Using the Reference Shrinkage Curve to Estimate the Corrected Crack Volume of a Soil Layer
To estimate the correct soil crack volume based on the shrinkage geometry factor, in addition to measurements with core samples, one also needs to know the shrinkage curve of the soil matrix without cracks. For such a curve one can use the soil reference shrinkage curve that is only stipulated by intraaggregate clay shrinkage without interaggregate cracking. The objective of this work is to illustrate such use of the reference shrinkage curve and, in addition, to argue the necessity to correct the usual estimates of the shrinkage geometry factor in order to correctly estimate the soil crack vol- ume. The illustration is based on available data and reference shrinkage curves for eight soils.
The Reference Shrinkage Curve at Higher than Critical Soil Clay Content
The objective of this work was to construct and validate a model that shows how the clay shrinkage curve, under the influence of a silt-sand admixture as well as an inter- and intraaggregate structure, is transformed to the soil shrinkage curve. To meet this objective, we investigated (i) the reference shrinkage curve, that is, one without cracks, because cracks lead to a multivalued shrinkage curve; (ii) the rigid superficial (interface) layer of aggregates, with changed pore-size range and distribution, compared with the intraaggregate matrix; and (iii) soils with sufficiently high clay content when large pores inside the intraaggregate clay (so-called lacunar pores) are nonexistent. The methodology is based on detail accounting for contributions of the interface aggregate layer and intraaggregate matrix to the soil volume and water content during shrinkage. The reference shrinkage curve is determined by six physical soil parameters: oven-dried specific volume; maximum swelling water content; mean solid density; soil clay content; oven-dried structural porosity; and the ratio of aggregate solid mass to solid mass of the intraaggregate matrix. Only the last parameter was fitted for lack of data and compared with an unfitted estimate. The model was validated using data for eight soils. The important new conclusion is that the mere existence of the rigid superficial aggregate layer leads to a soil reference shrinkage curve that is convex upward in the structural shrinkage area, unlike the shrinkage curve of the clay contributing to the soil. The model can have numerous applications.
Factors Likely to Influence Tort Litigation in the European Union
As the European Union moves towards harmonization in a variety of business, political, and regulatory settings, an opportunity exists to influence the form of tort liability found in these nations. The opportunity should not be missed, with rising concern that U.S. influences will set into motion costly litigiousness, particularly as EU member nations pull back on the level of social programmes available to cover costs typically included in tort claims. To assist policymakers in their deliberations about European Union tort directives, this paper provides discussion of the frequently cited key differences between the U.S. tort systems and what is found in most EU member nations. The discussion is focused on available evidence regarding the influences of these differences as well as important areas of future research. The most important areas seem to be (1) the need to enforce European Law when no defined regulatory body exists for this purpose; (2) the connection between government social programmes and the need for tort liability compensation; (3) and the influence of rules governing payment of legal costs and lawyer fees.