Some Current Trends in the Study of Renaissance Medicine
The following brief reflections on the present state of scholarship in Renaissance medicine make no claim to provide a comprehensive overview of the field. Medicine is of broad historical interest because a web of connections link it to the culture as a whole. Variously considered, medicine has a place in the history of science and technology, in social history, and in a wide sweep of cultural and intellectual history ranging from the history of philosophy to the study of popular mentalités. Moreover, although the field of the history of Renaissance medicine is one in which much, including fundamental work, remains to be done, it is also one that is now being vigorously developed in some widely diverse ways. Confronted with this breadth of topics and materials, I am seeking only to isolate a few major directions in current work
Имитационная модель газового комплекса // Мир экономики и управления
В статье рассмотрена динамика добычи газа в России, структура продаж на различных сегментах рынка, а также сравнительная динамика цен продаж на этих сегментах. Рассмотрены проблемы подхода к созданию газового комплекса с помощью имитационной модели, позволяющей получить оценку эффективности проекта и определить область устойчивости полученных решений. В представленной модели учтен блок погашения кредита, позволяющий с первого года имитации определить возможность выплаты кредита. Объектом модели является группа газовых месторождений, для которых определяется минимальный дебит скважин, выше которого реализация проекта является экономически эффективной. При определении исходного минимального дебита скважин за норму дисконта берется обобщенный средневзвешенный процент по заемному и собственному капиталу с учетом рисковых премий. Он же служит нижним барьером для внутренней нормы доходности, ниже которого проект отвергается как неэффективный. Анализ динамики, а также методы экспертной оценки позволяют определить интервалы варьирования имитируемых параметров, таких как цена на газ и время выхода газового комплекса на запланированную мощность. Рассчитанные с использованием метода Монте-Карло для каждой случайной реализации модели значения имитируемых параметров позволяют получить множество оптимальных для каждой реализации значений минимального дебита скважин, а также определить область устойчивости решения.
Physicians and surgeons in sixteenth-century Venice.
THE RELATIONSHIP between physicians and surgeons was of fundamental concern to the medical profession in the sixteenth century as in other periods. The superior position enjoyed by the physicians has long been recognized. It was they who controlled medical education in the universities, and, to a considerable extent, medical practice in the towns. Their training, which in Italy included up to eight years' university education in arts and medicine, far exceeded that of the surgeons, and was more academically based. The salaries of physicians hired by communities for public service were greater than those paid to surgeons, and similarly in the universities chairs of medicine commanded higher salaries than chairs of surgery. But in delineating the relationship between the two branches of the profession, historians bave often gone beyond these general truths. The physician has sometimes emerged as almost an academic philosopher, drawn from the upper class and scarcely deigning to take the pulse of his patients. The surgeon on the other hand has been caricatured as ill-educated, with little or no Latin, and hardly differentiated from the ranks of the barbers. This tradition has recently been maintained in certain respects in an imt portant essay on the medical profession in Galileo's Tuscany. In it, Professor Cipolla contrasts the university training of the physicians with the practical apprenticeship of the surgeons, whom he describes as "definitely lower class and for all practical purposes just ordinary craftsmen".' The documents printed below do not support this view, at least in respect of sixteenth-century Venice. Rather, they confirm the opinion of C. D. O'Malley that the contrast between physicians and surgeons has been overstated on the basis of conflicts in London and Paris.2 Zuan Francesco Strata, from the island of Burano in the Venetian lagoon, had a successful career in Venice as a surgeon. He served several times in the Venetian fleet as surgeon to the Capitanio General da Mar, and on the third occasion, in 1538, his salary was raised from the normal ten ducats to twelve ducats per month, since he was leaving behind a flourishing practice.3 He was a member of the Venetian College of Surgeons, and served at least seven annual terms as its chief officer, or *Richard Palmer, Ph.D., A.L.A., 17 Arundel Road, Tunbridge Wells, Kent TN1 1TB. 1 Carlo M. Cipolla, Public health and themedicalprofession intheRenaissance, CambridgeUniversity Press, 1976, pp. 75-76. ' C. D. O'Malley (editor), The history of medical education, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, University of California Press, 1970, p. 100. ' Archivio di Stato di Venezia, Provveditori alla Sanit*, Registro 12, ff. 87r-v, 90r.