THE ECONOMIC IMPACT OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE ON HUDSON VALLEY ORCHARDS
The impact of wildlife damage on the profitability of apple farming in New York's Hudson Valley was determined by vise of a Standard Net Present Value (NPV) analysis as a means to measure long-term impact. Data were gathered through questionnaire and interview of a stratified random sample of 39 growers that represented 17% of the regional growers. Data concerning species causing damage, extent of wildlife damage and types of controls used were combined with current and long-range costs including revenue lost through damage and control costs. Limitations of the analysis are discussed along with results that indicate an annual equivalent cost flow for all wildlife damage between $3.8 and $3.85 million or $184 to $188 per acre. This study shows that a typical grower experienced combined revenue losses and control costs of $12,500 during 1986. Fifty-two percent of this was associated with wildlife controls, 40% with revenue losses and the remainder with tree replacement costs. Over a 25-year period beginning in 1985, the NEV of control costs and revenue losses is projected to total between $53 and $62 million depending upon whether a 3.5% or 5.0% discount rate is used. I/Research Associate, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell Univ. 2/Professor, Dept. of Pomology, Hudson Valley Lab., Cornell Univ. 3/ Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Cornell Univ. 4/Associate Professor, Dept. of Natural Resources, and Leader, NY Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit, Cornell Univ. INTRODUCTION Wildlife damage a variety of crops produced in the United States such as grains, orchards, vegetables, and ornamentals (Byers, 1984: Caslick and Decker, 1977; Katsma and Rusch, 1979; Tobin, 1986; McDowell and Pillsbury, 1959). The extent of the damage varies by region due to differences in climate terrain, crops, and wildlife. Despite the implementation of numerous control strategies, wildlife continue to be a severe problem in some parts of the country. This is because wildlife are extremely adaptable and in some cases thrive in areas where man has significantly altered the original habitat. For example, deer populations in New York are much larger than in the past because of the creation of fields and meadows while orchards are an ideal habitat for voles (Sauer, 1984; Byers, 1984). Hudson Valley apple orchards are particulary susceptible to damage caused by pine and meadow voles, deer, woodchucks, and a variety of birds. The primary objective of this study was to estimate the impact of wildlife damage on the profitability of producing apples in four counties of the Hudson Valley, New York. These counties were: Ulster, Columbia, Dutchess, and Orange. The first objective is important for several reasons. First, apple production is an integral part of the agricultural sector of the region. In 1985, 234 farms produced apples which had a total gross revenue ranging between $35-$45 million. Second, most fruit growers obtain most of their revenue from the sale of apples since half of the regional fruit farm acreage in the Hudson Valley is planted with apple trees (New York Crop Reporting Service, 1986; see Table 1). This implies that if wildlife cause extensive
Aversive responses of white-tailed deer,Odocoileus virginianus, to predator urines
We tested whether predator odors could reduce winter browsing of woody plants by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Urine from bobcats (Lyra rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) significantly reduced browsing of Japanese yews (Taxus cuspidata), and repellency was enhanced when urine was reapplied weekly as a topical spray. Urine of cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) and humans did not reduce damage, suggesting that deer do not respond aversively to odors of nonpredatory mammals or occasional predators with which they lack a long evolutionary association. Bobcat and coyote urine were more effective in tests conducted with eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), which is less palatable to white-tailed deer than Japanese yew. A dichloromethane extract of bobcat urine was as effective as unextracted urine in reducing damage to hemlocks. Testing of the organic components of bobcat urine, particularly the volatile components, may enable identification of the compounds responsible for the repellency we observed.
FlowBrush: optical flow art
The depiction of motion in static representations has a long tradition in art and science alike. Often, motion is depicted by spatio-temporal summarizations that try to preserve as much information of the original dynamic content as possible. In our approach to depicting motion, we remove the spatial constraints and generate new content steered by the temporal changes in motion. Applying particle steering in combination with the dynamic color palette of the video content, we can create a wide range of different image styles. With recorded videos, or by live interaction with a webcam, one can influence the resulting image. We provide a set of intuitive parameters to affect the style of the result, the final image content depends on the video input. Based on a collection of results gathered from test users, we discuss example styles that can be achieved with FlowBrush. In general, our approach provides an open sandbox for creative people to generate aesthetic images from any video content they apply.