Forever Changed: Boarding School Narratives of American Indian Identity in the U.S. and Canada
This essay examines personal narratives to identify experiences at boarding schools. These collective experiences forged new American Indian identities due to a white educational system forced upon these Indian students. While stories remain part of tradition, they convey that Indian youth had changed permanently. An Ojibwa man, Ted Mato, who attended an Indian school, explained about the system established to educate American Indian students. He stated, "...the government set up an extensive system of boarding schools to bleach the red out of Indian children, to make us into white people. American Indians are forever changed." 1 As this Native man so eloquently stated, the intent of the Western educational system was to purposefully eliminate the cultural identity of American Indian people. But as the narratives will show, the students were not passive recipients of the process. One purpose of this paper is to give voice to the American Indian people who survived the Western educational system. The Native perspective of this cultural assault and the ensuing opposition to this aggression, as well as the existence and tenacity of this people, as demonstrated by the narratives of the participants, form the significance of this paper.
Visualizing Humanitarian Colonialism
Photographs are powerful vehicles of ideology. Rather than simply documenting and reflecting a lived, material reality, photos express and retain traces of the belief systems that structure a time and a place. Photographs from American Indian boarding schools document a time and a place, but they also express the shifting ideological landscape of what Gerald McMaster calls “colonial alchemy”—the conversion of children from different sovereign indigenous nations into (U.S.) citizens. This article analyzes photographs from the Thomas Indian School located on the Cattaraugus Reservation in western New York taken between the 1890s and 1950s to illustrate the changing terrain of U.S. racial ideology. The photographs show how the goal of colonial alchemy remained consistent, but the knowledge systems that defined Indianness, citizenship, and the humanitarian mission of American Indian boarding schools changed over time.
The Emotions. Outline of a Theory.
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