African American Early Literacy Development: An Integrative Review of the Research
An integrative review of the research literature was conducted in order to explore plausible explanations of the achievement gap. Research articles were analyzed for this review of the research literature. The findings of this integrative review were included and the educational implications for practice are delineated. Introduction In recent years, scholars and practitioners concerned about the reading achievement gap between Black and White students examine the role of children's early literacy experiences and the indicators of later literacy development (Hunter, 2012; Husband, 2012; Britto, Brooks Gunn, Griffin 2006; Craig, Conner, Washington, 2003; Edwards, 2004; Edwards, 1992; Erickson, 1987; Harris, 2003; Matthews, Kizzie, Rowley, Cortina, 2010; Roberts, Jurgens, Burchinal, 2005; Thompson Shamberger, 2015; Washington, 2001) These findings include the need to look at early literacy experiences, language development, and parental involvement. In a study by Washington (2001) the authors suggests that intervention and prevention strategies for African American students must begin prior to Kindergarten or during the preschool years in order to eliminate or prevent early reading difficulties. In a different study by, Britto, BrooksGunn, and Griffin (2006) the authors studied early maternal reading and teaching experiences of African American families, and the effect on the school readiness of African American children. The results of this study had a similar finding. The African American children whose mothers in this study provided high levels of support and guided participation during reading experiences demonstrated increased school readiness in the area of early reading. Roberts, Jurgens and Burchinal (2005) found similar results in their study by examining the home literacy practices of African American students in preschool and their effects on the students' later language and literacy skills. The authors found that later language and literacy development were based on the maternal support within the home environment. Craig, Conner and Washington (2003) analyzed longitudinal data for African American preschoolers and Kindergarteners in the area of reading comprehension. The authors found that preschool students from low income homes performed significantly higher on a reading assessment than the Kindergarten students from middle class homes. A significant implication of this particular study is that if preschools emphasize early language and literacy experiences then it is possible to improve later literacy development for African American students. In a study by Edwards (1992) she asserts that one of the main issues preventing the literacy development of African American children is the lack of book knowledge children possess when they enter school. Also, she believes that African American parents tend to expose AFRICAN AMERICAN EARLY LITERACY Journal of Research Initiatives 2 their children to nontraditional literacy materials (i.e. letters, brochures, etc) Therefore, Edwards suggests that educators need to work with parents to build early literacy partnerships to aid in the literacy development and achievement of African American children. While some scholars believe that maternal support, home literacy practices, and preschool literacy experiences are indicators of achievement for later literacy (Edwards, 2004; Roberts, Jurgens, Burchinal, 2005) Other scholars believe that using Standard English may influence later reading achievement for African American children (Craig, Conner, Washington, 2003; Harris, 2003) To this end, reading scholars focus on several key indicators related to the early literacy achievement gap. Those indicators include: (a) Early literacy experiences; (b) Educational access to quality reading materials; and (c) Early Intervention strategies. However, a careful examination of early literacy research suggests that the early indicators pertaining to the achievement gap in the early grades may be insufficient because the achievement gap persists. In other words, researchers continue to struggle with the essential question, "What are the root causes and remedies of the Black White achievement gap?" Therefore, the purpose of this integrative review of the existing research literature is to examine alternative explanations of the Black White achievement gap. Several areas will be explored in order to examine alternative explanations of the achievement gap. Those alternative explanations include: (a) African American Vernacular English; (b) Culturally Relevant Pedagogy; and (c) Establishing partnerships with Black parents. African American Vernacular English During the 1970s and 1980s, the research literature about African American Vernacular English (AAVE) was used to challenge earlier claims and findings from the 1960s and 1970s about the language deficiencies of African Americans (Labov, 1982; Toliver Weddington, 1973; Wofford, 1979) During this time, linguists began to problematize the previous assertions pertaining to the deficiencies in the language of African American children. Collectively, this innovation within the research literature on AAVE helped to legitimize AAVE as a language (Dillard, 1973; Labov, 1972; Wofford, 1979) Research and discussions surrounding AAVE were instrumental in adding to the existing body of research pertaining to African American language development. One such study by Heath (1983) discusses the importance of children's socializing experiences, and how the modes of communication (verbal and nonverbal patterns) of children differ substantially by race and class. Further, Heath found that African American parents socialize their children to rely on nonverbal and direct commands. This finding was in stark contrast to White parents in the study who socialize their children to ask questions and recognize indirect learning cues. Heath (1983) asserts that a child's socialization outcome or cultural capital (Kammijn Kraaykamp, 1996; Kingston, 2001) is an important cause related to the educational experience of African Americans. In a different study entitled Understanding storytelling among African American children: A journey from Africa to America, Champion (2003) traces the variations, style, and abilities of African American students in the early grades. Champion also compares the variations and patterns in stories by African and African American children and found similar patterns. In addition, Champion addresses the implications for classroom teachers and community leaders in improving and continuing the tradition of storytelling. Understanding storytelling among African American children may help scholars gain greater insight into: (a) the socialization of African American children through language and storytelling; (b) the casual and formal language patterns among young African American female and male storytellers; and (c) to document storytelling as a part of the rich traditional community AFRICAN AMERICAN EARLY LITERACY Journal of Research Initiatives 3 norm that is learned through observation, interaction, and participation with adults in the community. Studying the language experiences of African American children through storytelling may hold great possibilities for scholars who have sought to study the distinct features of African American Vernacular and dialect. Storytelling among African American children creates another avenue to learn about traditions, language, and learning styles. In addition, Ladson Billings (1995) suggests that classrooms that allow the home language (e.g. storytelling) into the classroom are classrooms where students are more likely to experience academic success. In a study by Charity, Scarborough, and Griffin (2004) the researchers in this study found that there were three possible explanations that influence reading achievement for African American children. Those explanations include instructional variation by linguistically biased teachers, interference between oral and written dialect features, and metalinguistic influences on the development of language and reading. Although, all of these factors are salient to the early literacy development of African American children it is imperative to note that no single indicator or explanation accounts for the later literacy development of African American children. Culturally Relevant Pedagogy Erickson (1987) asserts that culturally responsive pedagogy is a way to foster a system of trust in the classroom that builds bridges between teachers, students, and the community. In addition, other scholars continue to call for culturally relevant pedagogy as a way to foster communication within classrooms and limit cultural conflict (Delpit, 2004; Hale, 2001; Irvine, 2002; Lee, 1995) However, since Erickson's work in 1987 there are few studies that take into account what teachers can do in the classroom. Further, many of the culturally relevant pedagogy studies are at the secondary level. However, Erickson (1987) believes that culturally responsive teaching is a promising pedagogy that should be explored further in the early grades. This belief is also held by scholars that call for culturally responsive teachers as a way to foster home, school, and community in the early grades (Foster, 1992; Edwards, 1992; Irvine, 2002) Erickson (1987) asserts that culturally responsive pedagogy is a promising and positive area of research and believes that researchers should continue to conduct research in this area. Researchers who conduct studies in this area distinguish what is considered to be good teaching from culturally relevant pedagogy. An article by Ladson Billings (1995) entitled "But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy" distinguishes culturally relevant pedagogy from good teaching practices by defining the nature and approach to this method as: A pedagogy of opposition not unlike critical pedagogy but specifically co