Burnout, Stress, and Direct Student Services Among School Counselors
The American School Counselor Association (ASCA; 2012) recommends that school counselors enhance the personal, social, academic and career development of all students through the organization and facilitation of comprehensive programmatic counseling services. Delivery of student services is part of a larger framework articulated by ASCA's National Model (2012) that also includes management, accountability and foundation components of school counseling programs. However, ASCA notes that school counselors should "spend 80 percent or more of their time in direct and indirect services to students" (ASCA, 2012, p. xii) ASCA defines indirect student services as services that are in support of students and involve interactions (e.g. referrals, consultations, collaborations and leadership) with stakeholders other than the student (e.g. parents, teachers and community members) On the other hand, direct student services are interactions that occur face toface and involve the facilitation of curriculum (e.g. classroom guidance lessons) individual student planning and responsive services (e.g. individual, group and crisis counseling) In either case, ASCA charges school counselors with prioritizing the delivery of student services.As a part of their work, school counselors often incur high levels of stress that may result from multiple job responsibilities, role ambiguity, high caseloads, limited resources for coping and limited clinical supervision (DeMato Curcio, 2004; Lambie, 2007; McCarthy, Kerne, Calfa, Lambert, Guzman, 2010) In addition, burnout can result from the ongoing experience of stress (Cordes Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, 2003; Schaufeli Enzmann, 1998) and can result in diminished or lower quality rendered services (Lawson Venart, 2005; Maslach, 2003) While research on burnout is common in the school counseling literature (Butler Constantine, 2005; Lambie, 2007; Wachter, Clemens, Lewis, 2008; Wilkerson Bellini, 2006) studies have not focused on the relationship between burnout and school counselors' service delivery. Yet, burnout has the potential to produce negative consequences for the work rendered by school counselors and could result in fewer services for students (Lambie, 2007; Lawson Venart, 2005; Maslach, 2003) Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine the contribution of school counselors' levels of burnout and stress to their delivery of direct student services.School Counselors and the Delivery of Student ServicesResearch on school counselors' delivery of student services has produced positive findings. In a meta analysis that included 117 experimental studies, Whiston, Tai, Rahardja, and Eder (2011) identified that, in general, school counseling services have a positive influence on students' problemsolving and school behavior. Furthermore, in schools where school counselors completed higher levels of student services focused on improving academic success, personal and social development, and career and college readiness, students experienced a variety of positive outcomes, such as increased sense of belongingness, increased attendance, fewer hassles with other students, and less bullying (Dimmitt Wilkerson, 2012) Moreover, researchers have shown that the higher occurrence of school counselor facilitated services is beneficial for students' educational experience and academic outcomes (Carey Dimmitt, 2012; Lapan, Gysbers, Petroski, 2001; Wilkerson, Perusse, Hughes, 2013) Overall, the services conducted by school counselors have a positive impact on student success. As such, research investigating the factors related to higher incidence of school counselors' direct student services could provide significant educational benefits to schools.Researchers have examined a variety of topics that relate to increased student services. Clemens, Milsom, and Cashwell (2009) found that if school counselors had a good relationship with their principal and were engaged in higher levels of advocacy, they were likely to have increased implementation of programmatic counseling services.