Dealing with feeling: a meta analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation.
The present meta analysis investigated the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation in modifying emotional outcomes as indexed by experiential, behavioral, and physiological measures. A systematic search of the literature identified 306 experimental comparisons of different emotion regulation (ER) strategies. ER instructions were coded according to a new taxonomy, and meta analysis was used to evaluate the effectiveness of each strategy across studies. The findings revealed differences in effectiveness between ER processes: Attentional deployment had no effect on emotional outcomes (d( 0.00) response modulation had a small effect (d( 0.16) and cognitive change had a small to medium effect (d( 0.36) There were also important within process differences. We identified 7 types of attentional deployment, 4 types of cognitive change, and 4 types of response modulation, and these distinctions had a substantial influence on effectiveness. Whereas distraction was an effective way to regulate emotions (d( 0.27) concentration was not (d( 0.26) Similarly, suppressing the expression of emotion proved effective (d( 0.32) but suppressing the experience of emotion or suppressing thoughts of the emotion eliciting event did not (d( 0.04 and 0.12, respectively) Finally, reappraising the emotional response proved less effective (d( 0.23) than reappraising the emotional stimulus (d( 0.36) or using perspective taking (d( 0.45) The review also identified several moderators of strategy effectiveness including factors related to the (a) to be regulated emotion, (b) frequency of use and intended purpose of the ER strategy, (c) study design, and (d) study characteristics.
Psychological bulletin