Upland policy and archaeological resources in North Wales
Abstract Implementation of post-war policies for the uplands has resulted in considerable impacts upon archaeological resources, which have gone largely unrecorded. A study of western Clwyd, North Wales has identified forestry and the improvement of upland vegetation for agriculture as primary causes of damage to archaeological sites. Both involve deep ploughing which is particularly destructive. Evidence suggests, albeit on a small number of samples, that Scheduled Ancient Monuments, despite their statutory protection against damage, are equally at risk as other sites of lesser importance.
Recent upland land use change and agricultural policy in Clwyd, North Wales
Abstract Analysis of map-based data reveals a dramatic post-war transformation in land use within two study areas in upland Clwyd, North Wales. The major change has been a great reduction in the extent of rough grazing. The decrease in dwarf shrub vegetation is of particular significance for the upland environment. Agricultural statistics indicate that the demise of rough grazing is inversely related to sheep numbers. In these areas, headage payments under the European Community (EC) Less Favoured Areas (LFA) directive have encouraged farmers to increase stocking rates up to the maximum level attracting subsidy. This level is beyond the carrying capacity of the semi-natural vegetation of these areas and farmers have carried out grant-aided improvements, particularly grassland conversion, in order to sustain these high sheep numbers. Important deficiencies in the adequacy of present data on land use and agricultural change in upland areas are reviewed in this paper.
The use of systems diagrams for environmental impact assessment: Procedures and an application
Abstract The utility of systems diagrams and of energy as a unit of measure for environmental impact assessment is illustrated using results from the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico Environmental Impact Statement. A set of procedures for developing and evaluating the diagrams is given and applied to White Sands. The utility of results obtained using this method is compared to those obtained from other methods, and the inadequacies of each are discussed. These procedures guide data collection; organize and summarize data; make explicit interactions between the environment and the “proposed project”; place various kinds of impacts and alternatives in perspective with each other and with the entire system; identify components of a macroscale system which need microscale analysis; and permit quantification of total impact and quantitative comparisons of impact types, of alternatives, and of environmental control strategies. The procedures do not guarantee that important impacts have not been overlooked, do not deal with so called aesthetic impacts, and do not guarantee that the appropriate system boundary has been chosen. Impacts at White Sands were evaluated at two system levels of detail. At a macroscale, five types of impacts resulting from missile range activities were analyzed. Results indicated that stresses on the environment caused by those activities represent 1.0% of the natural energy flow through the system. At a more detailed level of analysis, the effect of water consumption by the Missile Range on the aquifer from which the water is obtained was analyzed by means of a hydrologic model. Model simulations indicated that salt water intrusion into the aquifer was eminent and identified two aquifer management strategies that could prevent that intrusion.