PIPA ARTISTS AND THEIR MUSIC IN LATE MING CHINA
Abstract During the Ming dynasty, within a span of almost three centuries China's political organization, social structure, and important cultural elements were transformed by changes in government, military reforms, urban life, interaction with foreign peoples (in particular the naval expeditions of Zheng He <inline-graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="splitsection3_in1.tif"/> [1371–1433]), advancement in science and technology, and the growth of literature and art. Thanks to the increase of commercial printing during the period, a vast amount of primary sources has been preserved, providing modern-day scholars with the necessary information to understand the diversity and complexity of the Ming era. However, although sinologists and historians have produced a tremendous amount on various Ming topics, much work is needed concerning music. One can certainly argue for the attention that has been given to tuning systems, qin <inline-graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="splitsection3_in2.tif"/> music, ritual music, and dramatic arts, but they constitute only a fraction of the multiplicity of genres and the wide range of expression in Ming music. Without scrutiny into the other genres and expressions, we will never be able to enlarge our picture of Ming music and musical life, and their relationship to the larger social and cultural milieus.
State Sacrifices and Music in Ming China: Orthodoxy, Creativity, and Expressiveness
The emperors who oversaw state ritual were not performers of its music. They were custodians who well understood the importance of music as a means to cultivate oneself. Music could express control over one's emotions and could sustain relationships with the natural and supernatural realms (p. 18). Lam lucidly explains the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, and manages to convey a real sense of why music and ritual forms mattered. He traces the waxing and waning interest in music theory in the Ming and reasons for the tremendous expense and copious writings on ceremonials in the Ming court. This study asserts the continuity of practices and beliefs perceived to have been instituted at least two millennia before the founding of the Ming dynasty, 1368-1644. It also points out the unique features of ritual observances in the Ming court, shedding light on the processes through which revisions in state music and ritual were made. The book is divided into two broad sections, devoted to Ming dynasty state sacrifices (chapters 2—4) and the music of the ceremonials (chapters 5-7). The introduction (chapter 1), entitled "Issues, Definitions, and a Hypothesis," formulates the approach to ritual, which focuses on "the dynamic operations of orthodoxy, creativity and expressiveness" in the structures, preparation and implementation, and responses to state sacrifices and music (p. 2). This trinity of values is deceptively simple, as is the book's structure. The author reasserts the balance between orthodox, timeless structures and creative, personal responses to the historical contingencies of the Ming reigns throughout the study—with most attention to the founding emperor Taizu's concern with ritual and his use of ceremonials beginning before his dynasty, and to Shizong's revisions of ritual and surrounding debates in the 1530s and 1540s. The sharp theoretical focus enables Lam to unfold an almost lively picture of the Ming court and its concerns with state ritual and music. The work draws critically on a body of source materials from the histories, musical treatises, ritual guides, and individual writings that elucidate reception of performances. Restated with specific reference to the changing structure and understanding of ritual and music, the forces of "orthodoxy, creativity, and expressiveness" are systematically explored and enriched.
Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule
This volume deals with the social legislation of Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), following the era of Mongol rule in China. It recounts the circumstances under which the laws were enacted and what the Emperor claimed he was trying to accomplish - a restoration of traditional Chinese social norms. The contents of several codes are discussed in terms of the groups to which they applied and the range of activities they purported to regulate. The early Ming codes formed one of the most comprehensive and cohesive bodies of law in all of Chinese history. Taken as a group, they constituted an autocrate's blueprint for the ideal society. The texts of three codifications - an imperial clan constitution, a general summary of the laws and guidelines for village life - are translated as appendixes.