Landmark-based navigation systems have proven benefits relative to traditional turn-by-turn systems that use street names and distances. However, one obstacle to the implementation of landmark-based navigation systems is the complex challenge of selecting salient local landmarks at each decision point for each user. In this paper, we present Pharos, a novel system that extends turn-by-turn navigation instructions using a single global landmark (e.g. the Eiffel Tower, the Burj Khalifa, municipal TV towers) rather than multiple, hard-to-select local landmarks. We first show that our approach is feasible in a large number of cities around the world through the use of computer vision to select global landmarks. We then present the results of a study demonstrating that by including global landmarks in navigation instructions, users navigate more confidently and build a more accurate mental map of the navigated area than using turn-by-turn instructions.
There is already a large corpus of related work exploring the benefits of landmark-based navigation for pedestrians. While the term was originally used to differentiate features with outstanding characteristics @cite_52 , the meaning of the term has changed over time and is now used more generically to describe well-known places @cite_48 . According to Sorrows and Hirtle @cite_54 , it is useful to understand landmarks in a way that supersedes knowledge in the environment''.
@cite_48 @cite_54 @cite_52
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In this paper I examine processes involved in place recognition and wayfinding in the context of spatial knowledge acquisition generally. Recognizing places is seen to be of vital importance in developing a declarative base: wayfinding is viewed as the most common means of acquiring place knowledge. Characteristics of place recognition are examined along with discussion of errors in place cognition and the role that spatial familiarity plays in attaching importance weights to distinguish primary nodes (anchor points) from other places. Wayfinding is characterized as route knowledge acquired via procedural rules. Parameters of wayfinding are discussed in reference to navigation in familiar and unfamiliar environments. The expression of wayfinding in terms of computational process models is examined, and the future role of geographic information systems in such modelling is explored in the penultimate section. Landmarks are significant in one's formation of a cognitive map of both physical environments and electronic information spaces. Landmarks are defined in physical space as having key characteristics that make them recognizable and memorable in the environment. The challenge of defining measurable features of landmarks that can be used in designing and recognizing landmarks in information spaces is explored. By drawing on diverse areas such as urban planning, architecture, cognitive science and hypertext, a coherent definition of a landmark is proposed, which is relevant to both physical and electronic spaces. It is argued that landmarks can be classified in terms of visual, cognitive and structural dimensions, which has implications for how environments can be designed or built in such a way that landmarks will emerge appropriately for unique situations. What does the city's form actually mean to the people who live there? What can the city planner do to make the city's image more vivid and memorable to the city dweller? To answer these questions, Mr. Lynch, supported by studies of Los Angeles, Boston, and Jersey City, formulates a new criterion -- imageability -- and shows its potential value as a guide for the building and rebuilding of cities. The wide scope of this study leads to an original and vital method for the evaluation of city form. The architect, the planner, and certainly the city dweller will all want to read this book.