( SWL 1 ) Leipzig , 5-8 August 2004 Non-canonical applicatives and focalization in Tswana
This paper examines non-canonical uses of Tswana applicative verb forms that support the hypothesis of a prototypical relationship between the syntactic role of object and the pragmatic role of focus. In its canonical use, the applicative suffix of Tswana can be defined as licensing the presence of a direct object representing a participant that cannot figur in the construction of the same verb in its non-derived form. One of the non-canonical uses of applicative verb forms examined in this paper involves no change in the valency of the verb: in Tswana, as in other Southern Bantu languages, the use of the applicative form of the verb may simply indicate the focalization of a locative complement or adjunct. This non-canonical use of applicative verb forms must be related to other facts of Tswana, and more generally of Bantu languages, suggesting that in Bantu syntax the immediate post-verbal position, grammaticalized as the obligatory position of the objects of transitive verbs, is primarily a focus position.
Polysemy and the applicative verb construction in Chishona
This thesis explores the semantic and syntactic properties of the Chishona applica¬ tive construction. In particular, it explores the possibility of providing a polysemous analysis of the different semantic interpretations associated with the applicative suf¬ fix. Applicative verbs in Bantu languages have been principally analysed as performing one function: to increase the valency of a verb, typically transitive, whose intro¬ duced argument is generally interpreted as a benefactive. Such an analysis does not, however, tell the whole story about the function of the applicative suffix, but rather less attention has been given to the semantic/pragmatic relation that exists between the applicative verb and its corresponding non-applied verb or between the applied construction and alternative constructions that involve adjunct phrases. The prin¬ cipal problem in making such comparisons is that there exist applicative objects that are not interpreted as benefactives. Within the Bantu language ChiShona, spoken in Zimbabwe, there exists a number of other productive patterns with the applicative morpheme where the applicative object is interpreted as a maleficiary, motive, goal, locative and source, and where there may or may not be a change in the valence of the verb stem. Moreover, there are instances in which the applicative is associated with a completely idiosyn¬ cratic semantic contrast. Though these lexical pairs seem to be differentiated by the presence of the applicative suffix, they cannot plausibly be so analysed at least synchronically, since the semantics of the applicative verb differs considerably from that of its apparent morphological base. The fact that the applicative construc¬ tion is associated with a wide variety of interpretations poses serious problems for unitary analyses of the construction by Bantu theorists and hence we find that no attempt has been made to account for the applicative in a unitary manner. Given this difficulty, analyses have generally postulated homonymous applicative forms, a
Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice
ABSTRACT Within the framework of viewing communicative competence as a prerequisite to linguistic competence, rather than vice versa, this paper considers the following: (1) the nature of communicative competence; (2) the implications of communicative competence for second language teaching; and (3) ways in which the teacher can begin to make a foreign language program more meaningful. Communicative competeuce is defined as what native speakers know which enables them to interact effectively with each other. Implications for the language teacher include: (T) the need for tests which measure the ability to use language; (2) the irrelevancy of sequencing surface features; (3) the need for emphasis on non-lizguistic aspects of communication; and (4) the need to re-examiLe attitudes toward students and language teaching. Practical suggestins for implementing communicative competence in the classroom include the use of spontaneous role-playing, discussions, games, radio, and the telephone. (AM)