Cyber Attacks as "Force" under UN Charter Article 2(4)
I a 2010 article in Foreign Affairs, Deputy Secretary of Defense William Lynn revealed that in 2008 the Department of Defense suffered “the most significant breach of U.S. military computers ever” when a flash drive inserted into a US military laptop surreptitiously introduced malicious software into US Central Command’s classified and unclassified computer systems.1 Lynn explains that the US government is developing defensive systems to protect military and civilian electronic infrastructure from intrusions and, potentially worse, disruptions and destruction, and it is developing its own cyber-strategy “to defend the United States in the digital age.”2 To what extent is existing international law, including the UN Charter, adequate to regulate cyber attacks and related offensive and defensive activities today and in the future? By “cyber attacks” I mean efforts to alter, disrupt, degrade or destroy computer systems or networks or the information or programs on them.3 This article examines one slice of that legal puzzle: the UN Charter’s prohibitions of the threat or use of “force” contained in Article 2(4).4 Other writings in this volume deal with questions such as Article 51’s self-defense provisions and questions of State responsibility, and there are other international legal prohibitions and regulations that are relevant as well. But Article 2(4) is a good place to start
The use of private military and security companies in armed conflicts and certain peace operations: legal limits and responsibility
This thesis examines the explicit and implicit limits under international law on the use of private military and security companies (PMSCs) in armed conflict and peace operations. Having concluded that most PMSC contractors are civilians under international humanitarian law, and therefore should not directly participate in hostilities, it explores the relationship between that concept and the use of force in self-defence - including in peace operations - to assess what PMSCs may be contracted to do. In addition to exploring other limits on state use of PMSCs, the study analyses the principles of peacekeeping and IHL to identify limits on the roles for which PMSCs may be used, especially as a component of the peacekeeping force or as security guards. Finally, this study provides a critical analysis of the potential responsibility of states and international organisations for wrongful acts of PMSCs.
White-Collar Crime in Modern England: Financial Fraud and Business Morality, 1845-1929.
List of tables Acknowledgments Introduction 1. The new economy: transformation of finance and opportunities for crime 2. The railway mania 3. Banking and credit fraud 4. Stock fraud 5. Company fraud: promotion 6. Company fraud: management 7. Company law and the courts 8. Business ethics and professionalization Conclusion Notes Bibliography Index.