Identity‐politics in the European Union
The purpose of this article is to explore the question of European identity. The EU consists of Member States whose national identities are well entrenched. The question of a European identity must therefore be seen in relation to entrenched national identities. Does a European identity have to supplant the national ones? Can it supplement or transform these? How much of a transformation is necessary? Will a European identity be a novel, post‐national type of identity? The article explores the question of a European identity by drawing on the analytical categories associated with the politics of recognition and by applying these to different conceptions of the EU qua polity. Four different options are explored and the conclusion is that ‐ although the picture is complex ‐ the EU appears to be in the process of developing a post‐national type of identity.
Rehabilitation or retribution? Cultures of control and policies vis-à-vis renegade regimes
The paper suggests a framework for analyzing democr acies’ policies towards renegade regimes, i.e. regimes whose defining feature is reg arded to be norm-breaking (e.g. Iran or North Korea). The paper argues that policies toward s renegade regimes are heavily influenced by domestic cultures of control because the problem of recurrent violations of community norms as posed by renegade regimes to the internati onal community is similar to the problem posed by criminals in domestic society. Thus, state with a retributive culture of control follow a confrontational policy towards renegade re gimes, fed by a “criminology of the other” that is based on the assumption that certain crimin als are simply evil and therefore intrinsically different from the rest of community. In contrast, states with a “penal-welfarist” or “rehabilitative” culture of control follow a mor e accomodationist policy, aiming at the resocialisation of the renegade into the community. . Author’s contact details : Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Wagner Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Department of Political Science De Boelelaan 1081 NL-1081 HV Amsterdam The Netherlands wm.wagner@fsw.vu.nl
The structure of electricity demand in the Brazilian household sector
Abstract The present structure of residential electricity demand is analysed by electricity consumption classes and end-uses. Nearly 70% of households consume less than 150 kWh/month and are responsible for 35% of total residential demand. Other determinants of electricity-use, such as income and place of residence, are also discussed. It is found that electricity demand is increasing faster than income as the country reaches appliances saturation in upper consumption levels. Water heating and refrigeration account for the major part of residential consumption. Residential conservation efforts have started introducing more efficient lighting equipment and refrigerators, but further work will have to be done to speed up the diffusion of efficient technology at costs that can be paid by consumers.