In this paper, we propose RECOUP, a reliable group communication routing protocol for IoT networks. RECOUP efficiently uses a low-overhead cluster-based multicast routing technique on top of the RPL protocol. RECOUP increases the probability of message delivery to the intended destination(s), irrespective of the network size and faults (such as broken links or non-responsive nodes), and in the presence of misbehaving nodes.We show that the cluster-based routing mechanism of RECOUP remains robust in presence of various topology (i.e., rank and sybil) and data communication (i.e., blackhole, wormhole, and jamming) attacks targeting the IoT networking infrastructure.An implementation of RECOUP is realized in Contiki. Our results show the effectiveness of RECOUP over state-of-art protocols concerning packet delivery ratio to 25 , end-to-end delay down to 100 ms, low radio transmissions required for per packet delivery to 6 mJ, and most importantly, it improves the robustness and scalability of data communication process in thewhole network.
Authors in @cite_2 investigates the forwarding misbehaviour (i.e., selective packet discarding) and propose a countermeasure of the same in LLNs running with RPL protocol. The basic idea is to monitor the forwarding (mis)behaviour of each node to observe the packet loss rate, and then compare the packet loss rate of the parent node with the neighbor nodes. To ensure that the packet loss is due to misbehaviour and not due to bad channel quality, the nodes use one time retransmission techniques. Similarly, using the monitoring information of the nodes about the data packets forwarding, a trust-based intrusion detection system based on RPL is presented in @cite_27 , to countermeasure mobile sybil attacks in IoT networks.
@cite_27 @cite_2
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Low power and lossy networks (LLNs) are rapidly emerging as an important part of ubiquitous computing, and serving as a major building block for the communication infrastructure in the presence of Internet-of-Things (IoT). Routing protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) is a novel routing protocol standardized to enable the integration of resources-constrained devices into the Internet. However, due to the shared radio medium, the lack of physical protection and security requirements of inherent routing protocol, low power and lossy networks are admittedly threatened by diverse Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks that primarily disrupt network protocols and interfere with on-going communications. In this paper, we propose a monitor-based approach, called CMD, to mitigate forwarding misbehaviors in LLNs running with RPL, where single or multiple malicious nodes randomly or strategically drop any incoming Data packet. The basic idea of the CMD is that each node monitors the forwarding behaviors of the preferred parent node to observe the packet loss rate, compares the observation result with the collected packet loss rate from one-hop neighbor nodes, and detects the forwarding misbehaviors of the preferred parent node. We evaluate the proposed scheme through extensive simulation experiments using OMNeT++ and compare its performance with the original RPL protocol and the existing two-step detection scheme. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme can not only improve the detection rate and packet delivery ratio (PDR) but also can reduce the energy consumption and isolation latency. In Sybil attacks, a physical adversary takes multiple fabricated or stolen identities to maliciously manipulate the network. These attacks are very harmful for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. In this paper we implemented and evaluated the performance of RPL (Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks) routing protocol under mobile sybil attacks, namely SybM, with respect to control overhead, packet delivery and energy consumption. In SybM attacks, Sybil nodes take the advantage of their mobility and the weakness of RPL to handle identity and mobility, to flood the network with fake control messages from different locations. To counter these type of attacks we propose a trust-based intrusion detection system based on RPL. Existing position-based unicast routing algorithms which forward packets in the geographic direction of the destination require that the forwarding node knows the positions of all neighbors in its transmission range. This information on direct neighbors is gained by observing beacon messages each node sends out periodically. Due to mobility, the information that a node receives about its neighbors becomes outdated, leading either to a significant decrease in the packet delivery rate or to a steep increase in load on the wireless channel as node mobility increases. In this paper, we propose a mechanism to perform position-based unicast forwarding without the help of beacons. In our contention-based forwarding scheme (CBF) the next hop is selected through a distributed contention process based on the actual positions of all current neighbors. For the contention process, CBF makes use of biased timers. To avoid packet duplication, the first node that is selected suppresses the selection of further nodes. We propose three suppression strategies which vary with respect to forwarding efficiency and suppression characteristics. We analyze the behavior of CBF with all three suppression strategies and compare it to an existing greedy position-based routing approach by means of simulation with ns-2. Our results show that CBF significantly reduces the load on the wireless channel required to achieve a specific delivery rate compared to the load a beacon-based greedy forwarding strategy generates. Routing of packets in mobile ad hoc networks with a large number of nodes or with high mobility is a very difficult task and current routing protocols do not really scale well with these scenarios. The beacon-less routing algorithm (BLR) presented in this paper is a routing protocol that makes use of location information to reduce routing overhead. However, unlike other position-based routing protocols, BLR does not require nodes to periodically broadcast Hello-messages (called beaconing), and thus avoids drawbacks such as extensive use of scarce battery-power, interferences with regular data transmission, and performance degradation. BLR selects a forwarding node in a distributed manner among all its neighboring nodes with having information neither about their positions nor even about their existence. Data packets are broadcasted and the protocol takes care that just one of the receiving nodes forwards the packet. Optimized forwarding is achieved by applying a concept of dynamic forwarding delay. Consequently, the node that computes the shortest forwarding delay relays the packet first. This forwarding is detected by the other nodes and suppresses them to relay the same packet any further. Analytical results and simulation experiments indicate that BLR provides efficient and robust routing in highly dynamic mobile ad hoc networks. The next-generation Internet promises to provide a fundamental shift in the underlying architecture to support dynamic deployment of network protocols. With the introduction of programmability and dynamic protocol deployment in routers, potential vulnerabilities and attacks are expected to increase. In this paper, we consider the problem of detecting packet forwarding misbehavior in routers. Specifically, we focus on an attack scenario, where a router selectively drops packets destined for another node. Detecting such an attack is challenging since it requires differentiating malicious packet drops from congestion-based packet losses. We propose a controller-based misbehavior detection technique that effectively detects malicious routers using a hash-based delay sampling and verification. We provide a performance analysis of the detection accuracy and quantify the performance overhead of our system. Our results show that our technique provides accurate detection with low sampling rates. This paper describes Extremely Opportunistic Routing (ExOR), a new unicast routing technique for multi-hop wireless networks. ExOR forwards each packet through a sequence of nodes, deferring the choice of each node in the sequence until after the previous node has transmitted the packet on its radio. ExOR then determines which node, of all the nodes that successfully received that transmission, is the node closest to the destination. That closest node transmits the packet. The result is that each hop moves the packet farther (or average) than the hops of the best possible pre-determined route.The ExOR design addresses the challenge of choosing a forwarding node after transmission using a distributed algorithm. First, when a node transmits a packet, it includes in the packet a simple schedule describing the priority order in which the potential receivers should forward the packet. The node computes the schedule based on shared measurements of inter-node delivery rates. ExOR then uses a distributed slotted MAC protocol for acknowledgements to ensure that the receivers agree who the highest priority receiver was.The efficacy of ExOR depends mainly on the rate at which the reception probability falls off with distance. Simulations based on measured radio characteristics [6] suggest that ExOR reduces the total number of transmissions by nearly a factor of two over the best possible pre-determined route. Packet loss and end-to-end delay limit delay sensitive applications over the best effort packet switched networks such as the Internet. In our previous work, we have shown that substantial reduction in packet loss can be achieved by sending packets at appropriate sending rates to a receiver from multiple senders, using disjoint paths, and by protecting packets with forward error correction. In this paper, we propose a path diversity with forward error correction (PDF) system for delay sensitive applications over the Internet in which, disjoint paths from a sender to a receiver are created using a collection of relay nodes. We propose a scalable, heuristic scheme for selecting a redundant path between a sender and a receiver, and show that substantial reduction in packet loss can be achieved by dividing packets between the default path and the redundant path. NS simulations are used to verify the effectiveness of PDF system. We propose to use Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET) as the infrastructure for an urban cyber-physical system for gathering up-to-date data about a city, like traffic conditions or environmental parameters. In this context, it is critical to design a data collection protocol that enables retrieving the data from the vehicles in almost real-time in an efficient way for urban scenarios. We propose Back off-based Per-hop Forwarding (BPF), a broadcast-based receiver-oriented protocol that uses the destination location information to select the forwarding order among the nodes receiving the packet. BFP does not require nodes to exchange periodic messages with their neighbors communicating their locations to keep a low management message overhead. It uses geographic information about the final destination node in the header of each data packet to route it in a hop-by-hop basis. It takes advantage of redundant forwarding to increase packet delivery to a destination, what is more critical in an urban scenario than in a highway, where the road topology does not represent a challenge for forwarding. We evaluate the performance of the BPF protocol using ns-3 and a Manhattan grid topology and compare it with well-known broadcast suppression techniques. Our results show that BPF achieves significantly higher packet delivery rates at a reduced redundancy cost. Abstract In this work we analyze a novel queueing system for modeling cooperative wireless networks. We consider a network of three saturated source users, say a central and two background users, two relay nodes and a common destination node. When the central user fails to transmit a packet directly to the destination, it forwards a copy of the blocked packet at both relay nodes in order to exploit the spatial diversity they provide. Moreover, each relay node receives also blocked packets from a dedicated background user. Relay nodes assist source users by retransmitting their blocked packets to the destination. Due to the complex interdependence among relays, and the wireless interference, the retransmission rate of a relay is affected by the state of the other. We consider a three-dimensional Markov process, investigate its stability, and study its steady-state performance using the theory of boundary value problems. Explicit expressions for the expected delay in the symmetrical model, and a generalization to N > 2 relay nodes are also given. Numerical examples are obtained and show insights into the system performance. In military and rescue applications of mobile ad hoc networks, all the nodes belong to the same authority; therefore, they are motivated to cooperate in order to support the basic functions of the network. In this paper, we consider the case when each node is its own authority and tries to maximize the benefits it gets from the network. More precisely, we assume that the nodes are not willing to forward packets for the benefit of other nodes. This problem may arise in civilian applications of mobile ad hoc networks. In order to stimulate the nodes for packet forwarding, we propose a simple mechanism based on a counter in each node. We study the behavior of the proposed mechanism analytically and by means of simulations, and detail the way in which it could be protected against misuse. This paper describes two techniques that improve throughput in an ad hoc network in the presence of nodes that agree to forward packets but fail to do so. To mitigate this problem, we propose categorizing nodes based upon their dynamically measured behavior. We use a watchdog that identifies misbehaving nodes and a pathrater that helps routing protocols avoid these nodes. Through simulation we evaluate watchdog and pathrater using packet throughput, percentage of overhead (routing) transmissions, and the accuracy of misbehaving node detection. When used together in a network with moderate mobility, the two techniques increase throughput by 17 in the presence of 40 misbehaving nodes, while increasing the percentage of overhead transmissions from the standard routing protocol's 9 to 17 . During extreme mobility, watchdog and pathrater can increase network throughput by 27 , while increasing the overhead transmissions from the standard routing protocol's 12 to 24 . In this paper, we present a novel packet forwarding scheme for wireless ad hoc networks --- “Direction” Forwarding (DFR). Popular routing protocols such as DSDV and AODV use “predecessor” based forwarding, namely, the packet is forwarded to the predecessor on the shortest path from the destination, as advertised during the last update. Predecessor forwarding may fail in large scale networks where the routing update rate must be reduced by the need to maintain link O H below reasonable levels. However, if nodes are mobile, routing table entries may become “stale” very rapidly. DFR is designed to overcome the “stale” routing table entry problem. When the routing update arrives, the node remembers not only the predecessor delivering the update, but also the update “direction” of arrival. When a packet must be forwarded to destination, it is first forwarded to the node ID found in the routing table. If the node has moved and ID forwarding fails, the packet is “direction” forwarded to the “most promising” node in the indicated direction. At first glance, DFR seems to combine the features of table based routing and geo-routing. However, direction forwarding differs from geo-routing in that the direction is learned from the routing updates, instead of being computed from the destination coordinates. Thus, DFR does not require destination coordinates, a global coordinate system, or a Geo Location Server. In the paper we show the application of DFR to a scalable routing scheme, LANMAR. Through simulation experiments we show that DFR substantially enhances LANMAR performance in large, mobile network scenarios. Routing in ad hoc networks is a complicated task because of many reasons. The nodes are low-memory, low-powered, and they cannot maintain routing tables large enough for well-known routing protocols. Because of that, greedy forwarding at intermediate nodes is desirable in ad hoc networks. Also, for traffic engineering, multi-path capabilities are important. So, it is desirable to define routes at the source like in source based routing (SBR) while performing greedy forwarding at intermediate nodes. We investigate trajectory-based routing (TBR) which was proposed as a middle-ground between SBR and greedy forwarding techniques. In TBR, source encodes trajectory to be traversed and embeds it into each packet. Upon the arrival of each packet, intermediate nodes decode the trajectory and employ greedy forwarding techniques such that the packet follows its trajectory as much as possible. In this paper, we address various issues regarding implementation of TBR. We also provide techniques to efficiently forward packets along a trajectory defined as a parametric curve. We use the well-known Bezier parametric curve for encoding trajectories into packets at source. Based on this trajectory encoding, we develop and evaluate various greedy forwarding algorithms The basic requirement of wireless healthcare monitoring systems is to send physiological signals acquired from implantable or on-body sensor nodes to a remote location. Low-power consumption is required for wireless healthcare monitoring systems since most medical sensor nodes are battery powered. The emergence of new technologies in measuring physiological signals has increased the demand for high data rate transmission systems. Ultra-wide band (UWB) is a suitable wireless technology to achieve high data rates while keeping power consumption and form factors small. Although UWB transmitters are designed based on simple techniques, UWB receivers require complex hardware and consume comparatively higher power. In order to achieve reliable low power two-way communication, a sensor node can be constructed using a UWB transmitter and a narrow band receiver. This paper proposes a new medium access control (MAC) protocol based on a dual-band physical layer technology. Co-simulation models based on MATLAB and OPNET have been developed to analyze the performance of the proposed MAC protocol. We analyzed the performance of the MAC protocol for a realistic scenario where both implantable and wearable sensor nodes are involved in the data transmission. Priority-based packet transmission techniques have been used in the MAC protocol to serve different sensors according to their QoS requirements. Analysis is done with regard to important network parameters, such as packet loss ratio, packet delay, percentage throughput, and power consumption. Since ad hoc and sensor networks can be composed of a very large number of devices, the scalability of network protocols is a major design concern. Furthermore, network protocols must be designed to prolong the battery lifetime of the devices. However, most existing routing techniques for ad hoc networks are known not to scale well. On the other hand, the so-called geographical routing algorithms are known to be scalable but their energy efficiency has never been extensively and comparatively studied. In a geographical routing algorithm, data packets are forwarded by a node to its neighbor based on their respective positions. The neighborhood of each node is constituted by the nodes that lie within a certain radio range. Thus, from the perspective of a node forwarding a packet, the next hop depends on the width of the neighborhood it perceives. The analytical framework proposed in this paper allows to analyze the relationship between the energy efficiency of the routing tasks and the extension of the range of the topology knowledge for each node. A wider topology knowledge may improve the energy efficiency of the routing tasks but increases the cost of topology information due to signaling packets needed to acquire this information. The problem of determining the optimal topology knowledge range for each node to make energy efficient geographical routing decisions is tackled by integer linear programming. It is shown that the problem is intrinsically localized, i.e., a limited topology knowledge is sufficient to make energy efficient forwarding decisions. The leading forwarding rules for geographical routing are compared in this framework, and the energy efficiency of each of them is studied. Moreover, a new forwarding scheme, partial topology knowledge forwarding (PTKF), is introduced, and shown to outperform other existing schemes in typical application scenarios. A probe-based distributed protocol for knowledge range adjustment (PRADA) is finally introduced that allows each node to efficiently select online its topology knowledge range. PRADA is shown to rapidly converge to a near-optimal solution. In an ad-hoc network, intermediate nodes on a communication path are expected to forward packets of other nodes so that the mobile nodes can communicate beyond their wireless transmission range. However, because wireless mobile nodes are usually constrained by limited power and computation resources, a selfish node may be unwilling to spend its resources in forwarding packets which are not of its direct interest, even though it expects other nodes to forward its packets to the destination. It has been shown that the presence of such selfish nodes degrades the overall performance of a non-cooperative ad hoc network. To address this problem, we propose a secure and objective reputation-based incentive (SORI) scheme to encourage packet forwarding and discipline selfish behavior. Different from the existing schemes, under our approach, the reputation of a node is quantified by objective measures, and the propagation of reputation is efficiently secured by a one-way-hash-chain-based authentication scheme. Armed with the reputation-based mechanism, we design a punishment scheme to penalize selfish nodes. The experimental results show that the proposed scheme can successfully identify selfish nodes and punish them accordingly. “The Trickle Algorithm” is conceived as an adaptive mechanism for allowing efficient and reliable information sharing among nodes, communicating across a lossy and shared medium. Its basic principle is, for each node, to monitor transmissions from its neighbours, compare what it receives with its current state, and schedule future transmissions accordingly: if an inconsistency of information is detected, or if few or no neighbours have transmitted consistent information “recently”, the next transmission is scheduled “soon” - and, in case consistent information from a sufficient number of neighbours is received, the next transmission is scheduled to be “later”. Developed originally as a means of distributing firmware updates among sensor devices, this algorithm has found use also for distribution of routing information in the routing protocol RPL, standardised within the IETF for maintaining a routing topology for low-power and lossy networks (LLNs). Its use is also proposed in a protocol for multicast in LLNs, denoted “Multicast Forwarding Using Trickle”. This paper studies the performance of the Trickle algorithm, as it is used in that multicast protocol. The Gilbert model (1-st order Markov chain model) and the single-multiplexer model are two frequently used models in the study of packet-loss processes in communication networks. In this paper we investigate the accuracy of the Gilbert model, and higher-order Markov chain extended Gilbert models, in characterizing the packet-loss process associated with a transport network modeled in terms of a single-multiplexer. More specifically, we quantitatively compare the packet-loss statistics predicted by the Gilbert models with those predicted by an exact queueing analysis of the single-multiplexer model. This topic is important since low-complexity Gilbert models are frequently used to characterize end-to-end network packet-loss behavior. On the other hand, network congestion behavior is often characterized in terms of a single bottleneck node modeled as a multiplexer. It is of some interest then to establish the relative accuracy of Gilbert models in predicting the packet-loss behavior on even such a simplified network model. We demonstrate that the Gilbert models have some serious deficiencies in accurately predicting the packet-loss statistics of the single-multiplexer model. The results are shown to have some serious consequences for the performance evaluation of forward error correction (FEC) coding schemes used to combat the effects of packet losses due to network buffer overflows. We present an overview of ad hoc routing protocols that make forwarding decisions based on the geographical position of a packet's destination. Other than the destination's position, each node need know only its own position and the position of its one-hop neighbors in order to forward packets. Since it is not necessary to maintain explicit routes, position-based routing does scale well even if the network is highly dynamic. This is a major advantage in a mobile ad hoc network where the topology may change frequently. The main prerequisite for position-based routing is that a sender can obtain the current position of the destination. Therefore, previously proposed location services are discussed in addition to position-based packet forwarding strategies. We provide a qualitative comparison of the approaches in both areas and investigate opportunities for future research. Delivery of real time streaming applications, such as voice and video over IP, in packet switched networks is based on dividing the stream into packets and shipping each of the packets on an individual basis to the destination through the network. The basic implicit assumption on these applications is that shipping all the packets of an application is done, most of the time, over a single path along the network. In this work, we present a model in which packets of a certain session are dispersed over multiple paths, in contrast to the traditional approach. The dispersion may be performed by network nodes for various reasons such as load-balancing, or implemented as a mechanism to improve quality, as will be presented in this work. To study the effect of packet dispersion on the quality of voice over IP (VoIP) applications, we focus on the effect of the network loss on the applications, where we propose to use the Noticeable Loss Rate (NLR) as a measure (negatively) correlated with the voice quality. We analyze the NLR for various packet dispersion strategies over paths experiencing memoryless (Bernoulli) or bursty (Gilbert model) losses, and compare them to each other. Our analysis reveals that in many situations the use of packet dispersion reduces the NLR and thus improves session quality. The results suggest that the use of packet dispersion can be quite beneficial for these applications.