested. Test error rates for unseen object instances placed on uniform backgrounds were around 13 for SVM and 7 for convolutional nets. On a segmentation recognition task with highly cluttered images, SVM proved impractical, while convolutional nets yielded 16 7 error. A real-time version of the system was implemented that can detect and classify objects in natural scenes at around 10 frames per second. This work explores the use of spatial context as a source of free and plentiful supervisory signal for training a rich visual representation. Given only a large, unlabeled image collection, we extract random pairs of patches from each image and train a convolutional neural net to predict the position of the second patch relative to the first. We argue that doing well on this task requires the model to learn to recognize objects and their parts. We demonstrate that the feature representation learned using this within-image context indeed captures visual similarity across images. For example, this representation allows us to perform unsupervised visual discovery of objects like cats, people, and even birds from the Pascal VOC 2011 detection dataset. Furthermore, we show that the learned ConvNet can be used in the R-CNN framework and provides a significant boost over a randomly-initialized ConvNet, resulting in state-of-the-art performance among algorithms which use only Pascal-provided training set annotations. This work explores the use of spatial context as a source of free and plentiful supervisory signal for training a rich visual representation. Given only a large, unlabeled image collection, we extract random pairs of patches from each image and train a convolutional neural net to predict the position of the second patch relative to the first. We argue that doing well on this task requires the model to learn to recognize objects and their parts. We demonstrate that the feature representation learned using this within-image context indeed captures visual similarity across images. For example, this representation allows us to perform unsupervised visual discovery of objects like cats, people, and even birds from the Pascal VOC 2011 detection dataset. Furthermore, we show that the learned ConvNet can be used in the R-CNN framework [19] and provides a significant boost over a randomly-initialized ConvNet, resulting in state-of-the-art performance among algorithms which use only Pascal-provided training set annotations. Learning rich visual representations often require training on datasets of millions of manually annotated examples. This substantially limits the scalability of learning effective representations as labeled data is expensive or scarce. In this paper, we address the problem of unsupervised visual representation learning from a large, unlabeled collection of images. By representing each image as a node and each nearest-neighbor matching pair as an edge, our key idea is to leverage graph-based analysis to discover positive and negative image pairs (i.e., pairs belonging to the same and different visual categories). Specifically, we propose to use a cycle consistency criterion for mining positive pairs and geodesic distance in the graph for hard negative mining. We show that the mined positive and negative image pairs can provide accurate supervisory signals for learning effective representations using Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). We demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed unsupervised constraint mining method in two settings: (1) unsupervised feature learning and (2) semi-supervised learning. For unsupervised feature learning, we obtain competitive performance with several state-of-the-art approaches on the PASCAL VOC 2007 dataset. For semi-supervised learning, we show boosted performance by incorporating the mined constraints on three image classification datasets. Re-identification of people in surveillance footage must cope with drastic variations in color, background, viewing angle and a persons pose. Supervised techniques are often the most effective, but require extensive annotation which is infeasible for large camera networks. Unlike previous supervised learning approaches that require hundreds of annotated subjects, we learn a metric using a novel one-shot learning approach. We first learn a deep texture representation from intensity images with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). When training a CNN using only intensity images, the learned embedding is color-invariant and shows high performance even on unseen datasets without fine-tuning. To account for differences in camera color distributions, we learn a color metric using a single pair of ColorChecker images. The proposed one-shot learning achieves performance that is competitive with supervised methods, but uses only a single example rather than the hundreds required for the fully supervised case. Compared with semi-supervised and unsupervised state-of-the-art methods, our approach yields significantly higher accuracy. While great strides have been made in using deep learning algorithms to solve supervised learning tasks, the problem of unsupervised learning - leveraging unlabeled examples to learn about the structure of a domain - remains a difficult unsolved challenge. Here, we explore prediction of future frames in a video sequence as an unsupervised learning rule for learning about the structure of the visual world. We describe a predictive neural network ("PredNet") architecture that is inspired by the concept of "predictive coding" from the neuroscience literature. These networks learn to predict future frames in a video sequence, with each layer in the network making local predictions and only forwarding deviations from those predictions to subsequent network layers. We show that these networks are able to robustly learn to predict the movement of synthetic (rendered) objects, and that in doing so, the networks learn internal representations that are useful for decoding latent object parameters (e.g. pose) that support object recognition with fewer training views. We also show that these networks can scale to complex natural image streams (car-mounted camera videos), capturing key aspects of both egocentric movement and the movement of objects in the visual scene, and the representation learned in this setting is useful for estimating the steering angle. Altogether, these results suggest that prediction represents a powerful framework for unsupervised learning, allowing for implicit learning of object and scene structure. In this paper, we present an approach for learning a visual representation from the raw spatiotemporal signals in videos. Our representation is learned without supervision from semantic labels. We formulate our method as an unsupervised sequential verification task, i.e., we determine whether a sequence of frames from a video is in the correct temporal order. With this simple task and no semantic labels, we learn a powerful visual representation using a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN). The representation contains complementary information to that learned from supervised image datasets like ImageNet. Qualitative results show that our method captures information that is temporally varying, such as human pose. When used as pre-training for action recognition, our method gives significant gains over learning without external data on benchmark datasets like UCF101 and HMDB51. To demonstrate its sensitivity to human pose, we show results for pose estimation on the FLIC and MPII datasets that are competitive, or better than approaches using significantly more supervision. Our method can be combined with supervised representations to provide an additional boost in accuracy. Representations that are invariant to translation, scale and other transformations, can considerably reduce the sample complexity of learning, allowing recognition of new object classes from very few examples|a hallmark of human recognition. Empirical estimates of one-dimensional projections of the distribution induced by a group of ane transformations are proven to represent a unique and invariant signature associated with an image. We show how projections yielding invariant signatures for future images can be learned automatically, and updated continuously, during unsupervised visual experience. A module performing ltering and pooling, like simple and complex cells as proposed by Hubel and Wiesel, can compute such estimates. Under this view, a pooling stage estimates a one-dimensional probability distribution. Invariance from observations through a restricted window is equivalent to a sparsity property w.r.t. to a transformation, which yields templates that are a) Gabor for optimal simultaneous invariance to translation and scale or b) very specic for complex, class-dependent transformations such as rotation in depth of faces. Hierarchical architectures consisting of this basic Hubel-Wiesel module inherit its properties of invariance, stability, and discriminability while capturing the compositional organization of the visual world in terms of wholes and parts, and are invariant to complex transformations that may only be locally ane. The theory applies to several existing deep learning convolutional architectures for image and speech recognition. It also suggests that the main computational goal of the ventral stream of visual cortex is to provide a hierarchical representation of new objects images which is invariant to transformations, stable, and discriminative for recognition|and that this representation may be continuously learned in an unsupervised way during development and natural visual experience. A method was recently devised for the recovery of an invariant image from a 3-band colour image. The invariant image, originally 1D greyscale but here derived as a 2D chromaticity, is independent of lighting, and also has shading removed: it forms an intrinsic image that may be used as a guide in recovering colour images that are independent of illumination conditions. Invariance to illuminant colour and intensity means that such images are free of shadows, as well, to a good degree. The method devised finds an intrinsic reflectivity image based on assumptions of Lambertian reflectance, approximately Planckian lighting, and fairly narrowband camera sensors. Nevertheless, the method works well when these assumptions do not hold. A crucial piece of information is the angle for an “invariant direction” in a log-chromaticity space. To date, we have gleaned this information via a preliminary calibration routine, using the camera involved to capture images of a colour target under different lights. In this paper, we show that we can in fact dispense with the calibration step, by recognizing a simple but important fact: the correct projection is that which minimizes entropy in the resulting invariant image. To show that this must be the case we first consider synthetic images, and then apply the method to real images. We show that not only does a correct shadow-free image emerge, but also that the angle found agrees with that recovered from a calibration. As a result, we can find shadow-free images for images with unknown camera, and the method is applied successfully to remove shadows from unsourced imagery.