Cultural Theory, Climate Change and Clumsiness
the disputes that characterise environmental policy. The different premises, in these disputes, concern human and physical nature, and cultural theory maps them in terms of a fourfold typology of forms of social solidarity (figure) Two of these solidarities individualism and hierarchy have long been familiar to social scientists; they are usually referred to as markets and hierarchies [e g Williamson 1975 and Lindblom 1977] The theory's novelty lies in its addition of the other two solidarities and in its making explicit the different premises the different social constructions of nature, physical and human that sustain these four fundamental arrangements for the promotion of social transactions. Hierarchies institute status differences (asymmetrical transactions) and, by requiring forms of behaviour appropriate to those of differing rank and station (accountability) set all sorts of limits on competition. Markets the transactional arrangements that accompany individualism do the diametrical opposite; they institute equality of opportunity (symmetrical transactions) and promote competition (no accountability, as in 'If I don't do it someone else will' The other two permutations: symmetrical transactions with accountability (labelled egalitarianism in the cultural theory scheme) and asymmetrical transactions without accountability (labelled fatalism in the cultural theory scheme) tend to be ignored by social science in general and by policy science in particular. This, for instance, was evidently the case with the enormous Brent Spar oil storage structure, the deep ocean disposal of which was proposed by the market actor Shell and approved by the hierarchical actor the British government's regulatory agency. Had there been only markets and hierarchies the Brent Spar would now be mouldering in its watery grave, but of course it isn't! Another actor Greenpeace from a third form of solidarity (egalitarianism) forced its way in, at the 1 th hour, by audaciously, and very publicly, landing a helicopter on the structure as it was being towed out into the Atlantic. The disposal plans were abruptly abandoned by Shell (motorists, particularly in Germany, having stopped buying its petrol) and the British government was left with egg all over its face (John Major, the prime minister at the time, called Shell's senior management 'wimps' Shell then entered into lengthy negotiations with Greenpeace, and the Brent Spar has now been cut up into cylindrical sections to help form a ferry terminal in Norway. Those British citizens who managed to remain ignorant of the whole affair (and they were many) or who found themselves totally convinced by whoever they happened to have last seen arguing their case on television, were evidently bound into none of these 'active' solidarities individualism, hierarchy or egalitarianism and constituted a fourth and rather 'inactive'