The rise of large-scale marine protected areas: Conservation or geopolitics?
In the last two decades, increasing number of international agreements have challenged traditional MPA design and management by calling for the implementation of large-scale marine protected areas (LSMPAs) within national jurisdictions and into the high seas. Since 2004, ten LSMPAs were established representing more than 80% of the worldwide MPA coverage, most of them in the Pacific. Here we analysed the drivers behind the establishment of LSMPA. This recent phenomenon is mainly driven by political reasons due to international conservation targets and intense domestic and international advocacy. Although we still lack scientific studies showing the benefit or the effectiveness of large-scale conservation, scientists advocate protecting marine biodiversity in remote places as a precautionary approach. International conservation targets provided political motivation for LSMPA establishment enabling coastal states to benefit from several legal mechanisms to strengthen their sovereignties over sea spaces. The rise of LSMPAs boosted the awakening of indigenous communities at the international, national, cultural and political level. In some cases the conservation initiatives catalysed indigenous claims to preserve their traditional and future rights forcing States to make sovereignty compromises on traditional rights. Ultimately, LSMPAs raise many issues of enforcement, management costs and governance structure that may challenge their effectiveness.