Measuring national interests in the international coffee agreement
This article shows how national interests in price-changing international commodity agreements can be measured. Two approaches are distinguished. Firstly, changes in national interests can be measured that are caused by the introduction of an international commodity agreement in an otherwise unregulated world market. This approach is based on a comparison of the situations with and without a commodity agreement. It represents a positive approach to measuring national interests. Secondly, changes in national interests can be measured that result from the individual country's decision to participate in the agreement or to stay outside. This approach compares the situation of participation with that of non-participation in an existing commodity agreement. As the consequences of a national decision are analyzed, it is a normative or decision-oriented approach to measuring national interests. The ICA is a particularly interesting scheme to show the two approaches, as some countries participate in the agreement while others do not. This has led to the co-existence of a controlled and an uncontrolled market with different prices.
Resisting orthodoxy in a highly distorted economy: economic policy in Peru
Peru belongs to the club of Latin American countries which recently declined to follow "orthodox" adjustment programmes and implemented a "heterodox" policy package instead. The orthodox approach involves stabilisation by drastic budget cuts and monetary discipline, liberalisation of factor markets and the trade regime, whereas heterodox policies include strict price controls on factor and goods markets, an expansionary monetary policy, import protection and multiple exchange rates. Further, while orthodox measures entail a shock therapy, heterodox measures are associated with a gradualist approach. This paper analyses the rationale for an heterodox medicine in the Peruvian case. First, the performance of the Peruvian economy in 1970 - 1985 is studied in an attempt to arrive at a diagnosis of the central disease affecting economic policy in Peru. The conclusion is that the mix of monetary, fiscal and exchange rate policies chosen was inconsistent and that this inconsistency seems to have contributed to serious imbalances at both the macro- and microeconomic levels. The inward-oriented industrialisation strategy followed by this country offered the appropriate background for the development of this inconsistency. This result, along with a critical review of the economic consequences of the Peruvian Government's heterodox plan, leads to the conclusion that this country could reap significant welfare gains from a reform of the policy regime in the direction of orthodox adjustment measures and a stronger world-market orientation.
The crystal structure of stilpnomelane. Part II. The full cell
Summary The structural formula of stilpnomelane averaged from 37 representative literature analyses and based on the determined structure is (Ca,Na,K)4(Ti0·1Al2·3Fe35·5Mn0·8Mg9·3)[Si63Al9](O,OH)216·nH2O. Ferrostilpnomelanes have up to 12 R 3+ cations in the octahedral sheet, ferristilpnomelanes commonly have between 24 and 30 R 3+ cations, rarely up to 37. The two groups can be distinguished by accurate X-ray powder diffraction, ferrostilpnomelanes having d 001 less and a greater than have ferristilpnomelanes. The unit cell is triclinic, a = b∼21·8 Å, γ = 120°, d 001∼12·2 Å, P . Hexagonal groups or ‘islands’ of 24 silicon-oxygen tetrahedra co-ordinate to the octahedral sheet, the centres of the ‘islands’ are displaced by 5a/12, 8b/12 on either side of the octahedral sheet as a result of warping of this sheet to permit articulation with the smaller tetrahedral sheet. The 24-tetrahedra ‘islands’ are linked laterally by 6-member rings of inverted tetrahedra, which in turn link at their apices to like rings connecting the next sheet of ‘islands’. Thus a single tetrahedral layer is 4 tetrahedra thick and has symmetry 6/m. The 6-member rings of tetrahedra act as hinges permitting up to 0·5 Å extension or contraction of the tetrahedral sheet to accommodate variations in the octahedral sheet dimensions with varying R 2+/R 3+ ratio.