A sensor network is a collection of wireless devices that are able to monitor physical or environmental conditions. These devices are expected to operate autonomously, be battery powered and have very limited computational capabilities. This makes the task of protecting a sensor network against misbehavior or possible malfunction a challenging problem. In this document we discuss performance of Artificial immune systems (AIS) when used as the mechanism for detecting misbehavior. We concentrate on performance of respective genes; genes are necessary to measure a network's performance from a sensor's viewpoint. We conclude that the choice of genes has a profound influence on the performance of the AIS. We identified a specific MAC layer based gene that showed to be especially useful for detection. We also discuss implementation details of AIS when used with sensor networks.
@cite_20 @cite_7 the authors introduced an AIS based misbehavior detection system for ad hoc wireless networks. They used Glomosim for simulating data traffic, their setup was an area of 800 @math 600m with 40 mobile nodes (speed 1 m s) of which 5-20 are misbehaving; the routing protocol was DSR. Four genes were used to capture local behavior at the network layer. The misbehavior implemented is a subset of misbehavior introduced in this paper; their observed detection rate is about 55 @cite_10 the authors describe an AIS able to detect anomalies at the transport layer of the OSI protocol stack; only a wired TCP IP network is considered. Self is defined as normal pairwise connections. Each detector is represented as a 49-bit string. The pattern matching is based on r-contiguous bits with a fixed @math .
@cite_10 @cite_7 @cite_20
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In mobile ad-hoc networks, nodes act both as terminals and information relays, and participate in a common routing protocol, such as Dynamic Source Routing (DSR). The network is vulnerable to routing misbehavior, due to faulty or malicious nodes. Misbehavior detection systems aim at removing this vulnerability. In this paper we investigate the use of an Artificial Immune System (AIS) to detect node misbehavior in a mobile ad-hoc network using DSR. The system is inspired by the natural immune system of vertebrates. Our goal is to build a system that, like its natural counterpart, automatically learns and detects new misbehavior. We describe the first step of our design; it employs negative selection, an algorithm used by the natural immune system. We define how we map the natural immune system concepts such as self, antigen and antibody to a mobile ad-hoc network, and give the resulting algorithm for misbehavior detection. We implemented the system in the network simulator Glomosim; we present detection results and discuss how the system parameters impact the results. Further steps will extend the design by using an analogy to the innate system, danger signals, costimulation and memory cells. Mobile ad-hoc networking works properly only if the participating nodes cooperate in routing and forwarding. However, it may be advantageous for individual nodes not to cooperate. We propose a protocol, called CONFIDANT, for making misbehavior unattractive; it is based on selective altruism and utilitarianism. It aims at detecting and isolating misbehaving nodes, thus making it unattractive to deny cooperation. Trust relationships and routing decisions are based on experienced, observed, or reported routing and forwarding behavior of other nodes. The detailed implementation of CONFIDANT in this paper assumes that the network layer is based on the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol. We present a performance analysis of DSR fortified by CONFIDANT and compare it to regular defenseless DSR. It shows that a network with CONFIDANT and up to 60 of misbehaving nodes behaves almost as well as a benign network, in sharp contrast to a defenseless network. All simulations have been implemented and performed in GloMoSim. In mobile ad-hoc networks, nodes act both as terminals and information relays, and they participate in a common routing protocol, such as Dynamic Source Routing (DSR). The networks are vulnerable to routing misbehavior, due to faulty or malicious nodes. Misbehavior detection systems aim at removing this vulnerability. For this purpose, we use an Artificial Immune System (AIS), a system inspired by the human immune system (HIS). Our goal is to build a system that, like its natural counterpart, automatically learns and detects new misbehavior. The Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring, without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration. The protocol is composed of the two mechanisms of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance, which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain source routes to arbitrary destinations in the ad hoc network. The use of source routing allows packet routing to be trivially loop-free, avoids the need for up-to-date routing information in the intermediate nodes through which packets are forwarded, and allows nodes forwarding or overhearing packets to cache the routing information in them for their own future use. All aspects of the protocol operate entirely on-demand, allowing the routing packet overhead of DSR to scale automatically to only that needed to react to changes in the routes currently in use. We have evaluated the operation of DSR through detailed simulation on a variety of movement and communication patterns, and through implementation and significant experimentation in a physical outdoor ad hoc networking testbed we have constructed in Pittsburgh, and have demonstrated the excellent performance of the protocol. In this chapter, we describe the design of DSR and provide a summary of some of our simulation and testbed implementation results for the protocol. Low power and lossy networks (LLNs) are rapidly emerging as an important part of ubiquitous computing, and serving as a major building block for the communication infrastructure in the presence of Internet-of-Things (IoT). Routing protocol for low power and lossy networks (RPL) is a novel routing protocol standardized to enable the integration of resources-constrained devices into the Internet. However, due to the shared radio medium, the lack of physical protection and security requirements of inherent routing protocol, low power and lossy networks are admittedly threatened by diverse Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks that primarily disrupt network protocols and interfere with on-going communications. In this paper, we propose a monitor-based approach, called CMD, to mitigate forwarding misbehaviors in LLNs running with RPL, where single or multiple malicious nodes randomly or strategically drop any incoming Data packet. The basic idea of the CMD is that each node monitors the forwarding behaviors of the preferred parent node to observe the packet loss rate, compares the observation result with the collected packet loss rate from one-hop neighbor nodes, and detects the forwarding misbehaviors of the preferred parent node. We evaluate the proposed scheme through extensive simulation experiments using OMNeT++ and compare its performance with the original RPL protocol and the existing two-step detection scheme. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme can not only improve the detection rate and packet delivery ratio (PDR) but also can reduce the energy consumption and isolation latency. Highly-dynamic wireless environments present unique challenges to end-to-end communication networks, caused by the time-varying connectivity of high-velocity nodes combined with the unreliability of the wireless communication channel. Such conditions are found in a variety of networks, including those used for tactical communications and aeronautical telemetry. Addressing these challenges requires the design of new protocols and mechanisms specific to this environment. We present a new domain-specific architecture and protocol suite, including cross-layer optimizations between the physical, MAC, network, and transport layers. This provides selectable reliability for multiple applications within highly mobile tactical airborne networks. Our contributions for this environment include the transmission control protocol (TCP)-friendly transport protocol, AeroTP; the IP-compatible network layer, AeroNP; and the geolocation aware routing protocol AeroRP. Through simulations we show significant performance improvement over the traditional TCP IP MANET protocol stack. This paper describes two techniques that improve throughput in an ad hoc network in the presence of nodes that agree to forward packets but fail to do so. To mitigate this problem, we propose categorizing nodes based upon their dynamically measured behavior. We use a watchdog that identifies misbehaving nodes and a pathrater that helps routing protocols avoid these nodes. Through simulation we evaluate watchdog and pathrater using packet throughput, percentage of overhead (routing) transmissions, and the accuracy of misbehaving node detection. When used together in a network with moderate mobility, the two techniques increase throughput by 17 in the presence of 40 misbehaving nodes, while increasing the percentage of overhead transmissions from the standard routing protocol's 9 to 17 . During extreme mobility, watchdog and pathrater can increase network throughput by 27 , while increasing the overhead transmissions from the standard routing protocol's 12 to 24 . We have witnessed the Fixed Internet emerging with virtually every computer being connected today; we are currently witnessing the emergence of the Mobile Internet with the exponential explosion of smart phones, tablets and net-books. However, both will be dwarfed by the anticipated emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT), in which everyday objects are able to connect to the Internet, tweet or be queried. Whilst the impact onto economies and societies around the world is undisputed, the technologies facilitating such a ubiquitous connectivity have struggled so far and only recently commenced to take shape. To this end, this paper introduces in a timely manner and for the first time the wireless communications stack the industry believes to meet the important criteria of power-efficiency, reliability and Internet connectivity. Industrial applications have been the early adopters of this stack, which has become the de-facto standard, thereby bootstrapping early IoT developments with already thousands of wireless nodes deployed. Corroborated throughout this paper and by emerging industry alliances, we believe that a standardized approach, using latest developments in the IEEE 802.15.4 and IETF working groups, is the only way forward. We introduce and relate key embodiments of the power-efficient IEEE 802.15.4-2006 PHY layer, the power-saving and reliable IEEE 802.15.4e MAC layer, the IETF 6LoWPAN adaptation layer enabling universal Internet connectivity, the IETF ROLL routing protocol enabling availability, and finally the IETF CoAP enabling seamless transport and support of Internet applications. The protocol stack proposed in the present work converges towards the standardized notations of the ISO OSI and TCP IP stacks. What thus seemed impossible some years back, i.e., building a clearly defined, standards-compliant and Internet-compliant stack given the extreme restrictions of IoT networks, is commencing to become reality. A mobile ad hoc network consists of mobile nodes that can move freely in an open environment. Communicating nodes in a wireless and mobile ad hoc network usually seek the help of other intermediate nodes to establish communication channels. In such an open environment, malicious intermediate nodes can be a threat to the security and or anonymity of the exchanged data between the mobile nodes. While data encryption can protect the content exchanged between nodes, routing information may reveal valuable information about end users and their relationships. The main purposes of this paper are to study the possibility of achieving anonymity in ad hoc networks, and propose an anonymous routing protocol, similar to onion routing concept used in wired networks. Our protocol includes a mechanism to establish a trust among mobile nodes while avoiding untrustworthy nodes during the route discovery process. The major objective of our protocol is to allow only trustworthy intermediate nodes to participate in the routing protocol without jeopardizing the anonymity of the communicating nodes. We present our scheme, and report on its performance using an extensive set of simulation set of experiments using ns-2 simulator. Our results indicate clearly that anonymity can be achieved in mobile ad hoc networks, and the additional overhead of our scheme to DSR is reasonably low when compared to a non-secure DSR ad hoc routing protocol. This paper presents an analysis of the behavior of mobile ad hoc networks when group mobility is involved. We propose four different group mobility models and present a mobility pattern generator, called grcmob that we designed to be used with the ns-2 simulator. Using 2k factorial analysis we determine the most representative factors for protocol performance. We then evaluate the performance of a dynamic source routing (DSR) based MANET, using both TCP and UDP data traffic. The results are compared with the classical random waypoint mobility model. It is shown that the number of groups parameter is more important than the number of nodes one and that the impact of the area size is almost negligible. We make also evident that the mix of inter- and intra-group communication has the strongest impact on the performance. Finally, it is evidenced that the presence of groups forces the network topology to be sparser and therefore the probability of network partitions and node disconnections grows. The authors present random early detection (RED) gateways for congestion avoidance in packet-switched networks. The gateway detects incipient congestion by computing the average queue size. The gateway could notify connections of congestion either by dropping packets arriving at the gateway or by setting a bit in packet headers. When the average queue size exceeds a present threshold, the gateway drops or marks each arriving packet with a certain probability, where the exact probability is a function of the average queue size. RED gateways keep the average queue size low while allowing occasional bursts of packets in the queue. During congestion, the probability that the gateway notifies a particular connection to reduce its window is roughly proportional to that connection's share of the bandwidth through the gateway. RED gateways are designed to accompany a transport-layer congestion control protocol such as TCP. The RED gateway has no bias against bursty traffic and avoids the global synchronization of many connections decreasing their window at the same time. Simulations of a TCP IP network are used to illustrate the performance of RED gateways. > As mobile ad hoc network applications are deployed, security emerges as a central requirement. In this paper, we introduce the wormhole attack, a severe attack in ad hoc networks that is particularly challenging to defend against. The wormhole attack is possible even if the attacker has not compromised any hosts, and even if all communication provides authenticity and confidentiality. In the wormhole attack, an attacker records packets (or bits) at one location in the network, tunnels them (possibly selectively) to another location, and retransmits them there into the network. The wormhole attack can form a serious threat in wireless networks, especially against many ad hoc network routing protocols and location-based wireless security systems. For example, most existing ad hoc network routing protocols, without some mechanism to defend against the wormhole attack, would be unable to find routes longer than one or two hops, severely disrupting communication. We present a general mechanism, called packet leashes, for detecting and, thus defending against wormhole attacks, and we present a specific protocol, called TIK, that implements leashes. We also discuss topology-based wormhole detection, and show that it is impossible for these approaches to detect some wormhole topologies. Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) are wireless networks consisting of a collection of untethered nodes with no fixed infrastructure. An important design criterion for routing protocols in ad hoc networks is power consumption reduction. We describe an energy-efficient mechanism that can be used by a generic MANET routing protocol to prevent nodes from a sharp drop of battery power. We apply the mechanism to the dynamic source routing (DSR) and propose a novel DSR-based energy-efficient routing algorithm referred to as the energy-dependent DSR (EEDSR). We compare the EDDSR algorithm with two of the most recent proposals in this area: the least-energy aware routing (LEAR) and the minimum drain-rate (MDR) mechanism. We show that EEDSR is the best approach to reduce and balance power consumption in a wide spectrum of scenarios. Nodes in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are required to relay data packets to enable communication between other nodes that are not in radio range with each other. However, whether for selfish or malicious reasons, a node may fail to cooperate during the network operations or even attempt to disturb them, both of which have been recognized as misbehaviors. Various trust management schemes have been studied to assess the behaviors of nodes so as to detect and mitigate node misbehaviors inMANETs. Most of existing schemes model a node's trustworthiness along a single dimension, combining all of the available evidence to calculate a single, scalar trust metric. A single measure, however, may not be expressive enough to adequately describe a node's trustworthiness in many scenarios. In this paper, we describe a multi-dimensional framework to evaluate the trustworthiness of MANET node from multiple perspectives. Our scheme evaluates trustworthiness from three perspectives: collaboration trust, behavioral trust, and reference trust. Different types of observations are used to independently derive values for these three trust dimensions. We present simulation results that illustrate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme in several scenarios. This study experimentally compares the performance of three different multi hop ad hoc network routing protocols. Traditional routing protocols have proven inadequate in wireless ad hoc networks, motivating the need for ad hoc specific routing protocols. This study tests link state, distance vector and biologically inspired approaches to routing using OLSR, Babel and BATMAN routing protocols. The importance of OSI layers is also discussed. This study concludes that the routing protocol's overhead is the largest determinant of performance in small multi hop ad hoc networks. The results show that Babel outperforms OLSR and BATMAN routing protocols and that the OSI layer of the routing protocol has little impact on performance. The next-generation Internet promises to provide a fundamental shift in the underlying architecture to support dynamic deployment of network protocols. With the introduction of programmability and dynamic protocol deployment in routers, potential vulnerabilities and attacks are expected to increase. In this paper, we consider the problem of detecting packet forwarding misbehavior in routers. Specifically, we focus on an attack scenario, where a router selectively drops packets destined for another node. Detecting such an attack is challenging since it requires differentiating malicious packet drops from congestion-based packet losses. We propose a controller-based misbehavior detection technique that effectively detects malicious routers using a hash-based delay sampling and verification. We provide a performance analysis of the detection accuracy and quantify the performance overhead of our system. Our results show that our technique provides accurate detection with low sampling rates. Some misbehavior detection and reputation systems in mobile ad-hoc networks rely on the dissemination of information of observed behavior, which makes them vulnerable to false accusations. This vulnerability could be removed by forbidding the dissemination of information on observed behavior in the first place, but, as we show here, this has more drawbacks than a solution that allows dissemination and copes with false accusations. We propose a method for reducing the impact of false accusations. In our approach, nodes collect first-hand information about the behavior of other nodes by direct observation. In addition, nodes maintain a rating about every other node that they care about, in the form of a continuous variable per node. From time to time nodes exchange their first-hand information with others, but, using the Bayesian approach we designed and present in this paper, only second-hand information that is not incompatible with the current rating is accepted. Ratings are slightly modified by accepted information. The reputation of a given node is the collection of ratings maintained by others about this node. By means of simulation we evaluated the robustness of our approach against several types of adversaries that spread false information, and its efficiency at detecting malicious nodes. The simulation results indicate that our system largely reduces the impact of false accusations, while still benefiting from the accelerated detection of malicious nodes provided by second-hand information. We also found that when information dissemination is not used, the time until malicious nodes are detected can be unacceptable. Increasing popularity and availability of portable wireless devices, which constitute mobile ad hoc networks, calls for scalable ad hoc routing protocols. On-demand routing protocols adapt well with dynamic topologies of ad hoc networks, because of their lower control overhead and quick response to route breaks. But, as the size of the network increases, these protocols cease to perform due to large routing overhead generated while repairing route breaks. We propose a multipath on-demand routing protocol (SMORT), which reduces the routing overhead incurred in recovering from route breaks, by using secondary paths. SMORT computes fail-safe multiple paths, which provide all the intermediate nodes on the primary path with multiple routes (if exists) to destination. Exhaustive simulations using GloMoSim with large networks (2000 nodes) confirm that SMORT is scalable, and performs better even at higher mobility and traffic loads, when compared to the disjoint multipath routing protocol (DMRP) and ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. This paper describes the design and implementation of a novel 802.11-based self-organizing hierarchical ad-hoc wireless network (SOHAN), and presents some initial experimental results obtained from a proof-of-concept prototype. The proposed network has a three-tier hierarchy consisting of low-power mobile nodes (MNs) at the lowest layer, forwarding nodes (FNs) with higher power and multi-hop routing capability at the middle layer, and wired access points (APs) without power constraints at the highest layer. Specifics of new protocols used for bootstrapping, node discovery, and multi-hop routing are presented, and the overall operation of the complete hierarchical ad-hoc network is explained. A prototype implementation of the SOHAN network is outlined in terms of major hardware and software components, and initial experimental results are given. Due to the highly dynamic topology and absence of any fixed infrastructure, stability of selected path is of prime importance in ad hoc networks. The frequent route failure and high control overhead in routing protocols lead to degraded system performance. This paper proposes a stability based distributed adaptive routing protocol for ad hoc networks, which uses the worst case lifetime of wireless links, which is obtained by linear regression of the variation of distance between nodes as the routing metric. An efficient beaconing mechanism, load balancing, pro-active and reactive route reconfiguration mechanisms are also studied with the protocol. The protocol is supported with simulation using GloMoSim.