Governance Reforms in Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan: The Past and Present
FATA of Pakistan: A Brief IntroductionFederally Administered Tribal Areas extending over 27220 sq. km along Pak-Afghan border covers 3.4 per cent of Pakistan's land area. This mountainous land is inhabited by a majority of pakhtun population. It is surrounded by the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and east, the province of Balochistan in the south, the province of Punjab in the south-east and in the west by the state of Afghanistan (IPRI Factfile, 2008, p. 15). It is thus connected in the north with the district of Lower Dir of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, whereas in the east with the districts of Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Karak, Kohat, Lakki Marwat, Malakand, Nowshera, Charsadda and Peshawar. In the southeast, FATA is physically linked with the district of Dera Ghazi Khan in the Punjab province, while in the south it joins the districts of Zhob and Musa Khel of Balochistan province (Ibid, p. 21). Pak-Afghan border also known as Durand Line lies to the west of FATA.FATA is consisted of seven political agencies and six tribal pockets called 'Frontier Regions'. The political agencies are, Bajaur, Khyber, Kurram, Mohmand, North Waziristan, Orakzai and South Waziristan agency. Whereas Frontier Regions are in the district of Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Kohat, Lakki Marwat, Peshawar and Tank. With a minor exception of Orakzai agency, the rest the political agencies have common border with the state of Afghanistan (GOP, 2006, p. 3). To the north and west, FATA and the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa collectively join a chain of nine provinces in Afghanistan from north to south i.e. Nuristan, Kunar, Nangarhar, Khost, Paktika, Zabol, Kandahar, Helmand and Nimruz, which are predominantly inhabited by pakhtun ethnic group (Shuja, 2009, p. 2). The census report of Pakistan 1998 demonstrates 3.138 million population of these areas which makes 2.4 per cent of the total population of the country. But the current estimate shows its population almost 3.5 million. FATA is inhabited by majority of pakhtun tribes with a limited number of other religious groups such as Sikhs and Hindus (Sarfraz: 2008, pp. 8-9).Origin of the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR)The British government strengthened their basis of power by establishing a strategic and effective judicial system and an archive of legal record of the necessary documents which ultimately assisted them in tax collection and maintaining public order during the mid of 19th century in British India. The government was mostly cautious against collective criminal activities and considered it as a direct menace to the empire rather than individual crimes (Nichols, 2013, p. x). The colonial authorities after thorough visualization drafted and executed a comprehensive system of legal and formal codes in the form of Indian Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure in order to rule British India effectively. In the like manner, Criminal Tribes Act was also designed from 1871 through which the government watched, registered and controlled certain tribes. However, the British official authorities realized within a short span of time that these formal codes, laws, rules of evidence and fact-finding potentials were insufficient to control lofty velocity of crimes in Peshawar valley in general and in the Afghan border regions set a part as tribal agencies in particular. The colonial authorities quickly differentiated between the peaceful agriculturists residing in the valleys and wild tribesmen of the frontier border. The only distinction of the settled district was that surveys of formal tax revenue and settlement had been completed while the rest of the situation and general environ of settled district and tribal belt was almost alike. When the government observed high rate of killings, robberies and violence across Peshawar valley, the government eventually developed the Punjab Frontier Crimes Regulation and implemented it in early 1872 (Ibid, pp. x-xi). After the establishment of North West Frontier Province, the government executed the same Regulation with some minor modifications which was called Frontier Crimes Regulation 1901 (Ibid, p. …
Special Status of Tribal Areas (FATA): An Artificial Imperial Construct Bleeding Asia
Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan is a narrow belt stretching along the Pak-Afghan border, popularly known as the Durand Line, named after Sir Mortimor Durand, who surveyed and established this borderline between Afghanistan and British India in 1890-1894. It comprises seven agencies namely: Kurram, Khyber, North Waziristan, South Waziristan, Bajaur, Mohmand, and Orakzai along with six Frontier Regions (FRs): FR-Peshawar, FR-Kohat, FR.Bannu, FR.Lakki, FR. D.I.Khan, and FR.Tank. FATA accounts for 27220 km 2 or 3.4% of Pakistan's land area.Either side of FATA Pashtun tribes reside in Afghanistan and Pakistan. According to the 1998 census the population of FATA was 3.138 million or 2.4% of Pakistan's total population, currently estimated approximately 3.5 million. Various Pashtun Muslim tribes inhabit FATA. A small number of religious minorities, Hindus and Sikhs, also inhabit some of the tribal agencies. The following are the tribes residing in FATA. In Khyber Agency: Afridi (Adamkhel, Akakhel, Kamarkhel, Kamberkhel, Kukikhel, Malik Dinkhel, Sipah, Zakhakhel), Shinwari (Ali Sherkhel), Mullagori (Ahmadkhel, Ismailkhel) and Shilmani (Shamsherkhel, Haleemzai, Kam Shilmani). In Kurram: Turi, Bangash, Sayed, Zaimusht, Mangal, Muqbil, Ali Sherzai, Massuzai, and Para Chamkani. In Bajaur: Salarzai branch of the Tarkalanri tribe (Ibrahim Khel, Bram Khel (Khan Khel) and Safi. In Mohmand: Musakhel, Tarakzai, Safi, Uthmankhel, and Haleemzai. In Orakzai: Aurakzai and Daulatzai. In South Waziristan: Mahsud Wazir, and Dottani/Suleman Khels. In North Waziristan: Dawar, Wazir, Saidgi and Gurbaz. In Frontier Regions: Ahmadzai, Uthmanzai, Shiranis, Ustrana, zarghunkhel, Akhorwal, Shirakai, Tor Chappar, Bostikhel, Jawaki, Hasan khel, Ashukhel, Pasani, Janakor, Tatta, Waraspun, and Dhana. Khyber Agency was created in 1879, Waziristan Agency in 1885 and Kurram in 1892. North Waziristan Agency was constituted with its headquarters at Miranshah in 1910.Mohmand Agency was established in 1951, earlier this area had been under the administrative control of Political Agent Khyber. Prior to 1960, Bajaur was a semi-independent area like the State of Dir and Swat, under the political jurisdiction of Political Agent, Malakand. In 1960, Bajaur was declared a sub-division of the then Malakand Agency with an assistant political agent appointed with headquarters at Munda (Dir District) to deal with tribes and look after the political affairs. Bajaur was upgraded to the status of Agency on December 1, 1973. Orakzai Agency, previously a part of FR Kohat, was established in December 1973. All tribal agencies have a common and contiguous border with Afghanistan, except the Orakzai Agency.The British reached borderland tribes after annexing Peshawar. Imperial powers of the time, such as the British, Russia, Germany, Persia and the Ottoman were all focusing on Afghanistan and the adjacent tribal areas in the middle of the 19th century.
The Soviet Military Experience in Afghanistan: A Precedent of Dubious Relevance
The Soviet war in Afghanistan in the 1980s had been largely forgotten until last month, but it is now back in the news. The attacks on New York and Washington, D.C., on September 11 and the start of the U.S. air campaign over Afghanistan on October 7 have raised the prospect that U.S. ground forces might be sent to Afghanistan to destroy the terrorist strongholds of Osama bin Laden, who is widely presumed to be responsible for the September 11 attacks. Soviet operations in the 1980s against Afghan guerrillas are generally deemed to have been a colossal military failure, and the guerrillas themselves are seen as formidable warriors capable of repulsing any foreign invader. Over the past few weeks, a number of former Soviet generals and servicemen have recalled their own encounters with Afghan fighters and warned that the United States would fare no better if it embarked on ground operations in Afghanistan. Their warnings have been echoed by many Western observers, who argue that the Soviet experience in Afghanistan underscores the need for great caution.