Alcohol and the fetus: a reasoned approach.
Evidence relating adverse pregnancy outcome to maternal alcohol use seldom focuses on nonabusive levels of drinking, yet this is what the majority of patients seek information about. Outcomes of the hypothesized mechanisms of action appear related to pattern of exposure and timing during pregnancy. Methodological problems encountered in human studies include determination of exposure, method of analysis, and outcome measurement. Physicians should be aware of drinking habits of women in the childbearing years, and the reported adverse effects of moderate drinking. Guidelines for alcohol use in pregnancy are suggested.