Sport and Masculinity: The Promise and Limits of Title IX
This paper uses the lens of masculinities theory to examine the connections between sport and masculinity and considers how law both reinforces and intervenes in sport’s production of masculinity. The paper urges moving beyond a "women vs. men" framework for examining gender equality in sport to include critical study of sport’s relationship to masculinities. The primary law examined in this chapter is Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972, which is widely (and properly) credited with the explosive growth of women’s sports in the intervening decades. While Title IX has greatly expanded the range of culturally valued femininities for women, and broadened the social category of "woman" in the process, it has not broadened the masculinities that sport constructs for male athletes, nor has it made significant inroads into the hyper-masculine ethos that pervades the most-valued men’s sports. The paper draws out several themes that characterize sport’s relationship to masculinity, including: the historic purpose of adding sport to schools in order to produce more masculine boys; the multi-dimensional nature of the masculinities sport constructs; the hierarchies of masculinity within men’s sports; and the costs to even the beneficiaries of a hegemonic masculinity produced through sport. The paper then turns to consider why it is that, despite the massive entry of women into sport in the past four decades, sport’s relationship to masculinity has not significantly changed. The paper examines how several aspects of Title IX reinforce this relationship, including Title IX’s default rules approving of sex-segregated teams and its limited integration rights, and an equal treatment standard that accepts as a baseline the hierarchies within men’s sports that privilege the most masculine sports, football and basketball. The paper then turns to a more promising development in the potential for law to intervene in the production of masculinity, examining recent cases in which Title IX has held educational institutions accountable for the harms caused by extreme performances of hyper-masculinity, including sexual assaults by male athletes of women and of other male athletes. The article notes some reasons for caution, but views this development as a potentially useful intervention into the worst excesses of hegemonic masculinity in sport. Finally, the article urges an examination of the costs of hegemonic masculinity to even those men who benefit from it. Exposing the costs to men of hegemonic masculinity is a critical part of beginning to think about how we might change sport’s relationship to masculinity so as to develop alternative, more democratic masculinities through sport.
Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport Among Adolescents
One of the most dreaded insults in sports is, “You throw like a girl,” because it epitomizes our society’s gender logic about physiological differences between men and women. Although physiological differences between the sexes exist, people label these abilities and behaviors as masculine or feminine as a result of social and cultural expectations. Thus, gender equates to the socially learned expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female (Andersen & Taylor, 2006). Gender socialization begins early when, traditionally, girls are instructed to be passive, submissive, and nurturing, whereas boys are taught to be aggressive, active, and autonomous (Birns, 1976). Gill (2000, 2002) emphasized that gender should be considered within the wider context of social diversity that includes analysis of other ideologies (e.g., race, social class). The sports environment provides a unique microcosm for the examination of both gender and race socialization (Coakley, 2007). Therefore, the purpose our study was to examine both the influence of gender and race among high school youth in classifying sport activities as masculine, feminine, or gender neutral. Engel (1994) and others (e.g., Birrell, 2000; Butler, 1990; Halberstam, 2001; hooks, 1990) have acknowledged that while sports are not naturally gendered, patriarchal societies impose definitions and expectations of masculinity and femininity upon individuals at an early age. Early research on women in sports was mostly atheoretical, focusing on psychological factors such as gender roles, traits, and role conflict (Birrell, 2000). Then, emerging feminist scholars (such as Birrell, Hall, Theberge, and Oglesby) began to recognize that sports were in fact gender-based activities, with value and power associated with masculine traits (Birrell, 2000). Critical feminist theorists argue that ideological changes are needed before gender equity in sports and society can exist. In every culture, men and women play different roles within the social organization or institution. Sport is a male-dominant institution that promotes traditional gender roles and advances male hegemony (Eitzen, 2005). Hegemony is the condition in which groups, in this case, men in sports, wield authority over other groups through imposition, manipulation, and consent. For centuries, sports have been a prominent hegemonic social institution (Kane & Disch, 1993). The growing number of female athletes and recognition of women’s sports challenge the hegemonic ideology of women as inferior to men (Sabo & Messner, 2001). These factors serve to determine the masculine and feminine images of behaviors that are appropriate to men and women (Metheny, 1965). Thus, we label certain sports as masculine or feminine based on “gender appropriateness” (Ostrow, Jones, and Spiker, 1981), which is determined by how much a particular sport requires female athletes to accept or challenge traditional definitions of femininity (Metheny, 1965). Consequently, sports participation is based on whether the activity characteristics are considered socially acceptable for one’s gender (Guillet, Sarrazon, & Fontayne, 2000). Despite challenges to male hegemony, stereotypes of “acceptable” and “unacceptable” sports by gender persist (Riemer & Visio, 2003). Gender Stereotyping and the Influence of Race in Sport Among Adolescents
Science fairs as learning tool for teaching excellence
Science fairs are usually considered to be a pedagogical and cultural activity that involves the students actively. Gifted students need challenges to further develop their skills while maintaining the motivation level. Science fairs may provide the informal environment that will request and allow these students of excellence to challenge themselves by developing a scientific research project. Despite being well known in different countries, in Portugal first steps are being made on the use and implementation of science fairs as effective pedagogical tool. In this work, we will present a 4 years study that was developed on a Portuguese school with the main goal of evaluating the advantages of this informal way of teaching. The study includes an analysis of the evolution of the students’ knowledge that have participated, or visited, the different science fairs. Some advices for the implementation of these projects will be given. The motivation of the students was monitored as well as the knowledge and skills effectively improved by this activity.