Current Canal Modernization from an International Perspective
DEFINITION OF MODERNIZATION Irrigation project modernization is defined (FAO, 1996) as: A process of technical and managerial upgrading (as opposed to mere rehabilitation) of irrigation schemes combined with institutional reform, with the objective to improve resource utilization (labor, water, economic, environmental) and water delivery service to farmers. Modernization differs from rehabilitation, which simply returns a deteriorated project or structures to their original new state. Rehabilitation by itself typically only perpetuates the vicious cycle of rehabilitation, deterioration, rehabilitation, etc. A modern irrigation design is the result of a thought process that selects the configuration and the physical components in light of a well-defined and realistic operation plan that is based on the service concept. A modern irrigation design is not defined by specific hardware components and control logic. Advanced concepts of hydraulic engineering, irrigation engineering, agronomy, and social science should be used to arrive at the most simple and workable solution (Plusquellec et al., 1994). QUICK REVIEW OF CONDITIONS IN THE U.S.A. Prior to discussing irrigation projects in Less Developed Countries (LDCs), it can be instructive to note key factors which exist in many irrigation projects here in the U.S. First, in the intermountain states many of the irrigation districts are far from modernized. Many have large amounts of conveyance losses, poor on-farm irrigation efficiencies, and poor budgets and maintenance programs. Some operate on very rigid rotation schedules. In other areas of the western U.S. irrigation districts have very high district-level irrigation efficiencies (as high as 80%, including impacts of both delivery and on-farm), and have very flexible water delivery schedules to farmers. But the point to make is that a consultant 1 Professor and Director, Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC), BioResource and Agricultural Engr. Dept., California Polytechnic State Univ. (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo, CA 93407. Current Canal Modenization From An International Perspective http://www.itrc.org/papers/pdf/keynotespeech.pdf ITRC Paper 99-003 Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) www.itrc.org from the U.S., or any other country, might have a long experience with irrigation districts but that experience may have nothing to do with modernization. In the U.S. we also have a considerable amount of literature and research on sophisticated canal control algorithms. However, in the field almost all control on canals is upstream control, with a few districts having extensive computer controlled upstream control. Certainly there are numerous examples of SCADA systems and downstream control, but most of the complex control is found on a few very large canals such as the California Aqueduct or the Central Arizona Project. Such large canals are inherently simpler to manage on a minute-tominute basis than are small canals because of their excellent maintenance and communications systems and the lack of wide fluctuations in flow rate in a short time. There is a special environment in irrigation projects in the U.S. that has a bearing upon successes and failures in the U.S. Aspects of this environment include:  Most consultants in the U.S. must live with the results of their work. News travels fast. And most consultants in U.S. modernization (that is implemented) are private local consultants who are professional engineers, as opposed to researchers.  U.S. projects have very stable workforces. Many irrigation district employees spend almost their whole career in the district.  The U.S. projects benefit from water rights, and (extremely importantly) the ability to enforce water rights and rules.  U.S. projects have excellent legislation for the formation of Water User Associations (WUAs). And most WUAs are operated as not-for-profit businesses with professional management staff that are responsible to elected Boards of Directors.  Various agencies such as the US Bureau of Reclamation have provided long term financial and technical assistance to irrigation districts.  There is an excellent supply infrastructure for spare parts and new equipment.  Even in remote projects, the life of irrigation professionals is good. Schools in remote areas are sometimes better than schools in more urbanized areas. Furthermore, good housing and medical care are available, and the transportation network is excellent so that even at remote projects, one does not typically feel "isolated".  While there is often undue influence in irrigation districts by some board members or difficult individual farmers, corruption is very rare. Current Canal Modenization From An International Perspective http://www.itrc.org/papers/pdf/keynotespeech.pdf ITRC Paper 99-003 Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) www.itrc.org STATUS OF MODERNIZATION IN LDCs
Is the daunting challenge of irrigation achievable?
The projections of food and water demand for 2025, which conclude that irrigated areas should increase by 15 to 22%, assume that the productivity of present irrigation should also increase at unprecedented rates. This paper discusses some of the reasons why the contribution of irrigated agriculture to food and fiber production has continued to increase despite the lower level of investments for developing new irrigable areas and the focus on rehabilitation of existing schemes. The shortages of food production projected for the 1990s have been averted because of the explosive exploitation of groundwater and the many‐fold increase in water‐saving application techniques over the last three decades. However, overexploitation of aquifers and an associated decline in water quality have been occurring in many parts of the developing and developed world, particularly in the semiarid regions. This paper suggests that no further complacency in addressing the long due issue of the poor management practices of the large irrigation systems is acceptable. The failures to understand the links between the technical improvements of the large surface irrigation schemes and required reforms may exacerbate the problem of water scarcity and threaten food security in the future. Development of reliable irrigation in surface systems is crucial to realizing the challenge of irrigation. The magnitude of investments and capacity building in human resources to achieve this goal is likely underestimated. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Familial Cortical Myoclonic Tremor and Epilepsy, an Enigmatic Disorder: From Phenotypes to Pathophysiology and Genetics. A Systematic Review
Background Autosomal dominant familial cortical myoclonic tremor and epilepsy (FCMTE) is characterized by distal tremulous myoclonus, generalized seizures, and signs of cortical reflex myoclonus. FCMTE has been described in over 100 pedigrees worldwide, under several different names and acronyms. Pathological changes have been located in the cerebellum. This systematic review discusses the clinical spectrum, treatment, pathophysiology, and genetic findings. Methods We carried out a PubMed search, using a combination of the following search terms: cortical tremor, myoclonus, epilepsy, benign course, adult onset, familial, and autosomal dominant; this resulted in a total of 77 studies (761 patients; 126 pedigrees) fulfilling the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results Phenotypic differences across pedigrees exist, possibly related to underlying genetic differences. A “benign” phenotype has been described in several Japanese families and pedigrees linked to 8q (FCMTE1). French patients (5p linkage; FCMTE3) exhibit more severe progression, and in Japanese/Chinese pedigrees (with unknown linkage) anticipation has been suggested. Preferred treatment is with valproate (mind teratogenicity), levetiracetam, and/or clonazepam. Several genes have been identified, which differ in potential pathogenicity. Discussion Based on the core features (above), the syndrome can be considered a distinct clinical entity. Clinical features may also include proximal myoclonus and mild progression with aging. Valproate or levetiracetam, with or without clonazepam, reduces symptoms. FCMTE is a heterogeneous disorder, and likely to include a variety of different conditions with mutations of different genes. Distinct phenotypic traits might reflect different genetic mutations. Genes involved in Purkinje cell outgrowth or those encoding for ion channels or neurotransmitters seem good candidate genes.