Incentives of land users in projects of soil and water conservation, the weight of intangibles
Many studies of soil and water conservation in third world situations show that among the farmers' incentives the commercial view on rural management is important and that at the same time intangible considerations are playing an important role. Traditional belief, local customs as well as inner conviction are also significant in the farmer's life. An example of incentives of land husbandry in the first world is given by a case of the Swiss Alp-farming. Their great attachment to this type of farming as well as the national support for mountain farmers' income play a role. In activities aimed at improvement of rural development in a third world country, the viewpoint of the expert may easily dominate any kind of plan making because of his position in the projects. However, his cultural background may limit his understanding of the rural situation in countries foreign to him. This has frequently lead to misjudging the importance of other than commercial incentives. A critical self-appraisal of motives and attitude to life by the adviser would often be needed in order to take immaterial incentives into account in development projects and in the achievement of agricultural policy. From the experience obtained in the third world and from the case study of the european alp-farming, the weight of intangibles in the land users' incentives appears as one of the crucial factors in rural management. This weight will grow with the present increasing need for sustainable agricultural productivity as well as with the need to create a sustained use of the environment in many parts of the world.
THE COSTS OF SOIL EROSION ( 1 )
The aim of this study was a survey of the estimated costs of soil erosion, an issue of fundamental importance in view of the current worldwide discussions on sustainability. A list was drawn up of research papers on erosion (on-site and offsite effects) and their respective costs. The estimates indicate the amount of resources spent in the process of soil degradation, raising a general awareness of the need for soil conservation. On-site costs affect the production units directly, while off-site costs create a burden borne by the environment, economy and society. In addition, estimating the costs of soil erosion should be effective to alert the agricultural producers, society and government for the need for measures that can be implemented to bring erosion under control. Among the various estimates of soil erosion costs between 1933 a 2010, the highest figure was 45.5 billion dollars a year for the European Union. In the United States, the highest figure was 44 billion dollars a year. In Brazil, estimates for the state of Paraná indicate a value of 242 million dollars a year, and for the state of São Paulo, 212 million dollars a year. These figures show, above all, that conservation measures must be implemented if crop and livestock farming production are to be sustainable.
More People, Less Erosion: Environmental Recovery in Kenya
This study "examines the interactions between people and the environment of the semi-arid Machakos District Kenya over a period of sixty years from 1930 to 1990. In the 1930s the district was considered an environmental disaster with famine relief and food imports needed between 1942 and 1962. Over the sixty years between 1930 and 1990 the population of the District increased more than five-fold however the environment in 1990 was in a much better condition than in the 1930s. Soil erosion had declined due to terraces in place to protect arable land and predictions of a wood fuel crisis were not fulfilled because of a larger number of farmed and protected trees. Additionally agricultural production...was higher and new technologies and farming systems had been introduced....This study combines the findings of physical and social scientists from the Overseas Development Institute London and the University of Nairobi Kenya. It uses conventional data oral history and photographic records....The study concludes with an explanation of the positive contribution that population growth in low density areas can have on economic and social development technology change and environmental sustainability under the right policies." (EXCERPT)