Key comparison BIPM.RI(I)-K9 of the absorbed dose to water standards of the LNE-LNHB, France, and the BIPM in medium-energy x-rays
A key comparison has been made between the absorbed dose to water standards of the LNE-LNHB, France, and the BIPM in the medium-energy x-ray range. The results show the standards to be in general agreement at the level of the expanded (k = 2) uncertainty of the comparison of 2 parts in 102. The results are presented in terms of degrees of equivalence for entry in the BIPM key comparison database. Main text To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/. The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).
Calorimetric determination of the absorbed dose to water for medium-energy x-rays with generating voltages from 70 to 280 kV
For medium energy x-rays produced with tube voltages from 70 to 280 kV, the absorbed dose to water, Dw, has been determined by means of water calorimetry with relative standard uncertainties ranging from 0.45% to 0.98% at 280 and 70 kV. The results were confirmed by Monte Carlo calculations, in which the ratios of Dw at 5 cm depth in a reference water phantom to the air kerma free in air, Ka, at the same point in space were compared to the corresponding ratios determined experimentally. The general agreement between measurement and calculation was better than 1%. These results confirm earlier investigations in which the absorbed dose to graphite was determined by means of a graphite extrapolation chamber. For the Monte Carlo calculations, an attempt was made to present a complete uncertainty budget, taking into account type B contributions also.
The quantum particle in a box: what we can learn from classical electrodynamics
The problem of a charged particle enclosed in an infinite square potential well is analysed from the point of view of classical theory with the addition of the electromagnetic zero-point radiation field, with the aim to explore the extent to which such an analysis can contribute to enhance our understanding of the quantum behavior. First a proper treatment is made of the freely moving particle subject to the action of the radiation field, involving a frequency cutoff ωc. The jittering motion and the effective structure of the particle are sustained by the permanent action of the zero-point field. As a result, the particle interacts resonantly with the traveling field modes of frequency ωc in its proper frame of reference, which superpose to give rise to a modulated wave accompanying the particle. This is identified with the de Broglie wave, validating the choice of Compton’s frequency for ωc. For the stationary states of particles confined in the potential well, the Lorentz force produced by the accompanying field is shown to lead to discrete values for the mean speed and to an uneven probability distribution that echoes the corresponding quantum distribution. The relevance of the results obtained and the limitations of the classical approach used, are discussed in the context of present-day stochastic electrodynamics.