THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE ON HUDSON VALLEY ORCHARDS
The impact of wildlife damage on the profitability of apple farming in New York's Hudson Valley was determined by vise of a Standard Net Present Value (NPV) analysis as a means to measure long-term impact. Data were gathered through questionnaire and interview of a stratified random sample of 39 growers that represented 17% of the regional growers. Data concerning species causing damage, extent of wildlife damage and types of controls used were combined with current and long-range costs including revenue lost through damage and control costs. Limitations of the analysis are discussed along with results that indicate an annual equivalent cost flow for all wildlife damage between $3.8 and $3.85 million or $184 to $188 per acre. This study shows that a typical grower experienced combined revenue losses and control costs of $12,500 during 1986. Fifty-two percent of this was associated with wildlife controls, 40% with revenue losses and the remainder with tree replacement costs. Over a 25-year period beginning in 1985, the NEV of control costs and revenue losses is projected to total between $53 and $62 million depending upon whether a 3.5% or 5.0% discount rate is used. I/Research Associate, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell Univ. 2/Professor, Dept. of Pomology, Hudson Valley Lab., Cornell Univ. 3/ Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell Univ. 4/Associate Professor, Dept. of Natural Resources, and Leader, NY Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit, Cornell Univ. INTRODUCTION Wildlife damage a variety of crops produced in the United States such as grains, orchards, vegetables, and ornamentals (Byers, 1984: Caslick and Decker, 1977; Katsma and Rusch, 1979; Tobin, 1986; McDowell and Pillsbury, 1959). The extent of the damage varies by region due to differences in climate terrain, crops, and wildlife. Despite the implementation of numerous control strategies, wildlife continue to be a severe problem in some parts of the country. This is because wildlife are extremely adaptable and in some cases thrive in areas where man has significantly altered the original habitat. For example, deer populations in New York are much larger than in the past because of the creation of fields and meadows while orchards are an ideal habitat for voles (Sauer, 1984; Byers, 1984). Hudson Valley apple orchards are particulary susceptible to damage caused by pine and meadow voles, deer, woodchucks, and a variety of birds. The primary objective of this study was to estimate the impact of wildlife damage on the profitability of producing apples in four counties of the Hudson Valley, New York. These counties were: Ulster, Columbia, Dutchess, and Orange. The first objective is important for several reasons. First, apple production is an integral part of the agricultural sector of the region. In 1985, 234 farms produced apples which had a total gross revenue ranging between $35-$45 million. Second, most fruit growers obtain most of their revenue from the sale of apples since half of the regional fruit farm acreage in the Hudson Valley is planted with apple trees (New York Crop Reporting Service, 1986; see Table 1). This implies that if wildlife cause extensive
Fences and Deer-Damage Management: A Review of Designs and Efficacy
Abstract White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, disease transmission, environmental degradation, and destruction of ornamental plantings. One practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials required to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high-value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective fences have expanded the use of fences to manage damage caused by deer. Fences typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or polyrope fence. We reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations.
Germination ecology of Central Asian Stipa spp: differences among species, seed provenances, and the importance of field studies
Stipa-species are wide-spread in Central Asia, but sexual reproduction in the dry steppes is rare. To facilitate conservation and restoration of these important rangelands, we studied germination characteristics of three common Mongolian Stipa-species under field- and lab conditions. Seeds of Stipa krylovii, Stipa gobica and Stipa glareosa were sown at the study site in Southern Mongolia over two consecutive years during which period tests were carried out to ascertain whether competition or herbivory are the main constraints of seedling establishment. In addition, we tested germination and seed viability in the laboratory under two different temperature regimes (20/10°C and 8/4°C), as well as the effect of cold-stratification. The lab experiments also included S. krylovii seeds originating from three climatically different provenances. None of the three Stipa-species seedlings emerged during the first 2 years of the field study. However, after an unusually intense rain event in the third year, 3% of S. krylovii, 0.6% of S. glareosa and 0.1% of S. gobica seeds germinated in the study plots. The factors ‘sowing-year’ and ‘vegetation’ significantly affected seedling emergence, whereas grazing had no effect at all. Under laboratory conditions a high percentage of viable seeds of S. gobica and S. glareosa germinated at both incubation temperatures, and cold-stratification had no effect on germination or viability. Germination of S. krylovii seeds required warmer temperatures and cold-stratification had a positive effect. Such evidence for dormancy was more pronounced in seeds from the moister, northern provenances. Germination of Stipa-species in the field is rare and only possible under exceptionally moist conditions. Conservation should thus concentrate on steppe conservation rather than on restoration. Where artificial reseeding is necessary, differences among species and also among different seed provenances should be taken into account.