Commerce, Christianity and the Origins of the ‘Creoles’ of Fernando Po
During the early and middle years of the nineteenth century a Creole elite emerged on the island of Fernando Po. The origins of this lay in the fact that for the thirty years after 1827 the island was at the centre of European political and economic interests in the Gulf of Guinea. The short-lived British occupation of Fernando Po, 1827–34, established the town of Clarence and brought to the island a number of settlers, and in particular ‘liberated Africans’, freed from slave ships captured by the Royal Navy. The situation they faced in Clarence and the treatment they received, not least once the British government withdrew and a succession of British traders attempted to run the town, led to the emergence of a homogeneous society out of the various ethnic groups they comprised. This society was to be transformed by the development of a palm oil trade on the island, particularly during the 1840s. This led to the emergence of a group of middlemen between the Bubi producers of the interior and the European traders who collected oil from Clarence, and concurrently, to the stratification of Clarence society into a trading elite and a group of labourers and servants. This trading elite was attracted to the work of the Baptist Mission in Clarence after 1841, and in particular saw the value of the Mission in giving itself a distinct identity. Over time this elite and the Baptists drew apart, but this was not before the interrelation of social stratification with the work of the Mission had produced a class of Creoles whose descendants – the Fernandinos – still survive as a distinct group in Equatorial Guinea today.
El legado cultural de Sierra Leona en Bioko. Comparativa de dos espacios de criollización africana
El grupo de los criollos fernandinos o crio en Malabo, comparte su historia con la ciudad de Malabo. Esta comunidad criolla se gesto preservando un status basandose en el origen de sus habitantes. Los procedentes de Freetown constituyeron el nucleo mas importante. Establecemos comparativas entre los procesos de criolizacion en Freetown y Bioko, asentamientos de esclavos liberados con diferentes origenes, una estratificacion y el papel de socializacion llevado por un grupo de mas peso, a traves de la acogida en los hogares y de la labor de la escuela y la iglesia. En Freetown serian el grupo de los Black Loyalists y de los cimarrones y en Bioko los denominados “sierraleonas” los que introdujeron esta ideologia adscrita a una identidad britanica, heredera del impulso abolicionista. Encontramos un “purismo etnico” entre los krio de Freetown y entre los crio de Malabo. Ello supone especiales atribuciones en algunos ritos que forman parte del nankue o bonko -rito-danza heredado de Calabar y Cuba conservado hasta hoy y simbolo en la navidad malabena. El tambor cuadrado con patas cumbe y el rito-danza del nankue han experimentado un proceso de adaptacion a un nuevo entorno, en el que la musica ocupa un espacio social interetnico. El cumbe es un tambor africano utilizado en Jamaica y posteriormente en Freetown llevado por los cimarrones cuya cultura llega a Bioko con los “sierraleonas”. Esta africanidad se inserta en una identidad criolla en la que la tarea civilizadora y la adscripcion a una identidad britanica, requisitos en el impulso abolicionista, continuaron prevaleciendo en las complejas trayectorias de poblaciones descendientes de esclavos liberados, desde Sierra Leona hasta Bioko.
Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification
Preface Acknowledgements 1. Prolegomena 2. The fountainhead: Augustine of Hippo 3. The development of the doctrine in the medieval period 4. The medieval schools of thought on justification 5. The transition from the medieval to the modern period 6. The development of the doctrine in the Reformation period 7. The Tridentine decree of justification 8. The legacy of the English Reformation 9. The modern period Appendix: a glossary of medieval soteriological terms Abbreviations Notes Bibliography Index.