Trade unions and the amendment of the labour code in Romania
Abstract Employment relations, as well as issues of social and labour-market reforms or the social dialogue, have been extensively treated by various researches interested in the East and Central European region. In this context, much attention has been paid to the changing roles of trade unions, the problem of re-making ancient structures perverted by their more or less collaboration with the Communist parties from the region and the emergence of new structures in search for legitimisation, the difficulties of trade unionism in articulating and representing interests, an aspect that is directly related to their organisational problems, the relations with the governmental authorities and with the employers' organisations in the tripartite framework, as well as the nature of the tripartism in reuniting social partners and state. This article focuses on national organised labour in Romania in relation to the 2005 Labour Code amendment. This specific level of national interest representation is privileged in order to highlight the peculiarities of recognised representative labour organisations in the post-Communist period. The main assumption is that trade unions are facing a particular policy interest with a shift from fragmentation and unstable co-operation to a ‘common position’. Thus this contribution assesses the determinants defining labour's collaboration while shedding light on state – trade union relations.
Trade unions in Romania
Of the trade union confederations founded after the overthrow of the Ceaucescu regime in December 1989, only the CNSLR-Fratia, Alfa Cartel, BNS and CSDR exert any significant influence on political developments in Romania. The legal framework governing collective bargaining imposes relatively tight constraints on trade union activities. The trade unions are protecting workers' interests in an economy which is still largely state-controlled and whose level of efficiency leaves little leeway for improving working and living conditions. Despite the difficult economic situation, the level of unionisation in state-owned companies is relatively high. The lack of alternative job opportunities and the existence of only insufficient unemployment benefits have hitherto constituted major barriers to the introduction of the social market economy which the trade unions would like to see. Parmi les confédérations syndicales fondées après l'effondrement du régime de Ceaucescu en décembre 1989, seuls le CNSLR-Fratia, l'Alfa Cartel, le BNS et le CSDR exercent une influence significative sur l'évolution politique de la Roumanie. Le cadre légal de la négociation collective impose des contraintes relativement importantes sur les activités syndicales. Les syndicats protègent les intérêts des travailleurs dans une économie qui est encore largement contrôlée par l'Etat et dont le niveau d'efficacité laisse une marge de manoeuvre étroite en ce qui concerne l'amélioration des conditions de travail et de vie. Malgré une situation économique difficile, le taux de syndicalisation dans les entreprises apparatenant à l'Etat est relativement élevé. Le manque d'opportunités d'emplois et la quasi inexistence d'allocations de chômage ont constitué jusqu'ici d'importantes barrières à l'introduction de l'économie sociale de marché souhaitée par les syndicats. Von den nach dem Umsturz im Dezember 1989 gegründeten Gewerkschaftsdachverbänden üben nur die CNSLR-Fratia, Alfa Cartel, der BNS und die CSDR einen bedeutenden Einfluß auf die politische Situation Rumäniens aus. Die gesetzliche Ausgestaltung der Tarifautonomie setzt der gewerkschaftlichen Betätigung relativ enge Grenzen. Die Gewerkschaften nehmen die Arbeitnehmerinteressen in einer nach wie vor weitgehend staatlich kontrollierten Wirtschaft wahr, deren Leistungsvermögen nur geringe Spielräume für die Verbesserung der Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen läßt. Trotz der schwierigen ökonomischen Verhältnisse ist der Organisationsgrad in den staatlichen Betrieben relativ hoch. Wesentliche Hindernisse für die Einführung der von den Gewerkschaften gewollten sozialen Marktwirtschaft sind bisher fehlende alternative Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten sowie die nur unzureichende Absicherung im Fall der Arbeitslosigkeit.
France in the Middle Ages 987-1460 : from Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc
Translatora s Note. Foreword. List of Illustrations. List of Genealogical Tables. Part I: The Inheritance: . 1. The Empire. 2. The Frankish People. 3. The Principalities. 4. Disturbances. Part II: Lordship:. 5. The Village. 6. The Castle. 7. The Church. 8. King and Lord. Part III: Origins of State and Nation:. 9. The Great Age of Progress. 10. Louis VII. 11. Philip Augustus. 12. The South. 13. The Thirteenth Century. 14. The Fourteenth Century. 15. The Maid of Orleans. Epilogue. Chronology. Bibliography. Index.