Hopping frequency influences elastic energy reuse with joint series elastic actuators.
Robotic limb design struggles to combine energy efficiency with human-like levels of movement versatility. High efficiency and a range of angles and torques are characteristics of human hopping at different frequencies. Humans use muscles in combination with tendons to achieve the required joint actuation. Therefore, we consider whether appropriately tuned series elastic actuators (SEAs) placed at the leg joints can be used to reduce the functional gap between robots and humans. Human hip, knee, and ankle biomechanics were recorded over a range of hopping frequencies to extract joint angles and torques, which were used as an input to a mechanical simulation SEA model. This model was used to optimize the SEA stiffness of each joint to either minimize peak power or energy requirements. This work investigated the relationship between hopping frequency and SEA stiffness, the utility of using SEAs at each joint, and the reasons behind humans' preferred hopping frequency. Although the constant stiffness values across different hopping frequencies are suitable for the knee and the ankle, a variable serial elastic actuator stiffness could still further reduce energy requirements. Optimal SEA stiffness was found to reduce peak power requirements by up to 73% at the ankle and up to 66% at the knee, with greatest benefits found around the preferred frequency. However, no SEA benefits were found for the hip and above the preferred hopping frequency for the knee. These insights could be used to aid in the design of robotic and assistive devices to achieve versatile and energy efficient human-like movements.