Large-scale military funding induces culture clash
Abstract Mission-oriented research shifts the assessment of research products and potential from scientists to external factors. This is the point of mission funding, but it introduces what the author calls ‘epistemic drift’, which is part of a more general clash between different value systems and cultures. The culture clash between the military and industry has led to a shift in debate from spin-off to dual-use technologies. Similar conflicts and tensions are introduced into the university research system by large-scale mission funding such as that of SDI, and it is imperative that universities establish a strong civilian base for fundamental research funding instead of lobbying for military support.
Military Funding of University Research
Since the mission of the Department of Defense (DoD) and the purposes of the universities do not coincide, the question whether this is pragmatically important is examined. Relevant events in recent history are mentioned, and the reasons given in support of DoD funding of university research are summarized. Five consequences of such support are then discussed: distortion of the balance between research fields, change of emphasis within research fields, classification and other restrictions, consequences for graduate students, and political consequences. Social responsibility for the end use of research is then considered, and it is suggested that social responsibility should become an important university criterion of excellence. The article concludes that the negative consequences of DoD funding far outweigh its perceived benefits, and suggests that the universities should work to establish a strong civilian base of research funding instead of lobbying for DoD support.
Athenian Democracy at War
Classical Athens perfected direct democracy. The plays of this ancient Greek state are still staged today. These achievements are rightly revered. Less well known is the other side of this success story. Democratic Athens completely transformed warfare and became a superpower. The Athenian armed forces were unmatched in size and professionalism. This book explores the major reasons behind this military success. It shows how democracy helped the Athenians to be better soldiers. For the first time David M. Pritchard studies, together, all four branches of the armed forces. He focuses on the background of those who fought Athens' wars and on what they thought about doing so. His book reveals the common practices that Athens used right across the armed forces and shows how Athens' pro-war culture had a big impact on civilian life. The book puts the study of Athenian democracy at war on an entirely new footing.