Effects of xylazine, lignocaine and their combination for lumber epidural analgesia in water buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis).
The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of xylazine alone (0.05 mg/kg), lignocaine alone (2.0 mg/kg) and a combination of xylazine and lignocaine (0.05 mg/kg and 2.0 mg/kg, respectively) after lumbar epidural administration in water buffalo calves. Fifteen nondescript, male water buffalo calves of 6-8 months of age and weighing between 55 and 75 kg were randomly placed in 3 groups (A, B and C). The agents were administered at the 1st lumbar epidural space. Clinico-physiological parameters such as analgesia, ataxia, sedation, salivation, heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature were studied. Other haematological and biochemical parameters monitored were haemoglobin, packed cell volume, total leukocyte count, plasma glucose, cortisol, protein albumin, globulin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, ALT, sodium, potassium and chloride. The onset of analgesia was faster in group C (3.0 +/- 0.44 min) compared with that of group B (4.4 +/- 0.40 min) and group A (34.0 +/- 1.86 min). Analgesia of the thorax, flank, inguinal region, hind limbs, perineum and tail was complete in group C, but mild to moderate in groups A and B. Ataxia was severe in groups B and C and mild in group A. Mild to deep sedation were produced by groups A and C animals. Longer duration and greater depth of analgesia was produced in animals in group C. Heart rate, respiratory rate and rectal temperature decreased in groups A and C. The haematological parameters decreased in all the groups. The biochemical parameters like glucose, cortisol, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, ALT increased in all the animals. However, total proteins and albumin decreased in the 3 groups. The plasma electrolytes sodium, potassium and chloride did not show any significant change. The results of this study indicated a possible additive analgesic interaction between epidurally administered xylazine and lignocaine, without causing any marked systemic effects in water buffalo calves.
Clinical effects of epidurally administered ketamine and xylazine in goats
Xylazine has been shown to provide longer duration of hindquarter analgesia in ruminants than conventional lignocaine hydrochloride when administered in the caudal epidural space. However, cardiopulmonary depression remains the single greatest disadvantage associated with its use. The present study was, therefore, proposed with the hypothesis that ketamine, a good analgesic and cardiovascular stimulant, would reduce the cardiopulmonary depression produced by xylazine and may increase analgesia when administered simultaneously along with xylazine. The study was conducted on fifteen goats which were randomized to receive either epidural ketamine (2.5 mg/kg; 0.75 ml) or xylazine (0.05 mg/kg; 0.75 ml) alone or their combination (total volume 1.5 ml). All the drugs were injected into the lumbosacral epidural space and the animals were observed for incoordination of hindlimbs, posture, response to perineal pin prick, area of desensitization, sedation, rectal temperature, pulse and respiration rates at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 min after the drug administration. Ketamine administered epidurally produced moderate analgesia. However, the degree of analgesia and motor block achieved was greater than with xylazine, but lasted for a brief period of 15–20 min. The combination of ketamine and xylazine produced complete hindquarter analgesia for 20–30 min. While ketamine did not induce any significant change in respiration rate, heart rate and sedation scores, xylazine produced significant reduction in respiration (P < 0.05, 45 to 75 min after the drug administration) and heart rate (P < 0.01, 45 to 90 min after the drug administration), and induced a moderate degree of sedation. The goats given a combination of ketamine and xylazine showed less significant change (P < 0.05, 15 to 45 min after the drug administration) in heart rate and insignificant change in respiration rate, while sedation remained almost the same as with xylazine alone. These results suggest that addition of ketamine enhances the analgesic effect of xylazine while reducing its cardiopulmonary side effects. The epidural administration of a combination of ketamine and xylazine may be suitable for surgery involving the hindlegs, udder, perineum, vulva and rectum in small ruminants.
Distribution-free monitoring of univariate processes
We consider statistical process control (SPC) of univariate processes when observed data are not normally distributed. Most existing SPC procedures are based on the normality assumption. In the literature, it has been demonstrated that their performance is unreliable in cases when they are used for monitoring non-normal processes. To overcome this limitation, we propose two SPC control charts for applications when the process data are not normal, and compare them with the traditional CUSUM chart and two recent distribution-free control charts. Some empirical guidelines are provided for practitioners to choose a proper control chart for a specific application with non-normal data.