A reappraisal of the Carboniferous macrofloras of the Zonguldak - Amasra Coal Basin, north-western Turkey
The Zonguldak – Amasra Coal Basin in north-western Turkey has Carboniferous terrestrial deposits ranging in age from Arnsbergian to late Asturian or possibly early Cantabrian. They yield macrofloras that allow detailed biostratigraphical correlations with sequences in Europe. These correlations suggest there are substantial gaps in the Zonguldak – Amasra succession, with middle to upper Namurian, upper Langsettian, Duckmantian and lower Asturian strata apparently being missing. This in turn suggests the area was subjected to significant tectonic instability during Pennsylvanian (late Carboniferous) times and that this might have been instrumental in initiating the progressive change in composition and eventual collapse of the coal swamp biome across Variscan Euramerica during Westphalian times.
RESOURCES, QUALITY AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SOLID FOSSIL FUELS IN TURKEY
Turkey possesses fossil fuel resources of hard coal, lignite, bituminous shale, asphaltite, peat, petrol and natural gas. Among these, the hard coal and lignite have the greatest importance in energy production and for the national economy. � e hard coal reserve of Turkey is estimated to be 1.1 billion tonnes with a calorifi c value between 5650-7250 kcal/kg (23655-30354 kJ/kg). Lignites occur in the Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene basins all around Turkey. � e majority of Turkish lignite deposits are worked in open-pit mines with the total lignite coal reserve estimated to be around 8.3 billion tonnes (by 2001 estimates). Lignites are mined by TKI (Turkish Coal Enterprises) at a rate between 60-65 million tonnes per year. Because of their low calorifi c values, most of the lignites produced are used in the electrical power plants. Whilst the total capacity of hard coal based power plants is 300 MW, that of the lignite based ones is 5913 MW. � e total reserve of the asphaltite deposits is estimated to be 82 million tonnes. Bitu- minous shales amount to a total reserve of approximately 1,641 million tonnes, but are not being utilized economically at present. Peat deposits are estimated to be in the order of 190 million tonnes, and are generally used only as plant soil. Among the above-mentioned solid fossil fuels, lignite has the greatest importance and potential. Based on the reserve estimation data available at present, it is safe to say that Turkey has enough solid fossil fuel reserves to meet most of its energy needs for many years to come.
A biofacies analysis of the Gastrioceras cumbriense Marine Band (Namurian) of the central Pennines
SUMMARY The Gastrioceras cumbriense Marine Band (G 1b ) is the highest marine horizon in the Namurian Series of the central Pennines and does not generally exceed 60cm in thickness. In the present paper local variations are examined at six sections along a 60km distance from west Yorkshire to south Lancashire. The initial onset of marine conditions is recorded by Lingula -bearing grey shales in the central Pennines, but by the productoid facies (Calver 1968) to the west in south Lancashire. This is interpreted as reflecting a slight shallowing of the sea towards the west, a palaeotopography that persisted throughout the marine phase. The deepest water conditions, which occurred at the acme of the incursion, produced a marked change in cephalopod and bivalve species ratios and an associated change to a black shale lithology. Euxinic conditions appear to have occurred only temporarily. Over the whole of northern England the basal marine shales record a series of distinct faunal profiles, with fully marine faunas recorded to the west of the area. The regression appears to have been more rapid than the advance, and retreat faunal facies are more sporadically developed.