Political terrorism and the size of government: A positive institutional analysis of violent political activity
Political terrorism has been described as violent political behavior primarily designed to generate fear in the community, or a substantial part of it, for political purposes.' Political terrorism is distinguished from revolution in that the immediate objective of terrorist acts is intimidation rather than the overthrow of the existing government. Terrorism is a form of political extortion. Positive theories of crime 2 and extortion 3 assume that individuals will act to maximize some objective function subject to existing social or legal constraints. However, there is no parallel to these positive approaches aimed directly at the subject of political terrorism. Existing literature (hereafter referred to collectively as traditional literature) is dominated by the writings of psychologists, sociologists, and historians. Within these works, political purposes are typically defined as ideological in nature. As a result, political terrorists are assumed to be ideological zealots, willing to kill and be killed in order to further 'the cause'. Within this context positive analysis becomes difficult. Few analysts can rationalize such extreme behavior. As a result, traditional studies are forced to search for typically unobservable psychological and socio-economic characteristics as explanations for violent behavior. Frequently cited causes of political terrorism are lack of self-esteem (Kaplan, 1978: 245), emancipation afforded women (Dobson and Payne, 1979: 51), economic and political alienation and relative depravation (Bassouini, 1975; Gurr, 1969 and 1970; Dollard et al., 1939; and Wilkinson, 1977). Terrorists are characterized as irrational (Wilkinson, 1977: 49) or insane (National Advisory Committee..., p. 20). The dominant theme in the existing literature is a call for expansion of
Terrorists -- What Are They Like? How Some Terrorists Describe Their World and Actions
Abstract : To improve their defenses against possible forms of terrorist attack, it is important that security planners learn as much as possible about the nature of the adversary. This Note uses what little primary material is available at this time (i.e., written or spoken statements by captured or defected terrorists about themselves and their colleagues) to examine what kind of people terrorists are, why they become terrorists, how they feel and operate in that outlaw condition, and why they quit, as some of them have done. It also explores what happens inside the terrorist group, how plans are made and operations are carried out, what satisfactions and frustrations group members experience, what forces of cohesion and disintegration work upon the group, and how terrorists view the future. The Note consists of four parts: (1) an Introduction, which is a very brief critical discussion of the existing literature on the terrorist mentality and the perceived ideological origins of terrorism; (2) descriptive sketches of the terrorist individual based on interviews and autobiographical writings; (3) a discussion of the workings inside terrorist groups from sources who have themselves been members of such groups; and (4) conclusions, in which the author attempts to distill some vulnerabilities of terrorists that may be of use to security planners. The principal sources for this report are four former terrorists who have given in-depth interviews and one who has given sketchy history of himself. One of the sources also has written a book about himself and his experiences. Of the sources, two defected from the terrorist world and are now living underground, hiding out both from the authorities and from their former colleagues. The other three were apprehended and tried and are now serving time in prison. The five sources are: Michael Baumann, Hans-Joachim Klein, Zvonko Busic, Kozo Okamoto, and Horst Mahler.
Protection of the Marine Environment: The International and National Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
This chapter provides an overview of the international and national regulatory framework pertaining to deep seabed mining activities. It begins by discussing the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the backdrop for all marine activities – be they national or international – and examines the obligations of states to protect the marine environment from the harmful effects arising from deep seabed mining. Next, the chapter examines the international regime for deep seabed mining (i.e. “activities in the Area”), explaining the “common heritage of mankind” status of the Area (i.e. the international seabed); the functions of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the international organization established to govern deep seabed mining in the Area; and the concept of state sponsorship of non-state entities (i.e. private actors) for deep seabed mining in the Area. The chapter follows with a discussion of the development of national legislation to regulate deep seabed mining, examining efforts in the Pacific region where many prospective deep-sea mining sites are located. This includes a look at the legislative regimes of several Pacific Island nations, namely, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and the Cook Islands, for whom deep seabed mining may soon become a reality – as well as New Zealand and Japan, countries with comparatively developed rule of law and legislative regimes that have undertaken or considered deep seabed mining in their national waters. Overall, the chapter critically describes and evaluates the current regulatory status in the international and national seabed areas and highlights some salient gaps that require urgent attention in order to ensure marine environmental protection and mitigate impacts on humans.