Managerial style and its managerial implications for organizations in the Slovak republic
Abstract The article presents outcomes of a survey focusing on a style of management in Slovak organizations, using Blake & Mouton's managerial grid. The results presented ate based on a survey, consisting of a sample of 512 questionnaires addressing all managerial levels in Slovak companies. The corporations included in the survey are from various industries and fields of business as well as of different financial and capital ownership structures. The main objective of the survey is to portray management style of the managers in Slovakia from the perspective of managerial grid, analyzing people or task orientation in their managerial work. Further, the paper illustrates the differences in management style regarding the gender and the capital ownership of the company and depicts the consistency of the management style in relation to subordinates with the preferred management style from the superiors.
A comparative analysis of situationalism and 9,9 management by principle
Abstract Two fundamentally different approaches to theory, research, and to the practice of leadership point in opposite and mutually contradictory directions. Because both cannot be valid, a controversy has arisen as to whether leadership should be conceived of as being contingent upon the situation or whether there is one most effective style for all situations. In the first case, the leader changes behavior to fit the situation. In the second, the leader changes the situation to bring it into line with sound principles of behavior as these are emerging in the behavioral sciences. This article has examined the roots this controversy and the widely unexamined assumptions embedded within the conceptual structure supporting each side of its. Eight interrelated kinds of evidence have been presented that lead to the conclusion that one best style is a sounder basis for the exercise of effective leadership-to wit: 1. 1. Boss-subordinate dialogues demonstrating that it is unnecessary to shift style with maturiry level; 9,9-oriented leadership is possible with subordinates at all maturity levels. 2. 2. When instruments for measuring situational leadership are examined, it is found that the “one most effective style” alternative is not provided as one of the available options for dealing with the situation. Therefore, when measuring instruments exclude the one most effective style from comparative analysis, it obviously cannot be selected as the best alternative. 3. 3. Research is reported showing that when the 9,9-oriented alternative is added to a typical situational instrument, it is judged by experienced managers to be a significantly more effective basis for dealing with a variety of situations than is the situational leadership model prescription. 4. 4. Explanations for the absence of the “one most effective style” alternative are offered based on examining the situational theories from which the measurement practices are derived. This leads to the conclusion that the explanation lies in the manner in which task and relationship variables are combined. Following Fleishman and Reddin, the Hersey and Blanchard situational model is predicated on an additive (+) basis of combining independent variables that produces a mixture. This basis of separating two variables of each other loses the concept of leadership and creates several of the unfortunate consequences of reductionism. When high magnitudes of both variables are present, the result is 9+9 (high-high) or paternalism/maternalism. By comparison, “one best style” models are based on interaction between two interdependent but uncorelated variables that results in a shift in the character of leadership. This is designated by a (,) basis of compounding that identifies and defines the 9,9 leadership orientation. The important distinction is at the level of concept formation rather than at the level of statistical treatment, where the same terms are used. If the basic concept formation is in-appropriate, no amount of sophisticated statistical analysis can rectify the difficulties inherent in the theory itself. 5. 5. Published research was examined to determined whether the measuring instruments used are based upon concept formation of the (+) or the (,) character. Research premised on the (+) concept formation and test construction has consistently deomstrated that there is no one best leadership style. By comparison, when leadership is measured by instruments where concept formation and test construction are consistent with the compounding concept (,), the conclusions have consistently demonstrated (a) one style is most effective, and (b) this style is described by the 9,9 orientation or others essentially equivalent with it-that is, System, 4, Theory Y, Model II. 6. 6. The Hersey and Blanchard situational leadership model and the Blake and Mouton Grid model were then compared to determine the manner in which each deals with behavioral science concepts of leadership. By comparison with the 9,9 Grid orientation, the situational leadership model limits participation and conceives of it as a technique, fails to deal with conflict resolution as the basis of achieving understanding and agreement, and disregards critique and feedback as basic to learning, development, and change. The one behavioral science concept relied upon by Hersey and Blanchard is Skinnerian reinforcement theory; that is, the boss rewards subordinates for compliance with socioemotional support. By comparison, reward in the “one most effective style” approach is intrinsic to open participation that promotes invovement and commitment. 7. 7. Principles of behavior emerging from the behavioral sciences are interpreted as providing the strategy for conceiving the exercise of leadership based on open participation, candor, the promotion of trust and respect, stimulation of involvement and commitment, goal setting, confrontational conflict solving, and learning through critique solving, and learning through critique and feedback. These strategies do not change with situational variables, but the tactics of how they are applied shift with the maturity level of subordinates and other moderating variables. 8. 8. Rationalizations that permit both theories to be simultaneously embraced were identified and discussed as examples of how incorrect thinking may be relied on to reduce cognitive dissonance. These findings provide for the resolution of this controversy. They consistently demonstrate that the 9,9 oritentation (System 4, Model II, Theory Y) is the most effective style at the level of conceptual strategy, with tactics of practice geared to situations. This clarification makes it possible to strengthen leadership in its many applications within industry and government, mental health settings, and the academic world by bringing leadership practices into alignment with sound leadership theory.
“Social Media Misinformation”—An Epidemic within the COVID-19 Pandemic
"Social Media Misinformation"-An Epidemic within the COVID-19 Pandemic.