Cybercrime and Online Safety in Cyberspace
Cybercrime is essentially a transnational crime with a ‘modus operandi’ that exploits inter-state differences in the capacity to respond to such crime, and appears in the same company as such powerful global concerns as civil war, genocide and poverty (United Nations 2004). This transnational character provides cybercriminals, especially organized crime (OC), with the agility to avoid counter-measures even when implemented by capable actors (Brenner 2002, 2006; Council of Europe 2004). Although some have questioned the existence of organized criminal activities in cyberspace, several studies have noted the potential and actual synergy between organized crime and cyberspace in recent years. This paper outlines some of the issues and problems in respect to the role of OC in cybercrime.
Organizations and Cybercrime
This paper explores the nature of groups engaged in cybercrime. It briefly outlines the definition and scope of cybercrime, theoretical and empirical challenges in addressing what is known about cyber offenders, and the likely role of organized crime groups (OCG). We give examples of known cases that illustrate individual and group behaviour, and motivations of typical offenders, including state actors. Different types of cybercrime and different forms of criminal organisation are described drawing on the typology suggested by McGuire (2012). It is apparent that a wide variety of organisational structures are involved in cybercrime. Enterprise or profit-oriented activities, and especially cybercrime committed by state actors, appear to require leadership, structure, and specialisation. By contrast, protest activity tends to be less organized, with weak (if any) chain of command.
Improving water use in agriculture : experiences in the Middle East and North Africa
Emerging water shortages are of great concern in many countries of the region. As the agricultural sector is generally by far the most important water consumer and higher priority is given to meeting domestic and industrial water demands, it is to be expected that gradually less water will be available for agriculture. An overview is given of present system and on-farm water use efficiencies and the potential for water savings and yield increases through the use of improved distribution networks and more appropriate irrigation technologies for smallholders. The water conservation efforts of Israel, Cyprus and Jordan are examined in detail with respect to institutions, the irrigation infrastructure, water charges and demand management, operation and maintenance, irrigation scheduling and extension, technology development and transfer, the role of the private sector, quality control on irrigation equipment, land tenure and land consolidation, and water users associations. The World Bank's experience with lending for the irrigation sector in the region is also described. The elements that would need to be considered for inclusion in a national program for water conservation in the agricultural sector are identified.