Anxiety and dependence to Media and Technology Use: media technology use and attitudes, and personality variables in Portuguese adolescents
This study examined the relationships between anxiety/dependence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) involving the frequency of and attitudes towards its use and personality dimensions in a sample of Portuguese adolescents. The sample consisted of 322 subjects aged between 12 and 18 years. The Portuguese version of the scale Use and Attitudes towards Information and Communication Technologies (MTUAS PY; Costa, Matos, Pinheiro, Salvador, Dias Zenha Rela, 2016) and the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI, Gosling, Rentfrow, Swann Jr. 2003) were used. The results showed that individuals with high anxiety/dependency had higher averages in several ICT use indicators (emailing, social networking, etc. attributed more importance to ICT, scored higher in the simultaneous execution of multiple tasks, and presented lower scores in the personality dimensions of emotional stability and consciousness. We can conclude that anxiety/dependence relates to the use and attitudes towards ICT as well as with personality variables. 1. Personal Internet use and explanatory hypotheses The worldwide use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is simultaneously extremely high and has an enormous potential of growth. Forty six percent of the world population uses the Internet (3.419 billions of people) and 31% (2.307 billions) use social media, mainly Facebook which, in 2015, had 1.550 billion users, surpassing the world's most populous country (mainland China with 1.354 billions) (Kemp, 2016) The Millennial generation (people born between 1980 and 2000) have been using the Internet and mobile communications systems since birth and, because of that, are called "digital natives" (Prensky, 2001) Generation Z (people born between 1995 and 2015) increased dramatically the intensity and the complexity of ICT usage through smartphones, social networks, and always on line behavior patterns. Using the Internet and social networks is a very common activity both globally and in Portugal. Internet and social media access is a reality for 70% of Portuguese families, mainly in men, until the age of 44, and those with a higher level of education (high school and college) Data has also shown 70% of Portuguese are involved in social media interaction, and that 2/3 are using mobile Internet access with smartphones or tablets. In families with children over the age of 15, Internet use increases to 90% (INE, 2015) The impact of information technology on humans has been receiving increasing attention from behavioral investigators. Rosen, Cheever and Carrier (2015) recently presented an excellent review of extensive contribution to the Psychology of Technology in understanding the social media phenomena and the preference for task switching. Research efforts have also been developed in order to improve our knowledge about gender patterns of ICT use, as well as positive and negative impacts of this use. 1.1 Gender In the literature, many studies have explored Internet and social media use and differences between genders regarding the involvement with the Internet, type of activities, association with life JGAIESS Vol:2 No:2 (c) Copyright by Author(s) Global Academic Institute 2 satisfaction, academic achievement, peer pressure, disclosure of information, and friendship development. Regarding online activities, studies found several gender differences. Joiner et al. (2005) with a sample of 608 English undergraduate psychology students, found greater male use of the Internet especially in the ownership of a personal page, game websites, and downloading of contents. Hinostroza, Matamala, Labbe, Claro, and Cabello (2014) studied secondary student's computer use and found that usual activities included socializing, academic activities, gaming and production activities, with similar patterns within the same socio economic group and equivalent levels in ICT experience and self confidence in use. Searching for homework information and playing games were the most popular online activities for all adolescents. The variable that differentiated user profiles was gender. Girls presented higher values on socializing and academic activities while boys had higher values for gaming and production activities. Jhala and Sharma (2016) studied Internet use among 1331 Indian adolescents between 13 and 19 years old. Results showed that Internet use is prevalent and influenced by place (rural areas showed greater interference with school activities and preference for online activities, as opposed to going out with friends) school grade (the 9th grade students were more affected) and gender (more intense use for boys) Lin and Yu (2008) found that searching for homework information and playing games were the most popular online activities for all Taiwanese adolescents. While girls tended to prefer searching for information and e mailing friends, boys tended to prefer playing games and downloading software. Durkee et al. (2012) studied Problematic Internet Use (PIU) in European adolescents with a special focus on demographic and social factors. Data from 11,956 adolescents (56% female and mean age of 14.9, SD 0.89) showed that the preferred activities were watching videos, frequenting chat rooms, and social networking. Males had higher scores in playing single user games and females had higher scores in social networking. Data also showed that lack of emotional and psychological family support were risk factors for PIU. The link between life satisfaction and Internet use was also studied by Lachmann, Sariyska, Kannen, Cooper, and Montag (2016) who examined the relation of PIU with life satisfaction both in general and in specific aspects, like job satisfaction, leisure, and health. High and negative associations were found between life satisfaction, general and specific, and PIU, with stronger associations for females, although they had lower levels of PIU. The authors suggested that gender was a variable that influences the association between life satisfaction and PIU. Another focus of research is on the relation between Internet use, academic achievement, and gender (Chen Fu, 2009) Online searching for information had a positive impact on academic achievement but using the Internet for socializing, gaming, and going to Internet cafes had the opposite effect. Gender differences were found. If searching for information helped boys and girls, online socializing made girls particularly vulnerable to lower academic achievement, while online gaming and going to Internet cafes only impaired boys' academic achievement. Studying the importance of peer support, Kiranm and Gundogdu (2010) evaluated the relationship between Internet addiction, peer pressure, and perceived peer support among 558 Turkish adolescents (52% female) from 9th to 10th grade. Results showed that low levels of peer pressure reduced Internet addiction, and the same effect was present when parental and teacher support was high. Furthermore, a lower incidence of Internet addiction was present in girls. The amount and type of information disclosed on the Internet was studied, by Sozio, et al. (2015) on a multi nation study that included 8 countries (Brazil and seven European countries that included Portugal) on Internet use, with children from 9 to 16 years of age. Regarding gender, girls tended to present their social media profiles as private more often than boys, but disclosed more information such as personal photos, full names, and personal address. Finally, gender differentiation is also present in the strategies to develop intimate relationships with peers. Desjarlais and Willoughby (2010) reviewed several studies on gender differences in Internet usage of social media and concluded that while boys focus on shared online activities and interests, girls tend to engage in discussion (like talking about events, gossiping, sharing compliments) and in personal disclosure behaviors. The reviewed literature focused primarily on differential Internet use for girls and boys. However, Gross (2004) based on adolescent self reporting, found that both genders described their online activities as occurring in private settings, as e mail and instant messages, with friends that are part of JGAIESS Vol:2 No:2 (c) Copyright by Author(s) Global Academic Institute 3 offline lives and with common but intimate contents, such as gossiping or talking about friends. Online pretending was more associated with playing a joke than with identity exploration. No associations between on line activities and well being were found. In a sample of Portuguese adolescents, aged between 11 and 15 years, Simoes, Camacho, Reis, and Equipa Aventura Social (2014) found no associations between ICT activities and gender. Bessiere, Kiesler, Kraut, and Boneva (2008) in a survey conducted in 2001 and 2002, in the USA, found that almost all respondents reported using the Internet for information, entertainment, and communicating with friends and family. Only 20% used the Internet to meet new people and talk in online groups. Erwina, Turk, Heimberg, Fresh and Natulab (2004) and Davis (2001) pointed out, as advantages of using the Internet, the access to a wider network of people with similar interests or concerns, and the increased ability to be in contact with geographically distant friends and family members. 1.2 Explanatory hypotheses Huang (2010, 2012) in literature reviews, identified a debate as to whether the effect of Internet use on psychological well being is beneficial (augmentation hypothesis) or detrimental (displacement hypothesis) The augmentation hypothesis suggested that the association was positive since the Internet use for communication provides a context for social interaction and interpersonal development, thus improving the user's psychological well being. The displacement hypothesis indicated that the association between Internet use and well being was negative, because Internet use for co