China's One-Child Policy
In September 1979, China’s Fifth National People’s Congress passed a policy that encouraged one-child families. Following this decision from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), campaigns were initiated to implement the One-Child Policy nationwide. This initiative constituted the most massive governmental attempt to control human fertility and reproduction in human history. These campaigns prioritized reproductive technologies for contraception [6], abortion [7], and sterilization [8] in gynecological and obstetric medicine, while downplaying technologies related to fertility treatment. In the late 1980s, one of the consequences was the reorientation of the rationality of governmental funding for research on human in vitro [9] fertilization [10] (IVF) and embryo transfer [11].
Birth Control Methods and Organisation in China
The release of the preliminary results of the 1982 census and of a national ‘One in one thousand’ fertility survey have confirmed that a fertility decline of major proportions took place in China in the 1970s. As recently as 1968, when the fertility level reached its second highest peak since 1950, the total fertility rate was 7.025 children per woman of reproductive age. In 1971, when the government embarked on the third birth-control campaign, the total fertility rate was still a high 5.442. A decade later in 1981 it had dropped to 2.238. In other words, China had reduced its fertility level by almost 60 per cent in a decade. Such a dramatic fertility transition in a large country and in so short a time is unprecedented. This achievement is all the more impressive because China’s population comprises one fifth of humankind and the transition has taken place without a profound socio-economic modernisation or a major improvement in living standards taking place prior to or during the transition period.
European Consumer Access to Justice Revisited
Part I. Setting the Stage: Access to Justice 2.0: 1. At the very outset 2. Access to justice 2.0: breaking it into pieces Part II. Procedural Law: The Traditional Pillar of Access to Justice 2.0: 3. A brief outline of the developments at the pan-EU level 4. Prime examples 5. Compensatory collective redress: the next step? 6. Where to go from here? Part III. Substantive Law: Complementing Access to Justice 2.0: 7. Widening the scope of the value-oriented justice discussion 8. Substantive consumer law-making in the course of time 9. Recent trends and developments 10. The common European sales law 11. Summarising comments on the defragmentation of substantive consumer laws in the context of the CRD and the CESL Part IV. Consumer Access to Justice 2.0: A Multidimensional Framework: 12. From the current state of consumer law to consumer access to justice 2.0 13. The justice debate and consumer legislation 14. (Responses to) counter-arguments to third-party intervention 15. Consumer empowerment 16. Lessons to be drawn.