Dancers' experiences of overtraining and recovery during vocational dance training
Introduction Dancers invest a great deal of time and effort into their training in order to attain elite levels of performance. However, quantity of practice alone is not enough to achieve elite performance, the quality of practice also plays an important role[1] Professional dancers, and vocational dance students training to become professionals, undertake large training loads with practice time increasing prior to performances and assessments[2, 3] Dancers must balance the stress of intense training loads along with non training related stress (e.g. academic workloads, managing financial concerns, living away from family and friends) in order to achieve performance gains. If the appropriate balance between training and non training stress and recovery is not met, the resulting maladaptation to training manifests in symptoms of underrecovery, overtraining, and burnout. Overtraining and recovery has garnered attention in sports science research, however little is known about how dancers balance training and non training stress with recovery in order to prevent negative training outcomes. Dancers are susceptible to overtraining[4] and one of the most commonly perceived reasons for injury, as reported by dancers, is fatigue due to overload[5] Fatigue, stress, injury, and psychosocial antecedents to burnout[6 8] and workload and rest (from a physiological perspective)[9] have been examined in dance specific populations. However, no research has examined recovery in dance specifically, and how enhancing recovery may improve dancers' management of fatigue and stress needs investigation. This study examined professional dancers' experiences of stress and recovery during their vocational dance training as a basis for identifying potential risk factors for overtraining in dance. The Overtraining Risks and Outcomes Model (OROM)[10] conceptualises four stages of stress, recovery and overtraining in athletic populations. Stage one outlines risk factors that increase stress experienced by athletes. Stage two concerns stress recovery imbalance and early signs of overtraining. The third stage concerns individuals' behavioural responses to overtraining, where adaptive responses lead to a return to a state of balance, and an improvement in performance, and maladaptive behavioural responses lead to the negative outcomes addressed in stage 4, such as psychological or physical illness or injury, and ongoing fatigue. The aim of this research was to use the OROM[10] to develop an understanding of dancers' experiences of overtraining and recovery, and how the stress recovery balance is managed in professional and vocational dance contexts. Methods Participants Procedure: Following university ethics approval, interviews were conducted with professional ballet (n 4) and contemporary (n 8) dancers (9 female, 3 male) who had previously undertaken vocational dance training. Participants ranged in age from 23 to 46 years (M 34.06, SD 7.34) with professional dance experience ranging from 1 to 25 years (M 9.96, SD 7.69) The majority of the participants trained in Australia and three participants trained at international institutions. The participants included Freelance, Independent, Young, and Principal Artists, with five of the participants currently teaching contemporary and/or ballet. The interviews were held at a time and location of convenience, lasting between 51:17 minutes and 1:36:45 hours. Interviews were conducted in three groups of three to four participants or individually (n 3) to accommodate participant availability. All participants provided informed consent prior to data collection. Semi structured interview questions were developed from the OROM[10] and interviews were transcribed verbatim by the first author. Analysis: Thematic analysis was conducted utilising a template analysis approach to assess how participants' experiences fit within the OROM[10] Following transcription, initial codes were generated and collated into themes which were then reviewed to assist in defining and refining the specifics of each theme[11] The second author independently coded a random selection of the interviews to enhance reliability and trustworthiness. Differences in the coding and themes generated were discussed and debated until agreement was reached. Results Analyses revealed dancers' experiences of stress and recovery during vocational training could be described within the OROM[10] (see Table 1) Three key themes were identified as central risk factors in vocational dance training: Identity "There's quite a lot of bravado.'good dancers work through things' and I think we expect that of each other" [C7] Pushing Through "I'd push through and [my injuries would] get worse" [B4] and Health "When I got injured..they wanted me back as quick as possible..and that was a big problem" [B1] Dancers' behavioural responses to stress were identified as either Adaptive "When you get injured..you have to learn to treat your body right" [B1] or Maladaptive "I remember taking laxatives, I started smoking"[B3] (see Table 2) Discussion Dancers face a unique set of specific risk factors for overtraining which may compromise recovery in light of the demands of vocational dance training. Health and Identity emerging as a key risk factors, particularly in relation to injury and body issues, corresponds with previous research suggesting that dancers experience stress related to physical factors such as physical appearance, physical fatigue and injury[12] Whilst the demand for a specific body type and risk of injury may always be present in professional dance, understanding individual differences in responses to these risk factors may assist dancers to find adaptive ways of coping with increased stress related to these issues. The theme of Pushing Through is unique to this study and warrants further investigation as to how the sociocultural norm of 'pushing through' in dance puts dancers at risk of overtraining. Several dancers in this study self identified as people who "push through" and these dancers also reported experiencing outcomes indicative of overtraining (e.g. serious injury, debilitating psychological illness, prolonged fatigue and extended time off from dance) Examination of how and why dancers push beyond their capabilities will add to the current knowledge regarding links between fatigue and injury in dance[5] Whilst some participants reported less healthy ways of dealing with stress (e.g. smoking, drinking, ignoring stressors) it was encouraging to note that several dancers reported adaptive behaviours when dealing with stress, such as taking time off, remedial massage for aches and pains, and drawing on social support from friends and family. Helping dancers identify adaptive strategies for coping with stress and minimising maladaptive behavioural responses will enable dancers to regulate their individual stress recovery balance[12] Conclusion This study is a first step in understanding how risk factors for overtraining and behavioural responses related to recovery in vocational dance training may impact dancers' health and performance. The findings suggest that assisting dancers identify how stress impacts their response to training, and improving recovery behaviours, is essential for intervention programs aimed at enhancing recovery and reducing the risk of overtraining in vocational dance training. 1. Kellmann, M. Enhancing recovery: Preventing underperformance in athletes. 2002: Human Kinetics. 2. Wyon, M. Preparing to Perform: Periodization and Dance. Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2010. 14(2) p. 67 72. 3. Grove, J.R. L.C. Main, and L. Sharp, Stressors, recovery processes, and manifestations of training distress in dance. Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2013. 17(2) p. 70 78. 4. Koutedakis, Y. Burnout in dance. Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2000. 4(4) p. 123. 5. Liederbach, M. L. Schanfein, and I.J. Kremenic, What is known about the effect of fatigue on injury occurrence among dancers? Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2013. 17(3) p. 101 108. 6. Liederbach, M. and J.M. Compagno, Psychological aspects of fatigue related injuries in dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2001. 5(4) p. 116 120. 7. Noh, Y.E. T. Morris, and M.B. Andersen, Psychosocial stress and injury in dance. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation Dance, 2003. 74(4) p. 36 40. 8. Quested, E. and J.L. Duda, Antecedents of burnout among elite dancers: A longitudinal test of basic needs theory. Psychology of sport and exercise, 2011. 12(2) p. 159 167. 9. Twitchett, E. et al. The demands of a working day among female professional ballet dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine Science, 2010. 14(4) p. 127 132. 10. Richardson, S.O. M.B. Andersen, and T. Morris, Overtraining athletes: Personal journeys in sport. 2008: Human Kinetics. 11. Braun, V. and V. Clarke, Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2006. 3(2) p. 77 101. 12. Noh, Y. E. T. Morris, and M.B. Andersen, Occupational stress and coping strategies of professional ballet dancers in Korea. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 2009. 24(3) p. 124.