Thailand: The Politics of Continuity
Since the 1932 revolution when constitutional rule replaced the absolute monarchy, Thailand has intermittently experimented with democratic government. The Kingdom's most recent attempt began in June 1968 with the promulgation of the eighth post-revolution Constitution. The Constitution called for national elections, held on February 10, 1969, for the House of Representatives, the lower house in the bicameral legislature.' Under the leadership of Prime Minister Thanom Kittakachorn, the Thai government mobilized some 250,000 rural and urban officials and spent approximately 102 million baht ($5,100,000) in order to carry out the elections. The massive organizational effort resulted in elections which were considered by spokesmen for both government and opposition parties to be the most orderly and least corrupt in Thai history. Isolated incidents of double voting by military units, bribery, and ballot box stuffing were reported informally, yet only twelve nullification suits, a very small number of protests in comparison with past elections, were filed officially with the Minister of Interior. Although political parties had been banned since 1958, thirteen parties managed to organize, register and engage in campaigning. Of these, the pro-government United Thai People's Party (UTPP) and the opposition Democrat Party merit particular attention. The organizers of the UTPP were comprised of the persons in the most powerful political institutions of Thailand. In addition to the Prime Minister, Party leaders included the most prominent civilian and military cabinet members and the Army, Navy, and Air Force Commanders-in-Chief. At election rallies in the Kingdom's 71 provincial constituencies, the UTPP candidates stressed: 1) the need for strong centralized leadership to ensure continued stability in the Kingdom; 2) the ability of the existing military regime to meet the dangers of Communism; 3) the success of the government's economic development program; and 4) the advantages UTPP candidates would have in terms of access to government funds for local development projects. The Democrat Party, the oldest and most influential of the opposition parties, was led by former Prime Minister Seni Pramoj. In contrast to the UTPP which was able to field a full slate of 219 candidates, the Democrat
Thailand's Muslim Minorities: Assimilation, Secession, or Coexistence?
THAILAND is a predominantly Buddhist country. For most people its very name conjures up images of saffron-robed monks, temple bells, and statues of the Buddha-images that travel brochures or impressions gained during a fleeting visit do little to dispel. Yet a more careful scrutiny of the Thai scene reveals signs of a very different religious tradition existing side-by-side with the Theravada Buddhist establishment. For Thai Islam, its presence indicated equally by the halal foodstall in a crowded Bangkok market or by the silhouette of a minaret against a rural skyline, continues to flourish throughout much of the country. Today an estimated 1,750,000 people, about 4% of the total population, are Muslims, making Islam the second religion of Thailand.' This article briefly outlines the historical background and geographical distribution of Islam in Thailand, drawing particular attention to the ethnic diversity of the various Thai Muslim peoples, before analyzing the nature of contemporary political relationships between the Thai Buddhist establishment and Thailand's Muslim minority. Even though there can be no precise date for the introduction of Islam to Thailand, it is evident that Arab and Persian Muslims en route to
Thailand: Stability and Escalation
Throughout 1967 three major factors contributed to the continuation of political stability in Thailand. The ruling regime maintained a high level of unity and agreement within its own ranks in spite of considerable differences in personal background and outlook. The two top-ranking military leaders, Premier Thanom Kittikachorn and Deputy-Premier Prapart Charusathien, continued to work remarkably well together during the fourth year since the end of the highly centralized rule of the late Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat. In spite of rumors of personal rivalry and predictions of an inevitable split, Thanom and Prapart proceeded with an amicable and effective ruling style of their own. Their influence was balanced by civilian members in the Cabinet, most prominent of whom were the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Thanat Khoman, and the Minister of National Develop. ment, Pote Sarasin. The regime continued to enjoy the general support and legitimizing aura of the King. A second factor promoting political stability was the economic progress of the kingdom. The national currency remained sound. Employment opportunities expanded. Favorable balances of foreign trade pushed the total financial reserves in the treasury to almost $1,000,000,000. An industrial development program started in 1965 attracted more private foreign capital. By the end of 1967 approximately 400 Chinese, Japanese, American and other foreign corporations had invested more than $300,000,000 in the economy. A second five-year plan (1967-1971) was launched which aimed to raise the gross national product by 7% each year. The new plan envisioned a total investment of $2,700,000,000 with one-third of these funds coming from foreign sources. The prospects for further economic progress were enhanced by a gradual but growing acceptance of family planning. Thirdly, American aid did much to bolster the peace and progress of the country. The United States continued to provide the military equipment and weapons for the Thai armed forces, with the Bangkok government confining its financial obligations to military pay and allowances. Total American military spending went from $42,000,000 in 1966 to $80,000,000 in 1967. Construction projects at air bases in the Northeastern provinces raised per capita income in this depressed region to $80 per year, with some workers receiving the unprecedented income of $45 a month.With the military and economic aid programs having begun in 1950, total American assistance to Thailand passed the one billion dollar mark in 1967. Military aid has con-