Cybercrime and Online Safety in Cyberspace
Cybercrime is essentially a transnational crime with a ‘modus operandi’ that exploits inter-state differences in the capacity to respond to such crime, and appears in the same company as such powerful global concerns as civil war, genocide and poverty (United Nations 2004). This transnational character provides cybercriminals, especially organized crime (OC), with the agility to avoid counter-measures even when implemented by capable actors (Brenner 2002, 2006; Council of Europe 2004). Although some have questioned the existence of organized criminal activities in cyberspace, several studies have noted the potential and actual synergy between organized crime and cyberspace in recent years. This paper outlines some of the issues and problems in respect to the role of OC in cybercrime.
Organizations and Cybercrime
This paper explores the nature of groups engaged in cybercrime. It briefly outlines the definition and scope of cybercrime, theoretical and empirical challenges in addressing what is known about cyber offenders, and the likely role of organized crime groups (OCG). We give examples of known cases that illustrate individual and group behaviour, and motivations of typical offenders, including state actors. Different types of cybercrime and different forms of criminal organisation are described drawing on the typology suggested by McGuire (2012). It is apparent that a wide variety of organisational structures are involved in cybercrime. Enterprise or profit-oriented activities, and especially cybercrime committed by state actors, appear to require leadership, structure, and specialisation. By contrast, protest activity tends to be less organized, with weak (if any) chain of command.
Biodiversity, conservation, and sustainable development
This important book highlights the conflicts between economic growth and the conservation of nature in the context of sustainable development. It places particular emphasis on biological diversity and examines possible policies for resolving conflicts which arise from the contrasting goals of conserving the natural environment and economic growth.