Classical thermodynamic approach to void nucleation in irradiated materials
Abstract One of the major problems in building a future fusion power station is the development of suitable structural materials. These materials will be exposed to high energy neutron bombardment, with consequent changes in their mechanical properties – embrittlement, hardening and swelling, for example. A missing link in modelling these effects is an effective treatment of the nucleation of voids under irradiation. These voids are initially stabilised by transmutation helium but, once formed, grow by vacancy accumulation. In this paper, a quasi-chemical model is developed to calculate the entropy of a steel/helium system. Although a substantial contribution from quasi-chemical effects might be expected, the steady state concentrations of dissolved helium are found to be too low for such effects to manifest. The steady state concentration of dissolved helium is low in absolute terms, but the resulting supersaturation is very high, making it reasonable to assume that all available nucleation sites are instantaneously activated.
Helium solubility and bubble formation in a nanostructured ferritic alloy
Abstract The response of a nanostructured ferritic alloy to He implantation and post-irradiation annealing (PIA) at 750 °C was characterized by atom probe tomography and transmission electron microscopy. The supersaturated He concentration in the ferrite at a dose of ∼2.1 displacements per atom was similar for the as-implanted, 75 ± 7 appm, and a 10 h PIA treatment, 71 ± 7 appm, but decreased to 38 ± 2 appm after a 100 h PIA treatment. Approximately 91–97% of the He bubbles were present as isolated bubbles in the ferrite and ∼1–5% on the surface of the nanoclusters in the ferrite. The remainder were associated with the grain boundaries with a small fraction on the surface of Ti(N,C,O) precipitates. Their average size and number density were similar for the as-implanted and 10 h PIA treatment with a small increase in the size and a significant increase in the number density after the 100 h PIA treatment. Swelling in the high dose region increased from ∼1% in the as-implanted and 10 h PIA conditions to ∼5% after the 100 h PIA treatment but the estimated number of He atoms per unit volume in the He bubbles decreased by an order of magnitude. Number densities increased from ∼8 × 10 23  m −3 in the as-implanted to ∼15 × 10 23  m −3 in the 10 h PIA condition, with little change (to ∼12 × 10 23  m −3 ) in the 100 h PIA condition. This trend may indicate nucleation of new bubbles up to 10 h, with growth and possible consumption of the smaller bubbles between 10 and 100 h.
Natural Radioactivity of Intrusive-Metamorphic and Sedimentary Rocks of the Balkan Mountain Range (Serbia, Stara Planina)
Stara Planina (also known as the Balkan mountain range) is known for numerous occurrences and deposits of uranium and associated radionuclides. It is also famous for its geodiversity. The geologic framework is highly complex. The mountain is situated between the latitudes of 43° and 44° N and the longitudes from 22°16′ to 23°00′ E. Uranium exploration and radioactivity testing on Stara Planina began back in 1948. Uranium has also been mined in the zone of Kalna, within the Janja granite intrusive. The naturally radioactive geologic units of Stara Planina are presented in detail in this paper. The main sources of radioactivity on Stara Planina can be classified as: 1. Granitic endogenous—syngenetic–epigenetic deposits and occurrences; 2. Metamorphogenic—syngenetic; and 3. Sedimentary, including occurrences of uranium deposition and fluctuation caused by water in different types of sedimentary rocks formed in a continental setting, which could be classified under epigenetic types. The area of Stara Planina with increased radioactivity (higher than 200 cps), measured by airborne gamma spectrometry, is about 380 square kilometers. The highest values of measured radioactivity and uranium grade were obtained from a sample taken from the Mezdreja uranium mine tailing dump, where 226Ra measures 2600 ± 100 Bq/kg and the uranium grade is from 76.54 to 77.65 ppm U. The highest uranium (and lead) concentration, among all samples, is measured in graphitic schist with high concentrations of organic (graphitic) material from the Inovska Series—99.47 ppm U and 107.69 ppm Pb. Thorium related radioactivity is the highest in granite samples from the Janja granite in the vicinity of the Mezdreja granite mine and the Gabrovnica granite mine tailing dump, and it is the same—250 ± 10 Bq/kg for 232Th, while the thorium grade varies from 30.82 to 60.27 ppm Th. In gray siltstones with a small amount of organic material, the highest radioactivity is related to potassium—2080 ± 90 Bq/kg for 40K.