Friction testing of thermoplastic composites
Friction phenomena play a major role in thermoplastic composite forming processes. In order to make use of the large potential these materials have, accurate CAE tools are needed that as a consequence incorporate temperature, pressure and velocity dependent friction behavior. To obtain a sound understanding of friction behavior a large number of friction measurement set-ups have been described in literature. A benchmark to compare different testing methods was proposed during the Esaform2010 conference. 
In this paper the material (Twintex PP) and testing conditions for the benchmark are briefly revisited and first testing results employing the in-house developed friction tester are presented. It is observed that the results reproduce very well at different conditions. Based on the Hersey number the Stribeck curve for the tested material combination is derived. It is concluded that a full state of hydrodynamic lubrication was reached with friction coefficients between 0.15 and 0.5. This opens up good perspectives for numerical modeling since all parameters are readily available in process simulations. Future comparisons within the context of the benchmark will assess the quantitative level of the identified coefficients of friction.
Tool-ply friction in thermoplastic composite forming
ABSTRACTFriction is an important phenomenon that can dominate the resulting product geometry of thermoplastic composites upon forming. A model was developed that predicts the friction between a thermoplastic laminate and a rigid tool. The mesoscopic model, based on the Reynolds’ equation for thin film lubrication, has been validated against experiments. The tool-ply friction was characterised for 2 × 2 twill/PP (Twintex) and 8 harness satin/PPS laminates. Tool-ply friction of the latter appears to be a combination of a Coulomb type of friction and a viscous type of friction.
Hygroscopic Expansion of some Casting Investments
CREDIT is generally given to Taggart1 for introducing the cast gold inlay to the dental profession. Although he realized that gold shrinks when cooled from molten state to solid state of room temperature, the investment available to him did not supply sufficient compensation. In 1910, Van Horn2 published a paper dealing with a method by which he obtained the compensation by means of wax expansion. The next major research in connection with this problem was the work of Coleman3 at the National Bureau of Standards. He determined the gold shrinkage to be 1.25 per cent and presented a casting technic with compensation values of quantitative nature. The total compensation for the gold shrinkage was obtained by the combination of the setting and thermal expansion of the mold. This procedure is the general practice followed at the present time for compensation. There are some disadvantages to this method. Skinner has indicated the difficulty of obtaining smooth castings and the improper compensation for the casting shrinkage.4 It has been found by Hollenback5 and Scheu6a that castings made at a high temperature are rougher than those made at a low temperature (450° C.), depending upon the great difference in thermal expansion between plaster of Paris and silica, which causes a poor union of the fine particles. This may also result in friability and there may be some warpage due to the differential expansion. A method which provides sufficient compensation at a low mold temperature is the hygroscopic casting technic.b Wilson7 showed that certain plasters expand as much as 0.0044 inch to the inch by taking up moisture from the air. With this information at hand, Scheula, b tested some commercial investment to determine what results the addition of moisture would have. He found6b: (1) All of the casting investments that were tested expanded. (2) The thicker the mix, the greater the expansion. (3) A mix with hot water expanded more than one with cold water. (4) The time at which the mix is placed in the water is of great importance. It was found that if the mix is placed in the water early, it would not expand so much as when placed in a little later. It was also found that if the mix was placed in the water after a certain time, it could not expand to the maximal amount. (5) The temperature of the water in which the mix is placed is important, for two reasons; (a) the temperature of the water controls slightly the expansion of the investment, and (b) water at a temperature of 1000 F. slightly softens the wax pattern so that the fine margins are not marred while expansion is taking place. The mix should remain in the water at least 20 minutes to obtain the full expansion, after which time no further expansion is obtained.