Single-walled carbon nanotubes exhibit limited transport in soil columns.
The increased production and commercial use of nanomaterials combined with a lack of regulation to govern their disposal may result in their introduction to soils and ultimately into groundwater systems. In this study, we investigated the transport behavior of carboxyl-functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) in columns packed with a natural soil. In general, SWNT deposition (filtration) rate increased with increasing solution ionic strength, with divalent cations (Ca(2+)) being more effective in increasing SWNT retention than monovalent cations (K(+)). However, SWNT deposition rate over a very wide range of monovalent and divalent cation concentrations (0.03 to 100 mM) was relatively high and changed only slightly above 0.3 mM KCl or 0.1 mM CaCl(2). In contrast, filtration of another type of engineered carbon-based nanomaterial, namely aqueous fullerene (C(60)) nanoparticles (radius of 51 nm), was more sensitive to solution ionic strength, displaying lower deposition rate and more effective transport in soil than SWNTs. These observations indicate that physical straining governs SWNT filtration and transport under all the solution chemistries investigated in the present study. It is proposed that SWNT shape and structure, particularly the very large aspect ratio and its highly bundled (aggregated) state in aqueous solutions, as well as the heterogeneity in soil particle size, porosity, and permeability, collectively contribute to straining in flow through soil media. Our results suggest that SWNTs of comparable properties to those used in the present study will not exhibit substantial transport and infiltration in soils because of effective retention by the soil matrix.