Hydrogen Sulfide Issues at Coal Combustion Residual and Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Facilities
Historically, coal combustion residuals (CCRs) have been stored in and/or disposed of in dedicated ponds and landfills. In the future, we anticipate that CCRs will also be placed in dedicated units that comply with the new U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) design, construction, and operating regulations. In the interim, as old CCR units are being closed and new units are not yet available, industry professionals are increasingly interested in the co-disposal of CCR in existing municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills.
Bacterial and thermochemical sulfate reduction in diagenetic settings — old and new insights
The association of dissolved sulfate and hydrocarbons is thermodynamically unstable in virtually all diagenetic environments. Hence, redox-reactions occur, whereby sulfate is reduced by hydrocarbons either bacterially (bacterial sulfate reductiona BSR) or inorganically (thermochemical sulphate reductiona TSR). Their geologically and economically significant products are similar. Based on empirical evidence, BSR and TSR occur in two mutually exclusive thermal regimes, i.e. low-temperature and hightemperature diagenetic environments, respectively. BSR is common in diagenetic settings from 0 up to about 60‐808C. Above this temperature range, almost all sulfate-reducing microbes cease to metabolize. Those few types of hyperthermophilic microbes that can form H2S at higher temperatures appear to be very rare and do not normally occur and/or metabolize in geologic settings that are otherwise conducive to BSR. TSR appears to be common in geologic settings with temperatures of about 100‐1408C, but in some settings temperatures of 160‐1808C appear to be necessary. TSR does not have a sharply defined, generally valid minimum temperature because the onset and rate of TSR are governed by several factors that vary from place to place, i.e. the composition of the available organic reactants, kinetic inhibitors and/or catalysts, anhydrite dissolution rates, wettability, as well as migration and diffusion rates of the major reactants toward one another. BSR is geologically instantaneous in most geologic settings. Rates of TSR are much lower, but still geologically significant. TSR may form sour gas reservoirs and/or MVT deposits in several tens of thousands to a few million years in the temperature range of 100‐1408C. BSR and TSR may be exothermic or endothermic, depending mainly on the presence or absence of specific organic reactants. However, if the reactions are exothermic, the amount of heat liberated is very small, and this heat usually dissipates quickly. Hence, heat anomalies found in association with TSR settings are normally not generated by TSR. The main organic reactants for BSR are organic acids and other products of aerobic or fermentative biodegradation. The main organic reactants for TSR are branched and n-alkanes, followed by cyclic and mono-aromatic species, in the gasoline range. Sulfate is derived almost invariably from the dissolution of gypsum and/or anhydrite, which may be primary or secondary deposits at or near the redox-reaction site(s). The products of BSR and TSR are similar, but their relative amounts vary widely and are determined by a number of locally variable factors, including availability of reactants, formation water chemistry, and wettability. The primary inorganic reaction products in both thermal regimes are H2S(HS 2 ) and HCO3 (CO2). The presence of alkali earth metals often results in the formation of carbonates, particularly calcite and dolomite. Other carbonates, i.e. ankerite, siderite, witherite, strontianite, may form if the respective metal cations are available. Iron sulfides, galena, and sphalerite form as by-products of hydrogen sulfide generation, if the respective transition or base metals are present or transported to a BSR/TSR reaction site. Elemental sulfur may accumulate as a volumetrically significant
The utility of uric acid assay in dogs as an indicator of functional hepatic mass.
Uric acid was used as a test for liver disease before the advent of enzymology. Three old studies criticised uric acid as a test of liver function. Uric acid, as an end-product of purine metabolism in the liver, deserved re-evaluation as a liver function test. Serum totalbile acids are widely accepted as the most reliable liver function test. This study compared the ability of serum uric acid concentration to assess liver function with that of serum pre-prandial bile acids in dogs. In addition, due to the renal excretion of uric acid the 2 assays were also compared in a renal disease group. Using a control group of healthy dogs, a group of dogs with congenital vascular liver disease, a group of dogs with non-vascular parenchymal liver diseases and a renal disease group, the ability of uric acid and pre-prandial bile acids was compared to detect reduced functional hepatic mass overall and in the vascular or parenchymal liver disease groups separately. Sensitivities, specificities and predictive value parameters were calculated for each test. The medians of uric acid concentration did not differ significantly between any of the groups, whereas pre-prandial bile acids medians were significantly higher in the liver disease groups compared with the normal and renal disease group of dogs. The sensitivity of uric acid in detecting liver disease overall was 65% while the specificity of uric acid in detecting liver disease overall was 59%. The sensitivity and specificity of uric acid in detecting congenital vascular liver disease was 68% and 59%, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of uric acid in detecting parenchymal liver disease was 63% and 60%, respectively. The overall positive and negative predictive values for uric acid in detecting liver disease were poor and the data in this study indicated uric acid to be an unreliable test of liver function. In dogs suffering from renal compromise serum uric acid concentrations may increase into the abnormal range due to its renal route of excretion.