The human rights protection regime for afro-descendants the case of latin America ang the Caribbean
"Some states have been proactive in ratifying laws that protect ethnic minorities in Latin America and the Caribbean, but Afro-descendants do not benefit much from these laws. Self-identification as an 'ethnic minority' for Afro-descendants has been problematic. Some Afro-descendants defend the term Afro-descendant peoples whereas others agree with the use of ethnic minority as the ideal concept to identify them as a group or population. In any case, most Afro-descendants support an effective human rights protection regime as a key tool to help overcome their historical problems. This article studies in depth the crucial importance for Afro-descendants of enhancing this ""still-weak"" regime. The text represents one of the few works of its kind that explores in detail the limitations of the Afro-descendants' human rights struggle in the region"
Independence in Spanish America: Civil Wars, Revolutions, and Underdevelopment
Contents Illustrations Preface to the Second Dialogos Edition Preface to the First Dialogos Edition Acknowledgements Chronology Life Span of Some Leaders of Independence By Way of Introduction The Causes of Independence The Late Colonial Revolts and Protests The First Phase of the Independence Movements The Second Phase of the Independence Movements The Independence Leaders as Liberals The Problems of Independence Conclusion Notes Selected Bibliography Index.
Exposure to violence in incarcerated youth from the city of São Paulo.
OBJECTIVE
This study aimed to determine the extent of exposure to community violence among delinquent Brazilian youth in the 12-month period prior to their incarceration and to identify factors associated with this exposure.


METHOD
With an oversampling of girls, a cross-section of youth under 18 years of age from juvenile detention units in the city of São Paulo, Brazil completed a structured interview. Key items related to exposure to violence (witnessed and experienced) were drawn from the Social and Health Assessment questionnaire to cover the 12-month period prior to incarceration.


RESULTS
Participants (n = 325, 89% boys) reported high rates of exposure to violence with largely similar levels for boys and girls. Being threatened with physical harm, being beaten or mugged and/or shot at were the most common forms of violence experienced. After controlling for demographic and family variables, the fact of having peers involved in risk behavior, easy access to guns and previous involvement with the justice system were associated with witnessed violence; whereas having slept on the street was the only variable associated with experienced violence.


CONCLUSION
This group of youth was exposed to high levels of violence and other adverse experiences. Future research should examine the effectiveness of strategies aimed at reducing the exposure to violence of high-risk youth.