Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921*
For nearly forty years, historians of twentieth-century diplomacy have argued that the Versailles treaty was more reasonable than its reputation suggests and that it did not of itself cause the Depression, the rise of Hitler, or World War II. Their efforts have had little effect, despite Margaret MacMillan’s best-selling Paris 1919. The distorted view of The Economic Consequences of the Peace and J. M. Keynes’s other works still dominates both the Anglo-American historical profession and the English-speaking educated public, though Zara Steiner pointed out in The Lights That Failed that the Versailles treaty was the mildest of the 1919–20 settlements. Despite scholarly opinion, condemnation of the Versailles treaty continues without cease. The latest addition to an immense literature, The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy, by Edward M. Bennett and the late Norman A. Graebner,
Clio Deceived: Patriotic Self-Censorship in Germany after the Great War
Joseph Fouche, a man for all seasons who served the Directory, Consulate, Empire, and Restoration as minister of police, was once reputed to have stated that any two lines from any oeuvre would suffice to have its author hanged. Indeed, the efforts of various Germans, both in official and private capacities, to undertake what John Rohl has termed ”patriotic self-censorship” with regard to the origins of the Great War reflect the sentiment expressed by the great French censor a century earlier.’ For nearly fifty years, until Fritz Fischer’s Griff nach der Weltrnacht appeared in 1961, which in many ways offered German readers the findings of the Italian author Luigi Albertini, the German interpretation of the origins of the First World War was dominated in large measure by the efforts of “patriotic self-censors,” and particularly by the historical writings of Alfred von Wegerer.2 Let me state at the outset that I accept the basic tenets of Fischer’s research-with the notable exceptions of the allegedly decisive ”war council” of December 8, 1912 and the so-called “bid for world power” in 1914. The Hamburg historian, assisted by a coterie of talented students, has convincingly documented that Vienna and Berlin opted for war in July 1914 in the belief that time was running out for both of them. In the case of Austria-
The role of prolactin in andrology: what is new?
Prolactin (PRL) has been long deemed as a hormone involved only in female reproduction. However, PRL is a surprising hormone and, since its identification in the 1970s, its attributed functions have greatly increased. However, its specific role in male health is still widely unknown. Recently, low PRL has been associated with reduced ejaculate and seminal vesicle volume in infertile subjects. In addition, in men consulting for sexual dysfunction, hypoprolactinemia has been associated with erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation, findings further confirmed in the general European population and infertile men. Several metabolic derangements, recapitulating metabolic syndrome, have also been associated with low PRL both in men with sexual dysfunction and from the general European population. In men with sexual dysfunction, followed-up for more than 4 years, low PRL was identified as an independent predictor of the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events. Finally, an association with anxiety or depressive symptoms has been found in men with sexual dysfunction and from the general European population. While a direct role for impaired PRL function in the pathogenesis of these reproductive, sexual, metabolic and psychological disorders is conceivable, the possibility that low PRL is a mirror of an increased dopaminergic or a decreased serotonergic tone cannot be ruled-out. Hyperactivity of the dopaminergic system can explain only a few of the aforementioned findings, whereas a hypo-serotonergic tone fits well with the clinical features associated with low PRL, and there is significant evidence supporting the hypothesis that PRL could be a mirror of serotonin in the brain.