Exploring Media Literacy and Computational Thinking: A Game Maker Curriculum Study.
While advances in game based learning are already transforming educative practices globally, with tech giants like Microsoft, Apple and Google taking notice and investing in educational game initiatives, there is a concurrent and critically important development that focuses on 'game construction' pedagogy as a vehicle for enhancing computational literacy in middle and high school students. Essentially, game construction based curriculum takes the central question "do children learn from playing games" to the next stage by asking "(what) can children learn from constructing games?" Founded on Seymour Papert's constructionist learning model, and developed over nearly two decades, there is compelling evidence that game construction can increase student confidence and build their capacity towards ongoing computing science involvement and other STEM subjects. Our study adds to the growing body of literature on school based game construction through comprehensive empirical methodology and evidence based guidelines for curriculum design. There is still debate as to the utility of different software tools for game construction, models of scaffolding knowledge, and evaluation of learning outcomes and knowledge transfer. In this paper, we present a study we conducted in a classroom environment with three groups of grade 6 students (60+ students) using Game Maker to construct their own games. Based on a quantitative analysis and a qualitative discussion we organize results around several core themes that speak to the field of inquiry: levels of computational literacy based on preand post tests; gender based attitutdes to computing science and programming based on a preand post survey; and the relationship between existing media literacy and performance in programming as part of the game construction curriculum. Significant results include some gender differences in attitudes towards computers and programming with boys demonstrating slightly higher confidence and performance. We discuss the complex reasons potentially contributing to that, particulaly against a diverse ecology of overal media use, gameplay experience and access to technology at home. Finally, we theorize game construction as an educational tool that directly engages foundational literacy and numeracy, and connects to wider STEM oriented learning objectives in ways that can benefit both boys and girls in the classroom. Keywords: game making, STEM, coding, Game Maker, digital literacy 1 In pursuit of "21 century skills" An ongoing challenge of the 21 century is ensuring everyone has the requisite skills to participate in a digital, knowledge based economy. This is increasingly difficult under conditions of austerity in both K 12 and higher education, at a time when there is significant need for skilled labour in technology and computing fields in particular. Despite widespread enthusiasm for "21 century learning," researchers and policy makers around the globe are still trying to articulate exactly what constitutes this term (Media Awareness Network 2010) while public education generally is being criticized for not adopting it (Francis 2012; Lynch 2013) There is, for example, no specific curriculum provision regarding what 21 century learning should entail and how that should inform K 12 schooling, though there is widespread and growing agreement that digital games figure somewhere in that landscape (Gee 2005; Salen 2007; Squire 2011) Digital games are increasingly at the forefront of conversations about ways to address student disengagement (Gee 2003; Rieber, LP 1996; Rupp et al. 2010) and ways to foster 21 century learning and skills (Barab Dede 2007; Steinkuehler 2008; Squire 2011) That research concentrates on playing digital games, whether those are commercially made or made especially for education. Less prominent has been research focused on the design and development of games as a means to support critical competencies like creative problem solving, collaboration, and programming skills (Carbonaro et al. 2010; Denner 2011; Denner Wenner 2007; Papert 1993) Designing and making digital games, this prior research suggests, can provide an ideal framework for operationalizing 21 century learning: creating digital artifacts entails technical, computational and aesthetic forms of activity whose success depends on bridging between arts and sciences an intersection increasingly characteristic of the contemporary job market and effective participation in social life. ISSN 1479 4403 111 (c)ACPIL Reference this paper as Jenson J and Droumeva M, "Exploring Media Literacy and Computational Thinking: A Game Maker Curriculum Study" The Electronic Journal of e Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016, (pp111 121) available online at www.ejel.org The Electronic Journal of e Learning Volume 14 Issue 2 2016 One of the main motivations for bringing game design and development into the fold of STEM curriculum planning concerns the need to introduce and familiarize youth to the principles of computation, design thinking and procedural logic, from an earlier age than is currently practised. The context for this is a growing acknowledgement among educational researchers, computer scientists and teachers that 'computational thinking' and algorithmic logic ought to be considered a kind of 'core literacy' that needs to be incorporated into the school curriculum alongside numeracy, textual literacy and scientific thinking (diSessa 2000; Wing 2006) Computational thinking can also be located alongside a range of other competence based technological 'literacies' discussed in popular education blogs, that include 'making' or tech prototyping, fostering of applied 'creativity, as well as 'design thinking' While Papert's work in the 1980s saw the emergence of the first useroriented Logo coding language developed specifically with educational goals in mind, it has only been in the last five to ten years that a plethora of drag and drop programming environments for children have become readily and easily available. During that time there have been numerous improvements to the user interface and functionality of these programs, targeting specific age groups and in many cases making tools available on the web as part of online sharing communities of practice. One of the most pertinent underpinnings of contemporary education research into using game construction software in the classroom is addressing the systemic problem of girls' impoverished representation in computing science and technical fields. Such studies aim to deliberately engage girls and other marginalized youth groups in coding activities, and counter negative associations and lack of confidence that might hold them back from approaching and benefiting from ongoing computer programming instruction. A central pedagogical concern with regard to teaching game construction as an entry level form of computer programming centres around defining and operationalizing "computational thinking" as a core curricular concept, and identifying how and when to introduce it into the classroom. Additional concerns involve what type of instruction is required and which tools are best suited to achieve these cognitive objectives. 2 Definition and 'cognitive objectives' of computational thinking (CT) Wing (2006) defines CT as "reformulating a seemingly difficult problem into one we know how to solve, perhaps by reduction, embedding, transformation, or simulation." Yadav et al. (2014) define CT as a "mental activity for abstracting problems and formulating solutions that can be automated" while Cuny et al. (2010) define it as "the thought processes involved in formulating problems and their solutions so that the solutions are represented in a form that can be effectively carried out by an information processing agent" According to Denner, Werner and Ortiz (2011) "algorithmic thinking involves defining a problem, breaking it into smaller yet solvable parts, and identifying the steps for solving the problem." As part of this, students must model the essential characteristics of the problem while suppressing unnecessary details. In the process, "finite sequences of instructions are coded to operationalize the modeled abstractions." From a review of the field in Grover and Pea (2013) the following is a standard list of learning objectives or computational constructs that ought to be covered in some form in instructional designs of entry level computing: Abstractions and pattern generalizations (including models and simulations) Systematic processing of information (proceduralization) Symbol systems and representations Structured problem decomposition (modularizing) Iterative, recursive, and parallel thinking Conditional logic Debugging and systematic error detection (pp. 39 40) A major challenge here is translating these constructs to both affordances of existing game development tools and to specific instructional designs and learning objectives. A number of contemporary studies, for instance, have published extensive breakdowns of tool specific available actions, modifications, as well as procedural and conditional logic sequences that correspond to top level computational constructs (Carbonaro et al. 2010; Denner 2011; Denner Wenner 2007) However, less explicit are the particular pedagogical underpinnings of instructional design by which game construction is introduced and implemented in the classroom within the larger context of mathematics and science (STEM) instruction. Specifically, some of the concerns that need to 1 Arguably two of the oldest and most widely used drag and drop coding environments for early school education are Scratch https:/scratch.mit.edu/ and Alice http:/www.alice.org/ www.ejel.org 112 (c)ACPIL Jennifer Jenson and Milena Droumeva addressed include the scaffolding, assessment and transfer of both computational terminology and applied coding skills. 3 Assessment, scaffolding and transfer of con