Reducing institutional barriers to solar energy through the use of cooperatively-owned solar energy systems
Despite the conceptual attractiveness of solar energy systems for space-heating applications, the market penetration rate of solar systems remains low. The physical, economic, and institutional barriers to acceptance that cause this disappointing performance are closely related to the present political, social, and economic structure, and so are proving difficult and time-consuming to lower. However, aggregating small solar systems into larger cooperative ventures can avoid many of these barriers altogether. This “product-fit” approach could greatly increase the diffusion rate of solar energy systems into the economy, thereby replacing fossil-fuel uses sooner and to a greater extent than previously expected.
Constructing Markets for Solar Energy—A Review of Literature about Market Barriers and Government Responses
A global conversion of energy production and consumption into renewable alternatives is required if climate targets are to be met. Solar photovoltaic systems (PVs), which convert sunlight into electricity, are an energy source that is receiving increasing attention. However, PVs are not competitive on the energy market and have therefore been dependent on governmental support through market interventions since their introduction. The aim of this paper is to find out what overall conclusions may be drawn after 40 years of experience in trying to establish the PV technology on the market through market interventions. In order to answer that aim, a systematic literature review of peer-reviewed studies on PV technology and market interventions from 1979 to 2019 is presented. The review clearly indicates that market barriers and interventions show great similarities over time and the technology is still dependent on government interference. The need for interventions does not look to decrease in the near future. The review also shows that market constructions by governments are short term in character. A conclusion drawn is that governments may sustain market interventions until nondesirable sources of energy are phased out.
Testosterone levels, handedness and sex ratio at birth.
Geschwind has hypothesized that levels of androgens in utero affect postnatal laterality preferences, high levels being associated with left-handedness of offspring. I have hypothesized that high parental androgen levels at the time of conception are associated with subsequent male births. However, left-handed parents seem to produce an excess of female, not male, offspring. This finding could be reconciled with the two hypotheses if individuals who were exposed to high levels of androgens in utero had low circulating levels in adulthood. Some evidence for this loophole is reviewed here. Lyster & Lloyd (1987, J. theor. Biol. 126, 125) have reported that (consistent with the hypotheses) index left-handed men have an excess of brothers; but, contrary to the hypotheses, index left-handed women have an excess of sisters. Accordingly these authors proposed that left-handedness in females is associated not with high levels of androgen in utero, but with a "sensitivity" to it. If such sensitivity were associated with low androgen levels, it might explain an excess of sisters among the sibs of left-handed women. It is shown here that evidence in agreement with this hypothesis (though not discriminating between it and Geschwind's) suggests that the sex ratios of offspring of LH male x RH female and of RH male x LH female matings, are both low.