The Value of Social Capital to the Future of Iraq
This is a critical, yet hopeful, survey of the value of social capital to understanding the prevailing conditions in Iraq. The abundance of failures and paucity of progress in promoting a peaceful, stable, and democratic Iraq can be directly attributed to the lack of social capital between United States reconstruction representatives, the U.S. military and Iraqi civilians. The utility of social capital to the future of Iraq will be demonstrated in the following relationship: As social capital between the U.S. military, U.S. reconstruction authorities, and common Iraqis increases, the security and overall quality of life for Iraqis will increase. Iraq is listed second, just ahead of Somalia and behind Sudan, in Foreign Policy’s influential “Failed States Index for 2007.” Seventy-five percent of Iraqis describe the state of security in Iraq as “poor” (IRI, 2006, 29). Iraqis do not have access to basic services including electricity, food, or even potable water because of this lack of security. Four million Iraqis are considered “food insecure and in need of food assistance” (UNAMI, 2007, 2). Only one in three children in Iraq under the age of five has access to safe drinking water (UNICEF, 2007). More than 80,000 Iraqi citizens have lost their lives since the invasion of 2003 (Iraq Body Count, 2007). Over 4,000 coalition troops have suffered the same fate (icasualties, 2007). More importantly to our study, common citizens do not trust their neighbors, the coalition and Iraqi security forces trying to protect them, or their representatives in government. Indeed, most would agree with a recent CSIS report claiming that the central government is less and less relevant to what happens in Iraq (CSIS, 2007). The fundamental source of conflict in Iraq is doubtless the “competition among ethnic and sectarian communities for power and resources” (Petreaus Report, 2007, 2). Iraqis and U.S. analysts alike are asking the same question: how did we get to this point? American policy errors ran the gamut from political miscalculation and economic misallocation to social misunderstanding and military mismanagement. Past mistakes in policy formulation and implementation will offer us a portal
The Iraqi Impasse: Sustaining Economic Reconstruction During War-Time
Abstract : Economic recovery is important for stability and peace in Iraq. The Iraq Study Group proposed financial aid to Iraq of around $5 billion annually, while President Bush has increasingly stressed the importance of job creation in that country. Unfortunately, significant economic progress in Iraq is unlikely unless part of a comprehensive strategy is designed to overcome several forces currently impeding reconstruction and economic recovery: (a) the growth and dynamics of the shadow or informal economy, (b) the deterioration in social capital, and (c) the evolving relationship between tribes, gangs and the insurgency. The dynamic interrelationship between these factors is causing a downward economic spiral. Progress in one or two areas alone will not be capable of generating significant economic gains. All these factors need to be addressed.
Protection of the Marine Environment: The International and National Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
This chapter provides an overview of the international and national regulatory framework pertaining to deep seabed mining activities. It begins by discussing the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the backdrop for all marine activities – be they national or international – and examines the obligations of states to protect the marine environment from the harmful effects arising from deep seabed mining. Next, the chapter examines the international regime for deep seabed mining (i.e. “activities in the Area”), explaining the “common heritage of mankind” status of the Area (i.e. the international seabed); the functions of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), the international organization established to govern deep seabed mining in the Area; and the concept of state sponsorship of non-state entities (i.e. private actors) for deep seabed mining in the Area. The chapter follows with a discussion of the development of national legislation to regulate deep seabed mining, examining efforts in the Pacific region where many prospective deep-sea mining sites are located. This includes a look at the legislative regimes of several Pacific Island nations, namely, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and the Cook Islands, for whom deep seabed mining may soon become a reality – as well as New Zealand and Japan, countries with comparatively developed rule of law and legislative regimes that have undertaken or considered deep seabed mining in their national waters. Overall, the chapter critically describes and evaluates the current regulatory status in the international and national seabed areas and highlights some salient gaps that require urgent attention in order to ensure marine environmental protection and mitigate impacts on humans.