A review of empirical studies of aggregate marketing costs and productivity in the United States
This article reviews empirical studies of aggregate marketing cost and aggregate marketing productivity in the United States. A methodological comparison is made of five cost studies for 1929 and seven productivity studies covering a period from 1869 to 1968. The cost studies do not clarify—one way or the other—if marketing costs too much or too little. The productivity studies, on the other hand, despite a variety of methodologies, reveal a rising secular trend over the past century. Thus, it may be concluded that irrespective of changes in cost, marketing is becoming more productive.
A general theory of systems performance criteria
Based on general systems thinking of the past half century and the efficiency literature of the last 100 years, this research develops a theoretical model of systems performance criteria that provides a means to evaluate how well any living system, whether individual, organisational or societal, performs task-related activities in the pursuit of goals. The model is used as a foundation for organising the various concepts of performance that have evolved over the past century: efficiency, costs, productivity, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. These performance concepts, derived from the theoretical model, are formalised into axioms that are used to deduce theorems and derivative laws in constructing a formal general theory of systems performance criteria.
The Prevalence of Cerebral Damage Varies With Migraine Type: A MRI Study
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