The EU and armed drones – epilogue
The countries of the European Union are moving into the era of weaponized drones. While the United Kingdom remains the only EU country to deploy armed drones, several other EU member states are seeking to acquire weapons-equipped unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or are debating their acquisition. Many European countries are also now involved in projects to develop weapons-capable drones themselves, though it is expected that European-made drones will not be ready for deployment for at least 10 years. Nevertheless, despite these developments and despite the extensive use of armed drones by the United States, the EU has not yet adopted any collective public position on some of the most hotly debated issues associated with the use of UAVs. Even individual member states have been slow to expound clear positions on the legal parameters for drone strikes. From one perspective, it might be thought odd that the development of a new weapons platform should give rise to demands for a defined European position. Admittedly, the acquisition of armed UAVs raises some questions for military forces that are different from those associated with other weapons systems: their combination of targeting precision, ability to remain over the battlespace for an extended period and elimination of any physical risk to the forces operating them are qualitatively different from other available military technologies and change the nature of the military engagement with the enemy. However the most striking feature of the global debate about drones has been the degree to which it has come to revolve around the way the United States has used UAVs to target suspected terrorists outside of battlefield conditions as part of its global campaign against al-Qaeda and associated groups. Calls for the EU to adopt a position on drones can most often be reduced to a request for clarification of the European view on the legality and morality of targeted killing conducted against individuals who do not pose an immediate threat to the forces attacking them. US practice in this area has gone beyond the boundaries that most western countries previously regarded as defining the limits of legitimate use of force. There are several reasons why it would be desirable for the EU to adopt a clearer line on this question. Bruno Oliveira Martins and Benedikt Backhaus (2015) highlight what is perhaps the most important one: given Europe’s long-standing role in helping define international norms, it would be regrettable for the EU not to participate in establishing the correct standards for a practice that could, under the legal regime asserted by the United States, cause significant damage to the international rule of law. As Elisabeth Schweiger (2015) argues, European silence should not necessarily be read as consent, but the
Why and how the EU should act on armed drones
This article systematizes the reasons that demand EU action on the issue of armed drones and advances a set of parameters that should frame the Union’s policy on the topic. It argues that a clear positioning of Brussels is required due to legal and strategic demands, and also for reasons of consistency with both previous practices in similar events and fundamental vectors of EU foreign and security policy. The current absence of a shared position is explained by several factors that need to be taken into account when addressing the possible paths for that position to materialize. We argue that EU’s policy should follow a two-tier logic that focuses on EU member states, in a first phase, and on the international sphere, in a second one. If fully and strictly respected within the EU territory, a clear EU position on armed drones, adopted in the form of a Council decision, would have the potential to influence international practices and to contribute to limiting armed drone proliferation. The guiding principles of a future EU policy should be reinforced externally by the creation of the role of a special representative for armed drones and targeted killings.
Formation and Strength of Magnesia Whiskers
The formation of single-crystal magnesia whiskers during the compressive deformation of single crystals at room temperatures is described. These whiskers can have strengths of the order of millions of pounds per square inch. They are formed during fracture as a result of the discontinuous propagation of cracks which are mechanically relieving internal stresses resulting from plastic flow