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[ "\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n'''Autism''' is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction, impaired verbal and non-verbal communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior. Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child's life. These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace and then regress. The diagnostic criteria require that symptoms become apparent in early childhood, typically before age three.\n\n\nAutism is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Some cases are strongly associated with certain infections during pregnancy including rubella and use of alcohol or cocaine. Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes; for example the vaccine hypotheses, which have been disproven. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize; how this occurs is not well understood. In the DSM V, autism is included within the autism spectrum (ASDs), as is Asperger syndrome, which lacks delays in cognitive development and language, and pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified (commonly abbreviated as PDD-NOS), which was diagnosed when the full set of criteria for autism or Asperger syndrome were not met.\n\n\nEarly speech or behavioral interventions can help children with autism gain self-care, social, and communication skills. Although there is no known cure, there have been reported cases of children who recovered. Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood, though some become successful. An autistic culture has developed, with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder.\n\n\nGlobally, autism is estimated to affect 24.8 million people as of 2015. As of 2010, the number of people affected is estimated at about 1–2 per 1,000 worldwide. It occurs four to five times more often in boys than girls. About 1.5% of children in the United States (one in 68) are diagnosed with ASD , a 30% increase from one in 88 in 2012. The rate of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the United Kingdom is 1.1%. The number of people diagnosed has been increasing dramatically since the 1980s, partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; the question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved.\n", "Autism spectrum disorder video\nAutism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder that first appears during infancy or childhood, and generally follows a steady course without remission. People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal, or even superior, in others. Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months, become established by age two or three years, and tend to continue through adulthood, although often in more muted form. It is distinguished not by a single symptom, but by a characteristic triad of symptoms: impairments in social interaction; impairments in communication; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior. Other aspects, such as atypical eating, are also common but are not essential for diagnosis. Autism's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly, without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits.\n\n===Social development===\nSocial deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders (ASD; see Classification) from other developmental disorders. People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted. Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals, or people with normal neural development, as leaving her feeling \"like an anthropologist on Mars\".\n\nUnusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood. Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli, smile and look at others less often, and respond less to their own name. Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms; for example, they have less eye contact and turn-taking, and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves, such as pointing at things. Three- to five-year-old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding, approach others spontaneously, imitate and respond to emotions, communicate nonverbally, and take turns with others. However, they do form attachments to their primary caregivers. Most children with autism display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children, although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD. Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person's own emotions.\n\nChildren with high-functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non-autistic peers, despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone. Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism. For them, the quality of friendships, not the number of friends, predicts how lonely they feel. Functional friendships, such as those resulting in invitations to parties, may affect the quality of life more deeply.\n\nThere are many anecdotal reports, but few systematic studies, of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD. The limited data suggest that, in children with intellectual disability, autism is associated with aggression, destruction of property, and tantrums.\n\n===Communication===\nAbout a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs. Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life, and may include delayed onset of babbling, unusual gestures, diminished responsiveness, and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver. In the second and third years, children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling, consonants, words, and word combinations; their gestures are less often integrated with words. Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences, and are more likely to simply repeat others' words (echolalia) or reverse pronouns. Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech, and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD: for example, they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed-at object, and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience. Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language.\n\nIn a pair of studies, high-functioning children with autism aged 8–15 performed equally well as, and adults better than, individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling. Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language, comprehension and inference. As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills, these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends.\n\n===Repetitive behavior===\nA young boy with autism who has arranged his toys in a row\nAutistic individuals can display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior, which the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) categorizes as follows.\n\n* Stereotyped behaviors: Repetitive movements, such as hand flapping, head rolling, or body rocking.\n* Compulsive behaviors: Time-consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules, such as placing objects in a specific order, checking things, or hand washing.\n* Sameness: Resistance to change; for example, insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted.\n* Ritualistic behavior: Unvarying pattern of daily activities, such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual. This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors.\n* Restricted interests: Interests or fixations that are abnormal in theme or intensity of focus, such as preoccupation with a single television program, toy, or game.\n* Self-injury: Behaviors such as eye-poking, skin-picking, hand-biting and head-banging.\n\nNo single repetitive or self-injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism, but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors.\n\n===Other symptoms===\nAutistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis, but that can affect the individual or the family.\nAn estimated 0.5% to 10% of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities, ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants. Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention, relative to the general population. Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90% of those with autism, and are considered core features by some, although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Differences are greater for under-responsivity (for example, walking into things) than for over-responsivity (for example, distress from loud noises) or for sensation seeking (for example, rhythmic movements). An estimated 60%–80% of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone, poor motor planning, and toe walking; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper.\n\nUnusual eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur; this does not appear to result in malnutrition. Although some children with autism also have gastrointestinal symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that children with autism have more or different gastrointestinal symptoms than usual; studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between gastrointestinal problems and ASD is unclear.\n\nParents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress. Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship. However, they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well-being and poorer sibling relationships as adults.\n", "\n\nIt has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic, cognitive, and neural levels for autism's characteristic triad of symptoms. However, there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co-occur.\n\nDeletion (1), duplication (2) and inversion (3) are all chromosome abnormalities that have been implicated in autism.\nAutism has a strong genetic basis, although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects, or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants. Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes, the environment, and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression. Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents.\n\nStudies of twins suggest that heritability is 0.7 for autism and as high as 0.9 for ASD, and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population. However, most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified. Typically, autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian (single-gene) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality, and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD. Numerous candidate genes have been located, with only small effects attributable to any particular gene. Most loci individually explain less than 1% of cases of autism. The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation — such as deletions, duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis. Hence, a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited: that is, the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome.\n\nSeveral lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism. Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways, such as those involved with cell adhesion. Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity-dependent changes. All known teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception, and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later, there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development.\n\nExposure to air pollution during pregnancy, especially heavy metals and particulates, may increase the risk of autism. Environmental factors that have been claimed without evidence to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods, infectious diseases, solvents, diesel exhaust, PCBs, phthalates and phenols used in plastic products, pesticides, brominated flame retardants, alcohol, smoking, illicit drugs, vaccines, and prenatal stress. No evidence has been found for these claims, and some such as the MMR vaccine have been completely disproven.\n\nParents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination. This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine \"overload\", a vaccine preservative, or the MMR vaccine for causing autism. The latter theory was supported by a litigation-funded study that has since been shown to have been \"an elaborate fraud\". Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible, parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations, outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries, and the preventable deaths of several children.\n", "Autism's symptoms result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. How autism occurs is not well understood. Its mechanism can be divided into two areas: the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism, and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors. The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies.\n\n===Pathophysiology===\nAutism affects the amygdala, cerebellum, and many other parts of the brain.\nUnlike many other brain disorders, such as Parkinson's, autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular, cellular, or systems level; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways, or is (like intellectual disability) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms. Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product. Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that autism's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors. Just after birth, the brains of children with autism tend to grow faster than usual, followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood. It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all children with autism. It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization. Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following:\n* An excess of neurons that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions.\n* Disturbed neuronal migration during early gestation.\n* Unbalanced excitatory–inhibitory networks.\n* Abnormal formation of synapses and dendritic spines, for example, by modulation of the neurexin–neuroligin cell-adhesion system, or by poorly regulated synthesis of synaptic proteins. Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to epilepsy, which may explain why the two conditions are associated.\n\nThe immune system is thought to play an important role in autism. Children with autism have been found by researchers to have inflammation of both the peripheral and central immune systems as indicated by increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and significant activation of microglia. Biomarkers of abnormal immune function have also been associated with increased impairments in behaviors that are characteristic of the core features of autism such as deficits in social interactions and communication. Interactions between the immune system and the nervous system begin early during the embryonic stage of life, and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response. It is thought that activation of a pregnant mother's immune system such as from environmental toxicants or infection can contribute to causing autism through causing a disruption of brain development. This is supported by recent studies that have found that infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of autism.\n\nThe relationship of neurochemicals to autism is not well understood; several have been investigated, with the most evidence for the role of serotonin and of genetic differences in its transport. The role of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR) in the pathogenesis of fragile X syndrome, the most common identified genetic cause of autism, has led to interest in the possible implications for future autism research into this pathway. Some data suggests neuronal overgrowth potentially related to an increase in several growth hormones or to impaired regulation of growth factor receptors. Also, some inborn errors of metabolism are associated with autism, but probably account for less than 5% of cases.\n\nThe mirror neuron system (MNS) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties. The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action. The MNS may contribute to an individual's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions, intentions, and emotions. Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD, delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome, and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD. However, individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of children with autism on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object.\n\nAutistic individuals tend to use different areas of the brain (yellow) for a movement task compared to a control group (blue).\nASD-related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks.\nIn autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the default network, a large-scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing, with intact connectivity of the task-positive network, used in sustained attention and goal-directed thinking. In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time, suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks, possibly reflecting a disturbance of self-referential thought.\n\nThe underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high-level neural connections and synchronization, along with an excess of low-level processes. Evidence for this theory has been found in functional neuroimaging studies on autistic individuals and by a brainwave study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the cortex and weak functional connections between the frontal lobe and the rest of the cortex. Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each hemisphere of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the association cortex.\n\nFrom studies based on event-related potentials, transient changes to the brain's electrical activity in response to stimuli, there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention, orientation to auditory and visual stimuli, novelty detection, language and face processing, and information storage; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli. For example, magnetoencephalography studies have found evidence in children with autism of delayed responses in the brain's processing of auditory signals.\n\nIn the genetic area, relations have been found between autism and schizophrenia based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with 1q21.1 deletion syndrome. Research on autism/schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 (15q13.3), chromosome 16 (16p13.1) and chromosome 17 (17p12) are inconclusive.\n\nFunctional connectivity studies have found both hypo- and hyper-connectivity in brains of people with autism. Hypo-connectivity seems to dominate, especially for interhemispheric and cortico-cortical functional connectivity.\n\n===Neuropsychology===\nTwo major categories of cognitive theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior.\n\nThe first category focuses on deficits in social cognition. Simon Baron-Cohen's empathizing–systemizing theory postulates that autistic individuals can systemize—that is, they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain—but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents. An extension, the extreme male brain theory, hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain, defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing. These theories are somewhat related to Baron-Cohen's earlier theory of mind approach, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others. The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by the atypical responses of children with autism to the Sally–Anne test for reasoning about others' motivations, and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in ''Pathophysiology'' maps well to the hypothesis. However, most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals' ability to understand other people's basic intentions or goals; instead, data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others' viewpoints.\n\nThe second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing: the executive functions such as working memory, planning, inhibition. In his review, Kenworthy states that \"the claim of executive dysfunction as a causal factor in autism is controversial\", however, \"it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism\". Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence, but performance never reaches typical adult levels. A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests; two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure and that executive function deficits have not been found in young children with autism.\n\nWeak central coherence theory hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism. One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people. A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals. These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism.\n\nNeither category is satisfactory on its own; social cognition theories poorly address autism's rigid and repetitive behaviors, while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties. A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful.\n", "Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome, intellectual disability or global developmental delay. ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.\n\nSeveral diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children. The Diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders (DISCO) may also be used.\n\nA pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills, both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment such as Landau–Kleffner syndrome. The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression.\n\nClinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause. Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes, consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing. A genotype-first model of diagnosis has been proposed, which would routinely assess the genome's copy number variations. As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics. Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.\n\nASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later. In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice. Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood, they are sometimes missed; years later, adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits.\n\nUnderdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis. It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms.\n\n===Classification===\nAutism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.\n\nOf the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called ''atypical autism'') is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Unlike with autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development. The terminology of autism can be bewildering, with autism, Asperger syndrome and PDD-NOS often called the ''autism spectrum disorders'' (ASD) or sometimes the ''autistic disorders'', whereas autism itself is often called ''autistic disorder'', ''childhood autism'', or ''infantile autism''. In this article, ''autism'' refers to the classic autistic disorder; in clinical practice, though, ''autism'', ''ASD'', and ''PDD'' are often used interchangeably. ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype, which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact.\n\nThe manifestations of autism cover a wide spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication. Because the behavior spectrum is continuous, boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low-, medium- or high-functioning autism (LFA, MFA, and HFA), based on IQ thresholds, or on how much support the individual requires in daily life; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial. Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non-syndromal autism; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound intellectual disability or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms, such as tuberous sclerosis. Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism, the extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome, HFA, and non-syndromal autism is unclear.\n\nSome studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype, or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.\n\nResearch into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics. Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes (observable traits) that can be viewed on brain scans, to help further neurogenetic studies of autism; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain, which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects. It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior.\n", "About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child's unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months. According to an article failure to meet any of the following milestones \"is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations. Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long-term outcome\".\n* No babbling by 12 months.\n* No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.\n* No single words by 16 months.\n* No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months.\n* Any loss of any language or social skills, at any age.\n\nThe United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns. The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months, using autism-specific formal screening tests. In contrast, in the UK, children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened. It is not known which approach is more effective. Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire, and the First Year Inventory; initial data on M-CHAT and its predecessor, the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT), on children aged 18–30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity (many false-negatives) but good specificity (few false-positives). It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders. Screening tools designed for one culture's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture. Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical, it can be considered in some cases, such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features.\n", "Infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1% of cases of autism; vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases.\n", "\nA three-year-old with autism points to fish in an aquarium, as part of an experiment on the effect of intensive shared-attention training on language development.\nThe main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. In general, higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment. Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy, however the development of evidence-based interventions has advanced in recent years. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Among these approaches, interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively, or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit. There is some evidence that early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), an early intervention model based on ABA for 20 to 40 hours a week for multiple years, is an effective treatment for some children with ASD. Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include applied behavioral analysis (ABA) and developmental social pragmatic models (DSP). One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model, which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques, allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves. Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at-home parent implementation. Despite the recent development of parent training models, these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies, being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment.\n\n===Education===\nEducational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children. Similarly, teacher-implemented intervention that utilizes an ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be a well-established treatment in improving social-communication skills in young children, although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up, and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results. The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers.\n\n===Medication===\nMany medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails. More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. Antipsychotics, such as risperidone and aripiprazole, have been found to be useful for treating irritability, repetitive behavior, and sleeplessness that often occurs with autism, however their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits, and people with autism may respond atypically. There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. No known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments. Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function, suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism.\n\n===Alternative medicine===\nAlthough many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests. Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk. A 2008 study found that compared to their peers, autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on casein-free diets; in 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old child with autism. There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism.\n\nAlthough popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism, there is no good evidence that a gluten-free diet is of benefit. In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten free diet may improve some autistic behaviors.\n\n===Cost===\nTreatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of $ (net present value in dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimate), with about 10% medical care, 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity. Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems; one 2008 US study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD, and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that child care problems will greatly affect parental employment. US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services, shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance. After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and estate planning.\n", "\nThe emergence of the autism rights movement has served as an attempt to encourage people to be more tolerant of those with autism. Through this movement, people hope to cause others to think of autism as a difference instead of a disease. Proponents of this movement wish to seek \"acceptance, not cures.\" There have also been many worldwide events promoting autism awareness such as World Autism Awareness Day, Light It Up Blue, Autism Sunday, Autistic Pride Day, Autreat, and others. There have also been many organizations dedicated to increasing the awareness of autism and the effects that autism has on someone's life. These organizations include Autism Speaks, Autism National Committee, Autism Society of America, and many others. Social-science scholars have had an increased focused on studying those with autism in hopes to learn more about \"autism as a culture, transcultural comparisons... and research on social movements.\" Media has had an influence on how the public perceives those with autism. ''Rain Man'', a film that won 4 Oscars including Best Picture, depicts a character with autism who has incredible talents and abilities. While many autistics don't have these special abilities, there are some autistic individuals who have been successful in their fields.\n", "There is no known cure. Children recover occasionally, so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not. It is not known how often recovery happens; reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3% to 25%. Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger, though a few have developed communication skills in later years. Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or self-determination. Although core difficulties tend to persist, symptoms often become less severe with age.\n\nFew high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife. Acquiring language before age six, having an IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism. Most people with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood.\n", "\nReports of autism cases per 1,000 children grew dramatically in the US from 1996 to 2007. It is unknown how much, if any, growth came from changes in rates of autism.\n\nMost recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD, and 11 per 1,000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008; because of inadequate data, these numbers may underestimate ASD's true rate. Globally, autism affects an estimated 24.8 million people as of 2015, while Asperger syndrome affects a further 37.2 million. In 2012, the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1.1%. Rates of PDD-NOS's has been estimated at 3.7 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000. CDC's most recent estimate is that 1 out of every 68 children, or 14.7 per 1,000, has an ASD as of 2010.\n\nThe number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s. This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness, though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism's true prevalence has increased; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.\n\nBoys are at higher risk for ASD than girls. The sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated, but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed.\n\nAlthough the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy-related risk factor as a cause of autism, the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent, and with diabetes, bleeding, and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm, and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism. Most professionals believe that race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism.\n\nSeveral other conditions are common in children with autism. They include:\n* '''Genetic disorders'''. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.\n* '''Intellectual disability'''. The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence. In comparison, for PDD-NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker, and by definition, the diagnosis of Asperger's excludes intellectual disability.\n* '''Anxiety disorders''' are common among children with ASD; there are no firm data, but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11% to 84%. Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself, or are hard to distinguish from ASD's symptoms.\n* '''Epilepsy''', with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder.\n* Several '''metabolic defects''', such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms.\n* '''Minor physical anomalies''' are significantly increased in the autistic population.\n* '''Preempted diagnoses'''. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted.\n* '''Sleep problems''' affect about two-thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood. These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress, and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis.\n", "\nLeo Kanner introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.\nA few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''Table Talk'' of Martin Luther, compiled by his notetaker, Mathesius, contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated, although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report. The earliest well-documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue, as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair's marriage to gain Blair's inheritance. The Wild Boy of Aveyron, a feral child caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.\n\nThe New Latin word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia. He derived it from the Greek word ''autós'' (αὐτός, meaning \"self\"), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to \"autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance\".\n\nThe word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler's terminology ''autistic psychopaths'' in a lecture in German about child psychology. Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome, though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities. Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably \"autistic aloneness\" and \"insistence on sameness\", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.\n\nDonald Triplett was the first person diagnosed with autism. He was diagnosed by Leo Kanner after being first examined in 1938, and was labeled as \"case 1\". Triplett was noted for his savant abilities, particularly being able to name musical notes played on a piano and to mentally multiply numbers. His father, Oliver, described him as socially withdrawn but interested in number patterns, music notes, letters of the alphabet, and U.S. president pictures. By the age of 2, he had the ability to recite the 23rd Psalm and memorized 25 questions and answers from the Presbyterian catechism. He was also interested in creating musical chords.\n\nKanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like ''infantile schizophrenia'', and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to \"refrigerator mothers\". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome. As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; while in 2007 it was believed to be one of the most heritable psychiatric conditions. Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have affected how ASD is viewed, parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child's autistic behavior is perceived negatively, and many primary care physicians and medical specialists express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research.\n\nIt took until 1980 for the DSM-III to differentiate autism from childhood schizophrenia. In 1987, the DSM-III-R provided a checklist for diagnosing autism. In May 2013, the DSM-5 was released, updating the classification for pervasive developmental disorders. The grouping of disorders, including PDD-NOS, Autism, Asperger Syndrome, Rett Syndrome, and CDD, has been removed and replaced with the general term of Autism Spectrum Disorders. The two categories that exist are impaired social communication and/or interaction, and restricted and/or repetitive behaviors.\n\nThe Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely. Sociological and cultural aspects of autism have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.\n", "* \n", "\n", "\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "Causes", "Mechanism", "Diagnosis", "Screening", "Prevention", "Management", "Society and culture", "Prognosis", "Epidemiology", "History", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nPercentage of diffusely reflected sunlight in relation to various surface conditions\n\n'''Albedo''' () is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness (Latin ''albedo,'' \"whiteness\") of a surface. It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to one (corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation).\n\nSurface albedo is defined as the ratio of irradiance reflected to the irradiance received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see Position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly or annual averages.\n\nUnless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.39-0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation).\n\nAlbedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere, its ''planetary albedo'', is 30 to 35% because of cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features.\n\nThe term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work ''Photometria''.\n", "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float:right; margin:10px\"\n+ Sample albedos\n\n Surface\n Typicalalbedo\n\n Fresh asphalt \n 0.04\n\nOpen ocean\n0.06\n\n Worn asphalt \n 0.12\n\n Conifer forest(Summer) \n 0.08, 0.09 to 0.15\n\n Deciduous trees \n 0.15 to 0.18\n\n Bare soil \n 0.17\n\n Green grass \n 0.25\n\n Desert sand \n 0.40\n\n New concrete \n 0.55\n\n Ocean ice\n 0.5–0.7\n\n Fresh snow \n 0.80–0.90\n\nAny albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds.\n\n2003–2004 mean annual clear-sky and total-sky albedo\nEarth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on the Suomi NPP and JPSS. As the amount of reflected radiation is only measured for a single direction by satellite, not all directions, a mathematical model is used to translate a sample set of satellite reflectance measurements into estimates of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. Thereby, the BRDF allows to translate observations of reflectance into albedo.\n\nEarth's average surface temperature due to its albedo and the greenhouse effect is currently about 15 °C. If Earth were frozen entirely (and hence be more reflective), the average temperature of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called aquaplanet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C.\n\n===White-sky and black-sky albedo===\nFor land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle ''θ''''i'' can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, , and the bi-hemispherical reflectance, , with being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and being the proportion of diffuse illumination.\n\nHence, the actual albedo (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as:\n\n:\n\nDirectional-hemispherical reflectance is sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo and bi-hemispherical reflectance as white-sky albedo. These terms are important because they allow the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.\n", "\nThe albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle (\"phase angle\"), and variation in time comprises a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids.\n\nEnceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known albedos of any body in the Solar System, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.\n\nThe overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.136, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.\n\nTwo common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected). Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.\n\nIn detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.\n\nThe correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is:\n,\n\nwhere is the astronomical albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, and is the absolute magnitude.\n", "\n===Illumination===\nAlthough the albedo–temperature effect is best known in colder, whiter regions on Earth, the maximum albedo is actually found in the tropics where year-round illumination is greater. The maximum is additionally in the northern hemisphere, varying between three and twelve degrees north. The minima are found in the subtropical regions of the northern and southern hemispheres, beyond which albedo increases without respect to illumination.\n\n===Insolation effects ===\nThe intensity of albedo temperature effects depend on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes.\n\nArctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.\n\n===Climate and weather===\nAlbedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.\n\n===Albedo–temperature feedback===\nWhen an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating.\n\n===Snow===\nSnow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica they average a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback). Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets.\nHence, small errors in albedo can lead to large errors in energy estimates, which is why it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value over broad regions.\n\n===Small-scale effects===\nAlbedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing.\n\n=== Solar photovoltaic effects ===\nAlbedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications.\n\n===Trees===\nBecause forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate \n\nIn seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15.\n\nStudies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming.\n\n===Water===\nWater reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph).\nReflectivity of smooth water at 20 °C (refractive index=1.333)\nAt the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle.\n\nAlthough the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light.\n\nNote that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection.\n\n===Clouds===\nCloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. \"On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth.\"\n\nAlbedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.\n\n===Aerosol effects===\nAerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per the effects are:\n\n\n* ''Aerosol direct effect.'' Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming.\n* ''Aerosol indirect effect.'' Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling (''first indirect effect''), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud (''second indirect effect'').\n\n\n===Black carbon===\nAnother albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m−2, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m−2. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo.\n\n===Human activities===\nHuman activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult.\n", "Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.\n", "\n\n* Cool roof\n* Daisyworld\n* Emissivity\n* Global dimming\n* Irradiance\n* Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation\n* Opposition surge\n* Polar see-saw\n* Solar radiation management\n\n\n", "\n", "\n* Official Website of Albedo Project\n* Global Albedo Project (Center for Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate)\n* Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth\n* NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site\n* Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations\n* A discussion of Lunar albedos\n* reflectivity of metals (chart)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Terrestrial albedo", " Astronomical albedo ", "Examples of terrestrial albedo effects", "Other types of albedo", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWriting cursive forms of A\n'''A''' (named , plural ''As'', ''A's'', ''a''s, ''a's'' or ''aes'') is the first letter and the first vowel of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The upper-case version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lower-case version can be written in two forms: the double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.\n", "{| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n Egyptian\n Cretan\n Phoenician ''aleph''\n Semitic \n Greek ''Alpha''\n Etruscan A\n Roman/Cyrillic A\n Boeotian 800–700 BC\n Greek Uncial\n Latin 300 AD Uncial\n\n Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head\n Early Crete version of the letter \"A\"\n Phoenician aleph\n Semitic letter \"A\", version 1\n Greek alpha, version 1\n Etruscan A, version 1\n Roman A\n Boeotian\n Greek Classical uncial, version 1\n Latin 300 AD uncial, version 1\n\n\n Crete \"A\"\n Phoenician version of the \"A\"\n Semitic \"A\", version 2\n Greek alpha, version 2\n Etruscan A, version 2\n Latin 4th century BC\n Boeotioan 800 BC\n Greek Classical uncial, version 2\n Latin 300 AD uncial, version 2\n\n\nThe earliest certain ancestor of \"A\" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.\n\nIn 1600 B.C.E., the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms. Its name is thought to have corresponded closely to the Hebrew or Arabic aleph.\n\n\n\nBlackletter ABlackletter A\nUncial AUncial A\nAnother Capital AAnother Blackletter A \n\nModern Roman AModern Roman A\nModern Italic AModern Italic A\nModern Script AModern script A\n\nWhen the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.\n\nThe Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.\n\n===Typographic variants===\nDifferent glyphs of the lowercase letter A.\nDuring Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter \"A\". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other \"permanent\" mediums. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the \"perishable\" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.\n\nTypographic variants include a double-storey '''a''' and single-storey '''ɑ'''.At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.\n\n15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the ''Italic'' and ''Roman'' forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form, also called ''script a,'' is used in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it (\"a\"). Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.\n\nItalic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type). There are some other cases aside from italic type where ''script a'' (\"ɑ\"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin \"a\" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet).\n", "305x305px\n\n===English===\n\nIn modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds:\n*the near-open front unrounded vowel as in ''pad'';\n*the open back unrounded vowel as in ''father'', which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound;\n*the diphthong as in ''ace'' and ''major'' (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift;\n*the modified form of the above sound that occurs before , as in ''square'' and ''Mary'';\n*the rounded vowel of ''water'';\n*the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in ''was'' and ''what'';\n*a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in ''about'', ''comma'', ''solar''.\n\nThe double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as ''Aaron'' and ''aardvark''. However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .\n\n is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ), and the second most common in Spanish and French. In one study, on average, about 3.68% of letters used in English texts tend to be , while the number is 6.22% in Spanish and 3.95% in French.\n\n===Other languages===\nIn most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .\n\n===Other systems===\n\nIn phonetic and phonemic notation:\n*in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.\n*in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.\n", "\nIn algebra, the letter ''a'' along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities, whereas the letters at the end of the alphabet (''x'', ''y'', ''z'') are used to denote unknown quantities.\n\nIn geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.\n\n\"A\" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; \"A grade\" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.\n\nFinally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.\n", "\n\n===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===\n*Æ æ : Latin ''AE'' ligature\n*A with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ ᶏ\n\n*Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A (the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems): \n**Ɑ ɑ : Latin letter alpha / script A, which represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA\n**ᶐ : Latin small letter alpha with retroflex hook\n**Ɐ ɐ : Turned A, which represents a near-open central vowel in the IPA\n**Λ ʌ : turned V (also called a wedge, a caret, or a hat), which represents an open-mid back unrounded vowel in the IPA\n**Ɒ ɒ : Turned alpha / script A, which represents an open back rounded vowel in the IPA\n**ᶛ : Modifier letter small turned alpha\n**ᴀ : Small capital A, an obsolete or non-standard symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet used to represent various sounds (mainly open vowels)\n**ᴬ ᵃ ᵄ : Modifier letters are used in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA).\n**ₐ : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies\n**ꬱ : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system\n\n===Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations===\n*ª : an ordinal indicator\n*Å : Ångström sign\n*∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification (\"for all\")\n*@ : At sign\n*₳ : Argentine austral\n\n===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets===\n\n*𐤀 : Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive\n**Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive\n***А а : Cyrillic letter A\n*** : Coptic letter Alpha\n***𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A\n**** : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A\n*** : Gothic letter aza/asks\n", "\n: 1 \n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* History of the Alphabet\n* \n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", "Use in writing systems", "Other uses", "Related characters", "Computing codes", "Other representations", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nAchilles and the Nereid Cymothoe, Attic red-figure kantharos from Volci (Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris)\nKremaste, Phthia. Reverse: Thetis, wearing and holding the shield of Achilles with his AX monogram.\n\n\nIn Greek mythology, '''Achilles''' (, ; ) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War and the central character and greatest warrior of Homer's ''Iliad''. His mother was the immortal nereid Thetis, and his father, the mortal Peleus, was the king of the Myrmidons.\n\nAchilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan hero Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the ''Iliad'', other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Alluding to these legends, the term \"Achilles heel\" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution.\n", "Linear B tablets attest to the personal name ''Achilleus'' in the forms ''a-ki-re-u'' and ''a-ki-re-we'', the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία (''Achilleía''), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form ''Achillia'', on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an \"Amazon\".\n\nAchilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of ('''') \"distress, pain, sorrow, grief\" and ('''') \"people, soldiers, nation\", resulting in a proto-form ''*Akhí-lāu̯os'' \"he who has the people distressed\" or \"he whose people have distress\". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the ''Iliad'' (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of '''' (\"glory\", usually in war). Furthermore, ''laós'' has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean \"a corps of soldiers\", a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.\n\nAnother etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound ''*h₂eḱ-pṓds'' \"sharp foot\" which first gave an Illyrian ''*āk̂pediós'', evolving through time into ''*ākhpdeós'' and then ''*akhiddeús''. The shift from ''-dd-'' to ''-ll-'' is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part ''*h₂eḱ-'' \"sharp, pointed\" also gave Greek ἀκή (''akḗ'' \"point, silence, healing\"), ἀκμή (''akmḗ'' \"point, edge, zenith\") and ὀξύς (''oxús'' \"sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever\"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root ''*h₂egʰ-'' \"to be upset, afraid\". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin ''acupedius'' \"swift of foot\". Compare also the Latin word family of ''aciēs'' \"sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement\", ''acus'' \"needle, pin, bodkin\", and ''acuō'' \"to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse\" (whence ''acute''). Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the ''Iliad'' point to this \"swift-footedness\", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς (''podárkēs dĩos Achilleús'' \"swift-footed divine Achilles\") or, even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς (''pódas ōkús Achilleús'' \"quick-footed Achilles\").\n\nSome researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about him being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of ''-λλ-'' and ''-λ-'' in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /ly/ in the original language.\n", "Chiron teaching Achilles how to play the lyre, Roman fresco from Herculaneum, 1st century AD\n\nAchilles was the son of the Nereid Thetis and of Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.\n\nPeter Paul Rubens: ''Thetis Dipping the Infant Achilles into the River Styx'' (c. 1625; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam)\n\nThere is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the ''Argonautica'' (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.\n\n\n\nAccording to the ''Achilleid'', written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal, by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him, his left heel (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire, to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage.\n\nHowever, none of the sources before Statius makes any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the ''Iliad'' Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, \"drawing a spurt of blood\".\n\nAlso, in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which we can find description of the hero's death (i.e. the ''Cypria'', the ''Little Iliad'' by Lesches of Pyrrha, the ''Aithiopis'' and ''Iliou persis'' by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel; in the later vase paintings presenting Achilles' death, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body. Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia together with his companion Patroclus.\n\n=== Hidden on Skyros ===\n\n\nSome post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.\n", "According to the ''Iliad'', Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.\nAchilles and Agamemnon by Gottlieb Schick (1801)\n\n=== Telephus ===\nWhen the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that \"he that wounded shall heal\". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.\n\nAccording to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.\n\n=== Troilus ===\nAchilles slaying Troilus, red-figure kylix signed by Euphronios\n\nAccording to the ''Cypria'' (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (like Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios. However, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Troilus and Criseyde'' and in William Shakespeare's ''Troilus and Cressida'' is a medieval invention.\n\nIn Dares Phrygius' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'', the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a \"horse fighter\" or \"chariot fighter\" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible.\n\n=== Achilles in the ''Iliad'' ===\n\nAchilles cedes Briseis to Agamemnon, from the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, fresco, 1st century AD (Naples National Archaeological Museum)\n\nHomer's ''Iliad'' is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, ''mênis Achilléōs'') is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read:\n\nΜῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος\nοὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν, …\n\n:Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles,\n:the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans.\n\n\nThe Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.\n\nThe embassy to Achilles, Attic red-figure hydria, c. 480 BC (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Berlin)\nAchilles and Agamemnon, from a fresco of Pompeii, 1st century AD\n\nAs the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix, to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.\n\nAchilles sacrificing to Zeus for Patroclus' safe return, from the ''Ambrosian Iliad'', a 5th-century illuminated manuscript\n''The Rage of Achilles'', fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza)\nTriumphant Achilles dragging Hector's lifeless body in front of the Gates of Troy, from a panoramic fresco on the upper level of the main hall of the Achilleion\n\nThe Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.\n\nAfter receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem.\n\nEnraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that \"my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me\". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honour.\n\ntondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, c. 465 BC, from Vulci.\n\nWith the assistance of the god Hermes, Hector's father, Priam, goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral. The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.\n\n=== Later epic accounts: Fighting Penthesilea and Memnon ===\nAchilles and Penthesilea fighting, Lucanian red-figure bell-krater, late 5th century BC\nAchilles and Memnon fighting, between Thetis and Eos, Attic black-figure amphora, c. 510 BC, from Vulci.\n\nThe ''Aethiopis'' (7th century BC) and a work named ''Posthomerica'', composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century AD, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.\n\nFollowing the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise, until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.\n\nMany Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the ''Iliad'''s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic ''Aethiopis'', which was composed after the ''Iliad'', possibly in the 7th century BC. The ''Aethiopis'' is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.\n\n=== Achilles' death ===\n\nAttic black-figure lekythos, c. 510 BC, from Sicily (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich).\n\nThe death of Achilles, as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the ''Aethiopis'' as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.\n\nAnother version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.\n\nIn the ''Odyssey'', Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.\n\nIn Book 11 of Homer's ''Odyssey'', Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.\n\nAccording to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' ''Argonautica'' (3rd century BC).\n\nAchilles tending Patroclus wounded by an arrow, Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC (Altes Museum, Berlin)\n\n=== Achilles and Patroclus ===\n\n\nThe exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the ''Iliad'', it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers. Despite there being no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of ''paiderasteia''. In Plato's ''Symposium'', the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women.\n\n=== The fate of Achilles' armour ===\nAchilles and Ajax playing the board game ''petteia'', black-figure oinochoe, c. 530 BC (Capitoline Museums, Rome)\n\nAchilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men came to a consensus in favor of Odysseus. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.\n\nA relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the ''Iliad'' with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear. However, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century AD.\n\n=== Achilles, Ajax and a game of ''petteia'' ===\nNumerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (''petteia''). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.\n", "The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achill's homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.\n\nThe spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, ''Zmiinyi'', near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century AD, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an ''Achilles Pontárchēs'' (Ποντάρχης, roughly \"lord of the Sea,\" or \"of the Pontus Euxinus\"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.\n\nPliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his ''Natural History'' mentions a \"port of the Achæi\" and an \"island of Achilles\", famous for the tomb of that \"man\" (portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula \"which stretches forth in the shape of a sword\" obliquely, called ''Dromos Achilleos'' (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, ''Achilléōs drómos'' \"the Race-course of Achilles\") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today ''Tendra'' (or ''Kosa Tendra'' and ''Kosa Djarilgatch''), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the \"Race-course\" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)\n\nThetis and the Nereids mourning Achilles, Corinthian black-figure hydria, c. 555 BC (Louvre, Paris)\nRoman statue of a man with the dead body of a boy, identified as Achilles and Troilus, 2nd century AD (Naples National Archaeological Museum)\n\nIn the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as ''Achillea'' and introduces two further names for it: ''Leuce'' or ''Macaron'' (from Greek νῆσος μακαρῶν \"island of the blest\"). The \"present day\" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of ''Achillea'' or ''Leuce'' with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named ''Achillea'', situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: \"Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke.\" In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.\n\nThe heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on ''Leuce'' seems to go back to an account from the lost epic ''Aethiopis'' according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος (''Leúkē Nêsos'' \"White Island\"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a \"bright island\" (φαεννά νᾶσος, ''phaenná nâsos'') of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, ''makárôn nêsoi'') or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of \"Achilles lord of Scythia\" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.\n\nThe ''Periplus of the Euxine Sea'' (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:\n\n\n\nThe Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who lived probably during the first century AD, wrote that the island was called ''Leuce'' \"because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour\". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is \"covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue\". Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters (''aquae'') on the island.\n\nA number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town ''Achílleion'' (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an ''Achílleion'' in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an ''Achílleios'' (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older ''Achileii''), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.\n\nThe kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus.\n", "=== Achilles in Greek tragedy ===\n\n\nThe Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title ''Achilleis'' by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the ''Achilleis'' and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the ''Achilleis'' trilogy, ''The Myrmidons'', focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's ''Symposium'', Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.\n\nThe tragedian Sophocles also wrote ''The Lovers of Achilles'', a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.\n\nTowards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in ''Hecuba'', ''Electra'', and ''Iphigenia in Aulis''.\n\n=== Achilles in Greek philosophy ===\nThe philosopher Zeno of Elea centered one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between \"swift-footed\" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.\n\n=== Achilles in Roman and medieval literature ===\nThe Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's ''Roman de Troie'' and Guido delle Colonne's ''Historia destructionis Troiae'', which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.\n\nAchilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.\n", "\n''Briseis and Achilles'', engraving by Wenceslaus Hollar (1607–1677)\n''The Wrath of Achilles'' (c. 1630–1635), painting by Peter Paul Rubens\n''The death of Hector'', unfinished oil painting by Peter Paul Rubens\nJames Barry (Yale Center for British Art)\n''The Wrath of Achilles'', by François-Léon Benouville (1847; Musée Fabre)\n''The Education of Achilles'', by Eugène Delacroix, pastel on paper, c. 1862 (Getty Center, Los Angeles)\n\n===Literature===\n* Achilles appears in Dante's ''Inferno'' (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second Circle of Lust.\n* Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's ''Troilus and Cressida'' (1602).\n* The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy ''La Mort d'Achille'' (1673).\n* Achilles is the subject of the poem ''Achilleis'' (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.\n* Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's poem \"Ulysses\" (published in 1842): \"… we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew.\"\n* In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named ''Achilles''.\n* In 1921, Edward Shanks published ''The Island of Youth and Other Poems'', concerned among others with Achilles.\n* The 1983 novel ''Kassandra'' by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.\n* Achilles (Akhilles) is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel ''The Firebrand'' (1987).\n* Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel ''The Song of Troy'' (1998).\n* ''The Death of Achilles'' (''Смерть Ахиллеса'', 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the ''Iliad''.\n* The character Achilles in ''Ender's Shadow'' (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.\n* Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels ''Ilium'' (2003) and ''Olympos'' (2005).\n* Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's ''Troy'' series of books (2005-2007).\n* Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel ''Ransom'' (2009).\n* The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's ''The Last Olympian'' (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.\n* Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel ''The Rage of Achilles''.\n* Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, ''The Song of Achilles'' (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the ''Iliad''.\n* Achilles appears in the light novel series ''Fate/Apocrypha'' (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red.\n\n=== Visual arts ===\n* ''Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes'' is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.\n* Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: ''Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx'', ''Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron'', ''Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes'', ''The wrath of Achilles'', ''The death of Hector'', ''Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus'', ''The death of Achilles'' (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and ''Briseis restored to Achilles'' (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635)\n* ''Dying Achilles'' is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).\n* ''The Rage of Achilles'' is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza).\n* Eugène Delacroix painted a version of ''The Education of Achilles'' for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.\n* Arthur Kaan created a statue group ''Achilles and Penthesilea'' (1895; Vienna).\n* ''Achilleus'' (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.\n\n=== Music ===\nAchilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.\n\n* Operas titled ''Deidamia'' were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).\n* ''Achille et Polyxène'' (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.\n* ''Achille e Deidamia'' (Naples 1698) is an opera, composed by Alessandro Scarlatti.\n* ''Achilles'' (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as ''Achilles in petticoats'' in 1773.\n* ''Achille in Sciro'' is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as ''Il Trionfo della gloria''.\n* ''Achille'' (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.\n* ''Achille à Scyros'' (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.\n* ''Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja'' (\"Achilles, or Troy Destroyed\", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.\n* ''Achilles auf Skyros'' (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.\n* ''Achilles' Wrath'' is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.\n\n===Architecture===\n''Dying Achilles'' (Achilleas thniskon) in the gardens of the Achilleion \nIn 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the ''Achilleion'', after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan war, with particular focus on Achilles.\n", "* The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 - both as HMS ''Achilles'' and with the French spelling HMS ''Achille''. A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War.\n* HMNZS ''Achilles'' was a ''Leander''-class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.\n* A species of lizard, ''Anolis achilles'', which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.\n", "\n", "* Homer, ''Iliad''\n* Homer, ''Odyssey'' XI, 467–540\n* Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' III, xiii, 5–8\n* Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' III, 14-V, 7\n* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' XI, 217–265; XII, 580-XIII, 398\n* Ovid, ''Heroides'' III\n* Apollonius Rhodius, ''Argonautica'' IV, 783–879\n* Dante Alighieri, ''The Divine Comedy'', Inferno, V.\n", "* Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), \"Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon.\" In ''Il Mito Greco'', edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri.\n* Anthony Edwards (1985a), \"Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis\". ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies''. '''26''': pp. 215–227.\n* Anthony Edwards (1985b), \"Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic\". ''Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie''. '''171'''.\n* Anthony Edwards (1988), \"Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,\" ''Classical Quarterly''. '''38''': pp. 25–30.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Hélène Monsacré (1984), ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris: Albin Michel.\n* Gregory Nagy (1984), ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies''. '''19'''.\n* Gregory Nagy (1999), ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry''. Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online).\n* \n* Dale S. Sinos (1991), ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph. D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.\n* Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), ''The Death and Afterlife of Achilles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.\n", "\n\n* Trojan War Resources\n* Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles\n* Poem by Florence Earle Coates\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", " Birth and early years ", " Achilles in the Trojan War ", " Worship and heroic cult ", " Reception during antiquity ", "Achilles in modern literature and arts ", " Namesakes ", " Notes ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Abraham Lincoln''' (; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. In doing so, he preserved the Union, paved the way to the abolition of slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy.\n\nBorn in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the western frontier in Kentucky and Indiana. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, and was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, in which he served for eight years. Elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy and opposed the Mexican–American War. After a single term, he returned to Illinois and resumed his successful law practice. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, which had a statewide majority in Illinois. In 1858, while taking part in a series of highly publicized debates with his opponent and rival, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery, but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas. In 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state, though most delegates originally favored other candidates. Though he gained very little support in the slaveholding states of the South, he swept the North and was elected president in 1860.\n\nLincoln's victory prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederate States of America before he moved into the White House—no compromise or reconciliation was found. A Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment of the South, War Democrats, who called for more compromise, anti-war Democrats (called Copperheads), who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory. His Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war in order to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the controversial ''ex parte Merryman'' decision, and he averted potential British intervention by defusing the ''Trent'' Affair. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of generals, including his most successful general, Ulysses S. Grant. He made major decisions on Union war strategy, including a naval blockade that shut down the South's trade. As the war progressed, his complex moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863; Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraged the border states to outlaw slavery, and pushed through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which permanently outlawed slavery.\n\nAn astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the 1864 presidential election. Anticipating the war's conclusion, Lincoln pushed a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth and died the next day. Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U.S. presidents.\n", "===Early life and ancestry===\n\nAbraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake of Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel's grandson and great-grandson began the family's western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky, in the 1780s. Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the future president's father, witnessed the attack. After his father's murder, Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier, working at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee, before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s.\n\nLincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks, although no record of Nancy Hanks' birth has ever been found. According to William Ensign Lincoln's book ''The Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln'', Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks; however, the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock. Still another researcher, Adin Baber, claims that Nancy Hanks was the daughter of Abraham Hanks and Sarah Harper of Virginia.\n\nThomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky, following their marriage. They became the parents of three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and another son, Thomas, who died in infancy. Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky, including the Sinking Spring farm, where Abraham was born; however, a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move. In 1811, the family moved north, to Knob Creek Farm, where Thomas acquired title to of land. In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm. Of the that Thomas held in Kentucky, he lost all but of his land in court disputes over property titles. Frustrated over the lack of security provided by the Kentucky title survey system in the courts, Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814, and began planning a move to Indiana, where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure.\n\nIn 1816, the family moved north across the Ohio River to Indiana, a free, non-slaveholding territory, where they settled in an \"unbroken forest\" in Hurricane Township, Perry County. (Their land in southern Indiana became part of Spencer County, Indiana, when the county was established in 1818.) The farm is preserved as part of the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial. In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was \"partly on account of slavery\"; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky. During the family's years in Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. He owned farms, several town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of a Separate Baptists church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Within a year of the family's arrival in Indiana, Thomas claimed title to of Indiana land. Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community in Spencer County. Prior to the family's move to Illinois in 1830, Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property.\n\n''Young Lincoln'' by alt=A statue of young Lincoln sitting on a stump, holding a book open on his lap\n\nSeveral significant family events took place during Lincoln's youth in Indiana. On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness, leaving eleven-year-old Sarah in charge of a household that included her father, nine-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin. On December 2, 1819, Lincoln's father married Sarah \"Sally\" Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became very close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as \"Mother\". Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah's death on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a stillborn son.\n\nAs a youth, Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his \"reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.\", and must have done it to avoid manual labor. His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy \"physical labor\", but loved to read. Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent, the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates of Lincoln's youth recalled that he read and reread the ''King James Bible'', ''Aesop's Fables'', Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'', Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'', Weems's ''The Life of Washington'', and Franklin's ''Autobiography'', among others.\n\nAs he grew into his teens, Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household. He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty-one. Abraham became adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was also strong and athletic. He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as \"the Clary's Grove boys\".\n\nIn early March 1830, partly out of fear of a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, several members of the extended Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a non-slaveholding state, and settled in Macon County, west of Decatur. Historians disagree on who initiated the move; Thomas Lincoln had no obvious reason to leave Indiana, and one possibility is that other members of the family, including Dennis Hanks, might not have attained the stability and steady income that Thomas Lincoln had. After the family relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father, in part because of his father's lack of education, and occasionally lent him money. In 1831, as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own. Traveling down the Sangamon River, he ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County. Later that spring, Denton Offutt, a New Salem merchant, hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—Lincoln returned to New Salem, where he remained for the next six years.\n\n===Marriage and children===\n\n\n\nAccording to some sources, Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; these sources indicate that by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister.\n\nLate in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.\n\nIn 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in Lexington, Kentucky. They met in Springfield, Illinois, in December 1839 and were engaged the following December.\nA wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative. They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister. While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, \"To hell, I suppose.\" In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.\n\nHe was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in 1846. Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. \"Willie\" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871. Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. The Lincolns' last descendant, great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985. Lincoln \"was remarkably fond of children\", and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own.\n\nThe deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875. Abraham Lincoln suffered from \"melancholy\", a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression.\n\nLincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.\n\nDuring his term as President of the United States of America, Mary was known to cook for Lincoln often. Since she was raised by a wealthy family, her cooking abilities were simple, but satisfied Lincoln's tastes, which included, particularly, imported oysters.\n", "\nLincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln's service during the Black Hawk War.\n\nIn 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in New Salem, Illinois. Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.\n\nBefore the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War. Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At , he was tall and \"strong enough to intimidate any rival\". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his \"neck and the seat of his trousers\" and threw him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.\n\nLincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone's ''Commentaries on the Laws of England'' and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: \"I studied with nobody\". His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.\n\nAdmitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought \"a studious young man\".\n\nSuccessful on his second run for office, Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County. He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner. In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not. He was known for his \"free soil\" stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, \"The Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils.\" His stance closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa.\n", "Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. Photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846.\nFrom the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be \"an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay\". The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.\n\nLincoln ran for the Whig nomination for Illinois's 7th district of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, but was defeated by John J. Hardin. However, Lincoln won support for the principle of rotation, whereby Hardin would retire after only one term to allow for the nomination of another candidate. Lincoln hoped that this arrangement would lead to his nomination in 1846. Lincoln was indeed elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line. Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.\n\nOn foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for \"military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood\". Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso, which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.\n\nLincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had \"invaded ''our territory'' and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our ''own soil''. Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.\n\nCongress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him \"spotty Lincoln\". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.\n\nRealizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, Justin Butterfield, considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an \"old fossil\". The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.\n", "Lincoln in 1857\nLincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling \"every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer\". Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session. Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.\n\nIn 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route. Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. Lincoln's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname \"Honest Abe.\"\n\nLincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William \"Duff\" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''Farmers' Almanac'' showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.\n\nLincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.\n", "\n===Emergence as Republican leader===\n\nThe debate over the status of slavery in the territories exacerbated sectional tensions between the slave-holding South and the North, and the Compromise of 1850 failed to defuse the issue. In the early 1850s, Lincoln supported efforts for sectional mediation, and his 1852 eulogy for Henry Clay focused on the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to \"both extremes\" on the slavery issue. As the 1850s progressed, the debate over slavery in the Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory became particularly acrimonious, and Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise measure; the proposal would take the issue of slavery out of the hands of Congress by allowing the people of each territory to decide the status of slavery themselves. The proposal alarmed many Northerners, who hoped to stop the spread of slavery into the territories. Despite this Northern opposition, Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.\n\nFor months after its passage, Lincoln did not publicly comment on the Kansas-Nebraska Act, but he came to strongly oppose it. On October 16, 1854, in his \"Peoria Speech\", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency. Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice, he said the Kansas Act had a \"''declared'' indifference, but as I must think, a covert ''real'' zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ...\" Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas-Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.\n\nNationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting the demise of his party, Lincoln would write in 1855, \"I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist ... I do no more than oppose the ''extension'' of slavery.\" Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party, and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members, the new Republican Party formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery. Lincoln resisted early attempts to recruit him to the new party, fearing that it would serve as a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln also still hoped to rejuvenate the ailing Whig Party, though he bemoaned his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement.\n\nLincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature as Whig. In the aftermath of the 1854 elections, which showed the power and popularity of the movement opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Lincoln declined to take his seat and instead sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, but unable to obtain a majority, Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson.\n\nIn part due to the ongoing violent political confrontations in the Kansas, opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act remained strong in Illinois and throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln abandoned the defunct Whig Party in favor of the Republicans. He attended the May 1856 Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party. The convention platform asserted that Congress had the right to regulate slavery in the territories and called for the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention, in which he endorsed the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln received significant support on the vice presidential ballot, though the party nominated a ticket of John C. Frémont and William Dayton. Lincoln strongly supported the Republican ticket, campaigning for the party throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Ambassador James Buchanan, who had been out of the country since 1853 and thus had avoided the debate over slavery in the territories, while the Know Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. In the 1856 elections, Buchanan defeated both his challengers, but Frémont won several Northern states and Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois. Though Lincoln did not himself win office, his vigorous campaigning had made him the leading Republican in Illinois.\n\nEric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence.\nA portrait of Dred Scott. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford'' as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.\n\nIn March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in ''Dred Scott v. Sandford''; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that ''Dred Scott'' would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. Lincoln argued, \"The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'.\"\n\n===Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech===\n\nhis debates with Stephen Douglas over slavery\n\nDouglas was up for re-election in 1858, and Lincoln hoped to defeat the powerful Illinois Democrat. With the former Democrat Trumbull now serving as a Republican Senator, many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and willingness to support Trumbull in 1854 had earned him favor in the party. Some eastern Republicans favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. But many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the party's Senate nomination with little opposition.\n\nAccepting the nomination, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on , \"A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.\" The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North. The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator. On being informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated \"Lincoln is the strong man of the party...and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won.\"\n\nThe Senate campaign featured the seven Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that \"The Slave Power\" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the ''Dred Scott'' decision.\n\nThough the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the ''Illinois Staats-Anzeiger'', a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate in 1860, with William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron looming as rivals for the nomination. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast, and was unsure as to whether he should seek the presidency. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the 1860 presidential nomination if offered, and in the following months several local papers endorsed Lincoln for president.\n\nOn February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any \"groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong\". Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, \"No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience.\"\n\nHistorian Donald described the speech as a \"superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery\". In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, \"The taste ''is'' in my mouth a little.\"\n\n===1860 Presidential nomination and campaign===\n\n\nA Timothy Cole wood engraving taken from a May 20, 1860, ambrotype of Lincoln, two days following his nomination for President\n''The Rail Candidate''—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right.\n\nOn May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency. Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of \"The Rail Candidate\". In 1860 Lincoln described himself : \"I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes.\" A biographer added that he had a: \n:Large head, with high crown of skull; thick, bushy hair; large and deep eye-caverns; heavy eyebrows; a large nose; large ears; large mouth; thin upper and somewhat thick under lip; very high and prominent cheek-bones; cheeks thin and sunken; strongly developed jawbone; chin slightly upturned; a thin but sinewy neck, rather long; long arms; large hands; chest thin and narrow as compared with his great height; legs of more than proportionate length, and large feet.\n\nOn May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as Seward and Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.\n\nOn the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs. Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to \"Make no contracts that bind me\".\n\nMost Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the ''Dred Scott'' decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas would compete for votes in the North,\nwhile Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South.\n\nPrior to the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide teen and young adult organization, the Wide Awakes, which it used to generate popular support for Lincoln throughout the country to spearhead large voter registration drives, knowing that new voters and young voters tend to embrace new and young parties. As Lincoln's ideas of abolishing slavery grew, so did his supporters. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of his ideas of anti-slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln.\n\nAs Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of \"free labor\", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a ''Chicago Tribune'' writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.\n", "\n\n===1860 election and secession===\n\n\nOn November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Douglas, Breckinridge, and Bell. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.\n\nLincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2 percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln. Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.\n\nAlthough Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.\n\nThe first photographic portrait of the new president\nAs Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.\n\nThere were attempts at compromise. The Crittenden Compromise would have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform. Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, \"I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right.\"\n\nLincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent. A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution. Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.\n\nEn route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. The president-elect then evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, Allan Pinkerton. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states:\n\nThe President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: \"We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\" The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. Lincoln said as the war was ending:\n:Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.\n\n===Beginning of the war===\n\nMajor Anderson, Ft. Sumter commander\n\nThe commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Major Robert Anderson, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter, forcing them to surrender, and began the war. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.\n\nWilliam Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was \"sadly disappointed\" at his failure to realize that \"the country was sleeping on a volcano\" and that the South was preparing for war. Historian Donald concludes that, \"His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that.\"\n\nOn April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and \"preserve the Union\", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of Richmond so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral. The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to the defense of the American nation. Historian Allan Nevins says: \n:The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.\"\n\nStates sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln's call to save the capital and confront the rebellion. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled the rail links, attacked Union troops who were changing trains, and local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of ''habeas corpus'' in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington. John Merryman, a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander, Roger B. Taney, author of the controversial pro-slavery ''Dred Scott'' opinion, to issue a writ of ''habeas corpus'', and in June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the Ex parte Merryman ruling.\n\n===War strategy===\nAfter the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as commander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending ''habeas corpus'', arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.\n\n''Running the 'Machine'' : An 1864 political cartoon satirizing Lincoln's administration—featuring William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward, Gideon Welles, Lincoln and others.\nThe war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy.\n\nIn late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court-martialed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal. After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.\n\nLincoln left most diplomatic matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. At times Seward was too bellicose, so for balance Lincoln stuck a close working relationship with Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the ''Trent'', on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer James G. Randall has dissected Lincoln's successful techniques:\n:his restraint, his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence, his early softening of State Department's attitude toward Britain, his deference toward Seward and Sumner, his withholding of his own paper prepared for the occasion, his readiness to arbitrate, his golden silence in addressing Congress, his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted, and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America's true position at the same time that full satisfaction was given to a friendly country.\n\nLincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Department headquarters. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary. Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro-business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. Nevertheless, he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. \"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together,\" say Thomas and Hyman.\n\nIn terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days. Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard. Lincoln learned from reading the theoretical book of his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a disciple of the European strategist Jomini; he began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River. Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.\n\n===General McClellan===\nAfter the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the aged Winfield Scott in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief of all the Union armies. McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign, longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.\n\nGeorge McClellan after the Battle of Antietam in 1862\n\nLincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief in March 1862, after McClellan's \"Harrison's Landing Letter\", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. The office remained empty until July, when Henry Halleck was selected for it. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack.\n\nHowever, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time. The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CSS ''Virginia'', formerly the USS ''Merrimack'', damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the USS ''Monitor''. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads.\n\nDespite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward. Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862. The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.\n\nMcClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.\n\nbattle of May 3, 1863\nBurnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg. Lincoln brought in Joseph Hooker, despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.\n\nThe mid-term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of ''habeas corpus'', the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest.\n\nWhile Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati ''Gazette'' contended that the voters were \"depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress\".\n\nIn the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker's attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans' on Chattanooga, Grant's on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.\n\nHooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper's Ferry, and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by George Meade, who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign, which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.\nAfter the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.\n\n===Emancipation Proclamation===\n\n\n''First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln'' by Francis Bicknell Carpenter (1864)|alt=A dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men.\n\nLincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the Founding Fathers, under the constitution. President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.\n\nOn June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that \"as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free\".\n\nPrivately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However, Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential ''New York Tribune'' fell for the ploy, and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his \"official duty\") was that of preserving the Union:\n\n\n\nThe Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states. Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.\n\nOnce the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\" For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the War Governors' Conference; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.\n\nEnlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Andrew Johnson, the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, \"The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once\". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley. Frederick Douglass once observed of Lincoln: \"In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color\".\n\n===Gettysburg Address (1863)===\n\nthe speech\nWith the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the New York City draft riots. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. Defying Lincoln's prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.\n\nIn 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal\". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that \"government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.\n\n===General Grant===\nSherman and Grant and Admiral Porter in ''The Peacemakers'', an 1868 painting of events aboard the ''River Queen'' in March 1865\n\nMeade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General Ulysses S. Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, \"I can't spare this man. He fights.\" With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.\n\nNevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.\n\nGrant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864. This is often characterized as a war of attrition, given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had \"almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces\". The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, \"I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.\"\n\nThe Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the James River, forcing a siege and trench warfare outside Petersburg, Virginia. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina. Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.\n\nLincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley. The damage caused by Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. Mark E. Neely Jr. has argued that there was no effort to engage in \"total war\" against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II.\n\nConfederate general Jubal Early began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him, \"Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!\" After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.\n\nAs Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results. On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but freedmen greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively over.\n\n===1864 re-election===\n\n\n\nWhile the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket. At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party.\n\nWhen Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:\n Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.\n\n\n\nWhile the Democratic platform followed the \"Peace wing\" of the party and called the war a \"failure\", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters; the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads. On November 8, Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.\n\nOn March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll concludes it ranks \"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world\". Lincoln said:\n\n\n\n===Reconstruction===\n\nReconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, \"Let 'em up easy.\" In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.\n\nA political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled ''The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union''. The caption reads (Johnson): \"Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever.\" (Lincoln): \"A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.\"\n\nAs Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.\n\nLincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.\n\nAfter implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would \"clinch the whole matter\". By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification. Upon ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.\n\nAs the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.\n\nHistorians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current, according to David Lincove, argue that:\n:It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson's, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson's mistakes.\n\nEric Foner argues that:\n:Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans. ... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves ... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.\"\n\n===Redefining the republic and republicanism===\nLincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death\n\nThe successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term \"the United States\" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural (\"these United States\"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.\n\nIn recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of ''republican values''. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the \"sheet anchor\" of republicanism. The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, \"Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself.\" His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms. Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state. Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.\n\nIn March 1861, in Lincoln's first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said \"A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people.\"\n\n\n===Other enactments===\nLincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction. He signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.\n\n\nOther important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff, the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax. This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($ in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure.\n\nLincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the Department of Agriculture. In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the \"Sioux Uprising\" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved). President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.\n\nIn the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the ''New York World'' and the ''Journal of Commerce'' published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.\n\nLincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving. In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park.\n\n===Judicial appointments===\n\n\n====Supreme Court appointments====\n* Noah Haynes Swayne – 1862\n* Samuel Freeman Miller – 1862\n* David Davis – 1862\n* Stephen Johnson Field – 1863\n* Salmon Portland Chase – 1864 (Chief Justice)\n\nSalmon Portland Chase was Lincoln's choice to be Chief Justice of the United States.\nLincoln's declared philosophy on court nominations was that \"we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known.\" Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne, nominated January 21, 1862, and appointed January 24, 1862, was chosen as an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller, nominated and appointed on July 16, 1862, supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis, Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860, nominated December 1, 1862, and appointed December 8, 1862, had also served as a judge in Lincoln's Illinois court circuit. Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, was nominated March 6, 1863, and appointed March 10, 1863, and provided geographic balance, as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, was nominated as Chief Justice, and appointed the same day, on December 6, 1864. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party.\n\n====Other judicial appointments====\nLincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, and 27 judges to the United States district courts. Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office.\n\n===States admitted to the Union===\nWest Virginia, admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. Nevada, which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.\n\n", "\nShown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are assassin John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd Lincoln, Clara Harris, and Henry Rathbone\n\nAbraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on Good Friday, April 14, 1865, while attending a play at Ford's Theatre as the American Civil War was drawing to a close. The assassination occurred five days after the surrender of Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia. Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy) to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president. Learning that the President and Grant would be attending Ford's Theatre, Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater, as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their homes. Without his main bodyguard, Ward Hill Lamon, Lincoln left to attend the play ''Our American Cousin'' on April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play.\n\nLincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to drink at the saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13 pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.\n\nAfter being on the run for 12 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some south of Washington. After refusing to surrender to Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26.\n\nDoctor Charles Leale, an Army surgeon, found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally. The dying President was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, \"Now he belongs to the ages.\"\n\nLincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00 am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach \"United States\" and for three weeks the ''Lincoln Special'' funeral train decorated in black bunting bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by. Poet Walt Whitman composed ''When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd'' to eulogize Lincoln, one of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president. Historians have emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but also noted that some Lincoln haters cheered when they heard the news. African-Americans were especially moved; they had lost 'their Moses'. In a larger sense, the outpouring of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war that had just ended.\n", "\nAbraham Lincoln'', painting by George Peter Alexander Healy in 1869\n\nAs a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic, or, in the words of a biographer, an iconoclast. Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife. However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible, and he both quoted and praised it. He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However, he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.\n\nIn the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power. In the 1850s, Lincoln believed in \"providence\" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God. The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace. After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God \"could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds.\" On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.\n", "\nSeveral claims abound that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination. These are often based on photographs appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting. One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder, MEN2b, which manifests with a medullary thyroid carcinoma, mucosal neuromas and a Marfanoid appearance. Others simply claim he had Marfan syndrome, based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers, and the association of possible aortic regurgitation, which can cause bobbing of the head (DeMusset's sign) — based on blurring of Lincoln's head in photographs, which back then had a long exposure time. , DNA analysis was being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum in Philadelphia.\n", "\nLincoln's image is carved into the stone of Mount Rushmore.\n\nIn surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often as number one. A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington. In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, are occasionally reversed.\n\nPresident Lincoln's assassination increased his status to the point of making him a national martyr. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was \"a classical liberal\" in the 19th century sense. Allen C. Guelzo states that Lincoln was a:\n:classical liberal democrat—an enemy of artificial hierarchy, a friend to trade and business as ennobling and enabling, and an American counterpart to Mill, Cobden, and Bright (whose portrait Lincoln hung in his White House office).\n\nLincoln became a favorite exemplar for liberal intellectuals across Europe and Latin America and even in Asia.\n\nSchwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who they believe would have supported the welfare state. In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.\n\nBy the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the agrarian Democrats. William C. Harris found that Lincoln's \"reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism\". James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation \"in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform\". Randall concludes that, \"he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders.\"\n\nBy the late 1960s, some African American intellectuals led by Lerone Bennett Jr., rejected Lincoln's role as the Great Emancipator. Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and told jokes that ridiculed blacks. Bennett argued that Lincoln opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day; and that he was a \"moral visionary\" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation. Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered \"erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule\" in the late 20th century. On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were \"content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason\". In the 21st century, President Barack Obama named Lincoln his favorite president and insisted on using Lincoln's Bible for his swearing in to office at both his inaugurations.\n\nLincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.\n", "\nLincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.\nLincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and he has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year old Grace Bedell.\n\nThe most famous and most visited memorials are Lincoln's sculpture on Mount Rushmore; Lincoln Memorial, Ford's Theatre, and Petersen House (where he died) in Washington, D.C.; and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, Illinois, not far from Lincoln's home, as well as his tomb.\n\nThere was also the Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln exhibit in Disneyland, and the Hall of Presidents at Walt Disney World, which had to do with Walt Disney admiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy.\n\nBarry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with \"a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life\". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served \"as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful\". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, \"What would Lincoln do?\" However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this \"fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness\". He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.\n\nThe United States Navy is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name.\n", "\n* Outline of Abraham Lincoln\n* Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln\n* Dakota War of 1862\n* Grace Bedell\n* Lincoln Tower\n* List of photographs of Abraham Lincoln\n* List of civil rights leaders\n\n", "\n", "\n\n===Cited in footnotes===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* online\n* online\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* \n* McClintock, Russell (2008). ''Lincoln and the Decision for War: The Northern Response to Secession''. The University of North Carolina Press. . Online preview.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n** , also published as vol 3–4 of ''Ordeal of the Union''\n** ; also published as vol 5–8 of ''Ordeal of the Union''\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n* online\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n===Historiography===\n* Barr, John M. \"Holding Up a Flawed Mirror to the American Soul: Abraham Lincoln in the Writings of Lerone Bennett Jr.,\" Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 35 (Winter 2014), 43–65.\n* Barr, John M. ''Loathing Lincoln: An American Tradition from the Civil War to the Present'' (LSU Press, 2014).\n* \n* \n* Holzer, Harold and Craig L. Symonds, eds. ''Exploring Lincoln: Great Historians Reappraise Our Greatest President'' (2015), essays by 16 scholars\n* Manning, Chandra, \"The Shifting Terrain of Attitudes toward Abraham Lincoln and Emancipation\", ''Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association'', 34 (Winter 2013), 18–39.\n* Smith, Adam I.P. \"The 'Cult' of Abraham Lincoln and the Strange Survival of Liberal England in the Era of the World Wars\", ''Twentieth Century British History'', (December 2010) 21#4 pp. 486–509\n* Spielberg, Steven; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Kushner, Tony. \"Mr. Lincoln Goes to Hollywood\", ''Smithsonian'' (2012) 43#7 pp. 46–53.\n* \n\n===Additional references===\n\n* \n* \n* Green, Michael S. ''Lincoln and the Election of 1860'' (Concise Lincoln Library) excerpt and text search\n* \n* \n* , vol 3. of detailed biography\n* \n* \n* Peraino, Kevin. ''Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power'' (2013).\n* \n* White, Ronald C. ''A. Lincoln: A Biography'' (2006).\n\n\n", " \n\n\n===Official===\n* Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum\n* White House biography\n\n===Organizations===\n* Abraham Lincoln Association\n* Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial Foundation\n\n===Media coverage===\n* \n\n===Other===\n* \n* Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress\n* \"Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', June 28, 1999\n* \"Writings of Abraham Lincoln\" from C-SPAN's ''American Writers: A Journey Through History''\n* Abraham Lincoln: Original Letters and Manuscripts – Shapell Manuscript Foundation\n* Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project – Northern Illinois University Libraries\n* Teaching Abraham Lincoln – National Endowment for the Humanities\n* \n* \n* In Popular Song:Our Noble Chief Has Passed Away by Cooper/Thomas\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Family and childhood", "Early career and militia service", "U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–49", "Prairie lawyer", "Republican politics 1854–60", "Presidency", "Assassination and funeral", "Religious and philosophical beliefs", "Health", "Historical reputation", "Memory and memorials", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Aristotle''' (; , , ''Aristotélēs''; 384–322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, whereafter Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, linguistics, politics and government – and constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC.\n\nTeaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books, which were written on papyrus scrolls. The fact that Aristotle was a pupil of Plato contributed to his former views of Platonism, but, following Plato's death, Aristotle immersed himself in empirical studies and shifted from Platonism to empiricism. He believed all peoples' concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotle's views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works.\n\nAristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic.\n\nIn metaphysics, Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Jewish and Islamic philosophical and theological thought during the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim scholars, and has been revered as \"The First Teacher\" ().\n\nHis ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his literary style as \"a river of gold\" – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived.\n", "Mieza, Macedonia, Greece\n\nAristotle, whose name means \"the best purpose\", was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age. Although there is little information on Aristotle's childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.\n\nAt the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and left before Plato died.\n\n\"Aristotle\" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)\n\nAristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. There, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC.\n\nAristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be \"a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants\".\n\nBy 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.\n\nThis period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''Physics'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Nicomachean Ethics'', ''Politics'', ''De Anima'' (''On the Soul'') and ''Poetics''.\n\nAristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.\n\nPortrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos\nNear the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death.\n\nFollowing Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, at which occasion he was said to have stated: \"I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy\"a reference to Athens's prior trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.\n\nCharles Walston argues that the tomb of Aristotle is located on the sacred way between Chalcis and Eretria and to have contained two styluses, a pen, a signet-ring and some terra-cottas as well as what is supposed to be the earthly remains of Aristotle in the form of some skull fragments.\n\nIn general, the details of the life of Aristotle are not well-established. The biographies of Aristotle written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.\n", "\n===Logic===\nAristotle as portrayed in the 1493 ''Nuremberg Chronicle''\n\n\n\nWith the ''Prior Analytics'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (Preface to the Second Edition, 1787) that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.\n\n====History====\nAristotle \"says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'\". However, Plato reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodicus of Ceos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like ''reductio ad absurdum'' in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a deductive system, he could never actually construct one, thus he relied instead on his dialectic.\n\nPlato believed that deduction would simply follow from premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method.\n\n====Analytics and the ''Organon''====\n\nWhat we today call ''Aristotelian logic'', Aristotle himself would have labeled \"analytics\". The term \"logic\" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century CE:\n\n# ''Categories''\n# ''On Interpretation''\n# ''Prior Analytics''\n# ''Posterior Analytics''\n# ''Topics''\n# ''On Sophistical Refutations''\n\nThe order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.''\n\n===Aristotle's epistemology===\nPlato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''The School of Athens'', a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his ''Nicomachean Ethics'' in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms, while holding a copy of ''Timaeus''.\n\nAncient Roman mosaic depicting Aristotle, Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Koln, Germany\nLike his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology, however, finds the universal in particular things, which he calls the essence of things, while in Plato's ontology, the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, epistemology is based on the study of particular phenomena and rises to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, \"form\" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is \"instantiated\" in a particular substance (see ''Universals and particulars'', below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from ''a priori'' principles.\n\nIn Aristotle's terminology, \"natural philosophy\" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of ''philosophy'' has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.\n\nIn the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as \"science\". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term \"scientific method\". For Aristotle, \"all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical\" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, mathematics and metaphysics.\n\nIf logic (or \"analytics\") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.\n\nIn the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences.\n\nAristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the 16th century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers.\n\nHis writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his ''History of Animals'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. On the other hand, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of \"those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays,\" pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given \"current astronomical demonstrations\" that \"the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then ... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them.\"\n\nAristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the ''Metaphysics'', which was widely accepted up until the 16th century. From the 3rd century to the 16th century, the dominant view held that the Earth was the rotational center of the universe.\n\nBecause he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch. However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants.\n\n===Geology===\nAs quoted from Charles Lyell's ''Principles of Geology'':\nHe Aristotle refers to many examples of changes now constantly going on, and insists emphatically on the great results which they must produce in the lapse of ages. He instances particular cases of lakes that had dried up, and deserts that had at length become watered by rivers and fertilized. He points to the growth of the Nilotic delta since the time of Homer, to the shallowing of the Palus Maeotis within sixty years from his own time ... He alludes ... to the upheaving of one of the Eolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption. The changes of the earth, he says, are so slow in comparison to the duration of our lives, that they are overlooked; and the migrations of people after great catastrophes, and their removal to other regions, cause the event to be forgotten.\n\nHe says 12th chapter of his ''Meteorics'' 'the distribution of land and sea in particular regions does not endure throughout all time, but it becomes sea in those parts where it was land, and again it becomes land where it was sea, and there is reason for thinking that these changes take place according to a certain system, and within a certain period.' The concluding observation is as follows: 'As time never fails, and the universe is eternal, neither the Tanais, nor the Nile, can have flowed for ever. The places where they rise were once dry, and there is a limit to their operations, but there is none to time. So also of all other rivers; they spring up and they perish; and the sea also continually deserts some lands and invades others The same tracts, therefore, of the earth are not some always sea, and others always continents, but every thing changes in the course of time.'\n\n===Physics===\n\n\n====Five elements====\n\nAristotle proposed a fifth element, aether, in addition to the four proposed earlier by Empedocles.\n* Earth, which is cold and dry; this corresponds to the modern idea of a solid.\n* Water, which is cold and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a liquid.\n* Air, which is hot and wet; this corresponds to the modern idea of a gas.\n* Fire, which is hot and dry; this corresponds to the modern ideas of plasma and heat.\n* Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).\n\nEach of the four earthly elements has its natural place. All that is earthly tends toward the center of the universe, i.e., the center of the Earth. Water tends toward a sphere surrounding the center. Air tends toward a sphere surrounding the water sphere. Fire tends toward the lunar sphere (in which the Moon orbits). When elements are moved out of their natural place, they naturally move back towards it. This is \"natural motion\" – motion requiring no extrinsic cause. So, for example, in water, earthy bodies sink while air bubbles rise up; in air, rain falls and flame rises. Outside all the other spheres, the heavenly, fifth element, manifested in the stars and planets, moves in the perfection of circles.\n\n====Motion====\n\nAristotle defined motion as the actuality of a potentiality ''as such''. Aquinas suggested that the passage be understood literally; that motion can indeed be understood as the active fulfillment of a potential, as a transition toward a potentially possible state. Because actuality and potentiality are normally opposites in Aristotle, other commentators either suggest that the wording which has come down to us is erroneous, or that the addition of the \"as such\" to the definition is critical to understanding it.\n\n====Causality, the four causes==== \n\nAristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His name ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as \"cause\", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as \"explanation\", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.\n* Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.\n* The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.\n* The efficient cause is \"the primary source\", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of \"cause\" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. So, take the two dominoes, this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over.\n* The final cause (''telos'') is its purpose, or that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition, need, desire, ethics, or spiritual beliefs.\n\nAdditionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect.) Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event. Our two dominoes require someone or something to intentionally knock over the first domino, because it cannot fall of its own accord.\n\nAristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, both proper and incidental, can be spoken of as actual or potential, and as generic or particular. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that actual effects are assigned to operating causes, generic effects to generic causes, and particular effects to particular causes.\n\n====Optics====\nAristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The second oldest written evidence of a camera obscura (after Mozi c. 400 BC) can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or aperture, to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the diaphragm. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the aperture and the surface with the image increased, the image was magnified.\n\n====Chance and spontaneity====\nAccording to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is \"from what is spontaneous\" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of \"chance\" it might be better to think of \"coincidence\": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place.\n\nFor example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.\n\nThere is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names \"luck\", that can only apply to human beings, because it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. \"What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance\".\n\n===Metaphysics===\n\n\nAristotle defines metaphysics as \"the knowledge of immaterial being,\" or of \"being in the highest degree of abstraction.\" He refers to metaphysics as \"first philosophy\", as well as \"the theologic science\".\n\n====Substance, potentiality and actuality====\n\nAristotle examines the concepts of substance and essence (''ousia'') in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables) that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.\n\nWith regard to the change (''kinesis'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''Physics'' and ''On Generation and Corruption'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:\n# growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;\n# locomotion, which is change in space; and\n# alteration, which is change in quality.\n\nThe coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''dynamis'') and actuality (''entelecheia'') in association with the matter and the form.\n\nReferring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting).\n\nActuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.\nFor that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.\n\nIn summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.\n\nWith this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, \"what is it that makes a man one\"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.\n\n====Universals and particulars====\n\nAristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.\n\nPlato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but \"good\" is still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a 20th-century philosopher who agreed with Plato on the existence of \"uninstantiated universals\".\n\nAristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist.\n\nIn addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.\n\n===Biology and medicine===\n\n\nIn Aristotelian science, especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals but not humans; his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.\n\n====Empirical research program====\nOctopus swimming\n''Torpedo fuscomaculata''\nLeopard shark\n\nAristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, the ''History of Animals'', ''Generation of Animals'', ''Movement of Animals'', and ''Parts of Animals'', contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (''Torpedo'') and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, ''Octopus'', ''Sepia'' (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (''Argonauta argo''). His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (Greek for 'sharks').\n\nAn example of his methods, including dissection and observation, comes from the ''Generation of Animals'', where he describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to discover the sequence in which visible organs are generated.\n\nAristotle gave accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark ''Mustelus mustelus''.\n\n====Classification of living things====\nAristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and fishes. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood'. Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs).\n\nAristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., final causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that \"no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns,\" and \"a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen,\" Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.\n\nHe stated in the ''History of Animals'' that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from minerals to plants and animals, and on up to man, forming the ''scala naturae'' or great chain of being. His system had eleven grades, arranged according \"to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality\", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs. For Charles Singer, \"Nothing is more remarkable than Aristotle's efforts to exhibit the relationships of living things as a ''scala naturae''\".\n\nAristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times.\n\nHe placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.\n\nAristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.\n\n====Successor: Theophrastus====\n\nfrontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of ''Historia Plantarum'' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 300 BC.\n\nAristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany – the ''History of Plants'' – which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel.\n\nRather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.\n\n====Influence on Hellenistic medicine====\n\nAfter Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.\n\nThe first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was \"nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance.\" Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.\n\n===Psychology===\nAristotle's psychology, given in his treatise ''On the Soul'' (''peri psyche'', often known by its Latin title ''De Anima''), posits three kinds of soul (\"psyches\"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. This kind of soul is capable of the same powers as the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and compare them.\n\nFor Aristotle, the soul (''psyche'') was a simpler concept than it is for us today. By soul he simply meant the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).\n\n====Memory====\n\nAccording to Aristotle, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in your mind and to have the ability to distinguish between the internal \"appearance\" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) in which Aristotle defines in ''De Anima'', as an appearance which is imprinted on the part of the body that forms a memory. Aristotle believed an \"imprint\" becomes impressed on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when a stimuli is too complex that the nervous system (semi-fluid bodily organ) cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, common sense, and thinking . The mental picture imprinted on the bodily organ is the final product of the entire process of sense perception. It does not matter if the experience was seen or heard, every experience ends up as a mental image in memory\n\n\nAristotle uses the word \"memory\" for two basic abilities. First, the actual retaining of the experience in the mnemonic \"imprint\" that can develop from sensation. Second, the intellectual anxiety that comes with the \"imprint\" due to being impressed at a particular time and processing specific contents. These abilities can be explained as memory is neither sensation nor thinking because is arises only after a lapse of time. Therefore, memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. The retrieval of our \"imprints\" cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.\n\nAristotle proposed that slow-witted people have good memory because the fluids in their brain do not wash away their memory organ used to imprint experiences and so the \"imprint\" can easily continue. However, they cannot be too slow or the hardened surface of the organ will not receive new \"imprints\". He believed the young and the old do not properly develop an \"imprint\". Young people undergo rapid changes as they develop, while the elderly's organs are beginning to decay, thus stunting new \"imprints\". Likewise, people who are too quick-witted are similar to the young and the image cannot be fixed because of the rapid changes of their organ. Because intellectual functions are not involved in memory, memories belong to some animals too, but only those in which have perception of time.\n\n=====Recollection=====\nBecause Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and people perceive them as images or \"imprints\", people are continually weaving together new \"imprints\" of things they experience. In order to search for these \"imprints\", people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one experience naturally follows another. If the chain of \"images\" is needed, one memory will stimulate the other. If the chain of \"images\" is not needed, but expected, then it will only stimulate the other memory in most instances. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they have stimulated the one that was needed.\n\nRecollection is the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory \"imprint\" after some time has passed. Retrieval of stored information is dependent on the scope of mnemonic capabilities of a being (human or animal) and the abilities the human or animal possesses. Only humans will remember \"imprints\" of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time will be able to retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Recollection of an \"imprint\" is when the present experiences a person remembers are similar with elements corresponding in character and arrangement of past sensory experiences. When an \"imprint\" is recalled, it may bring forth a large group of related \"imprints\".\n\nAristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain \"imprints\", was connected systematically in three sorts of relationships: similarity, contrast, and contiguity. These three laws make up his Laws of Association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within our mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.\n\n====Dreams====\n\n=====Sleep=====\nBefore understanding Aristotle's views on dreams, first his idea of sleep must be examined. Aristotle gives an account of his explanation of sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body, including the senses, so it can be revitalized. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can also not have a desire, which is the result of a sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently than when a person is awake because during sleep a person can still have sensory experiences. Also, not all of the senses are inactive during sleep, only the ones that are weary.\n\n=====Theory of dreams=====\nDreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus because, as discussed, the senses do not work as they normally do during sleep. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner than when awake. Aristotle explains the phenomenon that occurs when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water. When they look away from that stimulus, the next thing they look at appears to be moving in a wave like motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions left from previously perceived stimuli become irrelevant. However, during sleep the impressions stimuli made throughout the day become noticed because there are not new sensory experiences to distract from these impressions that were made. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams will not resemble the actual experience that occurred when awake.\n\nDuring sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. When a person is asleep, their senses are not acting as they do when they are awake and this results in them thinking like a person who is influenced by strong feelings. Since a person sleeping is in this suggestible state, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams.\n\nWhen asleep, a person is unable to make judgments as they do when they are awake Due to the senses not functioning normally during sleep, they are unable to help a person judge what is happening in their dream. This in turn leads the person to believe the dream is real. Dreams may be absurd in nature but the senses are not able to discern whether they are real or not. So, the dreamer is left to accept the dream because they lack the choice to judge it.\n\nOne component of Aristotle's theory of dreams introduces ideas that are contradictory to previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and that they are not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are happenstances not divinations. These ideas were contradictory to what had been believed about dreams, but at the time in which he introduced these ideas more thinkers were beginning to give naturalistic as opposed to supernatural explanations to phenomena.\n\nAristotle also includes in his theory of dreams what constitutes a dream and what does not. He claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that actually occurs while a person is asleep and is perceived by the person while asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, Aristotle argues that this sensory experience is not part of the dream. The actual sensory experience is perceived by the senses, the fact that it occurred while the person was asleep does not make it part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of sensory experiences had when awake.\n\n===Practical philosophy===\n\n====Ethics====\n\nAristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''Nicomachean Ethics''.\n\nAristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''psuchē'' (normally translated as ''soul'') in accordance with reason (''logos''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''eudaimonia'', generally translated as \"happiness\" or sometimes \"well being\". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''aretē''), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).\n\nAristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''phronesis'') and their intellect (''nous'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.\n\n====Politics====\n\nAristotle's classification of constitutions\n\nIn addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''Politics''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, \"for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part\". He also famously stated that \"man is by nature a political animal\" and also arguing that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.\n\nThe common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''polis'') which functions as a political \"community\" or \"partnership\" (''koinōnia''). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: \"The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together.\" This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of \"fear of violent death\" or its \"inconveniences.\"\n\nExcerpt from a speech by the character 'Aristotle' in the book Protrepticus (Hutchinson and Johnson, 2015 p. 22)\n:''For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.''\n\n====Rhetoric and poetics====\n\nAristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.\n\nWhile it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.\n\nAristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.\n\n===Views on women===\n\nAristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.\n", "\nFirst page of a 1566 edition of the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' in Greek and Latin\n\nAristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, or rolls, which was the common writing medium of that era. Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's \"lost\" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so. Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes unintended for publication. The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.\n\nSome of the individual works within the corpus, including the ''Constitution of Athens,'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's \"school,\" perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as ''On Colors,'' may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. Other works in the corpus include medieval palmistries and astrological and magical texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.\n\nAccording to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the \"exoteric\" and the \"esoteric\". Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works intended for use within the Lyceum course / school (esoteric). Modern scholars commonly assume these latter to be Aristotle's own (unpolished) lecture notes (or in some cases possible notes by his students). However, one classic scholar offers an alternative interpretation. The 5th century neoplatonist Ammonius Hermiae writes that Aristotle's writing style is deliberately obscurantist so that \"good people may for that reason stretch their mind even more, whereas empty minds that are lost through carelessness will be put to flight by the obscurity when they encounter sentences like these.\"\n\nAnother common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (''Fragments'' of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as \"a river of gold\"; it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us. However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.\n\nOne major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us. The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his ''Geography'' and Plutarch in his ''Parallel Lives''. The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the 1st century BC, when Apellicon of Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by the philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.\n\nCarnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides \"the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C.\" Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair.\n\nSecond, there is \"incontrovertible evidence,\" Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the ''Politics'', for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact.\n\nOn the one hand, the surviving texts of Aristotle do not derive from finished literary texts, but rather from working drafts used within Aristotle's school, as opposed, on the other hand, to the dialogues and other \"exoteric\" texts which Aristotle published more widely during his lifetime. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.\n", "\"Aristotle\" by Jusepe de Ribera\n\"Aristotle with a bust of Homer\" by Rembrandt\nA thirteenth-century Islamic portrayal of Aristotle\nStatue by Cipri Adolf Bermann (1915) at the University of Freiburg\n\nMore than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, \"it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did\". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.\n\nDespite these achievements, the influence of Aristotle's errors is considered by some to have held back science considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that \"almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine\". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as \"repulsive\", and calls his logic \"as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy\". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.\n\n===Later Greek philosophers===\nThe immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained \"Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?\"\n\n===Influence on Byzantine scholars===\nGreek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were John Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappears in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.\n\n===Influence on Islamic theologians===\nAristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus considered Aristotle as the outstanding and unique representative of philosophy and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the \"exemplar\" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the \"First Teacher\". The title \"teacher\" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.\n\nIn accordance with the Greek theorists, the Muslims considered Aristotle to be a dogmatic philosopher, the author of a closed system, and believed that Aristotle shared with Plato essential tenets of thought. Some went so far as to credit Aristotle himself with neo-Platonic metaphysical ideas.\n\n===Influence on Western Christian theologians===\nWith the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke.\n\nAfter Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. Aristotle is referred to as \"The Philosopher\" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas (see ''Summa Theologica'', Part I, Question 3, etc.). These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having\n\nat his beddes heed\nTwenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,\nOf aristotle and his philosophie,\n\nThe Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in the first circles of hell,\n\nvidi 'l maestro di color che sanno\nseder tra filosofica famiglia.\nTutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:\nquivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone\nche 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;\n\nI saw the Master there of those who know,\nAmid the philosophic family,\nBy all admired, and by all reverenced;\nThere Plato too I saw, and Socrates,\nWho stood beside him closer than the rest.\n:—Dante, ''L'Inferno'' (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135\n\n===Post-Enlightenment thinkers===\nThe German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. However debatable this is, Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people (\"natural slaves\"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as \"the greatest philosopher in history\" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.\n", "\n\nThe works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.\n", "\"ARISTOTLE\" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the Library of Congress\nThe Aristotle Mountains along the Oscar II Coast of Graham Land, Antarctica, are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''Meteorology'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and call it \"Antarctica\".\n\nAristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.\n", "* Aristotelian physics\n* Aristotelian society\n* Aristotelian theology\n* Conimbricenses\n* List of writers influenced by Aristotle\n* Otium\n* Philia\n* Pseudo-Aristotle\n", "\n", "The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.\n\n* Ackrill J. L. (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press, US.\n* \n* A popular exposition for the general reader.\n* \n* These translations are available in several places online; see External links.\n* Bakalis Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing \n* \n* Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.\n* Burnyeat, M. F. ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.\n* \n* \n* Code, Alan. (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.\n* \n* De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th Century BC'', Parmenides Publishing, \n* Frede, Michael. (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.\n* \n* Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). ''Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. Spring Valley, New York: The Focusing Institute. Available online in PDF.\n* Gill, Mary Louise. (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.\n* \n* Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing, .\n* Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing, .\n* Irwin, T. H. (1988). ''Aristotle's First Principles''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, .\n* \n* Jori, Alberto. (2003). ''Aristotele'', Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the \"International Academy of the History of Science\") .\n* \n* Knight, Kelvin. (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press.\n* Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\n* Lloyd, G. E. R. (1968). ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., .\n* Lord, Carnes. (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago: Chicago University Press.\n* Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.\n* Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.). (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII.3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing. \n* \n* Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.\n* Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.\n* \n* Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Indianapolis: Hackett.\n* \n* A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.\n* Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.\n* Strauss, Leo (1964). \"On Aristotle's ''Politics''\", in ''The City and Man'', Chicago; Rand McNally.\n* \n* \n* For the general reader.\n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* .\n* .\n* At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n*: \n* From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:\n*: \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Works of Aristotle at The Internet Classics Archive, MIT\n* \n* \n* Aristoteles-Park in Stagira\n\n;Collections of works\n* At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (primarily in English).\n* \n* \n* \n* Perseus Project at Tufts University.\n* At the University of Adelaide (primarily in English).\n* P. Remacle\n* The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ( PDF DJVU) \n* Bekker's Prussian Academy of Sciences edition of the complete works of Aristotle at Archive.org: \n* Aristotle Collection (translation).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Life ", "Thought", "Loss and preservation of his works", "Legacy", "List of works", "Eponyms", "See also", "Notes and references", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''''An American in Paris''''' is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by the American composer George Gershwin, written in 1928. Inspired by the time Gershwin had spent in Paris, it evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s and is one of his best-known compositions.\n\nGershwin composed ''An American in Paris'' on commission from the conductor Walter Damrosch. He scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back some Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. Gershwin completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere.\n\nGershwin collaborated on the original program notes with the critic and composer Deems Taylor, noting that: \"My purpose here is to portray the impression of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city and listens to various street noises and absorbs the French atmosphere.\" When the tone poem moves into the blues, \"our American friend ... has succumbed to a spasm of homesickness.\" But, \"nostalgia is not a fatal disease.\" The American visitor \"once again is an alert spectator of Parisian life\" and \"the street noises and French atmosphere are triumphant.\"\n", "Gershwin was attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords. Upon Gershwin's request, Ravel accepted him as a student, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he couldn't teach him but he would send a letter referring him to Nadia Boulanger. While the studies were cut short, that 1926 trip resulted in the initial version of An American in Paris written as a 'thank you note' to Gershwin's hosts, Robert and Mabel Shirmer. Gershwin called it \"a rhapsodic ballet\"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works.\n\nGershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the War, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $12,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. \n \nGershwin greeted Ravel in New York in February 1928 at the start of Ravel's U.S. Tour, and joined Ravel again later in the tour in Los Angeles. After a lunch together with Chaplin in Beverly Hills, Ravel was persuaded to perform an unscheduled 'house concert' in a friend's music salon, performing among kindred spirits.\n\nRavel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he did in March 1928. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to Boulanger caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after playing for her, she told him she could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students \"Don't copy others; be yourself.\" In this case \"Why try to be a second rate Ravel when you are already a first rate Gershwin?\" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''Rhapsody in Blue''. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers: among them Ezra Pound, W. B. Yeats, Ernest Hemingway; and artist Pablo Picasso.\n", "Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called \"Very Parisienne\", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a \"rhapsodic ballet\" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Gershwin explained in ''Musical America'', \"My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere.\"\n\nThe piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main \"walking\" themes in the \"Allegretto grazioso\" and develops a third theme in the \"Subito con brio\". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's \"Andante ma con ritmo deciso\" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The \"Allegro\" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. \"Moderato con grazia\" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the \"walking\" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final “Grandioso.”\n", "''An American in Paris'' is scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, snare drum, bass drum, triangle, wood block, cymbals, low and high tom-toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, alto saxophone/soprano saxophone, tenor saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, baritone saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A4, B4, D5, and A4. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played.\n\nThe revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rewritten to avoid changing instruments. In 2000 Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in F. Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian\n\nWilliam Daly arranged the score for piano solo which was published by New World Music in 1929.\n", "Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with \"a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses.\" Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his lukewarm Concerto in F. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers César Franck, Richard Wagner, or Guillaume Lekeu on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics, \"It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds.\"\n", "\nOn September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score will be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score will document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process.\n\nThe score to ''An American in Paris'' is currently scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but ''An American in Paris'' will be an early volume in the series.\n\nTwo urtext editions of the work have been published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music have been re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance.\n", "First recording\n''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for RCA Victor in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to \"supervise\" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A flat, B flat, a higher C and a lower D. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album ''One Night Stand,'' recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522). Conductor Steven Richman and Harmonie Ensemble, New York released a recording of Gershwin's original orchestrations in 2016 on Harmonia Mundi.\n", "In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film ''An American in Paris'', featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnelli, featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000.\n", "\n", "* Rimler, Walter. ''George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait''. Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33.\n* Pollack, Howard. ''George Gershwin – His Life and Work''. Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42.\n", "* \n* 1944 recording by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński\n* , New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Background", "Composition", "Instrumentation", "Response", "Preservation status", "Recordings", "Use in film", "References", "Further reading", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''Academy Award for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.\n\nThe films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees.\n", "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align: center\"\n\n Category\n Name\n Superlative\n Notes\n\n Most Awards\n Cedric Gibbons\n 11 awards\n Awards resulted from 39 nominations.\n\n Most Nominations\n 39 nominations\n Nominations resulted in 11 awards.\n\n Most Nominations (without ever winning)\n Roland Anderson\n 15 nominations\n Nominations resulted in no awards.\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n===1920s===\n\n\n Year\n Interior decorator\n Film\n\n\n 1927/28 \n\n '''William Cameron Menzies'''\n '''''The Dove'''''\n\n\n '''''Tempest'''''\n\n Harry Oliver\n ''Seventh Heaven''\n\n Rochus Gliese\n ''Sunrise''\n\n 1928/29 \n\n '''Cedric Gibbons'''\n '''''The Bridge of San Luis Rey'''''\n\n Mitchell Leisen\n ''Dynamite''\n\n William Cameron Menzies\n ''Alibi''\n\n ''The Awakening''\n\n Hans Dreier\n ''The Patriot''\n\n Harry Oliver\n ''Street Angel''\n\n\n===1930s===\n\n\n Year\n Interior decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1929/30 \n\n '''Herman Rosse'''\n '''''King of Jazz'''''\n\n William Cameron Menzies\n ''Bulldog Drummond''\n\n Hans Dreier\n ''The Love Parade''\n\n Jack Okey\n ''Sally''\n\n Hans Dreier\n ''The Vagabond King''\n\n 1930/31 \n\n '''Max Ree'''\n '''''Cimarron'''''\n\n Stephen Goosson Ralph Hammeras\n ''Just Imagine''\n\n Hans Dreier\n ''Morocco''\n\n Anton Grot\n ''Svengali''\n\n Richard Day\n ''Whoopee!''\n\n 1931/32 \n\n '''Gordon Wiles'''\n '''''Transatlantic'''''\n\n Lazare Meerson\n ''À nous la liberté''\n\n Richard Day\n ''Arrowsmith''\n\n 1932/33 \n\n '''William S. Darling'''\n '''''Cavalcade'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson\n ''A Farewell to Arms''\n\n Cedric Gibbons\n ''When Ladies Meet''\n\n 1934 \n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Fredric Hope'''\n '''''The Merry Widow'''''\n\n Van Nest Polglase Carroll Clark\n ''The Gay Divorcee''\n\n Richard Day\n ''The Affairs of Cellini''\n\n 1935 \n\n '''Richard Day'''\n '''''The Dark Angel'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson\n ''The Lives of a Bengal Lancer''\n\n Carroll Clark Van Nest Polglase\n ''Top Hat''\n\n 1936 \n\n '''Richard Day'''\n '''''Dodsworth'''''\n\n Anton Grot\n ''Anthony Adverse''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Eddie Imazu Edwin B. Willis\n ''The Great Ziegfeld''\n\n William S. Darling\n ''Lloyd's of London''\n\n Albert S. D'Agostino Jack Otterson\n ''The Magnificent Brute''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Frederic Hope Edwin B. Willis\n ''Romeo and Juliet''\n\n Perry Ferguson\n ''Winterset''\n\n 1937 \n\n '''Stephen Goosson'''\n '''''Lost Horizon'''''\n\n Cedric Gibbons William Horning\n ''Conquest''\n\n Carroll Clark\n ''A Damsel in Distress''\n\n Richard Day\n ''Dead End''\n\n Ward Ihnen\n ''Every Day's a Holiday''\n\n Anton Grot\n ''The Life of Emile Zola''\n\n John Victor MacKay\n ''Manhattan Merry-Go-Round''\n\n Lyle Wheeler\n ''The Prisoner of Zenda''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson\n ''Souls at Sea''\n\n Alexander Toluboff\n ''Vogues of 1938''\n\n William S. Darling David S. Hall\n ''Wee Willie Winkie''\n\n Jack Otterson\n ''You're a Sweetheart''\n\n 1938 \n\n '''Carl J. Weyl'''\n '''''The Adventures of Robin Hood'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler\n ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer''\n\n Bernard Herzbrun Boris Leven\n ''Alexander's Ragtime Band''\n\n Alexander Toluboff\n ''Algiers''\n\n Van Nest Polglase\n ''Carefree''\n\n Richard Day\n ''The Goldwyn Follies''\n\n Stephen Goosson Lionel Banks\n ''Holiday''\n\n Hans Dreier John B. Goodman\n ''If I Were King''\n\n Jack Otterson\n ''Mad About Music''\n\n Cedric Gibbons\n ''Marie Antoinette''\n\n Charles D. Hall\n ''Merrily We Live''\n\n 1939 \n\n '''Lyle Wheeler'''\n '''''Gone with the Wind'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Robert Odell\n ''Beau Geste''\n\n Charles D. Hall\n ''Captain Fury''\n\n Jack Otterson Martin Obzina\n ''First Love''\n\n Van Nest Polglase Alfred Herman\n ''Love Affair''\n\n John Victor Mackay\n ''Man of Conquest''\n\n Lionel Banks\n ''Mr. Smith Goes to Washington''\n\n Anton Grot\n ''The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex''\n\n William S. Darling George Dudley\n ''The Rains Came''\n\n Alexander Toluboff\n ''Stagecoach''\n\n Cedric Gibbons William A. Horning\n ''The Wizard of Oz''\n\n James Basevi\n ''Wuthering Heights''\n\n\n===1940s===\n\n\n Year\n Interior decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1940 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Richard Day Paul Groesse'''\n '''''Pride and Prejudice'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Robert Usher\n ''Arise, My Love''\n\n Lionel Banks Robert Peterson\n ''Arizona''\n\n John Otterson\n ''The Boys from Syracuse''\n\n John Victor Mackay\n ''Dark Command''\n\n Alexander Golitzen\n ''Foreign Correspondent''\n\n Richard Day Joseph C. Wright\n ''Lillian Russell''\n\n Van Nest Polglase Mark-Lee Kirk\n ''My Favorite Wife''\n\n John DuCasse Schulze\n ''My Son, My Son''\n\n Lewis J. Rachmil\n ''Our Town''\n\n Lyle Wheeler\n ''Rebecca''\n\n Anton Grot\n ''The Sea Hawk''\n\n James Basevi\n ''The Westerner''\n\n Color\n\n Vincent Korda\n ''The Thief of Bagdad''\n\n Cedric Gibbons John S. Detlie\n ''Bitter Sweet''\n\n Richard Day Joseph C. Wright\n ''Down Argentine Way''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson\n ''North West Mounted Police''\n\n 1941 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Nathan H. Juran Thomas Little'''\n '''''How Green Was My Valley'''''\n\n Perry Ferguson Van Nest Polglase Al Fields Darrell Silvera\n ''Citizen Kane''\n\n Martin Obzina Jack Otterson Russell A. Gausman\n ''The Flame of New Orleans''\n\n Hans Dreier Robert Usher Samuel M. Comer\n ''Hold Back the Dawn''\n\n Lionel Banks George Montgomery\n ''Ladies in Retirement''\n\n Stephen Goosson Howard Bristol\n ''The Little Foxes''\n\n John Hughes Fred M. MacLean\n ''Sergeant York''\n\n N/A (nomination withdrawn)\n ''Sis Hopkins''\n\n John DuCasse Schultze Edward G. Boyle\n ''Son of Monte Cristo''\n\n Alexander Golitzen Richard Irvine\n ''Sundown''\n\n Vincent Korda Julia Heron\n ''That Hamilton Woman''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Randall Duell Edwin B. Willis\n ''When Ladies Meet''\n\n Color\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Urie McCleary Edwin B. Willis'''\n '''''Blossoms in the Dust'''''\n\n Richard Day Joseph C. Wright Thomas Little\n ''Blood and Sand''\n\n Raoul Pene Du Bois Stephen A. Seymour\n ''Louisiana Purchase''\n\n 1942 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Richard Day Joseph Wright Thomas Little'''\n '''''This Above All'''''\n\n Max Parker Mark-Lee Kirk Casey Roberts\n ''George Washington Slept Here''\n\n Albert S. D'Agostino Al Fields Darrell Silvera\n ''The Magnificent Ambersons''\n\n Perry Ferguson Howard Bristol\n ''The Pride of the Yankees''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Randall Duell Edwin B. Willis Jack Moore\n ''Random Harvest''\n\n Boris Leven\n ''The Shanghai Gesture''\n\n Ralph Berger Emile Kuri\n ''Silver Queen''\n\n John B. Goodman Jack Otterson Russell A. Gausman Edward Ray Robinson\n ''The Spoilers''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson Samuel M. Comer\n ''Take a Letter, Darling''\n\n Lionel Banks Rudolph Sternad Fay Babcock\n ''The Talk of the Town''\n\n Color\n\n '''Richard Day Joseph Wright Thomas Little'''\n '''''My Gal Sal'''''\n\n Alexander Golitzen Jack Otterson Russell A. Gausman Ira S. Webb\n ''Arabian Nights''\n\n Ted Smith Casey Roberts\n ''Captains of the Clouds''\n\n Vincent Korda Julia Heron\n ''Jungle Book''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson George Sawley\n ''Reap the Wild Wind''\n\n 1943 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''James Basevi William S. Darling Thomas Little'''\n '''''The Song of Bernadette'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Ernst Fegte Bertram Granger\n ''Five Graves to Cairo''\n\n Albert S. D'Agostino Carroll Clark Darrell Silvera Harley Miller\n ''Flight for Freedom''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse Edwin B. Willis Hugh Hunt\n ''Madame Curie''\n\n Carl Weyl George J. Hopkins\n ''Mission to Moscow''\n\n Perry Ferguson Howard Bristol\n ''The North Star''\n\n Color\n\n '''Alexander Golitzen John B. Goodman Russell A. Gausman Ira S. Webb'''\n '''''Phantom of the Opera'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Haldane Douglas Bertram Granger\n ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''\n\n James Basevi Joseph C. Wright Thomas Little\n ''The Gang's All Here''\n\n John Hughes George J. Hopkins\n ''This Is the Army''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Daniel Cathcart Edwin B. Willis Jacques Mersereau\n ''Thousands Cheer''\n\n 1944 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons William Ferrari Paul Huldschinsky Edwin B. Willis'''\n '''''Gaslight'''''\n\n Lionel Banks Walter Holscher Joseph Kish\n ''Address Unknown''\n\n John Hughes Fred M. MacLean\n ''The Adventures of Mark Twain''\n\n Perry Ferguson Julia Heron\n ''Casanova Brown''\n\n Lyle Wheeler Leland Fuller Thomas Little\n ''Laura''\n\n Hans Dreier Robert Usher Samuel M. Comer\n ''No Time for Love''\n\n Mark-Lee Kirk Victor A. Gangelin\n ''Since You Went Away''\n\n N/A (nomination withdrawn)\n ''Song of the Open Road''\n\n Albert S. D'Agostino Carroll Clark Darrell Silvera Claude Carpenter\n ''Step Lively''\n\n Color\n\n '''Wiard Ihnen Thomas Little'''\n '''''Wilson'''''\n\n John B. Goodman Alexander Golitzen Russell A. Gausman Ira S. Webb\n ''The Climax''\n\n Lionel Banks Cary Odell Fay Babcock\n ''Cover Girl''\n\n Charles Novi Jack McConaghy\n ''The Desert Song''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Daniel B. Cathcart Edwin B. Willis Richard Pefferle\n ''Kismet''\n\n Hans Dreier Raoul Pene du Bois Ray Moyer\n ''Lady in the Dark''\n\n Ernst Fegte Howard Bristol\n ''The Princess and the Pirate''\n\n 1945 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Wiard Ihnen A. Roland Fields'''\n '''''Blood on the Sun'''''\n\n Albert S. D'Agostino Jack Okey Darrell Silvera Claude Carpenter\n ''Experiment Perilous''\n\n James Basevi William S. Darling Thomas Little Frank E. Hughes\n ''The Keys of the Kingdom''\n\n Hans Dreier Roland Anderson Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Love Letters''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Hans Peters Edwin B. Willis John Bonar Hugh Hunt\n ''The Picture of Dorian Gray''\n\n Color\n\n '''Hans Dreier Ernst Fegte Samuel M. Comer'''\n '''''Frenchman's Creek'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler Maurice Ransford Thomas Little\n ''Leave Her to Heaven''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Urie McCleary Edwin B. Willis Mildred Griffiths\n ''National Velvet''\n\n Ted Smith Jack McConaghy\n ''San Antonio''\n\n Stephen Goosson Rudolph Sternad Frank Tuttle\n ''A Thousand and One Nights''\n\n 1946 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''William S. Darling Lyle Wheeler Thomas Little Frank E. Hughes'''\n '''''Anna and the King of Siam'''''\n\n Hans Dreier Walter H. Tyler Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Kitty''\n\n Richard Day Nathan H. Juran Thomas Little Paul S. Fox\n ''The Razor's Edge''\n\n Color\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse Edwin B. Willis'''\n '''''The Yearling'''''\n\n John Bryan\n ''Caesar and Cleopatra''\n\n Paul Sheriff Carmen Dillon\n ''Henry V''\n\n", "\n\n===1940s===\n\n\n Year\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1947 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Wilfred Shingleton'''\n '''John Bryan'''\n '''''Great Expectations'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler Maurice Ransford\n Thomas Little Paul S. Fox\n ''The Foxes of Harrow''\n\n Color\n\n '''Alfred Junge'''\n'''—'''\n '''''Black Narcissus'''''\n\n Robert M. Haas\n George James Hopkins\n ''Life with Father''\n\n 1948 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Carmen Dillon'''\n '''Roger K. Furse'''\n '''''Hamlet'''''\n\n Robert Haas\n William O. Wallace\n ''Johnny Belinda''\n\n Color\n\n '''Arthur Lawson'''\n '''Hein Heckroth'''\n '''''The Red Shoes'''''\n\n Richard Day\n Edwin Casey Roberts Joseph Kish\n ''Joan of Arc''\n\n 1949 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Harry Horner John Meehan'''\n '''Emile Kuri'''\n '''''The Heiress'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler Joseph C. Wright\n Thomas Little Paul S. Fox\n ''Come to the Stable''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Jack Martin Smith\n Edwin B. Willis Richard A. Pefferle\n ''Madame Bovary''\n\n Color\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse'''\n '''Edwin B. Willis Jack D. Moore'''\n '''''Little Women'''''\n\n Edward Carrere\n Lyle Reifsnider\n ''Adventures of Don Juan''\n\n Jim Morahan William Kellner\n Michael Relph\n ''Saraband for Dead Lovers''\n\n\n===1950s===\n\n\n Year\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1950 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Hans Dreier John Meehan'''\n '''Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer'''\n '''''Sunset Boulevard'''''\n\n George W. Davis Lyle R. Wheeler\n Thomas Little Walter M. Scott\n ''All About Eve''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Hans Peters\n Edwin B. Willis Hugh Hunt\n ''The Red Danube''\n\n Color\n\n '''Hans Dreier Walter Tyler'''\n '''Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer'''\n '''''Samson and Delilah'''''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse\n Edwin B. Willis Richard A. Pefferle\n ''Annie Get Your Gun''\n\n Ernst Fegté\n George Sawley\n ''Destination Moon''\n\n 1951 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Richard Day'''\n '''George James Hopkins'''\n '''''A Streetcar Named Desire'''''\n\n Leland Fuller Lyle Wheeler\n Thomas Little Fred J. Rode\n ''Fourteen Hours''\n\n John DeCuir Lyle Wheeler\n Paul S. Fox Thomas Little\n ''House on Telegraph Hill''\n\n Jean d'Eaubonne\n—\n ''La Ronde''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse\n Edwin B. Wills Jack D. Moore\n ''Too Young to Kiss''\n\n Color\n\n '''E. Preston Ames Cedric Gibbons'''\n '''Edwin B. Willis Keogh Gleason'''\n '''''An American in Paris'''''\n\n George Davis Lyle Wheeler\n Paul S. Fox Thomas Little\n ''David and Bathsheba''\n\n Leland Fuller Lyle Wheeler\n Thomas Little Walter M. Scott\n ''On the Riviera''\n\n Edward Carfagno Cedric Gibbons William A. Horning\n Hugh Hunt\n ''Quo Vadis''\n\n Hein Heckroth\n—\n ''The Tales of Hoffmann''\n\n 1952 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Edward Carfagno Cedric Gibbons'''\n '''Keogh Gleason Edwin B. Willis'''\n '''''The Bad and the Beautiful'''''\n\n Roland Anderson Hal Pereira\n Emile Kuri\n ''Carrie''\n\n John DeCuir Lyle Wheeler\n Walter M. Scott\n ''My Cousin Rachel''\n\n So Matsuyama\n H. Motsumoto\n ''Rashōmon''\n\n Leland Fuller Lyle Wheeler\n Claude Carpenter Thomas Little\n ''Viva Zapata!''\n\n Color\n\n '''Marcel Vertès'''\n '''Paul Sheriff'''\n '''''Moulin Rouge'''''\n\n Clavé Richard Day\n Howard Bristol\n ''Hans Christian Andersen''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse\n Arthur Krams Edwin B. Willis\n ''The Merry Widow''\n\n Frank Hotaling\n John McCarthy, Jr. Charles S. Thompson\n ''The Quiet Man''\n\n John DeCuir Lyle Wheeler\n Paul S. Fox Thomas Little\n ''The Snows of Kilimanjaro''\n\n 1953 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Edward Carfagno Cedric Gibbons'''\n '''Hugh Hunt Edwin B. Willis'''\n '''''Julius Caesar'''''\n\n Paul Markwitz Fritz Maurischat\n—\n ''Martin Luther''\n\n Leland Fuller Lyle Wheeler\n Paul S. Fox\n ''The President's Lady''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter Tyler\n—\n ''Roman Holiday''\n\n Maurice Ransford Lyle Wheeler\n Stuart Reiss\n ''Titanic''\n\n Color\n\n '''George Davis Lyle Wheeler'''\n '''Paul S. Fox Walter M. Scott'''\n '''''The Robe'''''\n\n Alfred Junge Hans Peters\n John Jarvis\n ''Knights of the Round Table''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Paul Groesse\n Arthur Krams Edwin B. Willis\n ''Lili''\n\n E. Preston Ames Edward Carfagno Cedric Gibbons Gabriel Scognamillo\n Keogh Gleason Arthur Krams Jack D. Moore Edwin B. Willis\n ''The Story of Three Loves''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Urie McCleary\n Jack D. Moore Edwin B. Willis\n ''Young Bess''\n\n 1954 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Richard Day'''\n'''—'''\n '''''On the Waterfront'''''\n\n Roland Anderson Hal Pereira\n Samuel M. Comer Grace Gregory\n ''The Country Girl''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Edward Carfagno\n Edwin B. Willis Emile Kuri\n ''Executive Suite''\n\n Max Ophüls\n—\n ''Le Plaisir''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter Tyler\n Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Sabrina''\n\n Color\n\n '''John Meehan'''\n '''Emile Kuri'''\n '''''20,000 Leagues Under the Sea'''''\n\n Cedric Gibbons E. Preston Ames\n Edwin B. Willis Keogh Gleason\n ''Brigadoon''\n\n Lyle Wheeler Leland Fuller\n Walter M. Scott Paul S. Fox\n ''Désirée''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Red Garters''\n\n Malcolm Bert Gene Allen\n Irene Sharaff George James Hopkins\n ''A Star Is Born''\n\n 1955 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Hal Pereira Tambi Larsen'''\n '''Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams'''\n '''''The Rose Tattoo'''''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Randall Duell\n Edwin B. Willis Henry Grace\n ''Blackboard Jungle''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Malcolm Brown\n Edwin B. Willis Hugh B. Hunt\n ''I'll Cry Tomorrow''\n\n Joseph C. Wright\n Darrell Silvera\n ''The Man with the Golden Arm''\n\n Edward S. Haworth Walter Simonds\n Robert Priestley\n ''Marty''\n\n Color\n\n '''William Flannery'''\n '''Jo Mielziner Robert Priestley'''\n '''''Picnic'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler John DeCuir\n Walter M. Scott Paul S. Fox\n ''Daddy Long Legs''\n\n Oliver Smith Joseph C. Wright\n Howard Bristol\n ''Guys and Dolls''\n\n Lyle Wheeler George Davis\n Walter M. Scott Jack Stubbs\n ''Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing''\n\n Hal Pereira Joseph McMillan Johnson\n Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams\n ''To Catch a Thief''\n\n 1956 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Cedric Gibbons Malcolm F. Brown'''\n '''Edwin B. Willis F. Keogh Gleason'''\n '''''Somebody Up There Likes Me'''''\n\n Hal Pereira A. Earl Hedrick\n Samuel M. Comer Frank R. McKelvy\n ''The Proud and Profane''\n\n So Matsuyama\n—\n ''Seven Samurai''\n\n Ross Bellah\n William R. Kiernan Louis Diage\n ''The Solid Gold Cadillac''\n\n Lyle R. Wheeler Jack Martin Smith\n Walter M. Scott Stuart A. Reiss\n ''Teenage Rebel''\n\n Color\n\n '''Lyle R. Wheeler John DeCuir'''\n '''Walter M. Scott Paul S. Fox'''\n '''''The King and I'''''\n\n James W. Sullivan Ken Adam\n Ross J. Dowd\n ''Around the World in 80 Days''\n\n Boris Leven\n Ralph S. Hurst\n ''Giant''\n\n Cedric Gibbons Hans Peters E. Preston Ames\n Edwin B. Willis F. Keogh Gleason\n ''Lust for Life''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter H. Tyler Albert Nozaki\n Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''The Ten Commandments''\n\n 1957 \n\n Ted Haworth\n Robert Priestley\n ''Sayonara''\n\n Hal Pereira George Davis\n Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Funny Face''\n\n William A. Horning Gene Allen\n Edwin B. Willis Richard Pefferle\n ''Les Girls''\n\n Walter Holscher\n William Kiernan Louis Diage\n ''Pal Joey''\n\n William A. Horning Urie McCleary\n Edwin B. Willis Hugh Hunt\n ''Raintree County''\n\n 1958 \n\n '''William A. Horning E. Preston Ames'''\n '''Henry Grace F. Keogh Gleason'''\n '''''Gigi'''''\n\n Malcolm Bert\n George James Hopkins\n ''Auntie Mame''\n\n Cary Odell\n Louis Diage\n ''Bell, Book and Candle''\n\n Lyle R. Wheeler John DeCuir\n Walter M. Scott Paul S. Fox\n ''A Certain Smile''\n\n Hal Pereira Henry Bumstead\n Samuel M. Comer Frank McKelvy\n ''Vertigo''\n\n 1959 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Lyle R. Wheeler George Davis'''\n '''Walter M. Scott Stuart A. Reiss'''\n '''''The Diary of Anne Frank'''''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter Tyler\n Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams\n ''Career''\n\n Carl Anderson\n William Kiernan\n ''The Last Angry Man''\n\n Ted Haworth\n Edward G. Boyle\n ''Some Like It Hot''\n\n Oliver Messel William Kellner\n Scott Slimon\n ''Suddenly, Last Summer''\n\n Color\n\n '''William A. Horning Edward Carfagno'''\n '''Hugh Hunt'''\n '''''Ben-Hur'''''\n\n John De Cuir\n Julia Heron\n ''The Big Fisherman''\n\n Lyle R. Wheeler Franz Bachelin Herman A. Blumenthal\n Walter M. Scott Joseph Kish\n ''Journey to the Center of the Earth''\n\n William A. Horning Robert F. Boyle Merrill Pye\n Henry Grace Frank McKelvy\n ''North by Northwest''\n\n Richard H. Riedel \n Russell A. Gausman Ruby R. Levitt\n ''Pillow Talk''\n\n\n===1960s===\n\n\n Year\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1960 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Alexander Trauner'''\n '''Edward G. Boyle'''\n '''''The Apartment'''''\n\n Joseph McMillan Johnson Kenneth A. Reid\n Ross Dowd\n ''The Facts of Life''\n\n Joseph Hurley Robert Clatworthy\n George Milo\n ''Psycho''\n\n Tom Morahan\n Lionel Couch\n ''Sons and Lovers''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter Tyler\n Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams\n ''Visit to a Small Planet''\n\n Color\n\n '''Harry Horner'''\n '''Russell A. Gausman Julia Heron'''\n '''''Spartacus'''''\n\n George Davis Addison Hehr\n Henry Grace Hugh Hunt Otto Siegel\n ''Cimarron''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer Arrigo Breschi\n ''It Started in Naples''\n\n Ted Haworth\n William Kiernan\n ''Pepe''\n\n Edward Carrere\n George James Hopkins\n ''Sunrise at Campobello''\n\n 1961 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Alexander Trauner'''\n '''Gene Callahan'''\n '''''The Hustler'''''\n\n Carroll Clark\n Emile Kuri Hal Gausman\n ''The Absent-Minded Professor''\n\n Fernando Carrere\n Edward G. Boyle\n ''The Children's Hour''\n\n Rudolf Sternad\n George Milo\n ''Judgment at Nuremberg''\n\n Piero Gherardi\n—\n ''La Dolce Vita''\n\n Color\n\n '''Boris Leven'''\n '''Victor A. Gangelin'''\n '''''West Side Story'''''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer Ray Moyer\n ''Breakfast at Tiffany's''\n\n Veniero Colasanti John Moore\n—\n ''El Cid''\n\n Alexander Golitzen Joseph Wright\n Howard Bristol\n ''Flower Drum Song''\n\n Hal Pereira Walter Tyler\n Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams\n ''Summer and Smoke''\n\n 1962 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Alexander Golitzen Henry Bumstead'''\n '''Oliver Emert'''\n '''''To Kill a Mockingbird'''''\n\n Joseph Wright\n George James Hopkins\n ''Days of Wine and Roses''\n\n Ted Haworth Léon Barsacq Vincent Korda\n Gabriel Bechir\n ''The Longest Day''\n\n George Davis Edward Carfagno\n Henry Grace Dick Pefferle\n ''Period of Adjustment''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer Frank R. McKelvy\n ''The Pigeon That Took Rome''\n\n Color\n\n '''John Box John Stoll'''\n '''Dario Simoni'''\n '''''Lawrence of Arabia'''''\n\n Paul Groesse\n George James Hopkins\n ''The Music Man''\n\n George Davis J. McMillan Johnson\n Henry Grace Hugh Hunt\n ''Mutiny on the Bounty''\n\n Alexander Golitzen Robert Clatworthy\n George Milo\n ''That Touch of Mink''\n\n George Davis Edward Carfagno\n Henry Grace Dick Pefferle\n ''The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm''\n\n 1963 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Gene Callahan'''\n'''—'''\n '''''America America'''''\n\n Piero Gherardi\n—\n ''8½''\n\n Hal Pereira Tambi Larsen\n Samuel M. Comer Robert R. Benton\n ''Hud''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer Grace Gregory\n ''Love with the Proper Stranger''\n\n George Davis Paul Groesse\n Henry Grace Hugh Hunt\n ''Twilight of Honor''\n\n Color\n\n '''John DeCuir Jack Martin Smith Hilyard Brown Herman Blumenthal Elven Webb Maurice Pelling Boris Juraga'''\n '''Walter M. Scott Paul S. Fox Ray Moyer'''\n '''''Cleopatra'''''\n\n Lyle Wheeler\n Gene Callahan\n ''The Cardinal''\n\n Hal Pereira Roland Anderson\n Samuel M. Comer James W. Payne\n ''Come Blow Your Horn''\n\n George Davis William Ferrari Addison Hehr\n Henry Grace Don Greenwood Jr. Jack Mills\n ''How the West Was Won''\n\n Ralph Brinton Ted Marshall\n Jocelyn Herbert Josie MacAvin\n ''Tom Jones''\n\n 1964 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Vassilis Fotopoulos'''\n'''—'''\n '''''Zorba the Greek'''''\n\n George Davis Hans Peters Elliot Scott\n Henry Grace Robert R. Benton\n ''The Americanization of Emily''\n\n William Glasgow\n Raphael Bretton\n ''Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte''\n\n Stephen Grimes\n—\n ''The Night of the Iguana''\n\n Cary Odell\n Edward G. Boyle\n ''Seven Days in May''\n\n Color\n\n '''Gene Allen Cecil Beaton'''\n '''George James Hopkins'''\n '''''My Fair Lady'''''\n\n John Bryan Maurice Carter\n Patrick McLoughlin Robert Cartwright\n ''Becket''\n\n Carroll Clark William H. Tuntke\n Emile Kuri Hal Gausman\n ''Mary Poppins''\n\n George Davis E. Preston Ames\n Henry Grace Hugh Hunt\n ''The Unsinkable Molly Brown''\n\n Jack Martin Smith Ted Haworth\n Walter M. Scott Stuart A. Reiss\n ''What a Way to Go!''\n\n 1965 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Robert Clatworthy'''\n '''Joseph Kish'''\n '''''Ship of Fools'''''\n\n Robert Emmet Smith\n Frank Tuttle\n ''King Rat''\n\n George Davis Urie McCleary\n Henry Grace Charles S. Thompson\n ''A Patch of Blue''\n\n Hal Pereira Jack Poplin\n Robert R. Benton Joseph Kish\n ''The Slender Thread''\n\n Hal Pereira Tambi Larsen\n Ted Marshall Josie MacAvin\n ''The Spy Who Came in from the Cold''\n\n Color\n\n '''John Box Terence Marsh'''\n '''Dario Simoni'''\n '''''Doctor Zhivago'''''\n\n John DeCuir Jack Martin Smith\n Dario Simoni\n ''The Agony and the Ecstasy''\n\n Richard Day William Creber David S. Hall \n Ray Moyer Fred M. MacLean Norman Rockett\n ''The Greatest Story Ever Told''\n\n Robert Clatworthy\n George James Hopkins\n ''Inside Daisy Clover''\n\n Boris Leven\n Walter M. Scott Ruby Levitt\n ''The Sound of Music''\n\n 1966 \n Black-and-white\n\n '''Richard Sylbert'''\n '''George James Hopkins'''\n '''''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?'''''\n\n Robert Luthardt\n Edward G. Boyle\n ''The Fortune Cookie''\n\n Luigi Scaccianoce\n—\n ''The Gospel According to St. Matthew''\n\n Willy Holt Marc Frederix Pierre Guffroy\n—\n ''Is Paris Burning?''\n\n George Davis Paul Groesse\n Henry Grace Hugh Hunt\n ''Mister Buddwing''\n\n Color\n\n '''Jack Martin Smith Dale Hennesy'''\n '''Walter M. Scott Stuart A. Reiss'''\n '''''Fantastic Voyage'''''\n\n Alexander Golitzen George C. Webb\n John McCarthy, Jr. John Austin\n ''Gambit''\n\n Piero Gherardi\n—\n ''Juliet of the Spirits''\n\n Hal Pereira Arthur Lonergan\n Robert R. Benton James W. Payne\n ''The Oscar''\n\n Boris Leven\n Walter M. Scott John Sturtevant William Kiernan\n ''The Sand Pebbles''\n\n 1967 \n\n John Truscott Edward Carrere\n John W. Brown\n ''Camelot''\n\n Mario Chiari Jack Martin Smith Ed Graves\n Walter M. Scott Stuart A. Reiss\n ''Doctor Dolittle''\n\n Robert Clatworthy\n Frank Tuttle\n ''Guess Who's Coming to Dinner''\n\n Renzo Mongiardino John DeCuir Elven Webb Giuseppe Mariani\n Dario Simoni Luigi Gervasi\n ''The Taming of the Shrew''\n\n Alexander Golitzen George C. Webb\n Howard Bristol\n ''Thoroughly Modern Millie''\n\n 1968 \n\n '''John Box Terence Marsh'''\n '''Vernon Dixon Ken Muggleston'''\n '''''Oliver!'''''\n\n George Davis Edward Carfagno\n—\n ''The Shoes of the Fisherman''\n\n Boris Leven\n Walter M. Scott Howard Bristol\n ''Star!''\n\n Anthony Masters Harry Lange Ernie Archer\n—\n ''2001: A Space Odyssey''\n\n Mikhail Bogdanov Gennady Myasnikov\n Georgi Koshelev Vladimir Uvarov\n ''War and Peace''\n\n 1969 \n\n '''John Decuir Jack Martin Smith Herman Blumenthal'''\n '''Walter M. Scott George Hopkins Raphael Bretton'''\n '''''Hello, Dolly!'''''\n\n Maurice Carter Lionel Couch\n Patrick McLoughlin\n ''Anne of the Thousand Days''\n\n Robert F. Boyle George B. Chan\n Edward G. Boyle Carl Biddiscombe\n ''Gaily, Gaily''\n\n Alexander Golitzen George C. Webb\n Jack D. Moore\n ''Sweet Charity''\n\n Harry Horner\n Frank McKelvy\n ''They Shoot Horses, Don't They?''\n\n\n===1970s===\n\n\n Year\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1970 \n\n '''Urie McCleary Gil Parrondo'''\n '''Antonio Mateos Pierre-Louis Thevenet'''\n '''''Patton'''''\n\n Alexander Golitzen E. Preston Ames\n Jack D. Moore Mickey S. Michaels\n ''Airport''\n\n Tambi Larsen\n Darrell Silvera\n ''The Molly MaGuires''\n\n Terence Marsh Bob Cartwright\n Pamela Cornell\n ''Scrooge''\n\n Jack Martin Smith Yoshirō Muraki Richard Day Taizoh Kawashima\n Samuel M. Comer Arthur Krams Norman Rockett\n ''Tora! Tora! Tora!''\n\n 1971 \n\n '''John Box Ernest Archer Jack Maxsted Gil Parrondo'''\n '''Vernon Dixon'''\n '''''Nicholas and Alexandra'''''\n\n Boris Leven William Tuntke\n Ruby Levitt\n ''The Andromeda Strain''\n\n John B. Mansbridge Peter Ellenshaw\n Emile Kuri Hal Gausman\n ''Bedknobs and Broomsticks''\n\n Robert F. Boyle Michael Stringer\n Peter Lamont\n ''Fiddler on the Roof''\n\n Terence Marsh Robert Cartwright\n Peter Howitt\n ''Mary, Queen of Scots''\n\n 1972 \n\n '''Rolf Zehetbauer Jurgen Kiebach'''\n '''Herbert Strabel'''\n '''''Cabaret'''''\n\n Carl Anderson\n Reg Allen\n ''Lady Sings the Blues''\n\n William Creber\n Raphael Bretton\n ''The Poseidon Adventure''\n\n John Box Gil Parrondo Robert W. Laing\n—\n ''Travels with My Aunt''\n\n Donald M. Ashton Geoffrey Drake\n John Graysmark William Hutchinson Peter James\n ''Young Winston''\n\n 1973 \n\n '''Henry Bumstead'''\n '''James W. Payne'''\n '''''The Sting'''''\n\n Lorenzo Mongiardino Gianni Quaranta\n Carmelo Patrono\n ''Brother Sun, Sister Moon''\n\n Bill Malley\n Jerry Wunderlich\n ''The Exorcist''\n\n Philip Jefferies\n Robert de Vestel\n ''Tom Sawyer''\n\n Stephen Grimes\n William Kiernan \n ''The Way We Were''\n\n 1974 \n\n '''Dean Tavoularis Angelo Graham'''\n '''George R. Nelson'''\n '''''The Godfather Part II'''''\n\n Richard Sylbert W. Stewart Campbell\n Ruby Levitt\n ''Chinatown''\n\n Alexander Golitzen E. Preston Ames\n Frank McKelvy\n ''Earthquake''\n\n Peter Ellenshaw John B. Mansbridge Walter Tyler Al Roelofs\n Hal Gausman\n ''The Island at the Top of the World''\n\n William Creber Ward Preston\n Raphael Bretton\n ''The Towering Inferno''\n\n 1975 \n\n '''Ken Adam Roy Walker'''\n '''Vernon Dixon'''\n '''''Barry Lyndon'''''\n\n Edward Carfagno\n Frank McKelvy\n ''The Hindenburg''\n\n Alexander Trauner Tony Inglis\n Peter James\n ''The Man Who Would Be King''\n\n Richard Sylbert W. Stewart Campbell\n George Gaines\n ''Shampoo''\n\n Albert Brenner\n Marvin March\n ''The Sunshine Boys''\n\n 1976 \n\n '''George Jenkins'''\n '''George Gaines'''\n '''''All the President's Men'''''\n\n Elliot Scott\n Norman Reynolds\n ''The Incredible Sarah''\n\n Gene Callahan Jack Collis\n Jerry Wunderlich\n ''The Last Tycoon''\n\n Dale Hennesy\n Robert de Vestel\n ''Logan's Run''\n\n Robert F. Boyle\n Arthur Jeph Parker\n ''The Shootist''\n\n 1977 \n\n '''John Barry Norman Reynolds Leslie Dilley'''\n '''Roger Christian'''\n '''''Star Wars'''''\n\n George C. Webb\n Mickey S. Michaels\n ''Airport '77''\n\n Joe Alves Dan Lomino\n Phil Abramson\n ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind''\n\n Ken Adam Peter Lamont\n Hugh Scaife\n ''The Spy Who Loved Me''\n\n Albert Brenner\n Marvin March\n ''The Turning Point''\n\n 1978 \n\n '''Paul Sylbert Edwin O'Donovan'''\n '''George Gaines'''\n '''''Heaven Can Wait'''''\n\n Dean Tavoularis Angelo Graham\n George R. Nelson\n ''The Brink's Job''\n\n Albert Brenner\n Marvin March\n ''California Suite''\n\n Mel Bourne\n Daniel Robert\n ''Interiors''\n\n Tony Walton Philip Rosenberg\n Edward Stewart Robert Drumheller\n ''The Wiz''\n\n 1979 \n\n '''Philip Rosenberg Tony Walton'''\n '''Edward Stewart Gary Brink'''\n '''''All That Jazz'''''\n\n Michael Seymour Les Dilley Roger Christian\n Ian Whittaker\n ''Alien''\n\n Dean Tavoularis Angelo Graham\n George R. Nelson\n ''Apocalypse Now''\n\n George Jenkins\n Arthur Jeph Parker\n ''The China Syndrome''\n\n Harold Michelson Joe Jennings Leon Harris John Vallone\n Linda Descenna\n ''Star Trek: The Motion Picture''\n\n\n===1980s===\n\n\n Year\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n Film\n\n\n 1980 \n\n '''Pierre Guffroy Jack Stephens'''\n'''—'''\n '''''Tess'''''\n\n John W. Corso\n John M. Dwyer\n ''Coal Miner's Daughter''\n\n Stuart Craig Robert Cartwright\n Hugh Scaife\n ''The Elephant Man''\n\n Norman Reynolds Leslie Dilley Harry Lange Alan Tomkins\n Michael D. Ford\n ''The Empire Strikes Back''\n\n Yoshirō Muraki\n—\n ''Kagemusha''\n\n 1981 \n\n '''Norman Reynolds Leslie Dilley'''\n '''Michael D. Ford'''\n '''''Raiders of the Lost Ark'''''\n\n Assheton Gorton\n Ann Mollo\n ''The French Lieutenant's Woman''\n\n Tambi Larsen\n James L. Berkey\n ''Heaven's Gate''\n\n John Graysmark Patrizia von Brandenstein Tony Reading\n George DeTitta Sr. George DeTitta Jr. Peter Howitt\n ''Ragtime''\n\n Richard Sylbert\n Michael Seirton\n ''Reds''\n\n 1982 \n\n '''Stuart Craig Robert W. Laing'''\n '''Michael Seirton'''\n '''''Gandhi'''''\n\n Dale Hennesy \n Marvin March\n ''Annie''\n\n Lawrence G. Paull David L. Snyder\n Linda DeScenna\n ''Blade Runner''\n\n Franco Zeffirelli Gianni Quaranta\n—\n ''La traviata''\n\n Rodger Maus Tim Hutchinson William Craig Smith\n Harry Cordwell\n ''Victor Victoria''\n\n 1983 \n\n '''Anna Asp'''\n '''Susanne Lingheim'''\n '''''Fanny and Alexander'''''\n\n Norman Reynolds Fred Hole James L. Schoppe\n Michael D. Ford\n ''Return of the Jedi''\n\n Geoffrey Kirkland Richard Lawrence W. Stewart Campbell Peter R. Romero\n Jim Poynter George R. Nelson\n ''The Right Stuff''\n\n Polly Platt Harold Michelson\n Tom Pedigo Anthony Mondell\n ''Terms of Endearment''\n\n Roy Walker Leslie Tomkins\n Tessa Davies\n ''Yentl''\n\n 1984 \n\n '''Patrizia von Brandenstein'''\n '''Karel Černý'''\n '''''Amadeus'''''\n\n Richard Sylbert\n George Gaines\n ''The Cotton Club''\n\n Mel Bourne Angelo P. Graham\n Bruce Weintraub\n ''The Natural''\n\n John Box\n Hugh Scaife\n ''A Passage to India''\n\n Albert Brenner\n Rick Simpson\n ''2010''\n\n 1985 \n\n '''Stephen Grimes'''\n '''Josie Macavin'''\n '''''Out of Africa'''''\n\n Norman Garwood\n Maggie Gray\n ''Brazil''\n\n J. Michael Riva Bo Welch\n Linda DeScenna\n ''The Color Purple''\n\n Yoshirō Muraki Shinobu Muraki\n—\n ''Ran''\n\n Stan Jolley\n John H. Anderson\n ''Witness''\n\n 1986 \n\n '''Gianni Quaranta Brian Ackland-Snow'''\n '''Brian Savegar Elio Altamura'''\n '''''A Room with a View'''''\n\n Peter Lamont\n Crispian Sallis\n ''Aliens''\n\n Boris Leven\n Karen O'Hara\n ''The Color of Money''\n\n Stuart Wurtzel\n Carol Joffe\n ''Hannah and Her Sisters''\n\n Stuart Craig\n Jack Stephens\n ''The Mission''\n\n 1987 \n\n '''Ferdinando Scarfiotti'''\n '''Bruno Cesari Osvaldo Desideri'''\n '''''The Last Emperor'''''\n\n Norman Reynolds\n Harry Cordwell\n ''Empire of the Sun''\n\n Anthony Pratt\n Joanne Woollard\n ''Hope and Glory''\n\n Santo Loquasto\n Carol Joffe Leslie Bloom George DeTitta Jr.\n ''Radio Days''\n\n Patrizia von Brandenstein William A. Elliott\n Hal Gausman\n ''The Untouchables''\n\n 1988 \n\n '''Stuart Craig'''\n '''Gérard James'''\n '''''Dangerous Liaisons'''''\n\n Albert Brenner\n Garrett Lewis\n ''Beaches''\n\n Ida Random\n Linda DeScenna\n ''Rain Man''\n\n Dean Tavoularis\n Armin Ganz\n ''Tucker: The Man and His Dream''\n\n Elliot Scott\n Peter Howitt\n ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit''\n\n 1989 \n\n '''Anton Furst'''\n '''Peter Young'''\n '''''Batman'''''\n\n Leslie Dilley\n Anne Kuljian\n ''The Abyss''\n\n Dante Ferretti\n Francesca Lo Schiavo\n ''The Adventures of Baron Munchausen''\n\n Bruno Rubeo\n Crispian Sallis\n ''Driving Miss Daisy''\n\n Norman Garwood\n Garrett Lewis\n ''Glory''\n\n\n===1990s===\n\n\n Year\n Film\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n\n 1990(63rd)\n\n '''''Dick Tracy'''''\n '''Richard Sylbert'''\n '''Rick Simpson'''\n\n ''Cyrano de Bergerac''\n Ezio Frigerio\n Jacques Rouxel\n\n ''Dances with Wolves''\n Jeffrey Beecroft\n Lisa Dean\n\n ''The Godfather Part III''\n Dean Tavoularis\n Gary Fettis\n\n ''Hamlet''\n Dante Ferretti\n Francesca Lo Schiavo\n\n 1991(64th)\n\n '''''Bugsy'''''\n '''Dennis Gassner'''\n '''Nancy Haigh'''\n\n ''Barton Fink''\n Dennis Gassner\n Nancy Haigh\n\n ''The Fisher King''\n Mel Bourne\n Cindy Carr\n\n ''Hook''\n Norman Garwood\n Garrett Lewis\n\n ''The Prince of Tides''\n Paul Sylbert\n Caryl Heller\n\n 1992(65th)\n\n '''''Howards End'''''\n '''Luciana Arrighi'''\n '''Ian Whittaker'''\n\n ''Bram Stoker's Dracula''\n Thomas E. Sanders\n Garrett Lewis\n\n ''Chaplin''\n Stuart Craig\n Chris A. Butler\n\n ''Toys''\n Ferdinando Scarfiotti\n Linda DeScenna\n\n ''Unforgiven''\n Henry Bumstead\n Janice Blackie-Goodine\n\n 1993(66th)\n\n '''''Schindler's List'''''\n '''Allan Starski'''\n '''Ewa Braun'''\n\n ''Addams Family Values''\n Ken Adam\n Marvin March\n\n ''The Age of Innocence''\n Dante Ferretti\n Robert J. Franco\n\n ''Orlando''\n Ben Van Os and Jan Roelfs\n—\n\n ''The Remains of the Day''\n Luciana Arrighi\n Ian Whittaker\n\n 1994(67th)\n\n '''''The Madness of King George'''''\n '''Ken Adam'''\n '''Carolyn Scott'''\n\n ''Bullets over Broadway''\n Santo Loquasto\n Susan Bode\n\n ''Forrest Gump''\n Rick Carter\n Nancy Haigh\n\n ''Interview with the Vampire''\n Dante Ferretti\n Francesca Lo Schiavo\n\n ''Legends of the Fall''\n Lilly Kilvert\n Dorree Cooper\n\n 1995(68th)\n\n '''''Restoration'''''\n '''Eugenio Zanetti'''\n'''—'''\n\n ''Apollo 13''\n Michael Corenblith\n Merideth Boswell\n\n ''Babe''\n Roger Ford\n Kerrie Brown\n\n ''A Little Princess''\n Bo Welch\n Cheryl Carasik\n\n ''Richard III''\n Tony Burrough\n—\n\n 1996(69th)\n\n '''''The English Patient'''''\n '''Stuart Craig'''\n '''Stephenie McMillan'''\n\n ''The Birdcage''\n Bo Welch\n Cheryl Carasik\n\n ''Evita''\n Brian Morris\n Philippe Turlure\n\n ''Hamlet''\n Tim Harvey\n—\n\n ''Romeo + Juliet''\n Catherine Martin\n Brigitte Broch\n\n 1997(70th)\n\n '''''Titanic'''''\n '''Peter Lamont'''\n '''Michael D. Ford'''\n\n ''Gattaca''\n Jan Roelfs\n Nancy Nye\n\n ''Kundun''\n Dante Ferretti\n Francesca Lo Schiavo\n\n ''L.A. Confidential''\n Jeannine Oppewall\n Jay Hart\n\n ''Men in Black''\n Bo Welch\n Cheryl Carasik\n\n 1998(71st)\n\n '''''Shakespeare in Love'''''\n '''Martin Childs'''\n '''Jill Quertier'''\n\n ''Elizabeth''\n John Myhre\n Peter Howitt\n\n ''Pleasantville''\n Jeannine Oppewall\n Jay Hart\n\n ''Saving Private Ryan''\n Tom Sanders\n Lisa Dean Kavanaugh\n\n ''What Dreams May Come''\n Eugenio Zanetti\n Cindy Carr\n\n 1999(72nd)\n\n '''''Sleepy Hollow'''''\n '''Rick Heinrichs'''\n '''Peter Young'''\n\n ''Anna and the King''\n Luciana Arrighi\n Ian Whittaker\n\n ''The Cider House Rules''\n David Gropman\n Beth Rubino\n\n ''The Talented Mr. Ripley''\n Roy Walker\n Bruno Cesari\n\n ''Topsy-Turvy''\n Eve Stewart\n John Bush\n\n\n===2000s===\n\n\n Year\n Film\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n\n 2000(73rd)\n\n '''''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'''''\n '''Tim Yip'''\n'''—'''\n\n ''Gladiator''\n Arthur Max\n Crispian Sallis\n\n ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas''\n Michael Corenblith\n Merideth Boswell\n\n ''Quills''\n Martin Childs\n Jill Quertier\n\n ''Vatel''\n Jean Rabasse\n Françoise Benoît-Fresco\n\n 2001(74th)\n\n '''''Moulin Rouge!'''''\n '''Catherine Martin'''\n '''Brigitte Broch'''\n\n ''Amélie''\n Aline Bonetto\n Marie-Laure Valla\n\n ''Gosford Park''\n Stephen Altman\n Anna Pinnock\n\n ''Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone''\n Stuart Craig\n Stephenie McMillan\n\n ''The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring''\n Grant Major\n Dan Hennah\n\n 2002(75th)\n\n '''''Chicago'''''\n '''John Myhre'''\n '''Gordon Sim'''\n\n ''Frida''\n Felipe Fernández del Paso\n Hania Robledo\n\n ''Gangs of New York''\n Dante Ferretti\n Francesca Lo Schiavo\n\n ''The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers''\n Grant Major\n Dan Hennah and Alan Lee\n\n ''Road to Perdition''\n Dennis Gassner\n Nancy Haigh\n\n 2003(76th)\n\n '''''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'''''\n '''Grant Major'''\n '''Dan Hennah and Alan Lee'''\n\n ''Girl with a Pearl Earring''\n Ben Van Os\n Cecile Heideman\n\n ''The Last Samurai''\n Lilly Kilvert\n Gretchen Rau\n\n ''Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World''\n William Sandell\n Robert Gould\n\n ''Seabiscuit''\n Jeannine Oppewall\n Leslie Pope\n\n 2004(77th)\n\n '''''The Aviator'''''\n '''Dante Ferretti'''\n '''Francesca Lo Schiavo'''\n\n ''Finding Neverland''\n Gemma Jackson\n Trisha Edwards\n\n ''Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events''\n Rick Heinrichs\n Cheryl Carasik\n\n ''The Phantom of the Opera''\n Anthony Pratt\n Celia Bobak\n\n ''A Very Long Engagement''\n Aline Bonetto\n—\n\n 2005(78th)\n\n '''''Memoirs of a Geisha'''''\n '''John Myhre'''\n '''Gretchen Rau'''\n\n ''Good Night, and Good Luck.''\n Jim Bissell\n Jan Pascale\n\n ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire''\n Stuart Craig\n Stephenie McMillan\n\n ''King Kong''\n Grant Major\n Dan Hennah and Simon Bright\n\n ''Pride & Prejudice''\n Sarah Greenwood\n Katie Spencer\n\n 2006(79th)\n\n '''''Pan's Labyrinth'''''\n '''Eugenio Caballero'''\n '''Pilar Revuelta'''\n\n ''Dreamgirls''\n John Myhre\n Nancy Haigh\n\n ''The Good Shepherd''\n Jeannine Claudia Oppewall\n Gretchen Rau and Leslie E. Rollins\n\n ''Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest''\n Rick Heinrichs\n Cheryl Carasik\n\n ''The Prestige''\n Nathan Crowley\n Julie Ochipinti\n\n 2007(80th)\n\n '''''Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street'''''\n '''Dante Ferretti'''\n '''Francesca Lo Schiavo'''\n\n ''American Gangster''\n Arthur Max\n Beth A. Rubino\n\n ''Atonement''\n Sarah Greenwood\n Katie Spencer\n\n ''The Golden Compass''\n Dennis Gassner\n Anna Pinnock\n\n ''There Will Be Blood''\n Jack Fisk\n Jim Erickson\n\n 2008(81st)\n\n '''''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button'''''\n '''Donald Graham Burt'''\n '''Victor J. Zolfo'''\n\n ''Changeling''\n James J. Murakami\n Gary Fettis\n\n ''The Dark Knight''\n Nathan Crowley\n Peter Lando\n\n ''The Duchess''\n Michael Carlin\n Rebecca Alleway\n\n ''Revolutionary Road''\n Kristi Zea\n Debra Schutt\n\n 2009(82nd)\n\n '''''Avatar'''''\n '''Rick Carter and Robert Stromberg'''\n '''Kim Sinclair'''\n\n ''The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus''\n Dave Warren and Anastasia Masaro\n Caroline Smith\n\n ''Nine''\n John Myhre\n Gordon Sim\n\n ''Sherlock Holmes''\n Sarah Greenwood\n Katie Spencer\n\n ''The Young Victoria''\n Patrice Vermette\n Maggie Gray\n\n\n===2010s===\n\n\n Year\n Film\n Art director(s)\n Set decorator(s)\n\n\n 2010(83rd)\n\n '''''Alice in Wonderland'''''\n '''Robert Stromberg'''\n '''Karen O'Hara'''\n\n ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1''\n Stuart Craig\n Stephenie McMillan\n\n ''Inception''\n Guy Hendrix Dyas\n Larry Dias and Doug Mowat\n\n ''The King's Speech''\n Eve Stewart\n Judy Farr\n\n ''True Grit''\n Jess Gonchor\n Nancy Haigh\n\n 2011(84th)\n\n '''''Hugo'''''\n '''Dante Ferretti'''\n '''Francesca Lo Schiavo'''\n\n ''The Artist''\n Laurence Bennett\n Robert Gould\n\n ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2''\n Stuart Craig\n Stephenie McMillan\n\n ''Midnight in Paris''\n Anne Seibel\n Hélène Dubreuil\n\n ''War Horse''\n Rick Carter\n Lee Sandales\n\n 2012(85th)\n\n '''''Lincoln'''''\n '''Rick Carter'''\n '''Jim Erickson'''\n\n ''Anna Karenina''\n Sarah Greenwood\n Katie Spencer\n\n ''The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey''\n Dan Hennah\n Ra Vincent and Simon Bright\n\n ''Les Misérables''\n Eve Stewart\n Anna Lynch-Robinson\n\n ''Life of Pi''\n David Gropman\n Anna Pinnock\n\n 2013(86th)\n\n '''''The Great Gatsby'''''\n '''Catherine Martin'''\n '''Beverley Dunn'''\n\n ''American Hustle''\n Judy Becker\n Heather Loeffler\n\n ''Gravity''\n Andy Nicholson\n Rosie Goodwin and Joanne Woollard\n\n ''Her''\n K. K. Barrett\n Gene Serdena\n\n ''12 Years a Slave''\n Adam Stockhausen\n Alice Baker\n\n 2014(87th)\n\n '''''The Grand Budapest Hotel'''''\n '''Adam Stockhausen'''\n '''Anna Pinnock'''\n\n ''The Imitation Game''\n Maria Djurkovic\n Tatiana Macdonald\n\n ''Interstellar''\n Nathan Crowley\n Gary Fettis\n\n ''Into the Woods''\n Dennis Gassner\n Anna Pinnock\n\n ''Mr. Turner''\n Suzie Davies\n Charlotte Watts\n\n 2015(88th)\n\n '''''Mad Max: Fury Road'''''\n '''Colin Gibson'''\n '''Lisa Thompson'''\n\n ''Bridge of Spies''\n Adam Stockhausen\n Rena DeAngelo and Bernhard Henrich\n\n ''The Danish Girl''\n Michael Standish\n Eve Stewart\n\n ''The Martian''\n Arthur Max\n Celia Bobak\n\n ''The Revenant''\n Jack Fisk\n Hamish Purdy\n\n 2016(89th)\n\n '''''La La Land'''''\n '''David Wasco'''\n '''Sandy Reynolds-Wasco'''\n\n ''Arrival''\n Patrice Vermette\n Paul Hotte\n\n ''Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them''\n Stuart Craig\n Anna Pinnock\n\n ''Hail, Caesar!''\n Jess Gonchor\n Nancy Haigh\n\n ''Passengers''\n Guy Hendrix Dyas\n Gene Serdena\n\n", "* BAFTA Award for Best Production Design\n* Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Superlatives", "Best Interior Decoration", "Best Art Direction – Set Decoration", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Academy Awards''', now known officially as '''The Oscars''', is a set of twenty-four awards for artistic and technical merit in the American film industry, given annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), to recognize excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the \"Academy Award of Merit\", which has become commonly known by its nickname \"Oscar\". The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS.\n\nThe awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now seen live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony. Its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards.\n\nThe 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26, 2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, California. The ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 89th.\n", "The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ in dollars). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes.\n\nWinners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until an occasion when the ''Los Angeles Times'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the name of the winners.\n\n===Institutions===\nThe first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in ''The Last Command'' and ''The Way of All Flesh''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, the winners were recognized for all of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and Janet Gaynor later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years.\n\nAt the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.\n\nThe 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.\n\nSince 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n\nTraditionally, the actors present the awards for actresses, and the actresses present the awards for actors.\n", "\n===Other awards presented by the Academy===\n:''See also (below).''\nIn addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually):\n* Governors Awards:\n** The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); \n** The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg);\n** The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); \n* The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards:\n** Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n** Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet);\n** Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate);\n** The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal);\n** The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and\n* The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual).\n\nThe Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting. \n\n===Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette)===\n:''See also (below)''\nThe best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated britannium on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians.\n\nThe model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio \"El Indio\" Fernández. Sculptor George Stanley (who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl) sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years the bronze was abandoned in favor of britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award's statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It takes between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes.\nIn 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Rock Tavern, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the new statuettes will retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly 3 months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars.\n\n===Naming===\nThe origin of the name ''Oscar'' is disputed. One biography of Bette Davis, who was a president of the Academy, claims that she named the Oscar after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. Another claimed origin is that the Academy's Executive Secretary, Margaret Herrick, first saw the award in 1931 and made reference to the statuette's reminding her of her \"Uncle Oscar\" (a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce). Columnist Sidney Skolsky was present during Herrick's naming and seized the name in his byline, \"Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar'.\" \n\nOne of the earliest mentions of the term ''Oscar'' dates back to a ''Time'' magazine article about the 1934 6th Academy Awards. Walt Disney is also quoted as thanking the Academy for his Oscar as early as 1932. The trophy was officially dubbed the \"Oscar\" in 1939 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.\n\n===Engraving===\nTo prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners were expected to return the statuettes to the Academy after the ceremony and wait several weeks to have inscriptions applied. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. In 2010, the R.S. Owens company made 197 engraved nameplates ahead of the ceremony, bearing the names of every potential winner. The 175 or so nameplates for non-winning nominees were recycled afterwards.\n\n===Ownership of Oscar statuettes===\nSince 1950, the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that neither winners nor their heirs may sell the statuettes without first offering to sell them back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards not protected by this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for ''Citizen Kane'' (Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542.\n\nIn 1992, Harold Russell needed money for his wife's medical expenses. In a controversial decision, he consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for ''The Best Years of Our Lives'' to Herman Darvick Autograph Auctions, and on August 6, 1992, in New York City, the Oscar sold to a private collector for $60,500. Since he won the award before 1950, he was not required to offer it to the Academy first. Russell defended his decision, saying, \"I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't.\" Harold Russell is the only Academy Award-winning actor to ever sell an Oscar.{\n\nWhile the Oscar is owned by the recipient, it is essentially not on the open market. Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Oscar statuette to a movie prop collector in 1989, but the Academy won the legal battle by getting a permanent injunction. Although some Oscar sales transactions have been successful, some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.\n", "Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in late January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February.\n\n===Voters===\nThe Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of 5,783 .\n\nAcademy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm PricewaterhouseCoopers (and its predecessor Price Waterhouse) for the past 83 annual awards ceremonies.\n\nAll AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures.\n\nNew membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then.\n\nIn 2012, the results of a study conducted by the ''Los Angeles Times'' were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%).\n\nIn May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.\n\n===Rules===\nAccording to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in Los Angeles County, California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best Foreign Language Film, Best Documentary Feature, and Best Documentary Short Subject).\n\nThe Best Foreign Language Film award does not require a U.S. release. The Best Documentary Feature award requires week-long releases in ''both'' Los Angeles County ''and'' New York City during the previous calendar year.\n\nThe Best Documentary Short Subject award has noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on September 1 and ending on the August 31 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in ''either'' Los Angeles County ''or'' New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in the Documentary category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible.\n\nFor example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, ''The Hurt Locker'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film per year.\n\nRule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Effective with the 90th Academy Awards, to be presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series will be ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of ''O.J.: Made in America'', an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film.\n\nProducers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.\n\nIn late December ballots and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the single transferable vote is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including Foreign Film, Documentary and Animated Feature Film, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches.\n\nIn most categories the winner is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by instant runoff voting. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects.\n\nFilm companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee ''The Hurt Locker'' was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (''The Hurt Locker'' eventually won).\n", "\n\n===Telecast===\nPantages Theatre, Hollywood, 1959\n81st Academy Awards Presentations, Dolby Theatre, Hollywood, 2009\nThe major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, most commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. Black tie dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a bow-tie, and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.)\n\nThe Academy Awards is the only awards show that is televised live in all United States time zones (excluding Hawaii; they aired live in Alaska starting in 2011 for the first time since 1996), Canada, the United Kingdom, and gathers millions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966) through 1970, after which NBC resumed the broadcasts. ABC once again took over broadcast duties in 1976, and has broadcast the Oscars ever since; its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite in 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.\n\nThe ceremonies were moved up from late March or early April to late February or early March starting in 2004 to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success of the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into early March in deference to the Winter Olympics. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The Awards show holds the distinction of having won the most Emmys in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations.\n\nAfter many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm Eastern/6:00 p.m Pacific, in 1999 the ceremonies were moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm Eastern/5:30 pm Pacific. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and that an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry had opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. The Academy has contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Also, a January or early-February ceremony held on a Sunday would have to compete with National Football League playoff games such as the Super Bowl.\n\nOriginally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the shooting of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C.\n\nIn 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a \"popularity contest\" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead.\n\nIn terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced that winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed \"the single most hated thing on the show\" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker.\n\nAlthough still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards have steadily dropped; the 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18-49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, ''Variety'' reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract does not contain any notable changes, nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.\n\n===TV ratings===\nHistorically, the \"Oscarcast\" has pulled in a bigger haul when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture trophy. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of ''Titanic'', which generated close to US$600 million at the North American box office pre-Oscars. The 76th Academy Awards ceremony in which ''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, however, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture ''Midnight Cowboy'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on 7 April 1970.\n\nBy contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings. The 78th Academy Awards which awarded low-budgeted, independent film ''Crash'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest rated and least watched ceremony to date, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independently financed film (''No Country for Old Men'').\n", "In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles.\n\nGrauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what was the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood.\n\nFrom 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Los Angeles, this time to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center.\n\nIn 2002, the Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.\n\n", "\n===Current categories===\n\n\nIn the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup.\n\nAnother award, entitled the Academy Award for Best Original Musical, is still in the Academy rulebooks and has yet to be discontinued. However, due to continuous insufficient eligibility each year, it has not been awarded since 1984 (when ''Purple Rain'' won).\n\n===Discontinued categories===\n\n\n===Proposed categories===\nThe Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following proposed categories have been rejected:\n* Best Casting: rejected in 1999\n* Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012\n* Best Title Design: rejected in 1999\n", "The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on a consistent annual basis.\n\n===Current special categories===\n:''For a list of all nine awards, see (above)''\n* Academy Honorary Award: since 1929\n* Academy Scientific and Technical Award (three different awards): since 1931\n* Gordon E. Sawyer Award: since 1981\n* Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award: since 1957 \n* Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award: since 1938 \n\n===Discontinued special categories===\n* Academy Juvenile Award: 1934 to 1960\n* Academy Special Achievement Award: 1972 to 1995\n", "\n\n===Accusations of commercialism===\nDue to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the \"Oscar season\". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as \"the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself\".\n\nTim Dirks, editor of AMC's filmsite.org, has written of the Academy Awards,\n\n\n\n===Accusations of bias===\n\nTypical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies, and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. This has led to the coining of the term 'Oscar bait', describing such movies. This has led at times to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.\n\n===Allegations of a lack of diversity===\nThe Academic Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated \"historic\" changes in membership by the year 2020.\n\n===Symbolism or sentimentalization===\nActing prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity or presented as a \"career honor\" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.\n\n===Refusing the award===\nSome winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for ''The Informer''). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''Patton'') at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a 'meat parade', saying 'I don't want any part of it.\" The third was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's ''The Godfather''), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando sent Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech detailing his criticisms.\n", "The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards:\n* César Award\n* Nominees luncheon\n* Governors Awards\n* The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (in 2010), usually held in Santa Monica the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live\n* The annual \"Night Before\", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture and Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley\n* Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center\n* The Governors' Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue\n* The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, since 2009 has been at the Sunset Tower\n", "It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014 the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status.\nOscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, vacation packages, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, and weight-loss gummie candy. Some of the gifts have even had a \"risque\" element to them; in 2014 the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a \"Secret Room Gifting Suite\". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir, and NBA player John Salley.\n", "From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD, all previous years are Live viewing\n\n\n Year\n Viewers,millions\n Ad price,USD, millions\n Adjusted Price,USD, millions\n\n 2017\n 32.9\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 2016\n 34.3\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 2015\n 37.260\n 1.95\n \n\n 2014\n 43.740\n 1.8 – 1.9\n - \n\n 2013\n 40.376\n 1.65 – 1.8\n - \n\n 2012\n 39.460\n 1.610\n \n\n 2011\n 37.919\n 1.3684\n \n\n 2010\n 41.699\n 1.1267\n \n\n 2009\n 36.310\n 1.3\n \n\n 2008\n 32.006\n 1.82\n \n\n 2007\n 40.172\n 1.6658\n \n\n 2006\n 38.939\n 1.6468\n \n\n 2005\n 42.139\n 1.503\n \n\n 2004\n 43.531\n 1.5031\n \n\n 2003\n 33.043\n 1.3458\n \n\n 2002\n 41.782\n 1.29\n \n\n 2001\n 42.944\n 1.45\n \n\n 2000\n 46.333\n 1.305\n \n\n 1999\n 45.615\n 1\n \n\n 1998\n 55.249\n 0.95\n \n\n 1997\n 40.075\n 0.85\n \n\n 1996\n 44.867\n 0.795\n \n\n 1995\n 48.279\n 0.7\n \n\n 1994\n 45.083\n 0.6435\n \n\n 1993\n 45.735\n 0.6078\n \n\n 1992\n 44.406\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1991\n 42.727\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1990\n 40.375\n 0.45\n \n\n 1989\n 42.619\n 0.375\n \n\n 1988\n 42.227\n 0.36\n \n\n 1987\n 37.190\n 0.335\n \n\n 1986\n 37.757\n 0.32\n \n\n 1985\n 38.855\n 0.315\n \n\n 1984\n 42.051\n 0.275\n \n\n 1983\n 53.235\n 0.245\n \n\n 1982\n 46.245\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1981\n 39.919\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1980\n 48.978\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1979\n 46.301\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1978\n 48.501\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1977\n 39.719\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1976\n 46.751\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1975\n 48.127\n Not available\n Not available\n\n 1974\n 44.712\n Not available\n Not available\n\n", "\n\nThe term \"Oscar\" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used generically to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.\n", "\n* List of film awards\n* List of actors with Academy Award nominations\n\n", "\n", "* Brokaw, Lauren (2010). \"Wanna see an Academy Awards invite? We got it along with all the major annual events surrounding the Oscars\". Los Angeles: The Daily Truffle.\n* \n* \n* \n* Wright, Jon (2007). ''The Lunacy of Oscar: The Problems with Hollywood's Biggest Night''. Thomas Publishing, Inc.\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* Website of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences\n* Official Academy Awards Database (searchable)\n* .\n* \"Oscar Greats\" at ''Time'' magazine.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", "Oscar statuette", "Nomination", "Awards ceremonies", "Venues", "Awards of Merit categories", "Special categories", "Criticism", "Associated events", "Presenter and performer gifts", "Television ratings and advertisement prices", "Trademark", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''''Actresses''''' (Catalan: '''''Actrius''''') is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play ''E.R.'' by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.\n", "In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran).\n", "* Núria Espert as Glòria Marc\n* Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca\n* Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal\n* Mercè Pons as Estudiant\n", "\n===Screenings===\n''Actrius'' screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival.\n\n===Reception===\nIn ''Movie - Film - Review'', ''Daily Mail'' staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were \"competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers\", the film \"is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident\". Noting that there were \"occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness\", they did not \"justify comparisons to ''All About Eve''\", and were \"insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with ''Rashomon''\". He also wrote that ''The Guardian'' called the film a \"slow, stuffy chamber-piece\", and that ''The Evening Standard'' stated the film's \"best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers\". MRQE wrote \"This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story.\"\n\n===Awards and nominations===\n* 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons\n* 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons\n* 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons\n", "\n", "* \n* as archived February 17, 2009 (Spanish)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Synopsis", "Cast", "Recognition", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over three million copies have been sold. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.\n", "''Animalia'' is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.\n", "Julia MacRae Books published an ''Animalia'' colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year.\n\nH. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter.\n\nThe Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.\n", "A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and Venezuela. It also airs on Minimax for the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use.\n\nIn 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch.\n", "''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book.\n\nThe Children's Book Council of Australia designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 Picture Book of the Year: Honour Book.\n\nKid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.\n", "\n", "\n* Graeme Base's official website\n* Animalia The Television Series official website\n* A Learning Time activity guide for ''Animalia'' created by The Little Big Book Club\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Synopsis", "Related products", "Adaptations", "Awards", "References", "External links" ]

[ "'''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''''') is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (except for a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. when another leap second was added, TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972.\n\nTAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian Dates and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.\n", "TAI as a time scale is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging it is an order of magnitude more stable than its best clock alone would be. The majority of the clocks are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium.\n\nThe participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else.\n\nThe clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in \"Circular T\", and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC-UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI-TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. (The same circular also gives tables of TAI-TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales.)\n\nErrors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Doing so does not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT).\n", "Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). The \"Greenwich Atomic\" (GA) scale began in 1955 at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, Tm or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado. Both the BIH scale and A.1 were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1 January 1958 00:00:00) at the corresponding UT2 instant. The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: \"A3\" in 1963 and \"TA(BIH)\" in 1969. This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the astronomical realisation of UT2. At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several hundredths of a second.\n\nThe SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967, and in 1971 the name International Atomic Time (TAI) was assigned to a time scale based on SI seconds with no leap seconds. During this time, irregularities in the atomic time were detected and corrected. In 1967 it was suggested that nearby masses caused clocks to operate at different rates, but this was disproven in 1968.\n\nIn the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at mean sea level (the geoid). Because the clocks had been on average well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale'').\n\nThe instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. (The offset is to provide continuity with the older Ephemeris Time.) TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s.\n\nThe continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated \"In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC.\"\n\nUTC is a discontinuous (i.e. regularly adjusted by leap seconds) time scale composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterwards these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the post-1971 more linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.\n", "* Clock synchronization\n* Network Time Protocol\n* Precision Time Protocol\n* Time and frequency transfer\n", "\n", "* \n* \n", "* Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI\n* Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK\n* IERS website\n* NIST Web Clock FAQs\n* History of time scales\n* NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock\n* \n* Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan\n* \n* Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Operation", "History", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nGiving alms to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.\n'''Altruism''' or '''selflessness''' is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of \"others\" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of selfishness. The word was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as ''altruisme'', for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning \"other people\" or \"somebody else\".\n\nAltruism in biological observations in field populations of the day organisms can be defined as an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another third-party individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is \"intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards\".\n\nAltruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ''\"true\"'' altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as \"benefits\". The actor also may not be expecting a reward.\n\nThe term ''altruism'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which is defined as acting to the benefit of one's self.\n", "The concept has a long history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.\n", "\n===Anthropology===\nMarcel Mauss's book ''The Gift'' contains a passage called \"Note on alms\". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes:\n\nAlms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.\n\n* Compare Altruism (ethics) – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice.\n* Compare explanation of alms in various scriptures.\n\n===Evolutionary explanations===\n\nGiving alms to beggar children\nIn the science of ethology (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism.\n\nTheories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies.\n\nSome of the proposed mechanisms are:\n* Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families.\n* Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social ingroups suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile outgroup threatens to kill the entire ingroup.\n* Reciprocal altruism. See also Reciprocity (evolution).\n** Direct reciprocity. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective tit for tat strategy is one game theoretic example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return.\n\n::One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a \"Community Game\" instead of a \"Wall Street Game.\"\n\n::A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation.\n\n::People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group.\n\n** Indirect reciprocity. The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's reputation to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity have a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously.\n** Strong reciprocity. A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence.\n** Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist.\n* Costly signaling and the handicap principle. Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an \"honest signal\" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.\n\n:Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability.\n\nVolunteers assist Hurricane victims at the Houston Astrodome, following Hurricane Katrina.\n:Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects. Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns.\n\n:Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner, altruism may be a preferred trait as it may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children. It has been shown that men perform altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success.\n\n:People may compete over getting the benefits of a high reputation which may cause competitive altruism. On the other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as psychopathy or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.\n\n:Explicit extrinsic rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all.\n* Group selection. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as David Sloan Wilson that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptions are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also in-group favoritism). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists.\n\nhomeless in New York City\nSuch explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their inclusive fitness when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors.\n\nEvery single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits.\n\nThe benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.\n\nThe study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation, which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as ''Dictyostelium mucoroides.'' These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body.\n\nSelective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.\n\nSuch cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution'' and Peter Singer in his book ''A Darwinian Left.''\n\n====Initial evolutionary problematics====\nThere are problems of early stage evolution of altruism. A first emotionally empathic individual would, if it was genetic, have been effectively exploited to death by the preexisting non-empathic individuals. This applies regardless how far back in evolution the problem is moved, not restricted to hominid but extending to pre-reptilian or anything in between including early mammals. The first empathic individual would effectively be exploited every time another individual was in the right place at the right time to take advantage, so no evolutionary adaptation to exploiting empathic individuals would be required for the lethality to take effect. It is de facto impossible that mutations for emotional empathy, ability to recognize it in others, and a direction of it towards those individuals would all occur at the same time. An ability to recognize a non-existent behavior is of no evolutionary use and so cannot have pre-evolved.\n\n===Neurobiology===\nJorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait empathy. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding.\n\nIn another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a University of Oregon economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: \"egoists\" and \"altruists\". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered \"egoists\" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.\n\n===Psychology===\nThe International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as \"a motivational state with the goal of increasing another’s welfare.\" Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism,'' which refers to the motivation to increase one’s own welfare.\n\nThere has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. Daniel Batson is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives for altruism: altruism to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The ''empathy-altruism hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues.\n\nPeace Corps trainees swearing in as volunteers in Cambodia, 4 April 2007\nIn psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''Bystander effect''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders. A feeling of personal responsibility or - moral norm - has also strongly been associated with other pro-social behaviors such as charitable giving.\n\nMany studies have observed the effects of volunteerism (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness.\nIt is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states. \n\nStudies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that \"a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being.\". Psychologists generally refer to this virtuous cycle of helping others, doing good and subsequently feeling good as \"the helper's high\".\n\n===Sociology===\n\"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges Public sociology saying, \"The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable\" (\"Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity\" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and \"build the good society\".\n\n\n\n===Pathological altruism===\n\nPathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good.\n\nThe term \"pathological altruism\" was popularised by the book ''Pathological Altruism''.\n\nExamples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.\n", "\nMost, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.\n\n===Buddhism===\nMonks collecting alms\nAltruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. \"Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being\" (Dalai Lama).\n\nSince \"all beings\" includes the individual, love and compassion in Buddhism are outside the opposition between self and other. It is even said that the distinction between self and other is part of the root cause of our suffering. In practical terms, however, since many people are spontaneously self-centered, Buddhism encourages people to focus love and compassion on others, and thus can be characterized as \"altruistic.\" \n\nStill, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: \"The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes\" (Dalai Lama).\n\nIn the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.\n\n\nIn Buddhism, ''karma'' (Pāli ''kamma'') is strictly distinguished from '''''vipāka''''', meaning \"fruit\" or \"result\". Karma is categorized within the group or groups of cause (Pāli ''hetu'') in the chain of cause and effect, where it comprises the elements of \"volitional activities\" (Pali ''sankhara'') and \"action\" (Pali ''bhava''). Any action is understood to create \"seeds\" in the mind that sprout into the appropriate results (Pāli ''vipaka'') when they meet the right conditions. Most types of karmas, with good or bad results, will keep one in the wheel of samsāra; others will liberate one to nirvāna.\n\nBuddhism relates karma directly to motives behind an action. Motivation usually makes the difference between \"good\" and \"bad\", but motivation also includes the aspect of ignorance; so a well-intended action from an ignorant mind can easily be \"bad\" in that it creates unpleasant results for the \"actor.\"\n\nIn Buddhism, karma is not the only cause of all that happens. As taught in the early texts, the commentarial tradition classified causal mechanisms governing the universe in five categories, known as Niyama Dhammas:\n\n* Kamma Niyama — Consequences of one's actions\n* Utu Niyama — Seasonal changes and climate\n* Biija Niyama — Laws of heredity\n* Citta Niyama — Will of mind\n* Dhamma Niyama — Nature's tendency to produce a perfect type\n\n===Jainism===\n\nSculpture depicting the Jain concept of ''ahimsa'' (non-injury)\nThe fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''Ahimsa'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first Tirthankara, Rishabhdev introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things.\n\nJainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness and greed by contentment.\n\nJains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are:\n# Non-violence (Ahimsa);\n# Truthfulness (Satya);\n# Non-stealing (Asteya);\n# Celibacy (Brahmacharya);\n# Non-possession or non-materialism (Aparigraha);\nThe \"great vows\" (Mahavrata) are prescribed for monks and \"limited vows\" (Anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress.\n\nThe principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become ''Siddha'' (God in Jainism). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.\n\n===Christianity===\nStatue of Mother Teresa in India\nAltruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the Gospel, especially in the Sermon on the Mount and the Sermon on the Plain. From biblical to medieval Christian traditions, tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of \"disinterested love\", as in the Pauline phrase \"love seeks not its own interests.\" In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection.\n\nSt Thomas Aquinas interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that \"the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship\" and quotes Aristotle that \"the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves,\" he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism.\n\nMany biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.\n\nGerman philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, \"motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one’s own life and existence\". Another way is merely \"one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people’s business.\" At its worst, Scheler says, \"love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse.\"\n\n===Islam===\nIn Islam, the concept 'īthār' (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of 'preferring others to oneself'. For Sufis, this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is rooted to be a demand made by Allah on the human body, considered to be property of Allah alone. The importance lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those practicing īthār as abiding by the highest degree of nobility.\nThis is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in i'thar attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for Allah (i.e. God) results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.\nThis concept was emphasized by Sufis of Islam like Rabia al-Adawiyya who paid attention to the difference between dedication to Allah (i.e. God) and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet Yunus Emre explained this philosophy as \"Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü\" or ''We love the creature, because of The Creator.'' For many Muslims, i'thar must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, i'thar is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.\n\n===Judaism===\nJudaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force.\n\nModern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity.\n\n===Sikhism===\n\nAltruism is essential to the Sikh religion. \nThe central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness.\nThe fifth Nanak, Guru Arjun Dev sacrificed his life to uphold 22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity, the Guru Granth. The ninth Guru\n, Guru Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, Guru Gobind Singh Ji (the tenth guru in Sikhism), was in war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh Ji, and complained of his action that they considered counter-productive to their struggle on the battlefield.\"What were you doing, and why?\" asked the Guru. \"I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them,\" replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, \"Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru.\"\n\nIt was under the tutelage of the Guru that Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism. This volunteer corps still to date is engaged in doing good to others and trains new volunteering recruits for doing the same.\n\n===Hinduism===\nSwami Sivananda, an Advaita scholar, reiterates the same views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the Brahma Sutras, a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates apurva or punya, which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment.\n\nHowever the very well known and popular text, the Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga (selfless action) or action without desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.\n", "\n\nThere exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with utilitarianism, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants.\n\nA related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).\n", "The genes OXTR, CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, GABRB2 have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Comte, Auguste, ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)\n* \n* Kropotkin, Peter, ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution'' (1902)\n* \n* Nietzsche, Friedrich, ''Beyond Good and Evil''\n* Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847)\n* Lysander Spooner, ''Natural Law''\n* Matt Ridley, ''The Origins of Virtue''\n* Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "The notion of altruism", "Scientific viewpoints<!--linked from 'Evolution of morality'-->", "Religious viewpoints", "Philosophy", "Genetics", "See also", " Notes ", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Ayn Rand''' (; born '''Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum''' , ;  – March 6, 1982) was a Russian-American novelist, philosopher, playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels, ''The Fountainhead'' and ''Atlas Shrugged'', and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism. Educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful in America, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''The Fountainhead''.\n\nIn 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel ''Atlas Shrugged''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own magazines and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge, and rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism, and rejected altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral, and opposed collectivism and statism as well as anarchism, and instead supported ''laissez-faire'' capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including property rights. In art, Rand promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and classical liberals.\n\nLiterary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews, and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy, though academic interest has increased in recent decades. The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. She has been a significant influence among libertarians and American conservatives.\n", "\n===Early life===\nRand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum () on February 2, 1905, to a Russian Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan), largely non-observant Jews. Zinovy Rosenbaum was a successful pharmacist and businessman, eventually owning a pharmacy and the building in which it was located. With a passion for the liberal arts, Rand later said she found school unchallenging and she began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten. At the prestigious Stoiunina Gymnasium, her closest friend was Vladimir Nabokov's younger sister, Olga. The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the Nabokov mansion: while Nabokova defended constitutional monarchy, Rand supported republican ideals.\n\nShe was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917, during which she favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II. The subsequent October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father’s business was confiscated and the family displaced. They fled to the Crimean Peninsula, which was initially under control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. She later recalled that, while in high school, she determined that she was an atheist and that she valued reason above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea at 16, Rand returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.\n\nRand completed a three-year program at Petrograd State University.\nAfter the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University, where, at the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato, who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively. She also studied the philosophical works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Able to read French, German and Russian, Rand also discovered the writers Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her perennial favorites.\n\nAlong with many other \"bourgeois\" students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, however, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which Rand did in October 1924. She subsequently studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For one of her assignments she wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work.\n\nBy this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'', possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt ''Рзнб'' of her birth surname in Cyrillic handwriting, and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from a Finnish name ''Aino'' or from the Hebrew word (''ayin'', meaning \"eye\").\n\n===Arrival in the United States===\nCover of Rand's first published work, a 2,500-word monograph on ''femme fatale'' Pola Negri published in 1925.\nIn the autumn of 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit American relatives. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan that she cried what she later called \"tears of splendor\". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with relatives in Chicago, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then set out for Hollywood, California.\n\nInitially, Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to a job as an extra in his film ''The King of Kings'' as well as subsequent work as a junior screenwriter. While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent US resident in July 1929, and became an American citizen on March 3, 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.\n\n===Early fiction===\n\nRand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''Red Pawn'' to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama ''Night of January 16th'', first produced by E.E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935. Each night the \"jury\" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's \"verdict\", would then be performed. In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result. ''Ideal'' is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate. The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals.\n\nRand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical ''We the Living'', was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' \"is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not...\" Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In 1942, without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira''. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986.\n\nHer novella ''Anthem'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'. It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies.\n\n===''The Fountainhead'' and political activism===\n\nDuring the 1940s, Rand became politically active. Both she and her husband worked full-time in volunteer positions for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro-Willkie newsreels, an experience she greatly enjoyed. This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Once Mises referred to Rand as \"the most courageous man in America\", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said \"man\" instead of \"woman\". Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book, ''The God of the Machine''.\n\nRand's first major success as a writer came with ''The Fountainhead'' in 1943, a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as \"second-handers\"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed Benzedrine, a brand of amphetamine, to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel, but when the book was done, she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.\n\n''The Fountainhead'' eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Bros., and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated ''Love Letters'' and ''You Came Along''. This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''. Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled \"The Only Path to Tomorrow\", in the January 1944 edition of ''Reader's Digest'' magazine.\n\n\nRand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association. A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a \"friendly witness\" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film ''Song of Russia''. Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was. She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''The Best Years of Our Lives'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as \"futile\".\n\nAfter several delays, the film version of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she \"disliked the movie from beginning to end\", complaining about its editing, acting, and other elements.\n\n===''Atlas Shrugged'' and Objectivism===\nRand's novella ''Anthem'' was reprinted in the June 1953 issue of the pulp magazine ''Famous Fantastic Mysteries''.\n\nIn the years following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated \"The Collective\") included future Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.\n\n''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''magnum opus''. Rand described the theme of the novel as \"the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest\". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as \"stopping the motor of the world\" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of romance, mystery, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in the form of a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt.\n\nDespite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller. In an interview with Mike Wallace, Rand declared herself \"the most creative thinker alive\". After completing the novel, Rand fell into a severe depression. ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; a turning point in her life, it marked the end of Rand's career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.\n\nIn 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the Objectivist movement itself as a cult or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. However, some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated, with the problem being concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York. Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.\n\n===Later years===\nThroughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Harvard, and MIT. She received an honorary doctorate from Lewis & Clark College in 1963. She also began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding afterward to questions from the audience. During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as \"bums\"), supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as \"civilized men fighting savages\", saying European colonists had the right to develop land taken from American Indians, and calling homosexuality \"immoral\" and \"disgusting\", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it. She also endorsed several Republican candidates for President of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964, whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''.\nGrave marker for Rand and her husband at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York|alt=A twin gravestone bearing the name \"Frank O'Connor\" on the left, and \"Ayn Rand O'Connor\" on the right\nIn 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI. Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other \"irrational behavior in his private life\". Branden later apologized in an interview to \"every student of Objectivism\" for \"perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique\" and for \"contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement\". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company.\n\nRand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, despite her initial objections, allowed Evva Pryor, a social worker from her attorney's office, to enroll her in Social Security and Medicare. During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''.\n\nRand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City, and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York. Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff to inherit her estate.\n", "\nRand called her philosophy \"Objectivism\", describing its essence as \"the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute\". She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy and aesthetics.\n\nIn metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism, and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.\n\nIn epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic, and reason, which she described as \"the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses\". She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''a priori'' knowledge, including \"'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing. Rand argued that the requirements of cognition determine the objective criteria of conceptualization, which she summarized in the form of a philosophical razor. Known as \"Rand's razor,\" it states that \"concepts are not to be multiplied beyond necessity—the corollary of which is: nor are they to be integrated in disregard of necessity\". In her ''Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy.\n\nIn ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should \"exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself\". She referred to egoism as \"the virtue of selfishness\" in her book of that title, in which she presented her solution to the is-ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of \"man's survival ''qua'' man\". She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held that the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that \"Force and mind are opposites.\"\n\nRand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights (including property rights), and she considered ''laissez-faire'' capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.\n\nShe opposed statism, which she understood to include theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, democratic socialism, and dictatorship. Rand believed that natural rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, she preferred the term \"radical for capitalism\". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice.\n\nIn aesthetics, Rand defined art as a \"selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments\". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will. She described her own approach to literature as \"romantic realism\".\n\nRand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend \"three A's\"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace, when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded, \"Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself.\" However, she also found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals, in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised), and in her overall writing style. However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed. Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as a \"monster\", although philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.\n\nRand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her \"theory of concepts, her ethics, and her discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force\". She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy, stating, \"I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows.\"\n", "\n\n===Reviews===\nDuring Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic H. L. Mencken, her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success, and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by a reviewer in ''The New York Times'' as \"masterful\". Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic. However, they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth.\n\nThe first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says \"it was the most reviewed of any of her works\", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.\n\nRand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed. There was a positive review in ''The New York Times'' that Rand greatly appreciated. The reviewer called Rand \"a writer of great power\" who wrote \"brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly\", and stated that \"you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time\". There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel, such as one that called it \"a whale of a book\" and another that said \"anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing\". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style \"offensively pedestrian\".\n\nRand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative. In the ''National Review'', conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book \"sophomoric\" and \"remarkably silly\". He described the tone of the book as \"shrillness without reprieve\" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets), claiming \"From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go! ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer John Chamberlain, but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that \"reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs\", calling it \"execrable claptrap\" and \"a nightmare\"; they said it was \"written out of hate\" and showed \"remorseless hectoring and prolixity\". Author Flannery O'Connor wrote in a letter to a friend that \"The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction. I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail.\"\n\nRand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''For the New Intellectual'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'', with philosopher Sidney Hook likening her certainty to \"the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union\", and author Gore Vidal calling her viewpoint \"nearly perfect in its immorality\". Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.\n\nOn the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for ''The New York Times'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint utopian \"retro fantasy\" and programmatic neo-Romanticism of the misunderstood artist, while criticizing her characters' \"isolated rejection of democratic society\". In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as \"romance novels with a patina of pseudo-philosophy\". In 2009, ''GQ''s critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as \"capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels\" such as ''Ben-Hur'' and the ''Left Behind'' series.\n\n===Popular interest===\nThe American Adventure rotunda at Walt Disney World's Epcot.\nIn 1991, a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book-of-the-Month Club asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 29 million copies sold as of 2013 (with about 10% of that total purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute). In 1998, Modern Library readers voted ''Atlas Shrugged'' the 20th century's finest work of fiction, followed by ''The Fountainhead'' in second place, ''Anthem'' in seventh, and ''We the Living'' eighth; none of the four appeared on the critics' list. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work. Rand's work continues to be among the top sellers among books in India.\n\nRand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith, and later writers such as Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind have been influenced by her. Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko and musician Neil Peart of Rush. Rand provided a positive view of business, and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas, while Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks, and John P. Mackey, CEO of Whole Foods, among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.\n\nRand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows, as well as in movies and video games. She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors. Nick Gillespie, editor in chief of ''Reason'', has remarked that \"Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist...\" and that \"jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture\". Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life'', was nominated for the Academy Award for Documentary Feature. ''The Passion of Ayn Rand'', a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano.\n\n===Political influence===\n\nAlthough she rejected the labels \"conservative\" and \"libertarian\", Rand has had continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism. Jim Powell, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) of modern American libertarianism, and David Nolan, one of the founders of the Libertarian Party, stated that \"without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist\". In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as \"the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large\", and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as \"the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right\".\n\nTea Party rally carries a sign referring to John Galt, the hero of Rand's novel ''Atlas Shrugged''|alt=In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds up a poster with the words \"I am John Galt\" in all capital letters\n\nShe faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley, Jr. and other contributors for the ''National Review'' magazine. They published numerous criticisms in the 1950s and 1960s by Whittaker Chambers, Garry Wills, and M. Stanton Evans. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other ''National Review'' contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.\n\nThe political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the United States Republican Party), despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being pro-choice and an atheist. A 1987 article in ''The New York Times'' referred to her as the Reagan administration's \"novelist laureate\". Republican Congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and recommended her novels.\n\nThe financial crisis of 2007–2008 spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis, and opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel. During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests. There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left, with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan. For example, ''Mother Jones'' remarked that \"Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed\", while equating Randian individual well-being with that of the ''Volk'' according to Goebbels. Corey Robin of ''The Nation'' alleged similarities between the \"moral syntax of Randianism\" and fascism.\n\n===Academic reaction===\nDuring Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand \"a treacherous undertaking\" that could lead to \"guilt by association\" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''The Personalist''. One of these was \"On the Randian Argument\" by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who argued that her meta-ethical argument is unsound and fails to solve the is–ought problem posed by David Hume. Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in ''The Personalist'' arguing that Nozick misstated Rand's case. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.\n\nSince Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased. Historian Jennifer Burns has identified \"three overlapping waves\" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is \"an explosion of scholarship\" since the year 2000. However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.\n\nGladstein, Chris Matthew Sciabarra, Allan Gotthelf, Edwin A. Locke and Tara Smith have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the ''Journal of Ayn Rand Studies'', a nonpartisan peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work. In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the Ayn Rand Society with George Walsh and David Kelley, and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas. Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by Cambridge University Press. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at Clemson and Duke universities. Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.\n\nRand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen, while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as \"literary, hyperbolic and emotional\". Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite \"the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage\", Rand's ethics are \"a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought\". In the ''Literary Encyclopedia'' entry for Rand written in 2001, John David Lewis declared that \"Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation\". In a 1999 interview in the ''Chronicle of Higher Education'', Sciabarra commented, \"I know they laugh at Rand\", while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.\n\nLibertarian philosopher Michael Huemer has argued that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics, which he believes is difficult to interpret and may lack logical coherence. He attributes the attention she receives to her being a \"compelling writer\", especially as a novelist. Thus, ''Atlas Shrugged'' outsells Rand's non-fiction works, as well as the works of other philosophers of classical liberalism such as Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek, or Frederic Bastiat.\n\nPolitical scientist Charles Murray, while praising Rand's literary accomplishments, criticizes her claim that her only \"philosophical debt\" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche.\n\nAlthough Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass has argued that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.\n\n===Objectivist movement===\n\nIn 1985, Rand's intellectual heir Leonard Peikoff established the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society. In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. The charitable foundation of BB&T Corporation has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pittsburgh, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases, these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.\n", "\n\n'''Novels:'''\n* 1936 ''We the Living''\n* 1943 ''The Fountainhead''\n* 1957 ''Atlas Shrugged''\n\n'''Other fiction:'''\n* 1934 ''Night of January 16th''\n* 1938 ''Anthem''\n* 2015 ''Ideal''\n\n'''Non-fiction:'''\n* 1961 ''For the New Intellectual''\n* 1964 ''The Virtue of Selfishness''\n* 1966 ''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal''\n* 1969 ''The Romantic Manifesto''\n* 1971 ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution''\n* 1979 ''Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology''\n* 1982 ''Philosophy: Who Needs It''\n", "\n", "\n\n===Works cited===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute\n* \n* \n* \n* Rand's papers at The Library of Congress\n* Ayn Rand Lexicon – searchable database\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \"Writings of Ayn Rand\" from C-SPAN's ''American Writers: A Journey Through History''\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Life", "Philosophy", "Reception and legacy", "Selected works", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Alain Connes''' (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the Collège de France, IHÉS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (2000).\n", "Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. Following this he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki.\n\nConnes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.\n", "\nConnes was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001 and the gold medal of the CNRS in 2004. He was an invited speaker at the ICM in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a plenary speaker at the ICM in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the French Academy of Sciences and several foreign academies and societies, including the Danish Academy of Sciences, Norwegian Academy of Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences, and US National Academy of Sciences.\n", "* Alain Connes and Matilde Marcolli, ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, \n* Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, ''Triangle of Thought'', translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001, \n* Jean-Pierre Changeux, and Alain Connes, ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998, \n* Alain Connes, ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994, \n", "* Cyclic homology\n* Factor (functional analysis)\n* Higgs boson\n* C*-algebra\n* M-theory\n* Groupoid\n*Criticism of non-standard analysis\n", "\n", "* Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book ''Non-commutative geometry'', .\n* \n* Alain Connes' Standard Model\n* An interview with Alain Connes and a discussion about it\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Work", "Awards and honours", "Books", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Allan Dwan''' (3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter.\n", "Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveller of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, ''née'' Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old, on 4 December 1892, by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician. At the University of Notre Dame, Allan Dwan studied engineering and began working for a lighting company in Chicago. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association.\n", "Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California.\n\nAfter making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''Robin Hood''. Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process Phonofilm. This short, also featuring Thomas Meighan and Henri de la Falaise, was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 \"Lambs' Gambol\" for The Lambs, with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club.\n\nFollowing the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in ''Heidi'' (1937) and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938).\n\nDwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct ''The Wizard of Oz'' and ''Gone With the Wind'', and Marshall Neilan, who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, ''Sands of Iwo Jima''. He directed his last movie in 1961.\n\nHe died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California.\n\nDwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard.\n", "\n*''The Gold Lust'' (1911)\n*''The Picket Guard'' (1913)\n*''The Restless Spirit'' (1913)\n*''Back to Life'' (1913)\n*''Bloodhounds of the North'' (1913)\n*''The Lie'' (1914)\n*''The Honor of the Mounted'' (1914)\n*''Remember Mary Magdalen'' (1914)\n*''Discord and Harmony'' (1914)\n*''The Embezzler'' (1914)\n*''The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf'' (1914)\n*''The End of the Feud'' (1914)\n*''The Tragedy of Whispering Creek'' (1914)\n*''The Unlawful Trade'' (1914)\n*''The Forbidden Room'' (1914)\n*''The Hopes of Blind Alley'' (1914)\n*''Richelieu'' (1914)\n* ''Wildflower'' (1914)\n*''A Small Town Girl'' (1915)\n*''David Harum'' (1915)\n*''A Girl of Yesterday'' (1915)\n*''The Pretty Sister of Jose'' (1915)\n*''Jordan Is a Hard Road'' (1915)\n*''Betty of Graystone'' (1916)\n*''The Habit of Happiness'' (1916)\n*''The Good Bad Man'' (1916)\n*''An Innocent Magdalene'' (1916)\n*''The Half-Breed'' (1916)\n*''Manhattan Madness'' (1916)\n*''Accusing Evidence'' (1916)\n*''Panthea'' (1917)\n*''A Modern Musketeer'' (1917)\n*''Bound in Morocco'' (1918)\n*''Headin' South'' (1918)\n*''Mr. Fix-It'' (1918)\n*''He Comes Up Smiling'' (1918)\n*''Cheating Cheaters'' (1919)\n*''The Dark Star'' (1919)\n*''Getting Mary Married'' (1919)\n*''Soldiers of Fortune'' (1919)\n*''In The Heart of a Fool'' (1920) also producer\n*''The Forbidden Thing'' (1920) also producer\n*''A Splendid Hazard'' (1920)\n*''A Perfect Crime'' (1921)\n*''Robin Hood'' (1922)\n*''Zaza'' (1923)\n*''Big Brother'' (1923)\n*''Manhandled'' (1924)\n*''Argentine Love'' (1924)\n*''The Coast of Folly'' (1925)\n*''Night Life of New York'' (1925)\n*''Stage Struck'' (1925)\n*''Gloria Swanson Dialogue'' (1925) short film made in Phonofilm for The Lambs annual \"Gambol\" held at Metropolitan Opera House\n*''Padlocked'' (1926)\n*''Sea Horses'' (1926)\n*''Summer Bachelors'' (1926)\n*''Tin Gods'' (1926)\n*''French Dressing'' (1927)\n*''The Joy Girl'' (1927)\n*''East Side, West Side'' (1927)\n*''The Big Noise'' (1928)\n*''Frozen Justice'' (1929)\n*''The Iron Mask'' (1929)\n*''Tide of Empire'' (1929)\n*''The Far Call'' (1929)\n*''What a Widow!'' (1930)\n*''Man to Man'' (1930)\n*''Chances'' (1931)\n*''Wicked'' (1931)\n*''While Paris Sleeps'' (1932)\n*''Counsel's Opinion'' (1933)\n*''Black Sheep'' (1935)\n*''Navy Wife'' (1935)\n*''High Tension'' (1936)\n*''15 Maiden Lane'' (1936)\n*''One Mile from Heaven'' (1937)\n*''Heidi'' (1937)\n*''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938)\n*''Suez'' (1938)\n* ''Josette'' (1938)\n*''The Three Musketeers'' (1939)\n*''The Gorilla'' (1939)\n*''Frontier Marshal'' (1939)\n*''Sailor's Lady'' (1940)\n*''Young People'' (1940)\n*''Trail of the Vigilantes'' (1940)\n*''Look Who's Laughing'' (1941) also producer\n*''Rise and Shine'' (1941)\n*''Friendly Enemies'' (1942)\n*''Around the World'' (1943) also producer\n*''Up in Mabel's Room'' (1944)\n*''Abroad with Two Yanks'' (1944)\n*''Getting Gertie's Garter'' (1945) also screenwriter\n*''Brewster's Millions'' (1945)\n*''Rendezvous with Annie'' (1946)\n*''Driftwood'' (1947)\n*''Calendar Girl'' (1947)\n*''Northwest Outpost'' (1947) also associate producer\n*''The Inside Story'' (1948)\n*''Angel in Exile'' (1948) (with Philip Ford)\n*''Sands of Iwo Jima'' (1949)\n*''Surrender'' (1950)\n*''Belle Le Grand'' (1951)\n*''Wild Blue Yonder'' (1951)\n*''I Dream of Jeanie'' (1952)\n*''Montana Belle'' (1952)\n*''Woman They Almost Lynched'' (1953)\n* ''Sweethearts on Parade'' (1953)\n*''Silver Lode'' (1954)\n*''Passion'' (1954)\n*''Cattle Queen of Montana'' (1954)\n*''Tennessee's Partner'' (1955)\n*''Pearl of the South Pacific'' (1955)\n*''Escape to Burma'' (1955)\n*''Slightly Scarlet'' (1956)\n*''Hold Back the Night'' (1956)\n*''The Restless Breed'' (1957)\n*''The River's Edge'' (1957)\n*''Enchanted Island'' (1958)\n*''Most Dangerous Man Alive'' (1961)\n\n", "*Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood\n", "\n", "* Brownlow, Kevin, ''The Parade's Gone By...'' (1968) \n* Bogdanovich, Peter, ''Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer'' (1971) \n* Foster, Charles, ''Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood'' (2000) \n* Lombardi, Frederic, ''Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios'' (2013)\nPrint Ebook \n", "\n*\n* Allan Dwan profile, virtual-history.com; accessed 16 June 2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Partial filmography as director", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anthropology''' is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.\n\nArchaeology, which studies past human cultures through investigation of physical evidence, is thought of as a branch of anthropology in the United States, while in Europe, it is viewed as a discipline in its own right, or grouped under other related disciplines such as history.\n", "\nThe abstract noun ''anthropology'' is first attested in reference to history. Its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin '''' derived from the combining forms of the Greek words ''ánthrōpos'' (, \"human\") and ''lógos'' (, \"study\"). (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of Aristotle.) It began to be used in English, possibly via French '''', by the early 18th century.\n\n===Through the 19th century===\nIn 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the University of Copenhagen, defined '''' as follows:\n\nAnthropology, that is to say the science that treats of man, is divided ordinarily and with reason into Anatomy, which considers the body and the parts, and Psychology, which speaks of the soul.\n\nSporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by Étienne Serres in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the National Museum of Natural History (France) by Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned.\n\nMeanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the American Ethnological Society, was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the Ethnological Society of London in 1843, a break-away group of the Aborigines' Protection Society. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. They maintained international connections.\n\nAnthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as anatomy, linguistics, and Ethnology, making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild.\n\nDarwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called evolutionism. His definition now became \"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature\".\n\nBroca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him. His interest was mainly in Biological anthropology, but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, Theodor Waitz, took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as \"The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples\". The last two volumes were published posthumously.\n\nWaitz defined anthropology as \"the science of the nature of man\". By nature he meant matter animated by \"the Divine breath\"; i.e., he was an animist. Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from \"the animals nearest to him\". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization as well as ethnology are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that \"the same laws of thought are applicable to all men\".\n\nWaitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer Richard Francis Burton and the speech therapist James Hunt broke away from the Ethnological Society of London to form the Anthropological Society of London, which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young Edward Burnett Tylor, inventor of cultural anthropology, and his brother Alfred Tylor, a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.\n\nSimilar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the American Anthropological Association in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation.\n\nDuring the last three decades of the 19th century a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898 the American Association for the Advancement of Science was able to report that 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.\n\n===20th and 21st centuries===\nThis meagre statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. Organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), \"a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology\", currently contains members from about three dozen nations.\n\nSince the work of Franz Boas and Bronisław Malinowski in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and ''cultural'' anthropology in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by its emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons, long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance it places on participant-observation or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology in particular has emphasized cultural relativism, holism, and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism. Ethnography is one of its primary research designs as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork.\n\nIn Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the four field approach developed by Franz Boas in the early 20th century: ''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology; ''social'', ''cultural'', or ''sociocultural'' anthropology; and archaeology; plus anthropological linguistics. These fields frequently overlap, but tend to use different methodologies and techniques.\n\nEuropean countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more ethnology (a term coined and defined by Adam F. Kollár in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.\n", "\n\nAnthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''Homo sapiens'', human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies.\n\nAccording to Clifford Geertz, \n\n\nSociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.\n\n===Sociocultural===\n\nSociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among persons and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and the arts (how one's culture affects experience for self and group, contributing to more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. in that it helps develop understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.\n\nInquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by cultural relativism, the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view.\n\nThe study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology).\n\nComparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. Cultures in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) of world societies are:\n\n\n Africa 30px\n \n\n Circum-Mediterranean 30px\n \n\n East Eurasia 30px \n \n\n Insular Pacific 30px\n \n\n North America 30px\n \n\n South America 30px\n \n\n\n\n\n===Biological===\n\nForensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.\n\nBiological Anthropology and Physical Anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.\n\n===Archaeological===\n\nExcavations at the 3800-year-old Edgewater Park Site, Iowa\nArchaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine these material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.\nRosetta Stone was an example of ancient communication\n\n===Linguistic===\n\nLinguistic anthropology (also called anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis.\n", "\n===Art, media, music, dance and film===\n\n\n==== Art ====\n\n\nOne of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', Claude Lévi-Strauss' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.\n\n==== Media ====\n\nA Punu tribe mask. Gabon Central Africa\nMedia anthropology (also known as anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.\n\n==== Music ====\n\nEthnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire.\n\n==== Visual ====\n\nVisual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.\n\n=== Economic, political economic, applied and development ===\n\n\n==== Economic ====\n\nEconomic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of Anthropology, Bronislaw Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic Anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective.\n\n====Political economy====\n\nPolitical economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of Historical Materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political Economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the \"pre-capitalist\" societies that were subject to evolutionary \"tribal\" stereotypes. Sahlins work on Hunter-gatherers as the 'original affluent society' did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these Political Economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world.\n\n==== Applied ====\n\nApplied Anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a, \"complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy\". More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to Development anthropology (distinct from the more critical Anthropology of development).\n\n====Development====\n\nAnthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short why does so much planned development fail?\n\n===Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality===\n\n\n==== Kinship ====\n\n''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as \"descent\", \"descent groups\", \"lineages\", \"affines\", \"cognates\", and even \"fictive kinship\". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage.\n\n==== Feminist ====\n\nFeminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white European and American feminists. Historically, such 'peripheral' perspectives have sometimes been marginalized and regarded as less valid or important than knowledge from the western world. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct this systematic bias in mainstream feminist theory. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of birth anthropology as a specialization. The first African-American female anthropologist and Caribbeanist is said to be Vera Mae Green who studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied.\n\n===Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal===\n\n\n==== Medical ====\n\n\nMedical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies \"human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation\". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields:\n\n\n* the development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care\n* the patient-physician relationship\n* the integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments\n* the interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole\n*the critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations (\"critical ethnopsychiatry\": Beneduce 2004, 2007)\n* the impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings\n\n\nOther subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''.\n\n==== Nutritional ====\n\n\nNutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people.\n\n==== Psychological ====\n\nPsychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group—with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories—shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.\n\n==== Cognitive ====\n\nCognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.\n\n==== Transpersonal ====\n\nTranspersonal anthropology studies the relationship between altered states of consciousness and culture. As with transpersonal psychology, the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and transpersonal experience. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues—for instance, the roles of myth, ritual, diet, and texts in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.\n\n===Political and legal===\n\n\n==== Political ====\n\nPolitical anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more \"complex\" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. First of all, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Second of all, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and of course on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on \"Negara\", the Balinese state is an early, famous example.\n\n====Legal====\n\nLegal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in \"the cross-cultural study of social ordering\". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, and political uprisings.\n\n====Public====\n\nPublic Anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to \"demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change\" ( Borofsky 2004).\n\n=== Nature, science and technology===\n\n\n====Cyborg====\n\nCyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 ''Cyborg Manifesto'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.\n\n==== Digital ====\n\nDigital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology.\n\n==== Ecological ====\n\nEcological anthropology is defined as the \"study of cultural adaptations to environments\". The sub-field is also defined as, \"the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment\". The focus of its research concerns \"how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environment across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.\n\n===Historical===\n \nEthnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.\n\n=== Religion ===\n\n\nThe anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human community that worships it.\n\n=== Urban ===\n\nUrban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were \"a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by definition\". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the \"Third World\" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of \"specialists in 'other cultures'\" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.\n", "\n\n=== Anthrozoology ===\n\nAnthrozoology (also known as \"human–animal studies\") is the study of interaction between living things. It is a burgeoning interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.\n\n=== Biocultural ===\n\nBiocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology.\n\n=== Evolutionary ===\n\nEvolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.\n\n=== Forensic ===\n\nForensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective \"forensic\" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.\n\n=== Palaeoanthropology ===\n\nPaleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.\n", "Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of Anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Membership is made up of anthropologists from around the globe.\n\nIn 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology.\n\nHundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.\n\n===List of major organizations===\n\n\n* American Anthropological Association\n* American Ethnological Society\n* Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR\n* Moving Anthropology Student Network\n* Anthropological Society of London\n* Center for World Indigenous Studies\n* Ethnological Society of London\n* Institute of Anthropology and Ethnography\n* Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology\n* Network of Concerned Anthropologists\n* N. N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology\n* Radical Anthropology Group\n* Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland\n* Society for anthropological sciences\n* Society for Applied Anthropology\n* USC Center for Visual Anthropology\n\n", "As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics.\n\nAnthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism.\n\nSome commentators have contended:\n\n*That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004).\n*That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were \"out of time\" in an \"ethnographic present\" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other'').\n\n===Cultural relativism ===\nAs part of their quest for scientific objectivity, present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture.\n\nEthical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, mutilation (including circumcision and subincision), and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies to genes to acculturation have been proposed, not to mention theories of colonialism and many others as root causes of Man's inhumanity to man. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as \"racism\" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.\n\n===Military involvement===\nAnthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.\n\nBut by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the \"Axis\" (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.\n\nAttempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).\n\nProfessional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that \"in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given.\"\n\nAnthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The ''Christian Science Monitor'' reports that \"Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs\" in Afghanistan, under the ''Human Terrain System'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, \"When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of \"anthropology\" within DoD.\"\n", "Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.\n\n===Basic trends===\nThere are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia.\n\nIn the 1990s and 2000s (decade), calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.\n\nBiological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists \"into the field,\" which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called \"fieldwork.\" On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.\n\nAlong with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to Culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science.\n\n===Commonalities between fields===\nBecause anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of Anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made.\n\nSome authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of \"other cultures\", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the \"Third World\" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in \"other cultures\" looked for them far away and started to look \"across the tracks\" only in late 1960s.\n\nNow there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's \"home\". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West.\n\nIn France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''Terrain'' (\"fieldwork\"), and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (''Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies).\n\nSince the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.\n", "\n\n\n* Anthropological Index Online (AIO)\n* Anthropological science fiction\n* Engaged theory\n* Ethnology\n* Ethnobiology\n* Ethology\n* Folklore\n* Human ethology\n* Human evolution\n* Human Relations Area Files\n* Intangible Cultural Heritage\n* List of anthropologists\n* Memetics\n* Origins of society\n* Prehistoric medicine\n* Qualitative research\n* Sociology\n* Theological anthropology, a sub-field of theology\n* Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philosophy\n* Anthropology in Tinbergen's four questions\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n===Dictionaries and encyclopedias===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Fieldnotes and memoirs===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Histories===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n===Textbooks and key theoretical works===\n\n* Carneiro's circumscription theory\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* " ]

[ "Introduction", "Origin and development of the term", "Fields", " Key topics by field: sociocultural", " Key topics by field: archaeological and biological", " Organizations ", "Ethics", "Post–World War II developments", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "'''\n'''\n\n\n'''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science, but not animal science, is often excluded from the definition.)\n", "\nThe three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:\n*Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research.\n*Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based crops.\nAgricultural sciences include research and development on:\n* Plant Breeding and Genetics\n* Plant Pathology\n* Horticulture\n* Soil Science\n* Entmology\n* Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, recommended nitrogen inputs)\n* Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques)\n* Minimizing the effects of pests (weeds, insects, pathogens, nematodes) on crop or animal production systems.\n* Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products)\n* Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation)\n* Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling\n* Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of industrial agriculture, which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems.\n* Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the USA and the EU.\n* Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering.\n\n===Agricultural biotechnology===\nAgricultural biotechnology is a specific area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms.\n", "One of the most common yield reducers is because of fertilizer not being applied in slightly higher quantities during transition period, the time it takes the soil to rebuild its aggregates and organic matter. Yields will decrease temporarily because of nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment\n", "\nWith the exception of theoretical agronomy, research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of ecoregions, because it is closely linked to soil properties and climate, which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, soil characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature.\n", "\n\nAgricultural science began with Gregor Mendel's genetic work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the chemical fertilizer outputs of plant physiological understanding in 18th-century Germany. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term \"agricultural science\". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.\n\nIntensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products.\n\nAs the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as integrated pest management, waste treatment technologies, landscape architecture, genomics, and agricultural philosophy fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science.\n\nNew technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, agrophysics, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of traditional agriculture, including interaction of religion and agriculture, and the non-material components of agricultural production systems.\n", "Norman Borlaug, father of the Green Revolution.\n* Robert Bakewell\n* Norman Borlaug\n* Luther Burbank\n* George Washington Carver\n* René Dumont\n* Sir Albert Howard\n* Kailas Nath Kaul\n* Justus von Liebig\n* Jay Lush\n* Gregor Mendel\n* Louis Pasteur\n* M. S. Swaminathan\n* Jethro Tull\n* Artturi Ilmari Virtanen\n* Eli Whitney\n* Sewall Wright\n* Wilbur Olin Atwater\n", "Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing biosafety problems that may affect human health and the environment. This requires promoting good management of natural resources and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system.\n\nEconomic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as avian influenza, mad cow disease and issues such as the use of genetically modified organisms) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate.\n", "\n\n* Agricultural biotechnology\n* Agricultural chemistry\n* Agricultural diversification\n* Agricultural education\n* Agricultural economics\n* Agricultural engineering\n* Agricultural geography\n* Agricultural philosophy\n* Agricultural marketing\n* Agricultural soil science\n* Agroecology\n* Agrophysics\n* Animal science\n** Animal breeding\n** Animal husbandry\n** Animal nutrition\n* Farm Management\n** Farm Production\n** Farm Planning\n** Agro Business Planning\n** Product Marketing And Trade\n* Agronomy\n** Botany\n** Theoretical production ecology\n** Horticulture\n** Plant breeding\n** Plant fertilization\n\n* Aquaculture\n* Biological engineering\n** Genetic engineering\n* Nematology\n* Microbiology\n** Plant pathology\n*Range management\n* Environmental science\n* Entomology\n* Food science\n** Human nutrition\n* Irrigation and water management\n* Soil science\n** Agrology\n* Waste management\n* Weed science\n\n", "* Agriculture ministry\n* Agricultural sciences basic topics\n* Agroecology\n* American Society of Agronomy\n* Genomics of domestication\n* List of agriculture topics\n* History of agricultural science\n* Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences\n* International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development\n* International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI\n* Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) (in the Czech Republic)\n* University of Agricultural Sciences\n* National FFA Organization\n* Agricultural Research Council\n", "* Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report\n*Claude Bourguignon, ''Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology'', Other India Press, 2005\n*Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, ''Computer les kilocalories'', Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977\n*Russell E. Walter, ''Soil conditions and plant growth'', Longman group, London, New York 1973\n*Salamini Francesco, Oezkan Hakan, Brandolini Andrea, Schaefer-Pregl Ralf, Martin William, ''Genetics and geography of wild cereal domestication in the Near East'', in Nature, vol. 3, ju. 2002\n*Saltini Antonio, ''Storia delle scienze agrarie'', 4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, , , , \n*Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), ''The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings'', in Chronica botanica, 13: 1-6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50\n*Vavilov Nicolai I., ''World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax,'' Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960\n*Winogradsky Serge, ''Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches,'' Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949\n", "\n", "* Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)\n* Agricultural Research Service\n* Indian Council of Agricultural Research\n* International Institute of Tropical Agriculture\n* International Livestock Research Institute\n* The National Agricultural Library (NAL) - The most comprehensive agricultural library in the world.\n* Crop Science Society of America\n* American Society of Agronomy\n* Soil Science Society of America\n* Agricultural Science Researchers, Jobs and Discussions\n* Information System for Agriculture and Food Research\n* South Dakota Agricultural Laboratories\n* NMSU Department of Entomology Plant Pathology and Weed Science\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy", " Fertilizer ", "A local science", "History of agricultural science", "Prominent agricultural scientists", "Agricultural science and agriculture crisis", "Fields or related disciplines", "See also", "Further reading", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\nKimiya-yi sa'ādat (''The Alchemy of Happiness'') – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by Al-Ghazālī (1058–1111).\n\n'''Alchemy''' is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced throughout Europe, Africa and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects. Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of \"base metals\" (e.g., lead) into \"noble metals\" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development of an alkahest, a universal solvent. The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was variously connected with all of these projects.\n\nIn English, the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Muslim world. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Islamic works on science and the Recovery of Aristotle, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.\n\nModern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like Holmyard and von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of Greek philosophy that was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology, numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as Pseudo-Democritus's first-century  ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' ().\n\n\n", "\nThe word alchemy was borrowed from Old French ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', taken from Medieval Latin ''alchymia'', and which is in turn borrowed from Arabic ''al-kīmiyā’'' (). The Arabic word is borrowed from Late Greek ''chēmeía'' (χημεία), ''chēmía'' (χημία), with the agglutination of the Arabic definite article ''al-'' (). This ancient Greek word was derived from the early Greek name for Egypt, ''Chēmia'' (Χημία), based on the Egyptian name for Egypt, ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 ''khmi'', lit. ‘black earth’, as opposed to red desert sand).\n\nThe Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek ''chymeia'' (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’ and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.\n", "Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and \"genetic\" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.\n\n=== Hellenistic Egypt ===\nZosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888).\n\nThe start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first non-fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and lived in Egypt under Roman rule.\n\n'''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others.\n\nThe central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the \"forty-two books of Hermes\", covering all fields of knowledge. The ''Hermetica'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.\n\n'''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 . Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria ( 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from  300–500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.\n\n'''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and fire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; \"...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.\" Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.\n\nAlchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period.\n\nMost of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After  400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.\n\n=== India ===\n\n\nThe Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. The use of Mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd– or 4th–century ''Arthashastra''. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 , and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra, although hard evidence for this is lacking.\n\nThe 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they\n\nThe goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī.\n\nSome early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century.\n\nTwo famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to \"mercury\", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.\n\nReliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White. Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.\n\nAn important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at Oxford Bibliographies Online.\n\nThe contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles.\n\nA great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.\n\n\n\n=== Muslim world ===\n\nJabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered the \"father of chemistry\", introduced a scientific and experimental approach to alchemy.\n\nAfter the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā’'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Platonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship.\n\nIn the late 8th century, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Latinized as \"Geber\" or \"Geberus\") introduced a new approach to alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little concern for laboratory work. Jabir is thus \"considered by many to be the father of chemistry\", albeit others reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote:\n\n\n\nJabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the importance of experimentation:\n\n\n\nEarly Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Al-Kindi (\"Alkindus\") and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (\"Rasis\" or \"Rhazes\") contributed a number of key chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.\n\nIslamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''Takwin'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties.\n\nThe elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, \"the stone which burns\", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.\n\nFrom the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.\n\n=== East Asia ===\n\nTaoist alchemists often use this alternate version of the taijitu.\nWhereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.\n\nBlack powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century.\n\nChinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.).\n\n=== Medieval Europe ===\n\n''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone'', by Joseph Wright, 1771\n\"An illuminated page from a book on alchemical processes and receipts\", ca. 15th century.\n\nThe introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic ''Book of the Composition of Alchemy''. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.\n\nMeanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.\n\nThrough much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.\n\nRoger Bacon, a Franciscan monk who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his ''Great Work'' () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions.\n\nSoon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.\n\nIn the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, ''Spondent quas non exhibent'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.\n\nNicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.\n\n=== Renaissance and early modern Europe ===\n\nPage from alchemic treatise of Ramon Llull, 16th century\nThe red sun rising over the city, the final illustration of 16th century alchemical text, ''Splendor Solis''. The word rubedo, meaning \"redness\", was adopted by alchemists and signalled alchemical success, and the end of the great work.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed.\n\nIn the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.\n\nEsoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.\n\nPhilippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, \"Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.\"\n\nHis hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyric (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula''). Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus.\n\nJohn Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''. During the 17th century, a short-lived \"supernatural\" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.\n\nEntrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book ''Fasciculus Chemicus''.\n''Alchemist Sendivogius'' (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867\nThough most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud.\n\nThe terms \"chemia\" and \"alchemia\" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.\n\n=== Late modern period ===\nRobert Boyle\nThe decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for \"ancient wisdom\". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: \"Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.\"\n\nRobert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.\n\nBeginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between \"alchemy\" and \"chemistry\" for the first time. By the 1740s, \"alchemy\" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the \"new\" chemistry from the \"old\" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.\n\nDuring the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.\n\nIn the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: \"No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.\" Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.\n\n=== Women in alchemy ===\n\nSeveral women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also play a role in the early alchemical texts.\n\nThe first alchemist is recognized as being Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Mary is known for creating a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as bain-marie is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her. This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. It is also said that Mary was the first individual to discover hydrochloric acid, though this is not accepted by most scientific texts. Though we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the fourth century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.\n\nDue to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth century occult revival.\n\n=== Modern historical research ===\nThe history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.\n\nJournals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The History of Science Society.\n", "Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From ''Spiegel der Kunst und Natur''.\nWestern alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.\n\n=== Hermeticism ===\nIn the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named \"alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiration and guide\".\n\nEarly alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings. Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning.\n\nIn his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic:\n\n\n\n=== Magnum opus ===\n\nThe Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors.\n\n*''nigredo'', a blackening or melanosis\n*''albedo'', a whitening or leucosis\n*''citrinitas'', a yellowing or xanthosis\n*''rubedo'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis\n", "Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts.\n\nToday new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, \"occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.\", which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.\n\n=== Traditional medicine ===\n\nTraditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda, the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.\n\nSpagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.\n\n=== Psychology ===\nAlchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of ''The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation or parallels between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in dreams, visions or imaginations during the psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. A process, which he called \"process of individuation\". He regarded the alchemical images as symbols expressing aspects of this \"process of individuation\" of which the creation of the gold or lapis within were symbols for its origin and goal. Together with his alchemical ''mystica soror'', Jungian Swiss analyst Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available, compiled a lexicon of key phrases with cross-references and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the ''hieros gamos'' or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that influence all of life.\n\nBoth von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, ''Mysterium Conuinctionis.''\n\n=== Literature ===\n\nAlchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. ''Literary alchemy'' appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett.\n\nVisual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.\n", "\n*Alchemy in art and entertainment\n*Biological transmutation\n*Chemistry\n*Chinese alchemy\n*Cupellation\n*Hermes Trismegistus\n*Historicism\n*History of chemistry\n*List of alchemists\n*List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n*Magnum opus (alchemy)\n*Mary the Jewess\n*Nuclear transmutation\n*Outline of alchemy\n*Philosopher's Stone\n*Physics\n*Porta Alchemica\n*Scientific method\n*Superseded scientific theories\n*Synthesis of precious metals\n\n", "\n", "\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry\n* ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism\n* Association for the Study of Esotericism\n* The Alchemy Website. – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion.\n* \n* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Alchemy\n* Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000 – A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", " History ", " Core concepts ", " Modern alchemy ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Alien''' primarily refers to:\n* Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth\n** Specifically, intelligent extraterrestrial beings. See List of alleged extraterrestrial beings.\n* Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country\n\n'''Alien(s)''', or '''The Alien(s)''' may also refer to:\n\n\n", "\n* Introduced species, a species not native to its environment\n* Alien (software), a Linux program\n* AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework\n* Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology\n* ''Aliens'', a newsletter of the IUCN Invasive Species Specialist Group\n", "* ''Alien'' (franchise), a media franchise\n** Alien (creature in ''Alien'' franchise)\n\n===Films===\n* ''Alien'' (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott\n* ''Aliens'' (film), the 1986 sequel by James Cameron\n* ''Alien 3'', third film in the series from 1992 by David Fincher\n* ''The Alien'' (unreleased film), an incomplete 1960s Indian-American film\n* ''The Alien'' (2016 film), a 2016 Mexican film\n\n===Literature===\n* Alien (literary concept)\n* ''Aliens'' (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright\n* ''The Alien'' (Animorphs), the eighth book in the ''Animorphs'' series\n* Alien novels, an extension of the ''Alien'' franchise\n\n===Music===\n====Performers====\n* Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group\n* The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group\n* The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–present rock group\n\n====Albums====\n* ''Alien'' (Strapping Young Lad album)\n* ''Alien'' (Tankard album)\n* ''Alien'' (soundtrack)\n* ''Aliens'' (soundtrack)\n\n====Songs====\n* \"Alien\" (Britney Spears song)\n* \"Alien\" (Pennywise song)\n* \"Alien\" (Third Day song)\n* \"Aliens\" (Coldplay song)\n* \"My Alien\", a song by Simple Plan on the album ''No Pads, No Helmets... Just Balls''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Bush on the album ''Sixteen Stone''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Erasure on the album ''Loveboat''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Japan on the album ''Quiet Life''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Lamb on the album ''Fear of Fours''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Nerina Pallot on the album ''Dear Frustrated Superstar''\n* \"Alien\", a song by P-Model on the album ''Landsale''\n* \"Alien\", a song by Thriving Ivory on their self-titled album\n* \"Alien\", a song by Tokio Hotel on the album ''Humanoid''. Also, fans of the band call themselves Aliens\n* \"The Aliens\", a song by Warlord\n\n===Video games===\n* ''Alien'' (1984 video game), based on the film\n* ''Aliens'' (video game), based on the sequel of the film\n* ''Aliens'' (Kaypro video game), a text-only clone of ''Space Invaders'' written for the CP/M operating system\n\n===Other media===\n* ''The Aliens'' (TV series), 2016 British sci-fi television series\n* ''Aliens'' (Dark Horse Comics line)\n", "* Alien (shipping company), a Russian company\n* Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress\n* ''Alien'', a perfume by Thierry Mugler\n", "* Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life\n* List of ''Alien'' and ''Predator'' games\n* Alians, an Islamic order\n* ''ATLiens'', a 1996 album by OutKast\n* \n* \n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Science and technology", "Arts and entertainment", "Other uses", "See also" ]

[ "\n\nThe Astronomer'' by Johannes Vermeer\n\nAn '''astronomer''' is a scientist in the field of astronomy who concentrates their studies on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. They look at stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, as well as many other celestial objects — either in observational astronomy, in analyzing the data or in theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers work on include: planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. There are also related but distinct subjects like physical cosmology which studies the Universe as a whole.\n\nAstronomers usually fit into two types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of planets, stars and galaxies, and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers have to observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial bodies work.\n\nThere are further subcategories inside these two main branches of astronomy such as planetary astronomy, galactic astronomy or physical cosmology.\n", "\nGalileo is often referred to as the Father of modern astronomy\n\nHistorically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms \"astronomer\" and \"astrophysicist\" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a Ph.D. in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory.\n\nThe number of professional astronomers in the United States is actually quite small. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 7,000 members. This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises almost 10,145 members from 70 different countries who are involved in astronomical research at the Ph.D. level and beyond.\n\nGuy Consolmagno Vatican Observatory, analyzing a meteorite, 2014\nContrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time.\n\nAstronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums as a public service to encourage interest in the field.\n\nThose who become astronomers usually have a broad background in maths, sciences and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write and present papers are also invaluable. In college/university most astronomers get a Ph.D. in astronomy or physics. Keeping in mind how few astronomers there are it is understood that graduate schools in this field are very competitive, so grades are very important. Students must take a Graduate Record Exam in the United States if they wish to be accepted into a US graduate school.\n", "Emily Lakdawalla at the Planetary Conference 2013\nWhile there is a relatively low number of professional astronomers, the field is popular among amateurs. Most cities have amateur astronomy clubs that meet on a regular basis and often host star parties. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific is the largest general astronomical society in the world, comprising both professional and amateur astronomers as well as educators from 70 different nations. Like any hobby, most people who think of themselves as amateur astronomers may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called \"armchair astronomers\" to the very ambitious, who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries and assist professional astronomers in research.\n", "* List of astronomers\n* List of women astronomers\n* List of Muslim astronomers\n* List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists\n", "\n=== Specific ===\n\n\n=== General ===\n* \n* \n* \n", "* American Astronomical Society\n* European Astronomical Society\n* International Astronomical Union\n* Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n* Space's astronomy news\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Academic ", " Amateur astronomers ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''ASCII''' ( ), abbreviated from '''American Standard Code for Information Interchange''', is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters.\n\nASCII is the traditional name for the encoding system; the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the updated name '''US-ASCII''', which clarifies that this system was developed in the US and based on the typographical symbols predominantly in use there.\n\nASCII chart from a 1972 printer manual (b1 is the least significant bit).\n", "ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.\n\nOriginally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits ''0'' to ''9'', lowercase letters ''a'' to ''z'', uppercase letters ''A'' to ''Z'', and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete.\n\nFor example, lowercase ''i'' would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = hexadecimal 69 (''i'' is the ninth letter) = decimal 105.\n", "The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) and ultimately the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).\n\nWith the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to ''sticks'' 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in ''sticks'' 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.\n\nThe X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the brace and vertical bar characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.\n\nRevisions of the ASCII standard:\n\n*ASA X3.4-1963\n*ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by IBM 2260 & 2265 Display Stations and IBM 2848 Display Control)\n*USAS X3.4-1967\n*USAS X3.4-1968\n*ANSI X3.4-1977\n*ANSI X3.4-1986\n*ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992)\n*ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997)\n*ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002)\n*ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007)\n*ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2012)\n\nIn the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats.\n\n", "\n===Bit width===\nThe X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1924, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.\n\nITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.\n\nThe committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.\n\nThe committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high bit was used to enable Italics printing.\n\n===Internal organization===\nThe code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so called ''ASCII sticks'' (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The \"space\" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code (1963). Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter ''A'' was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.\n\nMany of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on ''mechanical'' typewriters, not ''electric'' typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of 23456789- were \"#$%_&'() — early typewriters omitted ''0'' and ''1'', using ''O'' (capital letter ''o'') and ''l'' (lowercase letter ''L'') instead, but 1! and 0) pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII !\"#$% were placed in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to ''9'' and ''0'', however, because the place corresponding to ''0'' was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing _ (underscore) from ''6'' and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with ''8'' and ''9''. This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers — following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) — and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The /? pair also dates to the No. 2, and the , pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift , (comma) or . (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the ;: pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly -* =+) to :* ;+ -=.\n\nSome common characters were not included, notably ½¼¢, while ^`~ were included as diacritics for international use, and for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters \\| (in addition to common /). The ''@'' symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented ''À'' in the French variation, so the ''@'' was placed in position 40hex, right before the letter A.\n\nThe control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), \"who are you?\" (WRU), \"are you?\" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns.\n\n===Character order===\nASCII-code order is also called ''ASCIIbetical'' order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than \"standard\" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are:\n* All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, \"Z\" precedes \"a\"\n* Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters\n* Numbers are sorted naïvely as strings; for example, \"10\" precedes \"2\"\n\nAn intermediate order — readily implemented — converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. Naïve number sorting can be averted by zero-filling all numbers (e.g. \"02\" will sort before \"10\" as expected), although this is an external fix and has nothing to do with the ordering itself.\n", "\n===Control characters===\n\n\nASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.\n\nFor example, character 10 represents the \"line feed\" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents \"backspace\". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.\n\nThe original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of \"delete\".\n\nProbably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as \"delete previous character\" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.\n\nWhen a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, \"transmit on\") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a \"handshaking\" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.\n\nCode 127 is officially named \"delete\" but the Teletype label was \"rubout\". Since the original standard did not give detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was useful specifically for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be \"hand edited\" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be \"rubbed out\" and then replacements put into the empty space.\n\nSome software assigned special meanings to ASCII characters sent to the software from the terminal. Operating systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, for example, interpreted DEL as an input character as meaning \"remove previously-typed input character\", and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used BS for that meaning and used DEL to mean \"remove the character at the cursor\". That latter interpretation is the most common now.\n\nMany more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The \"escape\" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of \"escape\" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called \"ANSI escape code\" (or, more properly, a \"Control Sequence Introducer\") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a \"\" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.\n\nThe inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring \"plain text\" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both \"Carriage Return\" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and \"Line Feed\" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name \"Carriage Return\" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.\n\nDEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called \"glass TTYs\" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.\n\nUnfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based macOS operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines.\n\nComputers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII \"Network Virtual Terminal\" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.\n\nOlder operating systems such as TOPS-10, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file. For this reason, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.\n\nIn C library and Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for \"zero\".\n\n\n\n\nName ('67)\n\n '63 !! '65 !! '67\n\n 000 0000 \n 000 \n 0 \n 00\nNULL\nNUL\n ␀ \n ^@ \n \\0 \n Null\n\n 000 0001 \n 001 \n 1 \n 01\nSOM\nSOH\n ␁ \n ^A \n \n Start of Heading\n\n 000 0010 \n 002 \n 2 \n 02\nEOA\nSTX\n ␂ \n ^B \n \n Start of Text\n\n 000 0011 \n 003 \n 3 \n 03\nEOM\nETX\n ␃ \n ^C \n \n End of Text\n\n 000 0100 \n 004 \n 4 \n 04\n\nEOT\n ␄ \n ^D \n \n End of Transmission\n\n 000 0101 \n 005 \n 5 \n 05\n\nWRU\nENQ\n ␅ \n ^E \n \n Enquiry\n\n 000 0110 \n 006 \n 6 \n 06\nRU\nACK\n ␆ \n ^F \n \n Acknowledgement\n\n 000 0111 \n 007 \n 7 \n 07\nBELL\nBEL\n ␇ \n ^G \n \\a \n Bell\n\n 000 1000 \n 010 \n 8 \n 08\nFE0\nBS\n ␈ \n ^H \n \\b \n Backspace\n\n 000 1001 \n 011 \n 9 \n 09\nHT/SK\nHT\n ␉ \n ^I \n \\t \n Horizontal Tab\n\n 000 1010 \n 012 \n 10 \n 0A\nLF\n ␊ \n ^J \n \\n \n Line Feed\n\n 000 1011 \n 013 \n 11 \n 0B\nVTAB\nVT\n ␋ \n ^K \n \\v \n Vertical Tab\n\n 000 1100 \n 014 \n 12 \n 0C\nFF\n ␌ \n ^L \n \\f \n Form Feed\n\n 000 1101 \n 015 \n 13 \n 0D\nCR\n ␍ \n ^M \n \\r \n Carriage Return\n\n 000 1110 \n 016 \n 14 \n 0E\nSO\n ␎ \n ^N \n \n Shift Out\n\n 000 1111 \n 017 \n 15 \n 0F\nSI\n ␏ \n ^O \n \n Shift In\n\n 001 0000 \n 020 \n 16 \n 10\nDC0\nDLE\n ␐ \n ^P \n \n Data Link Escape\n\n 001 0001 \n 021 \n 17 \n 11\nDC1\n ␑ \n ^Q \n \n Device Control 1 (often XON)\n\n 001 0010 \n 022 \n 18 \n 12\nDC2\n ␒ \n ^R \n \n Device Control 2\n\n 001 0011 \n 023 \n 19 \n 13\nDC3\n ␓ \n ^S \n \n Device Control 3 (often XOFF)\n\n 001 0100 \n 024 \n 20 \n 14\nDC4\n ␔ \n ^T \n \n Device Control 4\n\n 001 0101 \n 025 \n 21 \n 15\nERR\nNAK\n ␕ \n ^U \n \n Negative Acknowledgement\n\n 001 0110 \n 026 \n 22 \n 16\nSYNC\nSYN\n ␖ \n ^V \n \n Synchronous Idle\n\n 001 0111 \n 027 \n 23 \n 17\nLEM\nETB\n ␗ \n ^W \n \n End of Transmission Block\n\n 001 1000 \n 030 \n 24 \n 18\nS0\nCAN\n ␘ \n ^X \n \n Cancel\n\n 001 1001 \n 031 \n 25 \n 19\nS1\nEM\n ␙ \n ^Y \n \n End of Medium\n\n 001 1010 \n 032 \n 26 \n 1A\nS2\nSS\nSUB\n ␚ \n ^Z \n \n Substitute\n\n 001 1011 \n 033 \n 27 \n 1B\nS3\nESC\n ␛ \n ^ \n \\e \n Escape\n\n 001 1100 \n 034 \n 28 \n 1C\nS4\nFS\n ␜ \n ^\\ \n \n File Separator\n\n 001 1101 \n 035 \n 29 \n 1D\nS5\nGS\n ␝ \n ^ \n \n Group Separator\n\n 001 1110 \n 036 \n 30 \n 1E\nS6\nRS\n ␞ \n ^^ \n \n Record Separator\n\n 001 1111 \n 037 \n 31 \n 1F\nS7\nUS\n ␟ \n ^_ \n \n Unit Separator\n\n\n\n 111 1111 \n 177 \n 127 \n 7F\nDEL\n ␡ \n ^? \n \n Delete\n\n\nOther representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.\n\n===Printable characters===\n\nCodes 20hex to 7Ehex, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.\n\nCode 20hex, the \"space\" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section.\n\nCode 7Fhex corresponds to the non-printable \"delete\" (DEL) control character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret (5Ehex) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5Fhex).\n\n\n\n\nGlyph\n\n ’63 !! ’65 !! ’67\n\n010 0000 \n 040 \n 32 \n 20 \n space\n\n010 0001 \n 041 \n 33 \n 21 \n!\n\n010 0010 \n 042 \n 34 \n 22 \n\"\n\n010 0011 \n 043 \n 35 \n 23 \n#\n\n010 0100 \n 044 \n 36 \n 24 \n$\n\n010 0101 \n 045 \n 37 \n 25 \n%\n\n010 0110 \n 046 \n 38 \n 26 \n&\n\n010 0111 \n 047 \n 39 \n 27 \n'\n\n010 1000 \n 050 \n 40 \n 28 \n(\n\n010 1001 \n 051 \n 41 \n 29 \n)\n\n010 1010 \n 052 \n 42 \n 2A \n*\n\n010 1011 \n 053 \n 43 \n 2B \n+\n\n010 1100 \n 054 \n 44 \n 2C \n,\n\n010 1101 \n 055 \n 45 \n 2D \n-\n\n010 1110 \n 056 \n 46 \n 2E \n.\n\n010 1111 \n 057 \n 47 \n 2F \n/\n\n011 0000 \n 060 \n 48 \n 30 \n0\n\n011 0001 \n 061 \n 49 \n 31 \n1\n\n011 0010 \n 062 \n 50 \n 32 \n2\n\n011 0011 \n 063 \n 51 \n 33 \n3\n\n011 0100 \n 064 \n 52 \n 34 \n4\n\n011 0101 \n 065 \n 53 \n 35 \n5\n\n011 0110 \n 066 \n 54 \n 36 \n6\n\n011 0111 \n 067 \n 55 \n 37 \n7\n\n011 1000 \n 070 \n 56 \n 38 \n8\n\n011 1001 \n 071 \n 57 \n 39 \n9\n\n011 1010 \n 072 \n 58 \n 3A \n:\n\n011 1011 \n 073 \n 59 \n 3B \n;\n\n011 1100 \n 074 \n 60 \n 3C \n\n\n011 1101 \n 075 \n 61 \n 3D \n=\n\n011 1110 \n 076 \n 62 \n 3E \n>\n\n011 1111 \n 077 \n 63 \n 3F \n?\n\n100 0000 \n 100 \n 64 \n 40 \n @ \n ` \n @\n\n100 0001 \n 101 \n 65 \n 41 \nA\n\n100 0010 \n 102 \n 66 \n 42 \nB\n\n100 0011 \n 103 \n 67 \n 43 \nC\n\n100 0100 \n 104 \n 68 \n 44 \nD\n\n100 0101 \n 105 \n 69 \n 45 \nE\n\n100 0110 \n 106 \n 70 \n 46 \nF\n\n100 0111 \n 107 \n 71 \n 47 \nG\n\n100 1000 \n 110 \n 72 \n 48 \nH\n\n100 1001 \n 111 \n 73 \n 49 \nI\n\n100 1010 \n 112 \n 74 \n 4A \nJ\n\n100 1011 \n 113 \n 75 \n 4B \nK\n\n100 1100 \n 114 \n 76 \n 4C \nL\n\n100 1101 \n 115 \n 77 \n 4D \nM\n\n100 1110 \n 116 \n 78 \n 4E \nN\n\n100 1111 \n 117 \n 79 \n 4F \nO\n\n101 0000 \n 120 \n 80 \n 50 \nP\n\n101 0001 \n 121 \n 81 \n 51 \nQ\n\n101 0010 \n 122 \n 82 \n 52 \nR\n\n101 0011 \n 123 \n 83 \n 53 \nS\n\n101 0100 \n 124 \n 84 \n 54 \nT\n\n101 0101 \n 125 \n 85 \n 55 \nU\n\n101 0110 \n 126 \n 86 \n 56 \nV\n\n101 0111 \n 127 \n 87 \n 57 \nW\n\n101 1000 \n 130 \n 88 \n 58 \nX\n\n101 1001 \n 131 \n 89 \n 59 \nY\n\n101 1010 \n 132 \n 90 \n 5A \nZ\n\n101 1011 \n 133 \n 91 \n 5B \n\n\n101 1100 \n 134 \n 92 \n 5C \n \\ \n ~ \n \\\n\n101 1101 \n 135 \n 93 \n 5D \n\n\n101 1110 \n 136 \n 94 \n 5E \n ↑ \n^\n\n101 1111 \n 137 \n 95 \n 5F \n ← \n_\n\n110 0000 \n 140 \n 96 \n 60 \n \n @ \n `\n\n110 0001 \n 141 \n 97 \n 61 \n \na\n\n110 0010 \n 142 \n 98 \n 62 \n \nb\n\n110 0011 \n 143 \n 99 \n 63 \n \nc\n\n110 0100 \n 144 \n 100 \n 64 \n \nd\n\n110 0101 \n 145 \n 101 \n 65 \n \ne\n\n110 0110 \n 146 \n 102 \n 66 \n \nf\n\n110 0111 \n 147 \n 103 \n 67 \n \ng\n\n110 1000 \n 150 \n 104 \n 68 \n \nh\n\n110 1001 \n 151 \n 105 \n 69 \n \ni\n\n110 1010 \n 152 \n 106 \n 6A \n \nj\n\n110 1011 \n 153 \n 107 \n 6B \n \nk\n\n110 1100 \n 154 \n 108 \n 6C \n \nl\n\n110 1101 \n 155 \n 109 \n 6D \n \nm\n\n110 1110 \n 156 \n 110 \n 6E \n \nn\n\n110 1111 \n 157 \n 111 \n 6F \n \no\n\n111 0000 \n 160 \n 112 \n 70 \n \np\n\n111 0001 \n 161 \n 113 \n 71 \n \nq\n\n111 0010 \n 162 \n 114 \n 72 \n \nr\n\n111 0011 \n 163 \n 115 \n 73 \n \ns\n\n111 0100 \n 164 \n 116 \n 74 \n \nt\n\n111 0101 \n 165 \n 117 \n 75 \n \nu\n\n111 0110 \n 166 \n 118 \n 76 \n \nv\n\n111 0111 \n 167 \n 119 \n 77 \n \nw\n\n111 1000 \n 170 \n 120 \n 78 \n \nx\n\n111 1001 \n 171 \n 121 \n 79 \n \ny\n\n111 1010 \n 172 \n 122 \n 7A \n \nz\n\n111 1011 \n 173 \n 123 \n 7B \n \n{\n\n111 1100 \n 174 \n 124 \n 7C \n ACK \n ¬ \n \n\n111 1101 \n 175 \n 125 \n 7D \n \n}\n\n111 1110 \n 176 \n 126 \n 7E \n ESC \n \n ~\n\n\n===Character set===\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work — according to Bemer, \"so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the ''Bemer-Ross Code'' in Europe\". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called \"the father of ASCII\".\n\n\nOn March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating:\nI have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations.\nAll computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.\n\nASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.\n", "As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as \"ASCII extensions\", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.\n\n===7-bit codes===\n\nFrom early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.\n\n\nOther international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters.\n\nMany other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).\n\nIt would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for \"national use\". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points.\n\nISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway.\n\nBecause the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to \"national use\" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as\n\n:ä aÄiÜ = 'Ön'; ü\n\ninstead of\n\n:{ ai = '\\n'; }\n\nC trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained \"{, }\" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get \"N{ jag har sm|rg}sar\" as the answer, which should be \"Nä jag har smörgåsar\" meaning \"No I've got sandwiches\".\n\n===8-bit codes===\n\n\nEventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters.\n\nEncodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by the ANSI standard.\n\nMost early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the \"upper\" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.\n\nThe PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants.\n\nThe IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.\n\nThe ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when UTF-8 became more common.\n\nISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.\n\n===Unicode===\n\nUnicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called ''code points'') and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32).\n\nASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.\n\nTo allow backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) characters are assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards. Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode/UCS, and ASCII (when prefixed with 0 as the eighth bit) is valid UTF-8.\n", "\n\n* 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding\n* Ascii85\n* ASCII art\n* ASCII Ribbon Campaign\n* Basic Latin (Unicode block) (ASCII as a subset of Unicode)\n* Extended ASCII\n* HTML decimal character rendering\n* List of Unicode characters\n* Jargon File, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters\n* List of computer character sets\n* Alt codes\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* from:\n** \n** \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Overview", "{{anchor|1963|1965|1967|1968|1977|1986|1992|1997|2002|2007|2012}}History", "Design considerations", "Character groups", "Use", "{{anchor|Variants}}Variants and derivations", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n'''Austin''' is the capital of Texas in the United States.\n\n'''Austin''' may also refer to:\n\n", "\n===Australia===\n*Austin, Western Australia\n\n===Canada===\n*Austin, Manitoba\n*Austin, Ontario\n*Austin, Quebec\n*Austin Island, Nunavut\n\n===France===\n*Saint-Austin, hamlet at la Neuville-Chant-d'Oisel, Normandy\n\n===United States of America===\n*Austin, Arkansas\n*Austin, Colorado\n* Austin, Illinois:\n** Austin Township, Macon County, Illinois\n**Austin, Chicago, Cook County, Illinois\n*Austin, Indiana\n*Austin, Kentucky\n*Austin, Minnesota\n*Austin, Missouri\n*Austin, Nevada\n*Austin, Ohio\n*Austin, Oregon\n*Austin County, Texas (note that the city of Austin, Texas is located in Travis County)\n", "*Austin (name)\n", "*Austin College, Sherman, Texas\n*University of Texas at Austin, flagship institution of the University of Texas System\n*Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee\n", "*Augustine of Hippo or Augustine of Canterbury\n*An adjective for the Augustinians\n", "*Austin Automobile Company, short-lived American automobile company\n*Austin (brand), a brand owned by the Kellogg Company\n*Austin Motor Company, British car manufacturer\n*American Austin Car Company, short-lived American automobile maker\n", "*\"Austin\" (song), a single by Blake Shelton\n*Austin, a kangaroo Beanie Baby produced by Ty, Inc.\n*Austin the kangaroo from the children's television series ''The Backyardigans''\n", "*USS ''Austin'', three ships\n*Austin Station (disambiguation), various public transportation stations\n*''Austin'' (building), a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly under construction in Austin, Texas\n*Austin Allegro, a small family car that was manufactured by the Austin-Morris division of British Leyland from 1973 until 1982\n", "*Austen (disambiguation)\n*Augustine (disambiguation)\n*All pages beginning with Austin\n*Justice Austin (disambiguation)\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Geographical locations", "People", "Schools", "Religion", "Business", "Entertainment", "Other uses", "See also" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Animation''' is the process of making the illusion of motion and the illusion of change by means of the rapid succession of sequential images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact causes are still unclear.\n\nThere are some forms of animation that do not feature a rapid succession of sequential images, but these are usually not considered \"true\" or \"full\" animation. For instance, the physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics in magic lantern slides and the movement of the projector (the magic lantern) in phantasmagoria provided popular moving picture shows.\n\nAnimators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be recorded with either analogue media, a flip book, motion picture film, video tape, digital media, including formats with animated GIF, Flash animation, and digital video. To display animation, a digital camera, computer, or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced. \n\nAnimation methods include traditional animation, and methods that use stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects, paper cutouts, puppets, and clay figures. Images display in a rapid succession, usually 24, 25, 30, or 60 frames per second. Computer animation processes generating animated images with the general term computer-generated imagery (CGI). 3D animation uses computer graphics, while 2D animation is used for stylistic, low bandwidth and faster real-time renderings.\n\n\n", "\n\nShahr-e Sūkhté, Iran.\n\nA phenakistoscope disc by Eadweard Muybridge (1893)\n\nEarly examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion into a still drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are often depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion.\n\nA 5,200-year old pottery bowl discovered in Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran has five sequential images painted around it that seem to show phases of a Persian Desert Ibex leaping up to nip at a tree. \n\nAncient Chinese records contain several mentions of devices that were said to \"give an impression of movement\" to human or animal figures, these accounts are unclear and may only refer to the actual movement of the figures through space. They may, of course, refer to Chinese shadow puppets.\n\nIn the 19th century, the phenakistoscope (1832), zoetrope (1834) and praxinoscope (1877) were introduced. A thaumatrope (1824) is a simple toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side; a bird in a cage and is attached to two pieces of strings. The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831. The phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk.\n\nJohn Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the ''kineograph''. The common flip book were early animation devices that produced an illusion of movement from a series of sequential drawings, animation did not develop further until the advent of motion picture film and cinematography in the 1890s.\n\nThe cinématographe was a projector, printer, and camera in one machine that successfully showed moving pictures on a screen. It was invented by two of history's earliest filmmakers, Auguste and Louis Lumière, in 1894. The first animated projection (screening) was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888. On 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, ''Pauvre Pierrot'', at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is also notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip. In 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings.\n\nA projecting praxinoscope, 1882, here shown superimposing an animated figure on a separately projected background scene\n\nThe first known film recorded on standard picture film that included animated sequences was the 1900 ''Enchanted Drawing'', which was followed by the first entirely animated film—the 1906 ''Humorous Phases of Funny Faces'' by J. Stuart Blackton, who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation.\n\ntraditional (hand-drawn) animation - the 1908 ''Fantasmagorie'' by Émile Cohl\nPat Sullivan for Keen Cartoon Corporation.\n\nIn Europe, the French artist, Émile Cohl, created the first animated film using what became known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 ''Fantasmagorie''. The film largely consisted of a stick figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects, a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. There were also sections of live action in which the animator's hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, which gave the picture a blackboard look.\n\nThe author of the first puppet-animated film (''The Beautiful Lukanida'' (1912)) was the Russian-born (ethnically Polish) director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich.\n\nMore detailed hand-drawn animation, requiring a team of animators drawing each frame manually with detailed backgrounds and characters, were those directed by Winsor McCay, a successful newspaper cartoonist, including the 1911 ''Little Nemo'', the 1914 ''Gertie the Dinosaur'', and the 1918 ''The Sinking of the Lusitania''. ''Gertie the Dinosaur'' was an early example of the character development in drawn animation.\n\nDuring the 1910s, the production of animated short films typically referred to as \"cartoons\", became an industry of its own and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in movie theaters. The most successful producer at the time was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade.\n\nItalian-Argentine cartoonist Quirino Cristiani showing the cut and articulated figure of his satirical character ''El Peludo'' (based on President Yrigoyen) patented in 1916 for the realization of his movies, including the world's first animated feature film ''El Apóstol''.\n\n''El Apóstol'' (Spanish: \"The Apostle\") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film. Unfortunately, a fire that destroyed producer Federico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of ''El Apóstol'', and it is now considered a lost film.\n\nIn 1958, Hanna-Barbera released ''The Huckleberry Hound Show'', the first half hour television program to feature only in animation. Terrytoons released ''Tom Terrific'' that same year. Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theaters.\n\nComputer animation has become popular since ''Toy Story'' (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique.\n\nIn 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all four quadrants. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres in the 2004–2013 timeframe.\n", "\n=== Traditional animation ===\n\n\n\nAn example of traditional animation, a horse animated by rotoscoping from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th-century photos\n\n'''Traditional animation''' (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film.\n\nThe traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video. The \"look\" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term \"tradigital\" (a play on the words \"traditional\" and \"digital\") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology.\n\nExamples of traditionally animated feature films include ''Pinocchio'' (United States, 1940), ''Animal Farm'' (United Kingdom, 1954), and ''The Illusionist'' (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include ''The Lion King'' (US, 1994), ''The Prince of Egypt'' (US, 1998), ''Akira'' (Japan, 1988), ''Spirited Away'' (Japan, 2001), ''The Triplets of Belleville'' (France, 2003), and ''The Secret of Kells'' (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009).\n\n==== Full animation ====\n'''Full animation''' refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works those produced by the Walt Disney studio (''The Little Mermaid'', ''Beauty and the Beast'', ''Aladdin'', ''The Lion King'') to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, ''The Secret of NIMH'' (US, 1982), ''The Iron Giant'' (US, 1999), and ''Nocturna'' (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24.\n\n==== Limited animation ====\n\n\n\n'''Limited animation''' involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or \"skippy\" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in ''Gerald McBoing-Boing'' (US, 1951), ''Yellow Submarine'' (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons).\n\n==== Rotoscoping ====\n\n\n\n'''Rotoscoping''' is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in ''The Lord of the Rings'' (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in ''Waking Life'' (US, 2001) and ''A Scanner Darkly'' (US, 2006). Some other examples are ''Fire and Ice'' (US, 1983), ''Heavy Metal'' (1981), and ''Aku no Hana'' (2013).\n\n==== Live-action/animation ====\n\n\n\n'''Live-action/animation''' is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live action footage. Other examples include ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (US, 1988), ''Space Jam'' (US, 1996) and ''Osmosis Jones'' (US, 2001).\n\n=== Stop motion animation ===\n\n\n'''Stop-motion animation''' is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; however, traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive and time-consuming to produce than current computer animation.\n\n* '''Puppet animation''' typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include ''The Tale of the Fox'' (France, 1937), ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' (US, 1993), ''Corpse Bride'' (US, 2005), ''Coraline'' (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series ''Robot Chicken'' (US, 2005–present).\n** '''Puppetoon''', created using techniques developed by George Pal, are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet.\nFinnish television commercial\n* '''Clay animation''', or Plasticine animation (often called ''claymation'', which, however, is a trademarked name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include ''The Gumby Show'' (US, 1957–1967) ''Morph'' shorts (UK, 1977–2000), ''Wallace and Gromit'' shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's ''Dimensions of Dialogue'' (Czechoslovakia, 1982), ''The Trap Door'' (UK, 1984). Films include ''Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit'', ''Chicken Run'' and ''The Adventures of Mark Twain''.\n** '''Strata-cut animation''', Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like \"loaf\" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within.\n* '''Cutout animation''' is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth. Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated sequences from ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (UK, 1969–1974); ''Fantastic Planet'' (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; ''Tale of Tales'' (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of ''South Park'' (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014).\n** '''Silhouette animation''' is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include ''The Adventures of Prince Achmed'' (Weimar Republic, 1926) and ''Princes et princesses'' (France, 2000).\n* '''Model animation''' refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of Ray Harryhausen, as seen in films, ''Jason and the Argonauts'' (1963), and the work of Willis H. O'Brien on films, ''King Kong'' (1933).\n** '''Go motion''' is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effect scenes for the film ''The Empire Strikes Back'' (1980). Another example is the dragon named \"Vermithrax\" from ''Dragonslayer'' (1981 film).\n* '''Object animation''' refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items.\n** '''Graphic animation''' uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings, magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action.\n** '''Brickfilm''' are a subgenre of object animation involving using Lego or other similar brick toys to make an animation. These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software.\n* '''Pixilation''' involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects. Examples of pixilation include ''The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb'' and ''Angry Kid'' shorts.\n\n=== Computer animation ===\n\n'''Computer animation''' encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.\n\n==== 2D animation ====\n\nA 2D animation of two circles joined by a chain\n\n2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics, created and edited using with 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping.\n\n2D animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated.\n\nFinal line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in ''Paperman'', John Kahrs said that \"Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm.\"\n\n==== 3D animation ====\n\n3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement.\n\nOther techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics.\n\n===== 3D terms =====\n* '''Cel-shaded animation''' is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include ''Skyland'' (2007, France), ''The Iron Giant'' (1999, United States), ''Futurama'' (Fox, 1999) ''Appleseed Ex Machina'' (2007, Japan), ''The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker'' (2002, Japan)\n* '''Machinima''' – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of the first-person shooter video game ''Quake''.\n* '''Motion capture''' is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include ''Polar Express'' (2004, US), ''Beowulf'' (2007, US), ''A Christmas Carol'' (2009, US), ''The Adventures of Tintin (film)'' (2011, US) ''kochadiiyan'' (2014, India).\n* '''Photo-realistic animation''' is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include ''Up'' (2009, US), ''How to Train Your Dragon'' (2010, US), ''Ice Age'' (2002, US).\n\n=== Mechanical animation ===\n* '''Animatronics''' is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic.\n** '''Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics''' is a form of robotics animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics.\n** '''Linear Animation Generator''' is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. The concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania.\n* '''Chuckimation''' is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series ''Action League Now!'' in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands.\n* '''Puppetry''' is a form of theatre or performance animation that involves the manipulation of puppets. It is very ancient and is believed to have originated 3000 years BC. Puppetry takes many forms, they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects. Puppetry is used in almost all human societies both as entertainment – in performance – and ceremonially in rituals, celebrations, and carnivals. Most puppetry involves storytelling.\n\n''Toy Story'' zoetrope at Disney California Adventure creates illusion of motion using figures, rather than static pictures.\n* '''Zoetrope''' is a device that produces the illusion of motion from a rapid succession of static pictures. The term zoetrope is from the Greek words ζωή (''zoē''), meaning \"alive, active\", and τρόπος (''tropos''), meaning \"turn\", with \"zoetrope\" taken to mean \"active turn\" or \"wheel of life\".\n\n=== Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches ===\n''World of Color'' hydrotechnics at Disney California Adventure creates illusion of motion using 1200 fountains with high-definition projections on mist screens.\n* '''Hydrotechnics''': a technique that includes lights, water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens.\n* '''Drawn on film animation''': a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock, for example by Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage.\n* '''Paint-on-glass animation''': a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass, for example by Aleksandr Petrov.\n* '''Erasure animation''': a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films, and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster.\n* '''Pinscreen animation''': makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation.\n* '''Sand animation''': sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast.\n* '''Flip book''': a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books.\n* '''Character animation'''\n* '''Multi-sketching'''\n* '''Special effects animation'''\n", "\nThe creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain unique aspects. One thing live-action and animated feature-length films do have in common is that they are both extremely labor-intensive and have high production costs.\n\nThe most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation).\n\nAnother problem unique to animation is the necessity of ensuring that the style of an animated film is consistent from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have their own individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style was selected for a particular film. Since the early 1980s, feature-length animated films have been created by teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match each other's styles; it is harder to keep dozens of artists synchronized with one another.\n\nThis problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles.\n\nUnlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s.\n", "Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films. Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture.\n", "As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th Academy Awards function. The first winner of the Academy Award was the short ''Flowers and Trees'', a production by Walt Disney Productions. The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film ''Shrek'', produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images. Disney/Pixar have produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here:\n*Academy Award for Best Animated Feature\n*Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film\n\nSeveral other countries have instituted an award for best animated feature film as part of their national film awards: Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation (since 2008), BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006), César Award for Best Animated Film (since 2011), Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation (since 1981), Goya Award for Best Animated Film (since 1989), Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year (since 2007), National Film Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006). Also since 2007, the Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film has been awarded at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Since 2009, the European Film Awards have awarded the European Film Award for Best Animated Film.\n \nThe Annie Award is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however, newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: \n*Annie Award for Best Animated Feature\n*Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject\n*Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production\n", "\n\n* 12 basic principles of animation\n* Animated war film\n* Animation department\n* Animation software\n* Architectural animation\n* Avar (animation variable)\n* Computer-generated imagery\n* Independent animation\n* International Tournée of Animation\n* List of motion picture topics\n* Model sheet\n* Motion graphic design\n* Society for Animation Studies\n* Tradigital art\n* Wire-frame model\n\n", "\n", "\n===Citations===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n=== Online ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* \n\n* The making of an 8-minute cartoon short\n* \"Animando\", a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them).\n* 19 types of animation techniques and styles\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " History ", " Techniques ", "Production", "Criticism", "Awards", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Apollo''' (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , ''Apollōn'' ( ); Doric: , ''Apellōn''; Arcadocypriot: , ''Apeilōn''; Aeolic: , ''Aploun''; ) is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in classical Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. The ideal of the ''kouros'' (a beardless, athletic youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of music, truth and prophecy, healing, the sun and light, plague, poetry, and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as ''Apulu''.\n\nAs the patron of Delphi (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius, yet Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (''Apollon Musegetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans.\n\nIn Hellenistic times, especially during the 3rd century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with Helios, Titan god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, Titan goddess of the moon. In Latin texts, on the other hand, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the 1st century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in ''Aeneid'' XII (161–215). Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the 3rd century CE.\n", "Apollo seated with lyre. Porphyry and marble, 2nd century AD. Farnese collection, Naples, Italy.\nThe name ''Apollo''—unlike the related older name ''Paean''—is generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ''pe-rjo-'' (Linear B: -) on the KN E 842 tablet.\n\nThe etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, ''Apellon'' (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month ''Apellaios'' (), and the offerings apellaia () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival apellai (). \nAccording to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word ''apella'' (), which originally meant \"wall,\" \"fence for animals\" and later \"assembly within the limits of the square.\" Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, corresponding to the ''ecclesia'' (). R. S. P. Beekes rejected the connection of the theonym with the noun ''apellai'' and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *''Apalyun''.\n\nSeveral instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (''apollymi''), \"to destroy\". Plato in ''Cratylus'' connects the name with (''apolysis''), \"redemption\", with (''apolousis''), \"purification\", and with (''haploun''), \"simple\", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (''aeiballon''), \"ever-shooting\". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (''apella''), which means \"assembly\", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (''sekos''), \"fold\", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the ancient Macedonian language (''pella'') means \"stone,\" and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia) and (''Pellēnē''/''Pallene'').\n\nA number of non-Greek etymologies have been suggested for the name, The Hittite form ''Apaliunas'' (''d'') is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter, perhaps related to Hurrian (and certainly the Etruscan) ''Aplu'', a god of plague, in turn likely from Akkadian ''Aplu Enlil'' meaning simply \"the son of Enlil\", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun.\nThe role of Apollo as god of plague is evident in the invocation of Apollo Smintheus (\"mouse Apollo\") by Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, with the purpose of sending a plague against the Greeks (the reasoning behind a god of the plague becoming a god of healing is of course apotropaic, meaning that the god responsible for bringing the plague must be appeased in order to remove the plague).\n\nThe Hittite testimony reflects an early form '''', which may also be surmised from comparison of Cypriot with Doric .\n\nA Luwian etymology suggested for ''Apaliunas'' makes Apollo \"The One of Entrapment\", perhaps in the sense of \"Hunter\".\n\n===Greco-Roman epithets===\nApollo's chief epithet was '''Phoebus''' ( ; , ''Phoibos'' ), literally \"bright\". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature.\n\n====Sun====\n*'''Aegletes''' ( ; Αἰγλήτης, ''Aiglētēs''), from , \"light of the sun\" \n*'''Helius''' ( ; , ''Helios''), literally \"sun\" \n*'''Lyceus''' ( ; , ''Lykeios'', from Proto-Greek *) \"light\". The meaning of the epithet \"Lyceus\" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf ().\n*'''Phanaeus''' ( ; , ''Phanaios''), literally \"giving or bringing light\"\n*'''Phoebus''' ( ; , ''Phoibos''), literally \"bright\", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans\n*'''Sol''' (Roman) ( ), \"sun\" in Latin\n\n====Wolf====\n*'''Lycegenes''' ( ; , ''Lukēgenēs''), literally \"born of a wolf\" or \"born of Lycia\"\n*'''Lycoctonus''' ( ; , ''Lykoktonos''), from , \"wolf\", and , \"to kill\"\n\n====Origin and birth====\nApollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos.\n\n*'''Cynthius''' ( ; , ''Kunthios''), literally \"Cynthian\"\n*'''Cynthogenes''' ( ; , ''Kynthogenēs''), literally \"born of Cynthus\"\n*'''Delius''' ( ; Δήλιος, ''Delios''), literally \"Delian\"\n*'''Didymaeus''' ( ; , ''Didymaios'') from δίδυμος, \"twin\") as Artemis' twin\n\nPartial view of the temple of Apollo Epikurios (healer) at Bassae in southern Greece\n\n====Place of worship====\nDelphi and Actium were his primary places of worship.\n\n*'''Acraephius''' ( ; , ''Akraiphios'', literally \"Acraephian\") or '''Acraephiaeus''' ( ; , ''Akraiphiaios''), \"Acraephian\", from the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus.\n*'''Actiacus''' ( ; , ''Aktiakos''), literally \"Actian\", after Actium ()\n*'''Delphinius''' ( ; , ''Delphinios''), literally \"Delphic\", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the ''Homeric Hymns'' associated this with dolphins.\n*'''Pythius''' ( ; , ''Puthios'', from Πυθώ, ''Pythō''), from the region around Delphi \n*'''Smintheus''' ( ; , ''Smintheus''), \"Sminthian\"—that is, \"of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe\" near the Troad town of Hamaxitus\n\nTemple of the Delians at Delos, dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.\nTemple of Apollo Smintheus at Çanakkale, Turkey\n\n====Healing and disease====\n*'''Acesius''' ( ; , ''Akesios''), from , \"healing\". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora.\n*'''Acestor''' ( ; , ''Akestōr''), literally \"healer\"\n*'''Culicarius''' (Roman) ( ), from Latin ''culicārius'', \"of midges\"\n*'''Iatrus''' ( ; , ''Iātros''), literally \"physician\"\n*'''Medicus''' (Roman) ( ), \"physician\" in Latin. A temple was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona.\n*'''Paean''' ( ; , ''Paiān''),physician, healer \n*'''Parnopius''' ( ; , ''Parnopios''), from , \"locust\"\n\n====Founder and protector====\n*'''Agyieus''' ( ; , ''Aguīeus''), from , \"street\", for his role in protecting roads and homes\n*'''Alexicacus''' ( ; , ''Alexikakos''), literally \"warding off evil\"\n*'''Apotropaeus''' ( ; , ''Apotropaios''), from , \"to avert\"\n*'''Archegetes''' ( ; , ''Arkhēgetēs''), literally \"founder\"\n*'''Averruncus''' (Roman)( ; from Latin ''āverruncare''), \"to avert\"\n*'''Clarius''' ( ; , ''Klārios''), from Doric , \"allotted lot\"\n*'''Epicurius''' ( ; , ''Epikourios''), from , \"to aid\"\n*'''Genetor''' ( ; , ''Genetōr''), literally \"ancestor\"\n*'''Nomius''' ( ; , ''Nomios''), literally \"pastoral\"\n*'''Nymphegetes''' ( ; , ''Numphēgetēs''), from , \"Nymph\", and , \"leader\", for his role as a protector of shepherds and pastoral life\n\n====Prophecy and truth====\n*'''Coelispex''' (Roman) ( ), from Latin ''coelum'', \"sky\", and ''specere'' \"to look at\" \n*'''Iatromantis''' ( ; , ''Iātromantis'',) from , \"physician\", and , \"prophet\", referring to his role as a god both of healing and of prophecy\n*'''Leschenorius''' ( ; , ''Leskhēnorios''), from , \"converser\"\n*'''Loxias''' ( ; , ''Loxias''), from , \"to say\", historically associated with , \"ambiguous\"\n*'''Manticus''' ( ; , ''Mantikos''), literally \"prophetic\"\n\n====Music and arts====\n*'''Musagetes''' ( ; Doric , ''Mousāgetās''), from , \"Muse\", and \"leader\" \n*'''Musegetes''' ( ; , ''Mousēgetēs''), as the preceding\n\n====Archery====\n*'''Aphetor''' ( ; , ''Aphētōr''), from , \"to let loose\"\n*'''Aphetorus''' ( ; , ''Aphētoros''), as the preceding\n*'''Arcitenens''' (Roman) ( ), literally \"bow-carrying\"\n*'''Argyrotoxus''' ( ; , ''Argyrotoxos''), literally \"with silver bow\"\n*'''Hecaërgus''' ( ; , ''Hekaergos''), literally \"far-shooting\"\n*'''Hecebolus''' ( ; , ''Hekēbolos''), \"far-shooting\"\n*'''Ismenius''' ( ; , ''Ismēnios''), literally \"of Ismenus\", after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow\n\n===Celtic epithets and cult titles===\nApollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character.\n* '''Apollo Atepomarus''' (\"the great horseman\" or \"possessing a great horse\"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun.\n* '''Apollo Belenus''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god.\n* '''Apollo Cunomaglus''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god.\n* '''Apollo Grannus'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo.\n* '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus.\n* '''Apollo Moritasgus''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians.\n* '''Apollo Vindonnus''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.\n* '''Apollo Virotutis''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire).\n", "The Omphalos in the Museum of Delphi\nThe cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of Pytho. For the Greeks, Apollo was all the Gods in one and through the centuries he acquired different functions which could originate from different gods. In archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with \"healing\". In classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed \"a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component.\"\n\nFrom his eastern origin Apollo brought the art of inspection of \"symbols and omina\" (σημεία και τέρατα : ''semeia kai terata''), and of the observation of the omens of the days. The inspiration oracular-cult was probably introduced from Anatolia. The ritualism belonged to Apollo from the beginning. The Greeks created the legalism, the supervision of the orders of the gods, and the demand for moderation and harmony. Apollo became the god of shining youth, the protector of music, spiritual-life, moderation and perceptible order. The improvement of the old Anatolian god, and his elevation to an intellectual sphere, may be considered an achievement of the Greek people.\n\n===Healer and god-protector from evil===\nThe function of Apollo as a \"healer\" is connected with Paean (), the physician of the Gods in the ''Iliad'', who seems to come from a more primitive religion. Paeοn is probably connected with the Mycenean ''pa-ja-wo-ne'' (Linear B: ), but this is not certain. He did not have a separate cult, but he was the personification of the holy magic-song sung by the magicians that was supposed to cure disease. Later the Greeks knew the original meaning of the relevant song \"paean\" (). The magicians were also called \"seer-doctors\" (), and they used an ecstatic prophetic art which was used exactly by the god Apollo at the oracles.\n\nIn the ''Iliad'', Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a plague () to the Achaeans. The god who sends a disease can also prevent it; therefore, when it stops, they make a purifying ceremony and offer him a hecatomb to ward off evil. When the oath of his priest appeases, they pray and with a song they call their own god, the ''Paean''.\n\nSome common epithets of Apollo as a healer are \"paion\" (, literally \"healer\" or \"helper\") \"epikourios\" (, \"help\"), \"oulios\" (, \"healed wound\", also a \"scar\" ) and \"loimios\" (, \"plague\"). In classical times, his strong function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and was therefore called \"apotropaios\" (, \"divert\", \"deter\", \"avert\") and \"alexikakos\" (from v. + n. , \"defend from evil\"). In later writers, the word, usually spelled \"Paean\", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing.\n\nHomer illustrated Paeon the god, and the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph.\nSuch songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.\n\n===Dorian origin===\n''Apollo Victorious over the Python'' by the Florentine Pietro Francavilla (dated 1591) depicting Apollo's first triumph, when he slew with his bow and arrows the serpent Python, which lies dead at his feet (The Walters Art Museum).\nThe connection with the Dorians and their initiation festival ''apellai'' is reinforced by the month ''Apellaios'' in northwest Greek calendars . The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: ). ''Apellaios'' is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the \"megistos kouros\" (the great Kouros).\nHowever it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word \"pella\" (Pella), ''stone''. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos). The \"Homeric hymn\" represents Apollo as a Northern intruder. His arrival must have occurred during the \"Dark Ages\" that followed the destruction of the Mycenaean civilization, and his conflict with Gaia (Mother Earth) was represented by the legend of his slaying her daughter the serpent Python.\n\nThe earth deity had power over the ghostly world, and it is believed that she was the deity behind the oracle. The older tales mentioned two dragons who were perhaps intentionally conflated. A female dragon named Delphyne (, \"womb\"), and a male serpent Typhon (, \"to smoke\"), the adversary of Zeus in the Titanomachy, who the narrators confused with Python. Python was the good daemon (ἀγαθὸς δαίμων) of the temple as it appears in Minoan religion, but she was represented as a dragon, as often happens in Northern European folklore as well as in the East.\n\nApollo and his sister Artemis can bring death with their arrows. The conception that diseases and death come from invisible shots sent by supernatural beings, or magicians is common in Germanic and Norse mythology. In Greek mythology Artemis was the leader (, \"hegemon\") of the nymphs, who had similar functions with the Nordic Elves. The \"elf-shot\" originally indicated disease or death attributed to the elves, but it was later attested denoting stone arrow-heads which were used by witches to harm people, and also for healing rituals.\n\nThe Vedic Rudra has some similar functions with Apollo. The terrible god is called \"The Archer\", and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them, and his alternative Shiba is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong relation with omens, exorcisms, and with the oracular cult.\n\n===Minoan origin===\nMinoan labrys\nIt seems an oracular cult existed in Delphi from the Mycenaean age. In historical times, the priests of Delphi were called Labryaden, \"the double-axe men\", which indicates Minoan origin. The double-axe, labrys, was the holy symbol of the Cretan labyrinth. The Homeric hymn adds that Apollo appeared as a dolphin and carried Cretan priests to Delphi, where they evidently transferred their religious practices. ''Apollo Delphinios'' or ''Delphidios'' was a sea-god especially worshiped in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with Britomartis (Diktynna), the Minoan \"Mistress of the animals\". In her earliest depictions she is accompanied by the \"Mister of the animals\", a male god of hunting who had the bow as his attribute. His original name is unknown, but it seems that he was absorbed by the more popular Apollo, who stood by the virgin \"Mistress of the Animals\", becoming her brother.\n\nThe old oracles in Delphi seem to be connected with a local tradition of the priesthood, and there is not clear evidence that a kind of inspiration-prophecy existed in the temple. This led some scholars to the conclusion that Pythia carried on the rituals in a consistent procedure through many centuries, according to the local tradition. In that regard, the mythical seeress Sibyl of Anatolian origin, with her ecstatic art, looks unrelated to the oracle itself. However, the Greek tradition is referring to the existence of vapours and chewing of laurel-leaves, which seem to be confirmed by recent studies.\n\nPlato describes the priestesses of Delphi and Dodona as frenzied women, obsessed by \"mania\" (, \"frenzy\"), a Greek word he connected with ''mantis'' (, \"prophet\"). Frenzied women like Sibyls from whose lips the god speaks are recorded in the Near East as Mari in the second millennium BC. Although Crete had contacts with Mari from 2000 BC, there is no evidence that the ecstatic prophetic art existed during the Minoan and Mycenean ages. It is more probable that this art was introduced later from Anatolia and regenerated an existing oracular cult that was local to Delphi and dormant in several areas of Greece.\n\n===Anatolian origin===\nIllustration of a coin of Apollo Agyieus from Ambracia\nA non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. The name of Apollo's mother Leto has Lydian origin, and she was worshipped on the coasts of Asia Minor. The inspiration oracular cult was probably introduced into Greece from Anatolia, which is the origin of Sibyl, and where existed some of the oldest oracular shrines. Omens, symbols, purifications, and exorcisms appear in old Assyro-Babylonian texts, and these rituals were spread into the empire of the Hittites. In a Hittite text is mentioned that the king invited a Babylonian priestess for a certain \"purification\".\n\nA similar story is mentioned by Plutarch. He writes that the Cretan seer Epimenides purified Athens after the pollution brought by the Alcmeonidae, and that the seer's expertise in sacrifices and reform of funeral practices were of great help to Solon in his reform of the Athenian state. The story indicates that Epimenides was probably heir to the shamanic religions of Asia, and proves, together with the Homeric hymn, that Crete had a resisting religion up to historical times. It seems that these rituals were dormant in Greece, and they were reinforced when the Greeks migrated to Anatolia.\n\nHomer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to ''Appaliunas'', a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name ''agyieus'' as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil, and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated at the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (''sibutu'') indicates a Babylonian origin.\n\nThe Late Bronze Age (from 1700 to 1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian ''Aplu'' was a god of plague, invoked during plague years. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it. Aplu, meaning ''the son of'', was a title given to the god Nergal, who was linked to the Babylonian god of the sun Shamash. Homer interprets Apollo as a terrible god () who brings death and disease with his arrows, but who can also heal, possessing a magic art that separates him from the other Greek gods. In ''Iliad'', his priest prays to ''Apollo Smintheus'', the mouse god who retains an older agricultural function as the protector from field rats. All these functions, including the function of the healer-god Paean, who seems to have Mycenean origin, are fused in the cult of Apollo.\n", "Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece\nUnusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named ''Apollonia'' testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Clarus pronounced the so-called \"theological oracles\", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. \"In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359 - 61) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed.\"\n\n===Oracular shrines===\nDelos lions\nApollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet ''Abaeus'' (, ''Apollon Abaios''), was important enough to be consulted by Croesus.\nHis oracular shrines include:\n* Abae in Phocis.\n* Bassae in the Peloponnese.\n* At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank.\n* In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War.\n* At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus.\n* In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.\n* In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the ''pneuma'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton.\n* In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo.\n* In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''De Dea Syria'', the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.\n* At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.\n* In Segesta in Sicily.\n\nOracles were also given by sons of Apollo.\n* In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.\n* in Labadea, east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.\n", "\n\nMany temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of the Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectanglular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics.\n \nThe Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which couldn’t be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome.\n\nThe most important temples are:\n\n===Greek temples===\n*Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to ''Apollo Ismenius'' was built in the 9th century B.C. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century B.C., but only some small parts have been found A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called \"daphnephoros\".\n*Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived to the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", is dated to 800 B.C. The temple was curvilinear ''hecatombedon'' (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century B.C., with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 B.C., with the stylobate measuring 21,00 x 43,00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. \n*Dreros (Crete). The temple of ''Apollo Delphinios'' dates from the 7th century B.C., or probably from the middle of the 8th century B.C. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. The dimensions of the plan are 10,70 x 24,00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns.\n*Gortyn (Crete). A temple of ''Pythian Apollo'', was built in the 7th century B.C. The plan measured 19,00 x 16,70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was single door on the east side.\n*Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of ''Apollo Thermios'', was built in the middle of the 7th century B.C. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century B.C., on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones. \n Floor plan of the temple of Apollo, Corinth \n*Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar with the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order. \n*Napes (Lesbos): An Aeolic temple probably of ''Apollo Napaios'' was built in the 7th century B.C. Some special capitals with floral ornament have been found, which are called Aeolic, and it seems that they were borrowed from the East. \n*Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in c. 600 B.C. The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. \n*Naukratis: An Ionic temple was built in the early 6th century B.C. Only some fragments have been found and the earlier, made from limestone, are identified among the oldest of the Ionic order.\nFloor plan of the temple of Apollo, Syracuse\n*Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. \n*Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 B.C., and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse.\n*Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century B.C. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The \"Temple of Alcmeonidae\" was built in c. 513 B.C. and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (''dopnephoros''). The maidens participated with joyful songs. \n*Chios: An Ionic temple of ''Apollo Phanaios'' was built at the end of the 6th century B.C. Only some small parts have been found, but the capitals had floral ornament. \n*Abae (Phocis). The temple was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 B.C., and later by the Boeotians. It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. \nFloor plan of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae \n*Bassae (Peloponnesus):A temple dedicated to ''Apollo Epikourios'' (\"Apollo the helper\"), was built in 430 B.C. and it was designed by Iktinos.It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air.*Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century B.C., with a plan measuring 10,00 x 15,60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in c. 475 B.C. The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used.\n*Ambracia: A Doric peripteral temple dedicated to ''Apollo Pythios Sotir'' was built in 500 B.C., and It is lying at the centre of the Greek city Arta. Only some parts have been found, and it seems that the temple was built on earlier sanctuaries dedicated to Apollo. The temple measures 20,75 x 44,00 m at the stylobate. The foundation which supported the statue of the god, still exists.\nTemple of Apollo, Didyma\n*Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of ''Apollo Didymaios'' started around 540 B.C. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 B.C. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate.\n*Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of ''Apollo Clarius'' was probably built in the 3rd century B.C., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century B.C.\n*Hamaxitus (Troad): In Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related with the god’s ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of ''Apollo Smintheus'' was constructed at 150–125 B.C., but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century B.C. The temple measures 40,00 x 23,00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14.\n\n===Etruscan and Roman temples===\n*Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century B.C. and it indicates the spread of Apollo’s culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18,50 m wide.\n*Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th-3rd century B.C. Parts of a teraccotta capital, and a teraccotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. A cult of Apollo Soranus is attested by one inscription found near Falerii.\nPlan of the Temple of Apollo (Pompeii)\n*Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century B.C. The temple was built in 120 B.V, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century B.C. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in A.D. 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side.\n* Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the ''temple of Apollo Medicus''. The first temple building dates to 431 B.C., and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 B.C.. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 B.C. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century B.C.\n*Rome:The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus on 28 B.C. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella.\n*Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century A.D. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002.\n", "\n\n===Birth===\nApollo (left) and Artemis. Brygos (potter signed), tondo of an Attic red-figure cup c. 470 BC, Musée du Louvre.\nWhen Zeus' wife Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on ''terra firma''. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island. She gave birth there and was accepted by the people, offering them her promise that her son would be always favourable toward the city. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.\n\nIt is also stated that Hera kidnapped Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace of amber nine yards (8 m) long. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, ''hebdomagenes'') of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.\n\n===Youth===\nFour days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophecies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. To protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia.\n\nHera then sent the giant Tityos to rape Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There, he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of , where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver.\n\n===Trojan War===\n\nMarble Bust of Apollo after the Apollo Belvedere. Circa 1675\n\nApollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the ''anger of Achilles'', which is the theme of the ''Iliad''.\n\nIn the Iliad, when Diomedes injured Aeneas, Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy.\n\nApollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple.\n\n===Admetus===\nWhen Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclopes, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever for this, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor, due to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.\n\nApollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to \"''persuade''\" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.\n\n''Artemis and Apollo Piercing Niobe's Children with their Arrows'' by Jacques-Louis David, Dallas Museum of Art\n\n===Niobe===\nNiobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.\n\nA devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.\n\n===Consorts and children===\nLove affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.\n\n====Female lovers====\n\n\nApollo and Daphne by Bernini in the Galleria Borghese\nDaphne was a nymph, daughter of the river god Peneus, who had scorned Apollo. The myth explains the connection of Apollo with δάφνη (''daphnē''), the laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a weapon more suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Cupid shoots a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prays to her father Peneus for help and he changes her into the laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.\n\n''Artemis Daphnaia'', who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in Antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century temple to ''Apollo Daphnephoros'', \"Apollo, laurel-bearer\", or \"carrying off Daphne\", a \"place where the citizens are to take the oath\", is identified in inscriptions.\n\nLeucothea was daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. She fell in love with Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.\n\nMarpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.\n\nCastalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. In the last oracle is mentioned that the \"water which could speak\", has been lost for ever.\n\nBy Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills, the use of nets and traps in hunting, and how to cultivate olives.\n\nHecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus.\n\nCassandra, was daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. Apollo fell in love with Cassandra and promised her the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gave her the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.\n\nCoronis, was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result, he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.\n\nIn Euripides' play ''Ion'', Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess.\n\nAcantha, was the spirit of the acanthus tree, and Apollo had one of his other liaisons with her. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.\n\nAccording to the ''Biblioteca'', the \"library\" of mythology mis-attributed to Apollodorus, he fathered the Corybantes on the Muse Thalia.\n\n====Consorts and children: extended list====\n\n# Acacallis\n## Amphithemis (Garamas)\n## Naxos, eponym of the island Naxos\n## Phylacides\n## Phylander\n# Acantha\n# Aethusa\n## Eleuther\n# Aganippe\n## Chios\n# Alciope\n## Linus (possibly)\n# Amphissa / Isse, daughter of Macareus\n# Anchiale / Acacallis\n## Oaxes\n# Areia, daughter of Cleochus / Acacallis / Deione\n## Miletus\n# Astycome, nymph\n## Eumolpus (possibly)\n# Arsinoe, daughter of Leucippus\n## Asclepius (possibly)\n## Eriopis\n# Babylo\n## Arabus\n# Bolina\n# Calliope, Muse\n## Orpheus (possibly)\n## Linus (possibly)\n## Ialemus\n# Cassandra\n# Castalia\n# Celaeno, daughter of Hyamus / Melaina / Thyia\n## Delphus\n# Chione / Philonis / Leuconoe\n## Philammon\n# Chrysorthe\n## Coronus\n# Chrysothemis\n## Parthenos\n# Coronis\n## Asclepius\n# Coryceia\n## Lycorus (Lycoreus)\n# Creusa\n## Ion\n# Cyrene\n## Aristaeus\n## Idmon (possibly)\n## Autuchus\n# Danais, Cretan nymph\n## The Curetes\n# Daphne\n# Dia, daughter of Lycaon\n## Dryops\n# Dryope\n## Amphissus\n# Euboea (daughter of Macareus of Locris)\n## Agreus\n# Evadne, daughter of Poseidon\n## Iamus\n# Gryne\n# Hecate\n## Scylla (possibly)\n# Hecuba\n## Troilus\n## Hector (possibly)\n# Hestia (wooed her unsuccessfully)\n# Hypermnestra, wife of Oicles\n## Amphiaraus (possibly)\n# Hypsipyle\n# Hyria (Thyria)\n## Cycnus\n# Lycia, nymph or daughter of Xanthus\n## Eicadius\n## Patarus\n# Manto\n## Mopsus\n# Marpessa\n# Melia\n## Ismenus\n## Tenerus\n# Ocyrhoe\n# Othreis\n## Phager\n# Parnethia, nymph\n## Cynnes\n# Parthenope\n## Lycomedes\n# Phthia\n## Dorus\n## Laodocus\n## Polypoetes\n# Prothoe\n# Procleia\n## Tenes (possibly)\n# Psamathe\n## Linus\n# Rhoeo\n## Anius\n# Rhodoessa, nymph\n## Ceos, eponym of the island Ceos\n# Rhodope\n## Cicon, eponym of the tribe Cicones\n# Sinope\n## Syrus\n# Stilbe\n## Centaurus\n## Lapithes\n## Aineus\n# Syllis / Hyllis\n## Zeuxippus\n# Thaleia, Muse / Rhetia, nymph\n## The Corybantes\n# Themisto, daughter of Zabius of Hyperborea\n## Galeotes\n## Telmessus (?)\n# Thero\n## Chaeron\n# Urania, Muse\n## Linus (possibly)\n# Urea, daughter of Poseidon\n## Ileus (Oileus?)\n# Wife of Erginus\n## Trophonius (possibly)\n# Unknown consorts\n## Acraepheus, eponym of the city Acraephia\n## Chariclo (possibly)\n## Erymanthus\n## Marathus, eponym of Marathon\n## Megarus\n## Melaneus\n## Oncius\n## Phemonoe\n## Pisus, founder of Pisa in Etruria\n## Younger Muses\n### Cephisso\n### Apollonis\n### Borysthenis\n\n\n====Male lovers====\n''Apollo and Hyacinthus'', 16th-century Italian engraving by Jacopo Caraglio\nHyacinth or Hyacinthus was one of Apollo's male lovers. He was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief: out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning ''alas''. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.\n\nAnother male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.\n\nOther male lovers of Apollo include:\n* Admetus\n* Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon\n* Branchus (alternately, a son of Apollo)\n* Carnus\n* Clarus\n* Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus)\n* Hymenaios\n* Iapis\n* Leucates, who threw himself off a rock when Apollo attempted to carry him off\n* Phorbas (probably the son of Triopas)\n* Potnieus\n\n===Apollo's lyre===\nApollo with his lyre. Statue from Pergamon Museum, Berlin.\n\nHermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep.\n\nHermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre.\n\nApollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became a master of the lyre.\n\n===Apollo in the ''Oresteia''===\nIn Aeschylus' ''Oresteia'' trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war, and Cassandra, a prophetess of Apollo. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance).\n\nApollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.\n\n===Other stories===\nApollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus.\n\nCallimachus sang that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months.\n\nApollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster.\n\nAnother contender for the birthplace of Apollo is the Cretan islands of Paximadia.\n\n====Musical contests====\n\n=====Pan=====\nOnce Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, the mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.\n\n=====Marsyas=====\nMarsyas under Apollo's punishment, İstanbul Archaeology Museum\n\nApollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses.\n\nAfter they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this, as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas.\n\nAnother variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.\n\n=====Cinyras=====\n\nApollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost.\n\nHead of Apollo, marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of Cardinal Albani\n\n===Roman Apollo===\n\nThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as '''Phoebus'''. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus.\n\nOn the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the \"Apollinare\". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the ''Ludi Apollinares'' (\"Apollonian Games\") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.\n\nAfter the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.\n", "The chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia.\n", "\nApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games.\n\nGold stater of the Seleucid king Antiochus I Soter (reigned 281–261 BCE) showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow\n\nThe palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin.\n\n''Apollo Citharoedus'' (\"Apollo with a kithara\"), Musei Capitolini, Rome\nAs god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as \"born in Lycia\", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology).\n\nIn literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase.\n\nApollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony.\n", "The Louvre ''Apollo Sauroctonos'', Roman copy after Praxiteles (360 BC)\nApollo is a common theme in Greek and Roman art and also in the art of the Renaissance. The earliest Greek word for a statue is \"delight\" (, ''agalma''), and the sculptors tried to create forms which would inspire such guiding vision. Greek art puts into Apollo the highest degree of power and beauty that can be imagined. The sculptors derived this from observations on human beings, but they also embodied in concrete form, issues beyond the reach of ordinary thought.\n\nThe naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body that was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo embody beauty, balance and inspire awe before the beauty of the world.\n\nThe evolution of the Greek sculpture can be observed in his depictions from the almost static formal Kouros type in early archaic period, to the representation of motion in a relative harmonious whole in late archaic period. In classical Greece the emphasis is not given to the illusive imaginative reality represented by the ideal forms, but to the analogies and the interaction of the members in the whole, a method created by Polykleitos. Finally Praxiteles seems to be released from any art and religious conformities, and his masterpieces are a mixture of naturalism with stylization.\n\n===Art and Greek philosophy===\nThe evolution of the Greek art seems to go parallel with the Greek philosophical conceptions, which changed from the natural-philosophy of Thales to the metaphysical theory of Pythagoras. Thales searched for a simple material-form directly perceptible by the senses, behind the appearances of things, and his theory is also related to the older animism. This was paralleled in sculpture by the absolute representation of vigorous life, through unnaturally simplified forms.\n\nPythagoras believed that behind the appearance of things, there was the permanent principle of mathematics, and that the forms were based on a transcendental mathematical relation. The forms on earth, are imperfect imitations (, ''eikones'', \"images\") of the celestial world of numbers. His ideas had a great influence on post-Archaic art. The Greek architects and sculptors were always trying to find the mathematical relation, that would lead to the esthetic perfection. (canon).\n\nIn classical Greece, Anaxagoras asserted that a divine reason (mind) gave order to the seeds of the universe, and Plato extended the Greek belief of ''ideal forms'' to his metaphysical theory of ''forms'' (''ideai'', \"ideas\"). The forms on earth are imperfect duplicates of the intellectual celestial ideas. The Greek words ''oida'' (, \"(I) know\") and ''eidos'' (, \"species\"), a thing seen, have the same root as the word ''idea'' (), a thing ἰδείν to see. indicating how the Greek mind moved from the gift of the senses, to the principles beyond the senses. The artists in Plato's time moved away from his theories and art tends to be a mixture of naturalism with stylization. The Greek sculptors considered the senses more important, and the proportions were used to unite the sensible with the intellectual.\n\n===Archaic sculpture===\nKerameikos Archaeological Museum in Athens\n\nKouros (''male youth'') is the modern term given to those representations of standing male youths which first appear in the archaic period in Greece. This type served certain religious needs and was first proposed for what was previously thought to be depictions of ''Apollo''. The first statues are certainly still and formal. The formality of their stance seems to be related with the Egyptian precedent, but it was accepted for a good reason. The sculptors had a clear idea of what a young man is, and embodied the archaic smile of good manners, the firm and springy step, the balance of the body, dignity, and youthful happiness. When they tried to depict the most abiding qualities of men, it was because men had common roots with the unchanging gods. The adoption of a standard recognizable type for a long time, is probably because nature gives preference in survival of a type which has long be adopted by the climatic conditions, and also due to the general Greek belief that nature expresses itself in ''ideal forms'' that can be imagined and represented. These forms expressed immortality. Apollo was the immortal god of ''ideal balance and order''. His shrine in Delphi, that he shared in winter with Dionysius had the inscriptions: (gnōthi seautón=\"know thyself\") and (''mēdén ágan'', \"nothing in excess\"), and (eggýa pára d'atē, \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\").\n\nNew York Kouros, Met. Mus. 32.11.1, marble (620–610 BC), Metropolitan Museum of Art\nIn the first large-scale depictions during the early archaic period (640–580 BC), the artists tried to draw one's attention to look into the interior of the face and the body which were not represented as lifeless masses, but as being full of life. The Greeks maintained, until late in their civilization, an almost animistic idea that the statues are in some sense alive. This embodies the belief that the image was somehow the god or man himself. A fine example is the statue of the ''Sacred gate Kouros'' which was found at the cemetery of Dipylon in Athens (Dipylon Kouros). The statue is the \"thing in itself\", and his slender face with the deep eyes express an intellectual eternity. According to the Greek tradition the Dipylon master was named Daedalus, and in his statues the limbs were freed from the body, giving the impression that the statues could move. It is considered that he created also the ''New York kouros'', which is the oldest fully preserved statue of ''Kouros'' type, and seems to be the incarnation of the god himself.\n\nPiraeus Apollo, archaic-style bronze, Archaeological Museum of Piraeus\nThe animistic idea as the representation of the imaginative reality, is sanctified in the Homeric poems and in Greek myths, in stories of the god Hephaestus (Phaistos) and the mythic Daedalus (the builder of the labyrinth) that made images which moved of their own accord. This kind of art goes back to the Minoan period, when its main theme was the representation of motion in a specific moment. These free-standing statues were usually marble, but also the form rendered in limestone, bronze, ivory and terracotta.\n\nThe earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo, may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of ''Apollo Ptoios'', Boeotia alone. The last stage in the development of the ''Kouros type'' is the late archaic period (520–485 BC), in which the Greek sculpture attained a full knowledge of human anatomy and used to create a relative harmonious whole. Ranking from the very few bronzes survived to us is the masterpiece bronze Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, the harbour of Athens. The statue originally held the bow in its left hand, and a cup of pouring libation in its right hand. It probably comes from north-eastern Peloponnesus. The emphasis is given in anatomy, and it is one of the first attempts to represent a kind of motion, and beauty relative to proportions, which appear mostly in post-Archaic art. The statue throws some light on an artistic centre which, with an independently developed harder, simpler and heavier style, restricts Ionian influence in Athens. Finally, this is the germ from which the art of Polykleitos was to grow two or three generations later.\n\n\n\n===Classical sculpture===\n\nApollo of the \"Mantoua type\", marble Roman copy after a 5th-century BCE Greek original attributed to Polykleitos, Musée du Louvre\n\nAt the beginning of the Classical period, it was considered that beauty in visible things as in everything else, consisted of symmetry and proportions. The artists tried also to represent motion in a specific moment (Myron), which may be considered as the reappearance of the dormant Minoan element. Anatomy and geometry are fused in one, and each does something to the other. The Greek sculptors tried to clarify it by looking for mathematical proportions, just as they sought some reality behind appearances. Polykleitos in his ''Canon'' wrote that beauty consists in the proportion not of the elements (materials), but of the parts, that is the interrelation of parts with one another and with the whole. It seems that he was influenced by the theories of Pythagoras.\nThe famous ''Apollo of Mantua'' and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara in his left arm. The type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic. The Apollo held the ''cythara'' against his extended left arm, of which in the Louvre example, a fragment of one twisting scrolling horn upright remains against his biceps.\n\nThough the proportions were always important in Greek art, the appeal of the Greek sculptures eludes any explanation by proportion alone. The statues of Apollo were thought to incarnate his living presence, and these representations of illusive imaginative reality had deep roots in the Minoan period, and in the beliefs of the first Greek speaking people who entered the region during the bronze-age. Just as the Greeks saw the mountains, forests, sea and rivers as inhabited by concrete beings, so nature in all of its manifestations possesses clear form, and the form of a work of art. Spiritual life is incorporated in matter, when it is given artistic form. Just as in the arts the Greeks sought some reality behind appearances, so in mathematics they sought permanent principles which could be applied wherever the conditions were the same. Artists and sculptors tried to find this ideal order in relation with mathematics, but they believed that this ideal order revealed itself not so much to the dispassionate intellect, as to the whole sentient self. Things as we see them, and as they really are, are one, that each stresses the nature of the other in a single unity.\n\n===Pediments and friezes===\n\nTemple of Zeus, Olympia, Greece.\n\nIn the archaic pediments and friezes of the temples, the artists had a problem to fit a group of figures into an isosceles triangle with acute angles at the base.\n\nThe Siphnian Treasury in Delphi was one of the first Greek buildings utilizing the solution to put the dominating form in the middle, and to complete the descending scale of height with other figures sitting or kneeling. The pediment shows the story of Heracles stealing Apollo's tripod that was strongly associated with his oracular inspiration. Their two figures hold the centre. In the pediment of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, the single figure of Apollo is dominating the scene.\n\nHead of the ''Apollo Belvedere''\n\nThese representations rely on presenting scenes directly to the eye for their own visible sake. They care for the schematic arrangements of bodies in space, but only as parts in a larger whole. While each scene has its own character and completeness it must fit into the general sequence to which it belongs. In these archaic pediments the sculptors use empty intervals, to suggest a passage to and from a busy battlefield. The artists seem to have been dominated by geometrical pattern and order, and this was improved when classical art brought a greater freedom and economy.\n\n===Hellenistic Greece-Rome===\nApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BCE.\n\nThe life-size so-called \"Adonis\" found in 1780 on the site of a ''villa suburbana'' near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman ''Thysdrus'', he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.\n\nAnother haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed.\n", "Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a \"Hymn of Apollo\" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's ''Apollon musagète'' (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs \"Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom\"/\"Dionysus: Bringer of Love\".\n\nIn discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance.\n\nCharles Handy, in ''Gods of Management'' (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organisational culture. Apollo represents a 'role' culture where order, reason and bureaucracy prevail.\n\nIn spaceflight, the NASA program for landing astronauts on the Moon was named Apollo.\n", "\n''Left'': Surya on a quadriga, Bodh Gaya relief, India. ''Right'': Classical example of Phoebus Apollo on quadriga.\n\nWilliam Blake's illustrations of ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'' (1809)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n*Dryad\n*Epirus\n*Pasiphaë\n*Sibylline oracles\n*Tegyra\n*Temple of Apollo (disambiguation)\n", "\n", "\n===Primary sources===\n* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Sophocles, ''Oedipus Rex''\n* Palaephatus, ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE)\n* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.'' Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE)\n* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.'' Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Philostratus the Elder, ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)\n* Philostratus the Younger, ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)\n* Lucian, ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE)\n* First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae\n\n===Secondary sources===\n* M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art''. Chicago.\n* Hugh Bowden, 2005. ''Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy''. Cambridge University Press.\n* Walter Burkert, 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim''\n* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).\n* \n* Robert Graves, 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition. Penguin.\n* Miranda J. Green, 1997. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson.\n* Karl Kerenyi, 1953. ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' revised edition.\n* Karl Kerenyi, 1951. ''The Gods of the Greeks''\n* Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. ''Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.''. Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. .\n* Martin Nilsson, 1955. ''Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion'', vol. I. C.H. Beck.\n* Pauly–Wissowa, ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, \"Apollon\". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).\n* Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.\n* D.S.Robertson (1945) ''A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture'' Cambridge University Press\n* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873). \"Apollo\"\n*Spivey Nigel (1997) ''Greek art'' Phaedon Press Ltd.\n", "\n\n* Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada\n* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 1650 images of Apollo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Origins", "Oracular cult", "Temples of Apollo", "Mythology", "Festivals", "Attributes and symbols", "Apollo in the arts", "Modern reception", "Genealogy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Austroasiatic languages''', in recent classifications synonymous with '''Mon–Khmer''', are a large language family of continental Southeast Asia, also scattered throughout India, Bangladesh, Nepal and the southern border of China. The name ''Austroasiatic'' comes from the Latin words for \"South\" and \"Asia\", hence \"South Asia\". Of these languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have a long-established recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status as modern national languages (in Vietnam and Cambodia, respectively). On the subnational level, Khasi has official status in Meghalaya while Santhali, Ho and Mundari are official languages of Jharkhand. In Myanmar, the Wa language is the de facto official language of Wa State. The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status.\n\n''Ethnologue'' identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Nuclear Mon-Khmer and Khasi–Khmuic) while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.\n\nAustroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. They appear to be the extant autochthonous languages of Southeast Asia (if Andaman islands are not included), with the neighboring Indo-Aryan, Tai–Kadai, Dravidian, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan languages being the result of later migrations.\n", "\n\nRegarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic \"sesquisyllabic\" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety among modern languages of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice. Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.\n", "\n\nMuch work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's ''Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary''. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic.\n\nPaul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows:\n\n\n\n *p \n *t \n *c \n *k \n *ʔ\n\n *b \n *d \n *ɟ \n *ɡ \n\n\n *ɓ \n *ɗ \n *ʄ \n \n\n\n *m \n *n \n *ɲ \n *ŋ \n\n\n *w \n *l, *r \n *j \n \n\n\n \n *s \n \n \n *h\n\n\nThis is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in. Sidwell (2011) suggests that the likely homeland of Austroasiatic is the middle Mekong, in the area of the Bahnaric and Katuic languages (approximately where modern Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia come together), and that the family is not as old as frequently assumed, dating to perhaps 2000 BCE.\n", "Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh, parts of Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published.\n\nEach of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships ''between'' these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional \"Mon–Khmer\" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review.\n\nIn addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).\n\n=== Diffloth (1974) ===\nDiffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in ''Ethnologue.''\n\n* '''Munda'''\n** North Munda\n*** Korku\n*** '''Kherwarian'''\n** South Munda\n*** '''Kharia–Juang'''\n*** '''Koraput Munda'''\n* Mon–Khmer\n** Eastern Mon–Khmer\n*** '''Khmer''' (Cambodian)\n*** '''Pearic'''\n*** '''Bahnaric'''\n*** '''Katuic'''\n*** '''Vietic''' (includes Vietnamese)\n** Northern Mon–Khmer\n*** '''Khasi''' (Meghalaya, India)\n*** '''Palaungic'''\n*** '''Khmuic'''\n** Southern Mon–Khmer\n*** '''Mon'''\n*** '''Aslian''' (Malaya)\n*** '''Nicobarese''' (Nicobar Islands)\n\n=== Ilia Peiros (2004) ===\nPeiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009a) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below.\nupright=2.27\n* '''Nicobarese'''\n* Munda–Khmer\n** '''Munda'''\n** Mon–Khmer\n*** '''Khasi'''\n*** Nuclear Mon–Khmer\n**** Mangic (Mang + Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK)\n**** '''Vietic''' (perhaps in Northern MK)\n**** Northern Mon–Khmer\n***** '''Palaungic'''\n***** '''Khmuic'''\n**** Central Mon–Khmer\n***** '''Khmer''' dialects\n***** '''Pearic'''\n***** Asli-Bahnaric\n****** '''Aslian'''\n****** Mon–Bahnaric\n******* '''Monic'''\n******* Katu–Bahnaric\n******** '''Katuic'''\n******** '''Bahnaric'''\n\n\n\n=== Gérard Diffloth (2005) ===\nDiffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have:\n\n\n\nOr in more detail,\n\n* '''Munda languages''' (India)\n:* '''Koraput''': 7 languages\n:*Core Munda languages\n::* '''Kharian–Juang''': 2 languages\n::*North Munda languages\n::: ''Korku''\n::: '''Kherwarian''': 12 languages\n\n* Khasi–Khmuic languages (Northern Mon–Khmer)\n:* '''Khasian''': 3 languages of eastern India and Bangladesh\n:*Palaungo-Khmuic languages\n::* '''Khmuic''': 13 languages of Laos and Thailand\n\n::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages\n::: '''Pakanic''' or '''Palyu''': 4 or 5 languages of southern China and Vietnam\n::: '''Palaungic''': 21 languages of Burma, southern China, and Thailand\n\n* Nuclear Mon–Khmer languages\n:* Khmero-Vietic languages (Eastern Mon–Khmer)\n\n::* Vieto-Katuic languages ?\n::: '''Vietic''': 10 languages of Vietnam and Laos, including the Vietnamese language, which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language.\n::: '''Katuic''': 19 languages of Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand.\n\n::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages\n:::* '''Bahnaric''': 40 languages of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.\n:::*Khmeric languages\n:::: The '''Khmer''' dialects of Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam.\n:::: '''Pearic''': 6 languages of Cambodia.\n\n:* Nico-Monic languages (Southern Mon–Khmer)\n::* '''Nicobarese''': 6 languages of the Nicobar Islands, a territory of India.\n\n::* Asli-Monic languages\n::: '''Aslian''': 19 languages of peninsular Malaysia and Thailand.\n::: '''Monic''': 2 languages, the Mon language of Burma and the Nyahkur language of Thailand.\n\nThis family tree is consistent with recent studies of migration of Y-Chromosomal haplogroup O2a1-M95. However, the dates obtained from by Zhivotovsky method DNA studies are several times older than that given by linguists. The route map of the people with haplogroup O2a1-M95, speaking this language can be seen in this link. Other geneticists criticise the Zhivotovsky method.\n\n=== Previously existent branches ===\nRoger Blench (2009) also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages.\n* '''Pre-Chamic languages''' (the languages of coastal Vietnam prior to the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006).\n* '''Acehnese substratum''' (Sidwell 2006). Acehnese has many basic words that are of Austroasiatic origin, suggesting that either Austronesian speakers have absorbed earlier Austroasiatic residents in northern Sumatra, or that words might have been borrowed from Austroasiatic languages in southern Vietnam — or perhaps a combination of both.\n* '''Bornean substrate languages''' (Blench 2010). Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as Land Dayak (Bidayuh, Dayak Bakatiq, etc.), Dusunic (Central Dusun, Visayan, etc.), Kayan, and Kenyah, noting especially resemblances with Aslian. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia.\n* '''Lepcha substratum''' (\"'''''Rongic'''''\"). Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a Sino-Tibetan superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch \"''Rongic''\" based on the Lepcha autonym ''Róng''.\n\nOther languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are:\n* '''Jiamao''', based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a Hlai language (Thurgood 1992). Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary.\n\n=== Sidwell (2009, 2011) ===\nPaul Sidwell and Roger Blench propose that the Austroasiatic phylum had dispersed via the Mekong River drainage basin.\nPaul Sidwell (2009a), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well-known enough to exclude loan words, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly.\n\n\n", "Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the ancient Khmer alphabet, Thai alphabet and Lao alphabet. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages.\n* Chữ Nôm\n* Khmer alphabet\n* Warang Citi (Ho alphabet)\n* Mon script\n* Ol Chiki alphabet (Santali alphabet)\n* Sorang Sompeng alphabet (Sora alphabet)\n\n* Khom script (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos)\n", "According to Chaubey et al., \"Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations.\" According to Riccio et al. (2011), the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from southeast Asia. According to Zhang et al. (2015), Austroasiatic migrations from southeast Asia into India took place after the last Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago.\n", "* Munda languages\n* Austric languages\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Adams, K. L. (1989). ''Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic''. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. \n* Alves, Mark J. (2014). Mon-Khmer. In Rochelle Lieber and Pavel Stekauer (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology'', 520-544. Oxford: Oxford University Press.\n* Alves, Mark J. (2015). Morphological functions among Mon-Khmer languages: beyond the basics. In N. J. Enfield & Bernard Comrie (eds.), ''Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: the state of the art''. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton, 531–557.\n* Bradley, David (2012). \" Languages and Language Families in China\", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics''.\n* Chakrabarti, Byomkes. (1994). ''A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali''.\n* \n* Diffloth, Gérard (2005). \"The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic\". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. ''The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics.'' 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. \n* Filbeck, D. (1978). ''T'in: a historical study''. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. \n* Hemeling, K. (1907). ''Die Nanking Kuanhua''. (German language)\n* Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). '' The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages''. Leiden: Brill.\n* Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). ''An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries''.\n* Peiros, Ilia. 1998. ''Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia.'' Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University.\n* Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). '' A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary''. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. \n* Shorto, H. L. ''Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics''. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.\n* Sidwell, Paul (2005). \" Proto-Katuic Phonology and the Sub-grouping of Mon–Khmer Languages\". In Sidwell, ed., ''SEALSXV: papers from the 15th meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society.''\n* Sidwell, Paul (2009a). The Austroasiatic Central Riverine Hypothesis. Keynote address, SEALS, XIX.\n* Sidwell, Paul (2009b). '' Classifying the Austroasiatic languages: history and state of the art''. LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, 76. Munich: Lincom Europa.\n* Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) ''Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics'', The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.).\n* \n\n", "* Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. '' Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families.'' Chiang Mai: Payap University.\n", "\n* Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages (from Wiktionary's wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists Swadesh-list appendix)\n* Austro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Sebeok 1942, Pinnow 1959, Diffloth 2005, and Matisoff 2006\n* Mon–Khmer.com: Lectures by Paul Sidwell\n* Mon–Khmer Languages Project at SEAlang\n* http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)\n* RWAAI Digital Archive\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Typology ", " Proto-language ", " Internal classification ", " Writing systems ", " Austroasiatic migrations ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Sources ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Afroasiatic''' ('''Afro-Asiatic'''), also known as '''Afrasian''' and traditionally as '''Hamito-Semitic''' ('''Chamito-Semitic'''), is a large language family of several hundred related languages and dialects. It comprises about 300 or so living languages and dialects, according to the 2009 Ethnologue estimate. It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel.\n\nAfroasiatic languages have over 350 million native speakers, the fourth largest number of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan and Niger–Congo). The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic and Semitic.\n\nBy far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language is Arabic. It is also the most widely spoken language within the Semitic branch, and includes Modern Standard Arabic and spoken colloquial varieties. Arabic has around 290 million native speakers, who are concentrated primarily in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Malta.\n\nOther widely spoken Afroasiatic languages include:\n* Hausa (Chadic branch), the dominant language of northern Nigeria and southern Niger, spoken as a first language by 35 million people and used as a ''lingua franca'' by another 20 million across West Africa and the Sahel.\n* Central Atlas Tamazight (Berber branch), spoken in Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, northern Mali, northern Niger, and Egypt by around 25 to 35 million people.\n* Oromo (Cushitic branch), spoken in Ethiopia and Kenya by around 33 million people total.\n* Amharic (Semitic branch), spoken in Ethiopia, with over 25 million native speakers in addition to millions of other Ethiopians speaking it as a second language.\n* Somali (Cushitic branch), spoken by 15 million people in Somalia, Djibouti, eastern Ethiopia, and northeastern Kenya.\n* Hebrew (Semitic branch), spoken by around 9 million people worldwide.\n* Tigrinya (Semitic branch), spoken by around 6.9 million people in Eritrea and Ethiopia.\n* Neo-Aramaic languages (Semitic branch), spoken by about 550,000 people worldwide. This is not just one language — It includes a number of subdivisions, with Assyrian Neo-Aramaic being the most spoken variety (232,300).\n\nIn addition to languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes several important ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, and Old Aramaic. It is uncertain when or where the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family existed. Proposed locations include North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Eastern Sahara, and the Levant.\n", "During the early 1800s, linguists grouped the Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian languages within a \"Hamitic\" phylum, in acknowledgement of these languages' genetic relation with each other and with those in the Semitic phylum. The terms \"Hamitic\" and \"Semitic\" were etymologically derived from the Book of Genesis, which describes various Biblical tribes descended from Ham and Shem, two sons of Noah. By the 1860s, the main constituent elements within the broader Afroasiatic family had been worked out.\n\nThe scholar Friedrich Müller introduced the name \"Hamito-Semitic\" for the entire family in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1876). Maurice Delafosse (1914) later coined the term \"Afroasiatic\" (often now spelled \"Afro-Asiatic\"). However, it did not come into general use until Joseph Greenberg (1950) formally proposed its adoption. In doing so, Greenberg sought to emphasize the fact that Afroasiatic spanned the continents of both Africa and Asia.\n\nIndividual scholars have also called the family \"Erythraean\" (Tucker 1966) and \"Lisramic\" (Hodge 1972). In lieu of \"Hamito-Semitic\", the Russian linguist Igor Diakonoff later suggested the term \"Afrasian\", meaning \"half African, half Asiatic\", in reference to the geographic distribution of the family's constituent languages.\n\nThe term \"Hamito-Semitic\" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries.\n", "Interrelations between branches of Afroasiatic (Lipiński 2001).\nSome linguists' proposals for grouping within Afroasiatic.\nThe Afroasiatic language family is usually considered to include the following branches:\n* Berber\n* Chadic\n* Cushitic\n* Egyptian\n* Omotic\n* Semitic\n\nAlthough there is general agreement on these six families, there are some points of disagreement among linguists who study Afroasiatic. In particular:\n* The Omotic language branch is the most controversial member of Afroasiatic, because the grammatical formatives that most linguists have given greatest weight in classifying languages in the family \"are either absent or distinctly wobbly\" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, whereas others have raised doubts about it being part of Afroasiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006).\n* The Afroasiatic identity of Ongota is also broadly questioned, as is its position within Afroasiatic among those who accept it, due to the \"mixed\" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Bonny Sands (2009) believes the most convincing proposal is by Savà and Tosco (2003), namely that Ongota is an East Cushitic language with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, it would appear that the Ongota people once spoke a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language but retained some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language.\n* Beja is sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afroasiatic but is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a high degree of internal diversity.\n* Whether the various branches of Cushitic actually form a language family is sometimes questioned, but not their inclusion in Afroasiatic itself.\n* There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afroasiatic (see § Subgrouping below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: there are also many disagreements concerning the internal classification of the Indo-European languages, for instance.\n* Meroitic has been proposed as an unclassified Afroasiatic language, because it shares the phonotactics characteristic of the family, but there is not enough evidence to secure a classification.\n\n==Classification history==\nIn the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret in Algeria was the first to link two branches of Afroasiatic together; he perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through his study of Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.\n\nIn the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, Theodor Benfey suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter \"Ethiopic\"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty.\n\nFriedrich Müller named the traditional Hamito-Semitic family in 1876 in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'' (\"Outline of Linguistics\"), and defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a \"Hamitic\" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. It was the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius (1810–1884) who restricted Hamitic to the non-Semitic languages in Africa, which are characterized by a grammatical gender system. This \"Hamitic language group\" was proposed to unite various, mainly North-African, languages, including the Ancient Egyptian language, the Berber languages, the Cushitic languages, the Beja language, and the Chadic languages. Unlike Müller, Lepsius considered that Hausa and Nama were part of the Hamitic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. Both authors used the skin-color, mode of subsistence, and other characteristics of native speakers as part of their arguments that particular languages should be grouped together.\nDistribution of the Afroasiatic/Hamito-Semitic languages in Africa (Library of Congress).\nIn 1912, Carl Meinhof published ''Die Sprachen der Hamiten'' (\"The Languages of the Hamites\"), in which he expanded Lepsius's model, adding the Fula, Maasai, Bari, Nandi, Sandawe and Hadza languages to the Hamitic group. Meinhof's model was widely supported into the 1940s. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that \"speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'.\" But, in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a \"fallacious theory of language mixture.\" Meinhof did this although earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston had substantiated that the languages which he would later dub \"Nilo-Hamitic\" were in fact Nilotic languages, with numerous similarities in vocabulary to other Nilotic languages.\n\nLeo Reinisch (1909) had already proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging their more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic. However, his suggestion found little acceptance. Marcel Cohen (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct \"Hamitic\" subgroup, and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Finally, Joseph Greenberg's 1950 work led to the widespread rejection of \"Hamitic\" as a language category by linguists. Greenberg refuted Meinhof's linguistic theories, and rejected the use of racial and social evidence. In dismissing the notion of a separate \"Nilo-Hamitic\" language category in particular, Greenberg was \"returning to a view widely held a half century earlier.\" He consequently rejoined Meinhof's so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages with their appropriate Nilotic siblings. He also added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afroasiatic for the family. Almost all scholars have accepted this classification as the new and continued consensus.\n\nGreenberg's model was fully developed in his book ''The Languages of Africa'' (1963), in which he reassigned most of Meinhof's additions to Hamitic to other language families, notably Nilo-Saharan. Following Isaac Schapera and rejecting Meinhof, he classified the Hottentot language as a member of the Central Khoisan languages. To Khoisan he also added the Tanzanian Hadza and Sandawe, though this view remains controversial since some scholars consider these languages to be linguistic isolates. Despite this, Greenberg's model remains the basis for modern classifications of languages spoken in Africa, and the Hamitic category (and its extension to Nilo-Hamitic) has no part in this.\n\nSince the three traditional branches of the Hamitic languages (Berber, Cushitic and Egyptian) have not been shown to form an exclusive (monophyletic) phylogenetic unit of their own, separate from other Afroasiatic languages, linguists no longer use the term in this sense. Each of these branches is instead now regarded as an independent subgroup of the larger Afroasiatic family.\n\nIn 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afroasiatic, suggesting for it the new name Omotic. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance.\n\nSeveral scholars, including Harold Fleming and Robert Hetzron, have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic.\n\n''Glottolog'' does not accept that the inclusion or even unity of Omotic has been established, nor that of Ongota or the unclassified Kujarge. It therefore splits off the following groups as small families: South Omotic, Mao, Dizoid, Gonga–Gimojan (North Omotic apart from the preceding), Ongota, Kujarge.\n\n===Subgrouping===\n\n+ Proposed Afroasiatic sub-divisions\n\n Greenberg (1963) !! Newman (1980) !! Fleming (post-1981) !! Ehret (1995)\n\n\n* Semitic\n* Egyptian\n* Berber\n* Cushitic\n** Northern Cushitic(equals Beja)\n** Central Cushitic\n** Eastern Cushitic\n** Western Cushitic(equals Omotic)\n** Southern Cushitic\n* Chadic\n\n* Berber–Chadic\n* Egypto-Semitic\n* Cushitic\n(excludes Omotic)\n\n* Omotic\n* Erythraean\n** Cushitic\n** Ongota\n** Non-Ethiopian\n*** Chadic\n*** Berber\n*** Egyptian\n*** Semitic\n*** Beja\n\n* Omotic\n** North Omotic\n** South Omotic\n* Erythrean\n** Cushitic\n*** Beja\n*** Agaw\n*** East–South Cushitic\n**** Eastern Cushitic\n**** Southern Cushitic\n** North Erythrean\n*** Chadic\n*** Boreafrasian\n**** Egyptian\n**** Berber\n**** Semitic\n\n\n Orel & Stobova (1995) !! Diakonoff (1996) !! Bender (1997) !! Militarev (2000)\n\n\n* Berber–Semitic\n* Chadic–Egyptian\n* Omotic\n* Beja\n* Agaw\n* Sidamic\n* East Lowlands\n* Rift\n\n* East–West Afrasian\n** Berber\n** Cushitic\n** Semitic\n* North–South Afrasian\n** Chadic\n** Egyptian\n(excludes Omotic)\n\n* Omotic\n* Chadic\n* Macro-Cushitic\n** Berber\n** Cushitic\n** Semitic\n\n* North Afrasian\n** African North Afrasian\n*** Chado-Berber\n*** Egyptian\n** Semitic\n* South Afrasian\n** Omotic\n** Cushitic\n\n\nLittle agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afroasiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic. However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first.\n\nOtherwise:\n* Paul Newman (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afroasiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic, but does not otherwise address the structure of the family.\n* Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or \"Erythraean\", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed Ongota as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afroasiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota.\n* Like Harold Fleming, Christopher Ehret (1995: 490) divides Afroasiatic into two branches, Omotic and Erythrean. He divides Omotic into two branches, North Omotic and South Omotic. He divides Erythrean into Cushitic, comprising Beja, Agaw, and East-South Cushitic, and North Erythrean, comprising Chadic and \"Boreafrasian.\" According to his classification, Boreafrasian consists of Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic.\n* Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afroasiatic, viewing Cushitic as a Sprachbund rather than a language family.\n* Igor M. Diakonoff (1996) subdivides Afroasiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afroasiatic.\n* Lionel Bender (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as \"Macro-Cushitic\". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afroasiatic most remote from the others.\n* Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of lexicostatistics, groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. He places Ongota in South Omotic.\n", "Afroasiatic is one of the four major language families spoken in Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book ''The Languages of Africa'' (1963). It is one of the few whose speech area is transcontinental, with languages from Afroasiatic's Semitic branch also spoken in the Middle East and Europe.\n\nThere are no generally accepted relations between Afroasiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afroasiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following:\n* Hermann Möller (1906) argued for a relation between Semitic and the Indo-European languages. This proposal was accepted by a few linguists (e.g. Holger Pedersen and Louis Hjelmslev). (For a fuller account, see Indo-Semitic languages.) However, the theory has little currency today, although most linguists do not deny the existence of grammatical similarities between both families (such as grammatical gender, noun-adjective agreement, three-way number distinction, and vowel alternation as a means of derivation).\n* Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the University of Copenhagen), Holger Pedersen included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afroasiatic) in his proposed Nostratic macro-family (cf. Pedersen 1931:336–338), also included the Indo-European, Uralic, Altaic, Yukaghir languages, and Dravidian Languages. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky.\n* Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002) did not reject a relationship of Afroasiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate macro-family, which he called Eurasiatic, and to which he added Chukotian, Gilyak, Korean, Japanese-Ryukyuan, Eskimo–Aleut, and Ainu.\n* Most recently, Sergei Starostin's school has accepted Eurasiatic as a subgroup of Nostratic, with Afroasiatic, Dravidian and Kartvelian in Nostratic outside of Eurasiatic. The even larger Borean super-family contains Nostratic as well as Dené-Caucasian and Austric.\n", "Neo-Aramaic language, a descendant of Old Aramaic.\nThe earliest written evidence of an Afroasiatic language is an Ancient Egyptian inscription dated to c. 3400 BC (5,400 years ago). Symbols on Gerzean (Naqada II) pottery resembling Egyptian hieroglyphs date back to c. 4000 BC, suggesting an earlier possible dating. This gives us a minimum date for the age of Afroasiatic. However, Ancient Egyptian is highly divergent from Proto-Afroasiatic (Trombetti 1905: 1–2), and considerable time must have elapsed in between them. Estimates of the date at which the Proto-Afroasiatic language was spoken vary widely. They fall within a range between approximately 7,500 BC (9,500 years ago), and approximately 16,000 BC (18,000 years ago). According to Igor M. Diakonoff (1988: 33n), Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 10,000 BC. Christopher Ehret (2002: 35–36) asserts that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken c. 11,000 BC at the latest, and possibly as early as c. 16,000 BC. These dates are older than those associated with other proto-languages.\n", "\nMap showing one of the proposed Afroasiatic Urheimat.\nThe term Afroasiatic Urheimat (''Urheimat'' meaning \"original homeland\" in German) refers to the hypothetical place where Proto-Afroasiatic language speakers lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into distinct languages. Afroasiatic languages are today primarily spoken in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahel. Their distribution seems to have been influenced by the Sahara pump operating over the last 10,000 years.\n\nThere is no agreement when or where the original homeland of this language family existed. Proposed locations include North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Eastern Sahara, and the Levant.\n", "{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"float:right; font-size:smaller;\"\n+ Verbal paradigms in several Afroasiatic languages:\n\n ↓ Number\n Language →\n Arabic !! Coptic !! Kabyle !! Somali !! Beja !! Hausa\n\n Verb →\n katab \n mou \n afeg \n \n \n \n\n Meaning →\n write \n die \n fly \n come \n eat \n drink\n\n singular\n 1 \n ''ʼaktubu'' \n ''timou'' \n ''ttafgeɣ''\n ''imaadaa'' \n ''tamáni'' \n ''ina shan''\n\n 2f \n ''taktubīna'' \n ''temou'' \n ''tettafgeḍ''\n ''timaadaa''\n ''tamtínii'' \n ''kina shan''\n\n 2m \n ''taktubu'' \n ''kmou'' \n ''tamtíniya'' \n ''kana shan''\n\n 3f \n ''smou'' \n ''tettafeg''\n ''tamtíni'' \n ''tana shan''\n\n 3m \n ''yaktubu'' \n ''fmou'' \n ''yettafeg''\n ''yimaadaa'' \n ''tamíni'' \n ''yana shan''\n\n dual \n2 \n ''taktubāni'' \n\n\n 3f\n\n 3m \n ''yaktubāni''\n\n plural\n 1 \n ''naktubu'' \n ''tənmou'' \n ''nettafeg''\n ''nimaadnaa'' \n ''támnay'' \n ''muna shan''\n\n 2m \n ''taktubūna'' \n ''tetənmou'' \n ''tettafgem''\n ''timaadaan'' \n ''támteena'' \n ''kuna shan''\n\n 2f \n ''taktubna'' \n ''tettafgemt''\n\n 3m \n ''yaktubūna'' \n ''semou'' \n ''ttafgen''\n ''yimaadaan'' \n ''támeen'' \n ''suna shan''\n\n 3f \n ''yaktubna'' \n ''ttafgent''\n\nWidespread (though not universal) features of the Afroasiatic languages include:\n* A set of emphatic consonants, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive.\n* VSO typology with SVO tendencies.\n* A two-gender system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the sound /t/.\n* All Afroasiatic subfamilies show evidence of a causative affix ''s''.\n* Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support possessive suffixes.\n* Morphology in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or gemination) as well as with prefixes and suffixes.\n\nOne of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/.\n\nAccording to Ehret (1996), tonal languages appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones phonemically.\n", "\nShilha (Berber branch).\nSomali (Cushitic branch).\nArabic (Semitic branch).\nThe following are some examples of Afroasiatic cognates, including ten pronouns, three nouns, and three verbs.\n\n:''Source:'' Christopher Ehret, ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).\n\n:''Note:'' Ehret does not make use of Berber in his etymologies, stating (1995: 12): \"the kind of extensive reconstruction of proto-Berber lexicon that might help in sorting through alternative possible etymologies is not yet available.\" The Berber cognates here are taken from previous version of table in this article and need to be completed and referenced.\n\n:''Abbreviations:'' NOm = 'North Omotic', SOm = 'South Omotic'. MSA = 'Modern South Arabian', PSC = 'Proto-Southern Cushitic', PSom-II = 'Proto-Somali, stage 2'. masc. = 'masculine', fem. = 'feminine', sing. = 'singular', pl. = 'plural'. 1s. = 'first person singular', 2s. = 'second person singular'.\n\n:''Symbols:'' Following Ehret (1995: 70), a caron ˇ over a vowel indicates rising tone, and a circumflex ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a vowel of unknown quality. Ɂ indicates a glottal stop. * indicates reconstructed forms based on comparison of related languages.\n\n\n\n Proto-Afroasiatic !! Omotic !! Cushitic !! Chadic !! Egyptian !! Semitic !! Berber\n\n '''*Ɂân-''' / '''*Ɂîn-''' or '''*ân-''' / '''*în-''' ‘I’ (independent pronoun) \n *'''in-''' ‘I’ (Maji (NOm)) \n '''*Ɂâni''' ‘I’ \n '''*nV''' ‘I’ \n '''ink''' 'I' \n '''*Ɂn''' ‘I’ \n '''nek''' / '''nec''' \"I, me\"\n\n '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘me, my’ (bound) \n '''i''' ‘I, me, my’ (Ari (SOm)) \n '''*i''' or '''*yi''' ‘my’ \n '''*i''' ‘me, my’ (bound) \n '''-i''' (1s. suffix) \n '''*-i''' ‘me, my’ \n''' inu''' / '''nnu''' / '''iw''' \"my\"\n\n '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' or '''*ǎnn-''' / '''*ǐnn-''' ‘we’ \n '''*nona''' / '''*nuna''' / '''*nina''' (NOm) \n '''*Ɂǎnn-''' / '''*Ɂǐnn-''' ‘we’ \n—\n '''inn''' ‘we’ \n '''*Ɂnn''' ‘we’ \n '''nekni''' / '''necnin''' / '''neccin''' \"we\"\n\n '''*Ɂânt-''' / '''*Ɂînt-''' or '''*ânt-''' / '''*înt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) \n '''*int-''' ‘you’ (sing.) \n '''*Ɂânt-''' ‘you’ (sing.) \n—\n''' ntt ''' IInd pers fem \n '''*Ɂnt''' ‘you’ (sing.) \n '''netta''' \"he\" ('''keyy''' / '''cek''' \"you\" (masc. sing.))\n\n '''*ku''', '''*ka''' ‘you’ (masc. sing., bound) \n—\n '''*ku''' ‘your’ (masc. sing.) (PSC) \n '''*ka''', '''*ku''' (masc. sing.) \n '''-k''' (2s. masc. suffix) \n '''-ka''' (2s. masc. suffix) (Arabic) \n '''inek''' / '''nnek''' / '''-k''' \"your\" (masc. sing.)\n\n '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing., bound) \n—\n '''*ki''' ‘your’ (fem. sing.) \n '''*ki''' ‘you’ (fem. sing.) \n '''-ṯ''' (fem. sing. suffix, < *''ki'') \n '''-ki''' (2s. fem. sing. suffix) (Arabic) \n '''-m''' / '''nnem''' / '''inem''' \"your\" (fem. sing.)\n\n '''*kūna''' ‘you’ (plural, bound) \n—\n '''*kuna''' ‘your’ (pl.) (PSC) \n '''*kun''' ‘you’ (pl.) \n '''-ṯn''' ‘you’ (pl.) \n '''*-kn''' ‘you, your’ (fem. pl.) \n '''-kent''', '''kennint''' \"you\" (fem. pl.)\n\n '''*si''', '''*isi''' ‘he, she, it’ \n '''*is-''' ‘he’ \n '''*Ɂusu''' ‘he’, '''*Ɂisi''' ‘she’ \n '''*sV''' ‘he’ \n '''sw''' ‘he, him’, '''sy''' ‘she, her’ \n '''*-šɁ''' ‘he’, '''*-sɁ''' ‘she’ (MSA) \n '''-s''' / '''nnes''' / '''ines''' \"his/her/its\"\n\n '''*ma''', '''*mi''' ‘what?’ \n '''*ma-''' ‘what?’ (NOm) \n '''*ma''', '''*mi''' (interr. root) \n '''*mi''', '''*ma''' ‘what?’ \n '''m''' ‘what?’, ‘who?’ \n '''mā''' (Arabic, Hebrew) / '''mu?''' (Assyrian) ‘what?’ \n '''ma?''' / '''mayen?''' / '''min?''' \"what?\"\n\n '''*wa''', '''*wi''' ‘what?’ \n '''*w-''' ‘what?’ \n '''*wä''' / '''*wɨ''' ‘what?’ (Agaw) \n '''*wa''' ‘who?’ \n '''wy''' ‘how ...!’ \n \n '''mamek?''' / '''mamec?''' / '''amek?''' \"how?\n\n '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘blood’ \n '''*dam-''' ‘blood’ (Gonga) \n '''*dîm-''' / '''*dâm-''' ‘red’ \n '''*d-m-''' ‘blood’ (West Chadic) \n '''i-dm-i''' ‘red linen’ \n '''*dm''' / '''dǝma''' (Assyrian) / '''dom''' (Hebrew) ‘blood’ \n '''idammen''' \"bloods\"\n\n '''*îts''' ‘brother’ \n '''*itsim-''' ‘brother’ \n '''*itsan''' or '''*isan''' ‘brother’ \n '''*sin''' ‘brother’ \n '''sn''' ‘brother’ \n '''ax''' (Hebrew) \"brother\"\n '''uma''' / '''gʷma''' \"brother\"\n\n '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ \n '''*sum'''('''ts''')'''-''' ‘name’ (NOm) \n '''*sǔm''' / '''*sǐm-''' ‘name’ \n '''*ṣǝm''' ‘name’ \n '''smi''' ‘to report, announce’ \n '''*ism''' (Arabic) / '''shǝma''' (Assyrian) ‘name’ \n '''isen''' / '''isem''' \"name\"\n\n '''*-lisʼ-''' ‘to lick’ \n '''litsʼ-''' ‘to lick’ (Dime (SOm)) \n—\n '''*alǝsi''' ‘tongue’ \n '''ns''' ‘tongue’ \n '''*lsn''' ‘tongue’ \n '''iles''' \"tongue\"\n\n '''*-maaw-''' ‘to die’ \n—\n '''*-umaaw-''' / '''*-am-w'''('''t''')'''-''' ‘to die’ (PSom-II) \n '''*mǝtǝ''' ‘to die’ \n '''mwt''' ‘to die’ \n '''*mwt''' / '''mawta''' (Assyrian) ‘to die’ \n '''mmet''' \"to die\"\n\n '''*-bǐn-''' ‘to build, to create; house’ \n '''bin-''' ‘to build, create’ (Dime (SOm)) \n '''*mǐn-''' / '''*mǎn-''' ‘house’; '''man-''' ‘to create’ (Beja) \n '''*bn''' ‘to build’; '''*bǝn-''' ‘house’ \n—\n '''*bnn''' / '''bani''' (Assyrian) / '''bana''' (Hebrew) ‘to build’ \n '''*bn'''(?) ('''esk''' \"to build\")\n\n\n\nThere are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research:\n\n\n\n\n Number !! Proto-Afroasiatic Form !! Meaning !! Berber !! Chadic !! Cushitic !! Egyptian !! Omotic !! Semitic\n\n 1 \n *ʔab \n father \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 2 \n (ʔa-)bVr \n bull \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n\n 3 \n (ʔa-)dVm \n red, blood \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 4 \n *(ʔa-)dVm \n land, field, soil \n \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 5 \n ʔa-pay- \n mouth \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 6 \n ʔigar/ *ḳʷar- \n house, enclosure \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 7 \n *ʔil- \n eye \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n\n\n 8 \n (ʔi-)sim- \n name \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 9 \n *ʕayn- \n eye \n \n \n \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n\n 10 \n *baʔ- \n go \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 11 \n *bar- \n son \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 12 \n *gamm- \n mane, beard \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 13 \n *gVn \n cheek, chin \n \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 14 \n *gʷarʕ- \n throat \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 15 \n *gʷinaʕ- \n hand \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n\n\n 16 \n *kVn- \n co-wife \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 17 \n *kʷaly \n kidney \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n\n 18 \n *ḳa(wa)l-/ *qʷar- \n to say, call \n \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 19 \n *ḳas- \n bone \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n \n\n\n 20 \n *libb \n heart \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 21 \n *lis- \n tongue \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 22 \n *maʔ- \n water \n *aman \n *aman \n \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n\n 23 \n *mawVt- \n to die \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n\n 24 \n *sin- \n tooth \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 25 \n *siwan- \n know \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n \n\n\n 26 \n *inn- \n I, we \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n ✔ \n\n 27 \n *-k- \n thou \n ✔ \n ✔ \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 28 \n *zwr \n seed \n \n \n ✔ \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 29 \n *ŝVr \n root \n \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n 30 \n *šun \n to sleep, dream \n \n ✔ \n \n \n \n ✔ \n\n\n\n===Etymological bibliography===\nSome of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include:\n* Cohen, Marcel. 1947. ''Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique.'' Paris: Champion.\n* Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. \"Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian\", ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' 2–6.\n* Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (= ''University of California Publications in Linguistics'' 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.\n* Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. ''Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction.'' Leiden: Brill. .\n", "* Borean languages\n* Indo-European languages\n* Indo-Semitic languages\n* Languages of Africa\n* Languages of Asia\n* Languages of Europe\n* Nostratic languages\n* Proto-Afroasiatic language\n", "\n", "\n\n* Anthony, David. 2007. ''The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press.\n* Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. ''The Emergence of Pottery.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. \n* Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff.'' LINCOM.\n* Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. ''Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis.'' Signum.\n* Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. ''Afrasian Languages.'' Moscow: Nauka.\n* Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. \"Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily.\" ''Journal of Near Eastern Studies'' 55, 293.\n* Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. \"The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data.\" ''Journal of Semitic Studies'' 43, 209.\n* Dimmendaal, Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. \"Africa\". In Christopher Moseley, ed., ''Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages''.\n* Ehret, Christopher. 1995. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary.'' Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.\n* Ehret, Christopher. 1997. Abstract of \"The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (U.C. Press, 1995)\", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida on 21–23 March 1997.\n* Finnegan, Ruth H. 1970. \"Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa\". ''Oral Literature in Africa'', pg 558.\n* Fleming, Harold C. 2006. ''Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory.'' Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. \"Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic.\" ''Southwestern Journal of Anthropology'' 6, 47-63.\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. ''Studies in African Linguistic Classification.'' New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the ''SJA'' articles with minor corrections.)\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. ''The Languages of Africa''. Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.)\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. ''The Languages of Africa'' (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. \"African linguistic classification.\" ''General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory'', edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.\n* Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. ''Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press.\n* Hayward, R. J. 1995. \"The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994\". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.\n* Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. ''African Languages'', Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press.\n* Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. ''Afroasiatic: A Survey.'' The Hague – Paris: Mouton.\n* Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. \"Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic.\" In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), ''Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages'', Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165.\n* Huehnergard, John. 2004. \"Afro-Asiatic.\" In R.D. Woodard (editor), ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages'', Cambridge – New York, 2004, 138–159.\n* Militarev, Alexander. \"Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language of Ethiopia,\" 60 pp. In ''Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies'', Issue 5. Moscow. (Forthcoming.)\n* Newman, Paul. 1980. ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic.'' Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.\n* Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. ''A Guide to the World's Languages.'' Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.\n* Sands, Bonny. 2009. \"Africa’s linguistic diversity\". In ''Language and Linguistics Compass'' 3.2, 559–580.\n* Theil, R. 2006. Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006.\n* Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. ''L'Unità d'origine del linguaggio.'' Bologna: Luigi Beltrami.\n* Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003. Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Palgrave Macmillan.\n", "* Afro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006\n* Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk \"Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data\" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there \n* The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, by Alexander Militarev in \"Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis\", eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p. 135-50.\n* Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, by Alexander Militarev in \"Aspects of Comparative Linguistics\", v. 1. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, 2005, pp. 339–408.\n* Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in \"Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic\", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.\n* Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches, by Alexander Militarev in \"Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg.\" Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139-145.\n* A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions\n* \"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?\" by Rolf Theil (2006)\n* NACAL The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year\n* Afro-Asiatic webpage of Roger Blench (with family tree).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Distribution and branches", "Position among the world's languages", "Date of Afroasiatic", "Afroasiatic Urheimat", "Similarities in grammar and syntax", "Shared vocabulary", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Andorra''' (; , ), officially the '''Principality of Andorra''' (), also called the '''Principality of the Valleys of Andorra''' (), is a sovereign landlocked microstate in Southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. Created under a charter in 988, the present principality was formed in 1278. It is known as a principality as it is a diarchy headed by two Co-Princesthe Catholic Bishop of Urgell in Spain, and the President of France.\n\nAndorra is the sixth-smallest nation in Europe, having an area of 468 km2 (181 sq mi) and a population of approximately . Andorra is the 16th-smallest country in the world by land and 11th-smallest country by population. Its capital Andorra la Vella is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of above sea level. The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken.\n\nAndorra's tourism services an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. It is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is the official currency. It has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. In 2013, the people of Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, according to ''The Lancet''.\n", "The origin of the word ''Andorra'' is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The oldest derivation of the word ''Andorra'' is from the Greek historian Polybius (''The Histories'' III, 35, 1) who describes the ''Andosins'', an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars. The word ''Andosini'' or ''Andosins'' (Ἀνδοσίνους) may derive from the Basque ''handia'' whose meaning is \"big\" or \"giant\". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word ''Andorra'' may derive from the old word ''Anorra'' that contains the Basque word ''ur'' (water).\n\nAnother theory suggests that ''Andorra'' may derive from Arabic ''al-durra'', meaning \"The forest\" (الدرة). When the Moors colonized the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest, and other regions and towns, also administered by Muslims, received this designation.\n\nOther theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese ''andurrial'', which means \"land covered with bushes\" or \"scrubland\".\n\nThe folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of ''Endor'' or ''Andor'' (where the Midianites had been defeated), a name also bestowed by his heir and son Louis le Debonnaire after defeating the Moors in the \"wild valleys of Hell\".\n", "\n\n=== Prehistory ===\n''Roc de les Bruixes'' prehistorical sanctuary located in Canillo (detail).\n\nHannibal's route (in red) during the Second Punic War. The Iberian tribes (in green) fought against the Carthaginian army in the Pyrenees.\n\n''La Balma de la Margineda'' found by archaeologists at Sant Julia de Loria were the first temporal settled in 10,000 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege and Segre.\n\nDuring the Neolithic Age the group of humans moved to the Valley of Madriu (nowaday Natural Parc located in Escaldes-Engordany declared UNESCO World Heritage Site) as a permanent camp in 6640 BC. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and developed a commercial trade with people from the Segre and Occitania.\n\nOther archaeological deposits include the ''Tombs of Segudet'' (Ordino) and ''Feixa del Moro'' (Sant Julia de Loria) both dated in 4900–4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra.\nThe model of small settlements begin to evolved as a complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins and relicaries can be found in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country.\n\nThe sanctuary of ''Roc de les Bruixes'' (Stone of the Witches) is maybe the most important archeological complex of this Age in Andorra, located in the parish of Canillo, about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone murals.\n\n===The Iberian and Roman Andorra===\nThe inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe ''Andosins'' or ''Andosini'' (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the VII and II centuries BC. Influenced by Aquitanias, Basque and Iberian languages the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his ''Histories'' during the Punic Wars.\n\nSome of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the ''Roc d'Enclar'' (part of the early Marca Hispanica), ''l'Anxiu'' in Les Escaldes and ''Roc de L'Oral'' in Encamp.\nIt is known the presence of Roman influence from the II century BC to the V century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in ''Camp Vermell'' (Red Field) in Sant Julia de Loria and in some places in Encamp as well as in the ''Roc d'Enclar''. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet (nowaday La Seu d'Urgell) and all across Segre through the ''Via Romana Strata Ceretana'' (also known as ''Strata Confluetana''). \n\n===The Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne===\nCharlemagne instructing his son Louis the Pious\n\nAfter the fall of the Roman Empire Andorra was under the influence of the Visigoths, not directly from the Kingdom of Toledo by distance, but more particular from the Diocese of Urgell. The Visigoths remained during 200 years in the valleys, a period in which Christianization takes place within the country. The fall of the Visigoths came from the Muslim Empire and its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Andorra remained away from these invasions by the Franks.\n\nTradition holds that ''Charles the Great'' (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people, under the command of ''Marc Almugaver'' and an army of five thousand soldiers, in return for fighting against the Moors near Porté-Puymorens (Cerdanya).\n\nThe six old parishes named by their patron saint as depicted in the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (839)\n\nAndorra remained part of the Marca Hispanica of the Frankish Empire being overlordship of the territory the Count of Urgell and eventually by the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Also tradition holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, writing the ''Carta de Poblament'' or a local municipal charter circa 805.\n\nIn 988, Borrell II, Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then the Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been Co-prince of Andorra.\n\nThe first document that mentions ''Andorra'' as a territory is the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The old document dated from 839 depicts the six old parishes of the Andorran valleys and therefore the administrative division of the country.\n\n===Medieval Age: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality===\nSant Joan de Caselles church, dating from the 11th century, part of the Andorran Romanesque heritage\nBefore 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the Count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, asked the Lord of Caboet for help and protection. In 1095 the Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the Viscount of Castellbò and both became Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya. Years later their daughter, Ermessenda, married Roger Bernat II, the French Count of Foix. They became Roger Bernat II and Ermessenda I, Counts of Foix, Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya, and co-sovereigns of Andorra (shared with the Bishop of Urgell).\n\nIn the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon, Pere II between the Bishop and the Count, by the signing of the first paréage which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell, in Catalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form.\n\nMonument commemorating in 1978 the 700th anniversary of the Paréages, located outside Casa de la Vall in the capital city of Andorra la Vella\nSant Miquel d'Engolasters church painted by ''Mestre de Santa Coloma'' during the 12th century.\n\nA second paréage was signed in 1288 after a dispute when the Count of Foix ordered the construction of a castle in ''Roc d'Enclar''. The document was ratified by the noble notary Jaume Orig of Puigcerdà and the construction of military structures in the country was prohibited.\n\nIn 1364 the political organization of the country named the figure of the syndic (now spokesman and president of the parliament) as representative of the Andorrans to their co-princes making possible the creation of local departments (''comuns'', ''quarts'' and ''veïnats''). After being ratified by the Bishop Francesc Tovia and the Count Jean I, the ''Consell de la Terra'' or Consell General de les Valls (General Council of the Valleys) was founded in 1419, the second oldest parliament in Europe. The syndic Andreu d'Alàs and the General Council organized the creation of the Justice Courts (''La Cort de Justicia'') in 1433 with the Co-Princes and the collection of taxes like ''foc i lloc'' (literally ''fire and site'', a national tax active since then).\n\nAlthough we can find remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (''Sant Vicenç d'Enclar'' or Església de Santa Coloma), Andorra developed an exquisite Romanesque Art during the 9th and 14th centuries, as much in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the Virgin and Child (being the most important the Our Lady of Meritxell). Nowadays, the Romanesque buildings that form part of Andorra's cultural heritage stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on Església de Sant Esteve, Sant Joan de Caselles, Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters, Sant Martí de la Cortinada and the medieval bridges of Margineda and Escalls among many others.\n\nWhile the Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century Andorra was influenced by the appearance of that language where it was adopted by proximity and influence even decades before it was expanded by the rest of the Kingdom of Aragon.\n\nThe local population based its economy during the Middle Ages in the livestock and agriculture, as well as in furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first foundries of iron began to appear in Northern Parishes like Ordino, much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century.\n\n===16th to 18th centuries===\n''Tribunal de Corts'' (High Court of Justice) inside Casa de la Vall, the central Judiciary Court of Andorra\nIn 1601 the Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of Huguenot rebellions from France, Inquisition courts coming from Spain and indigenous witchcraft experienced in the country due to the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France, he issued an edict in 1607, that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as Co-Princes of Andorra. During 1617 communal councils form the ''sometent'' (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of ''bandolerisme'' (brigandage) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organization and competences current today .\n\nAndorra continues with the same economic system that it had during the 12th-14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (''fargues'', a system similar to ''Farga catalana'') and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. The fair of Andorra la Vella was ratified by the co-princes in 1371 and 1448 being the most important annual national festival commercially ever since.\nManor house of Rossell family in Ordino, ''Casa Rossell'', built in 1611. The family owned in 1619 also the largest ironwork forges in Andorra as ''Farga Rossell'' and ''Farga del Serrat''.\nThe country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, ''Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors'', located in Escaldes-Engordany founded in 1604 taking advantage of the thermal waters of the area. By the time the country constitutes the social system of ''prohoms'' (wealthy society) and ''casalers'' (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving to the tradition of ''pubilla'' and ''hereu''.\n\nThree centuries after its foundation the Consell de la Terra locates its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall in 1702. The manor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the ''Closet of the six keys'' (''Armari de les sis claus'') representative of each Andorran parish and where the Andorran constitution and other documents and laws were kept later on.\n\nIn both Guerra dels Segadors and Guerra de Sucesión Española conflicts, the Andorran people (although with the statement neutral country) supported the Catalans who saw their rights reduced in 1716. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the ''Book of Privileges'' (''Llibre de Privilegis de 1674''), ''Manual Digest'' (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the ''Polità andorrà'' (1763) by Antoni Puig.\n\n===19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question===\nGuillem d'Areny-Plandolit, nobleman and politician who promoted the ''New Reform'' in 1866\nAfter the French Revolution Napoleon I reestablished in 1809 the Co-Principate and deleted the French medieval tithe. Although in 1812–13, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during the Peninsular War (''Guerra del francés'') and divided it in four départements, with Andorra being made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre). In 1814 a royal decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra.\n\nAndorra retained its late medieval institutions and rural culture largely unchanged during this period. In 1866 the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit lead the ''reformist'' group in a Council General of 24 members, elected by suffrage limited to heads of families, replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform (''Nova Reforma'' or ''Pla de Reforma'') began after being ratified by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the constitution and symbols (such as the tricolor flag) of Andorra. A new service economy arise as a demand of the inhabitants of the valleys and began to build infrastructures such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines.\n\nIllustration of a scene from the streets of Canillo during the ''Revolution of 1881''.\nThe authorities of the Co-Princes (''veguer'') banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country by establishing an economic conflict with the demand of the Andorran people. The conflict led to the so-called ''Revolution of 1881'' or ''Troubles of Andorra'', when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic during 8 December 1880 and established the ''Provisional Revolutionary Council'' led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas, who granted the construction of casinos and spas to foreign companies. During 7 and 9 June 1881, the loyalists of Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany. After a day of combat finally the Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed the 10 of June. The Council was replaced and new elections were made but the economic situation worsened with a divided society: the ''Qüestió d'Andorra'' (the ''Andorran Question'' in relation to the Eastern Question). The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French and nationalists who derived the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885.\n\nAndorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan Renaixença. Between 1882 and 1887 the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexists with the knowledge of the official language, Catalan. Some romantic authors from both France and Spain reported the awakening of the national consciousness of the country. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and share works related to the Renaixença with Joaquim de Riba, writer and photographer. Fromental Halévy, for his part, had already premiered in 1848 the opera ''Le Val d'Andorre'' of great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys during the Peninsular War was exposed in the romantic work.\n\n===20th century===\nBoris Skossyreff, briefly self-proclaimed \"King of Andorra\" in 1934\nAndorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I, but did not actually take part in the fighting. It remained in an official state of belligerency until 1958 as it was not included in the Treaty of Versailles.\n\nIn 1933, France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections. On 12 July 1934, adventurer Boris Skossyreff issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself \"Boris I, King of Andorra\", simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by the Spanish authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Spain.\n\nGiven its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Its political system was modernised in 1993, when it became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe.\n", "\n\n\n\nAndorra is a parliamentary co-principality with the President of France and the Catholic Bishop of Urgell (Catalonia, Spain) as Co-Princes. This peculiarity makes the President of France, in his capacity as Prince of Andorra, an elected reigning monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy, whereby the Head of Government is the chief executive, and of a pluriform multi-party system.\n\nThe current Head of Government is Antoni Martí of the Democrats for Andorra (DA). Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament.\n\nThe Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 Councillors. The Councillors serve for four-year terms, and elections are held between the 30th and 40th days following the dissolution of the previous Council.\n\nHalf are elected in equal numbers by each of the seven administrative parishes, and the other half of the Councillors are elected in a single national constituency. Fifteen days after the election, the Councillors hold their inauguration. During this session, the Syndic General, who is the head of the General Council, and the Subsyndic General, his assistant, are elected. Eight days later, the Council convenes once more. During this session the Head of Government is chosen from among the Councillors.\n\nCasa de la Vall, Andorran Parliament\n\nCandidates can be proposed by a minimum of one-fifth of the Councillors. The Council then elects the candidate with the absolute majority of votes to be Head of Government. The Syndic General then notifies the Co-Princes, who in turn appoint the elected candidate as the Head of Government of Andorra. The General Council is also responsible for proposing and passing laws. Bills may be presented to the Council as Private Members' Bills by three of the local Parish Councils jointly or by at least one tenth of the citizens of Andorra.\n\nThe Council also approves the annual budget of the principality. The government must submit the proposed budget for parliamentary approval at least two months before the previous budget expires. If the budget is not approved by the first day of the next year, the previous budget is extended until a new one is approved. Once any bill is approved, the Syndic General is responsible for presenting it to the Co-Princes so that they may sign and enact it.\n\nIf the Head of Government is not satisfied with the Council, he may request that the Co-Princes dissolve the Council and order new elections. In turn, the Councillors have the power to remove the Head of Government from office. After a motion of censure is approved by at least one-fifth of the Councillors, the Council will vote and if it receives the absolute majority of votes, the Head of Government is removed.\n", "The judiciary is composed of the Magistrates Court, the Criminal Law Court, the High Court of Andorra, and the Constitutional Court. The High Court of Justice is composed of five judges: one appointed by the Head of Government, one each by the Co-Princes, one by the Syndic General, and one by the Judges and Magistrates. It is presided over by the member appointed by the Syndic General and the judges hold office for six-year terms.\n\nThe Magistrates and Judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the President of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the Co-Princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the Judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court.\n", "\nThe embassy of Andorra in Brussels \nAndorra does not have its own armed forces, although there is a small ceremonial army. Responsibility for defending the nation rests primarily with France and Spain. However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the ''Sometent'' (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. Andorra is a full member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and has a special agreement with the European Union (EU).\n\n===Military===\nAndorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the sounding of the ''Sometent''. Being a landlocked country, Andorra has no navy.\n\nPrior to World War I Andorra maintained an armed force of about 600 part-time militiamen. This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (''viguiers'') appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell.\n\nDespite not being involved in any fighting during the First World War, Andorra was technically the longest combatant, as the country was left out of the Versailles Peace Conference, technically remaining at war with Germany from its original declaration of war in 1914 until 24 September 1958 when Andorra officially declared peace with Germany.\n\nIn the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities.\n\nThe army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie, with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Army was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six Corporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish.\n\nToday a small, twelve-man ceremonial unit remains the only permanent section of the Andorran Army, but all able-bodied men remain technically available for military service, with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. The army has not fought for more than 700 years, and its main responsibility is to present the flag of Andorra at official ceremonial functions. According to Marc Forné Molné, Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers.\n\nThe myth that all members of the Andorran Army are ranked as officers is popularly maintained in many works of reference. In reality, all those serving in the permanent ceremonial reserve hold ranks as officers, or non-commissioned officers, because the other ranks are considered to be the rest of the able-bodied male population, who may still be called upon by the ''Sometent'' to serve, although such a call has not been made in modern times.\n\n===Police Corps===\n\nAndorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.\n\n====GIPA====\nThe ''Grup d'Intervenció Policia d'Andorra'' (GIPA) is a small special forces unit trained in counter-terrorism, and hostage recovery tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the Police Corps, and not the army. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the nation, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing.\n\n===Fire brigade===\nThe ''Andorran Fire Brigade'', with headquarters at Santa Coloma, operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances.\n\nHistorically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the ''Andorran Fire Brigade'' was formed on 21 April 1961.\n\nThe fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.\n", "Map of Andorra with its seven parishes labelled\n\n\n===Parishes===\n\nAndorra consists of seven parishes:\n\n* Andorra la Vella\n* Canillo\n* Encamp\n* Escaldes-Engordany\n* La Massana\n* Ordino\n* Sant Julià de Lòria\n\n===Physical geography===\nScenery of Andorran mountains\nTopographic map of Andorra\n\nDue to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at , and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the Gran Valira river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of ). Andorra's land area is .\n\nPhytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Andorra belongs to the ecoregion of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests.\n\n===Climate===\nAndorra has an alpine climate and continental climate. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter, lower humidity, and it is slightly cooler in summer.\n", "\nExports in 2009\nTourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 10.2 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts.\n\nOne of the main sources of income in Andorra is tourism from ski resorts which total over of ski ground. The sport brings in over 7 million visitors and an estimated 340 million euros per year, sustaining 2,000 direct and 10,000 indirect jobs at present.\n\nThe banking sector, with its tax haven status, also contributes substantially to the economy (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP). The financial system comprises five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, 8 investment undertaking management entities, 3 asset management companies and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality.\n\nAgricultural production is limited—only 2% of the land is arable—and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead.\n\nAndorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the French franc and the Spanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014.\n\nAndorra has traditionally had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2009 it stood at 2.9%.\n\nAndorra has long benefited from its status as a tax haven, with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs. However, during the European sovereign-debt crisis of the 21st century, its tourist economy suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, which undercut Andorran duty-free shopping. This led to a growth in unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter. On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Head of Government Antoni Marti and the French President and Prince of Andorra, François Hollande. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra \"bringing its taxation in line with international standards\".\n", "The town of Encamp, Andorra, as seen from the Vall dels Cortals\n\n\n===Population===\n\nThe population of Andorra is estimated at (). The population has grown from 5,000 in 1900.\n\nTwo-thirds of residents lack Andorran nationality and do not have the right to vote in communal elections. Moreover, they are not allowed to be elected as president or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company.\n\n===Languages===\n\nThe historic and official language is Catalan, a Romance language. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan Toponymy in Andorra (Catalan: ''la Comissió de Toponímia d'Andorra''), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan.\n\nBecause of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are also commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, Monaco, and Turkey) that have never signed the Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities.\n\nAccording to the ''Observatori Social d'Andorra'', the linguistic usage in Andorra is as follows:\n\n\n\nMother tongue \n %\n\nCatalan \n 38.8%\n\nSpanish \n 35.4%\n\nPortuguese \n 15%\n\nFrench \n 5.4%\n\nOthers \n 5.5%\n\n 2005 3 PoliticaLinguistica.pdf\n\n\n===Religion===\nThe population of Andorra is predominantly (88.2%) Catholic. Their patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell. Though it is not an official state religion, the constitution acknowledges a special relationship with the Catholic Church, offering some special privileges to that group. Other Christian denominations include the Anglican Church, the Unification Church, the New Apostolic Church, and Jehovah's Witnesses. The small Muslim community is primarily made up of North African immigrants. There is a small community of Hindus and Bahá'ís and roughly 100 Jews live in Andorra. (See History of the Jews in Andorra.)\n", "\n===Largest cities===\n\n\n", "\n===Schools===\nChildren between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Education up to secondary level is provided free of charge by the government.\n\nThere are three systems of school—Andorran, French, and Spanish—which use Catalan, French, and Spanish, respectively, as the main language of instruction. Parents may choose which system their children attend. All schools are built and maintained by Andorran authorities, but teachers in the French and Spanish schools are paid for the most part by France and Spain. About 50% of Andorran children attend the French primary schools, and the rest attend Spanish or Andorran schools.\n\n===University of Andorra===\nThe Universitat d'Andorra (UdA) is the state public university and is the only university in Andorra. It was established in 1997. The university provides first-level degrees in nursing, computer science, business administration, and educational sciences, in addition to higher professional education courses. The only two graduate schools in Andorra are the Nursing School and the School of Computer Science, the latter having a PhD programme.\n\n====Virtual Studies Centre====\nThe geographical complexity of the country as well as the small number of students prevents the University of Andorra from developing a full academic programme, and it serves principally as a centre for virtual studies, connected to Spanish and French universities. The Virtual Studies Centre (''Centre d’Estudis Virtuals'') at the University runs approximately twenty different academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels in fields including tourism, law, Catalan philology, humanities, psychology, political sciences, audiovisual communication, telecommunications engineering, and East Asia studies. The Centre also runs various postgraduate programmes and continuing-education courses for professionals.\n", "Healthcare in Andorra is provided to all employed persons and their families by the government-run social security system, ''Caixa Andorrana de Seguretat Social'' (CASS), which is funded by employer and employee contributions in respect of salaries. The cost of healthcare is covered by CASS at rates of 75% for out-patient expenses such as medicines and hospital visits, 90% for hospitalisation, and 100% for work-related accidents. The remainder of the costs may be covered by private health insurance. Other residents and tourists require full private health insurance.\n\nThe main hospital, Meritxell, is in Escaldes-Engordany. There are also 12 primary health care centres in various locations around the principality.\n", "\n\n\nA train at Latour-de-Carol (''La Tor de Querol''), one of the two stations serving Andorra. Andorra has no railways, although the line connecting Latour-de-Carol and Toulouse, which in turn connects to France's TGVs at Toulouse, runs within of the Andorran border.\n\nUntil the 20th century, Andorra had very limited transport links to the outside world, and development of the country was affected by its physical isolation. Even now, the nearest major airports at Toulouse and Barcelona are both three hours' drive from Andorra.\n\nAndorra has a road network of , of which is unpaved. The two main roads out of Andorra la Vella are the CG-1 to the Spanish border, and the CG-2 to the French border via the Envalira Tunnel near El Pas de la Casa. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to Barcelona and Toulouse, plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services are mostly run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government.\n\nThere are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in La Massana (Camí Heliport), Arinsal and Escaldes-Engordany with commercial helicopter services and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of Alt Urgell, south of the Andorran-Spanish border. Since July 2015, Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport has operated commercial flights to Madrid and Palma de Mallorca, and is the main hub for Air Andorra and Andorra Airlines.\n\nNearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at Perpignan, France ( from Andorra) and Lleida, Spain ( from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France ( from Andorra) and Barcelona, Spain ( from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra.\n\nThe nearest railway station is L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre east of Andorra which is on the -gauge line from Latour-de-Carol () southeast of Andorra, to Toulouse and on to Paris by the French high-speed trains. This line is operated by the SNCF. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic trainline to Villefranche-de-Conflent, as well as the SNCF's gauge line connecting to Perpignan, and the RENFE's -gauge line to Barcelona. There are also direct Intercités de Nuit trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates.\n", "\n\n\nIn Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as Andorra Telecom (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio.\n\nBy the end of 2010, it was planned that every home in the country would have fibre-to-the-home for internet access at a minimum speed of 100 Mbit/s, and the availability was complete in June 2012.\n\nThere is only one Andorran television station, ''Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra'' (RTVA). ''Radio Nacional d’Andorra'' operates two radio stations, ''Radio Andorra'' and ''Andorra Música''. There are three national newspapers, ''Diari d'Andorra'', ''El Periòdic d'Andorra'', and ''Bondia'' as well as several local newspapers. There is also an amateur radio society. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV.\n", "\n\nAndorran flag on balcony, Ordino\nThe official and historic language is Catalan. Thus the culture is Catalan, with its own specificity.\n\nAndorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in Sant Julià de Lòria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially Catalan in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the sardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in Andorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is Our Lady of Meritxell Day, 8 September. American folk artist Malvina Reynolds, intrigued by its defence budget of $4.90, wrote a song \"Andorra\". Pete Seeger added verses, and sang \"Andorra\" on his 1962 album ''The Bitter and the Sweet''.\n", "Andorra is famous for the practice of Winter Sports. Popular sports played in Andorra include football, rugby union, basketball and roller hockey.\n\nIn roller hockey Andorra usually plays in CERH Euro Cup and in FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the 2011 European League Final Eight.\n\nEstadi Comunal d'Andorra la Vella \nThe country is represented in association football by the Andorra national football team. However, the team has had little success internationally because of Andorra's small population. Football is ruled in Andorra by the Andorran Football Federation founded in 1994, it organizes the national competitions of association football (Primera Divisió, Copa Constitució and Supercopa) and futsal. FC Andorra, a club based in Andorra la Vella founded in 1942, compete in the Spanish football league system.\n\nRugby is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by the popularity in southern France. The Andorra national rugby union team, nicknamed \"''Els Isards''\", has impressed on the international stage in rugby union and rugby sevens. VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella actually playing in the French championship.\n\nBasketball popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team BC Andorra played in the top league of Spain (Liga ACB). After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014.\n\nOther sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of .\n\nAndorra first participated at the Olympic Games in 1976. The country has also appeared in every Winter Olympic Games since 1976. Andorra competes in the Games of the Small States of Europe being twice the host country in 1991 and 2005.\n\nAs part of the Catalan cultural ambit, Andorra is home to a team of castellers, or Catalan human tower builders. The Castellers d'Andorra, based in the town of Santa Coloma d'Andorra, are recognized by the Coordinadora de Colles Castelleres de Catalunya, the governing body of castells.\n\n===Major achievements===\nAriadna Tudel Cuberes and Sophie Dusautoir Bertrand earned the bronze medal in the women's team competition at the 2009 European Championship of Ski Mountaineering. Joan Verdu Sanchez earned a bronze medal in Alpine Skiing at the 2012 Winter Youth Olympics. In 2015, Marc Oliveras earned a silver medal in Alpine Skiing at the 2015 Winter Universiade, while Carmina Pallas earned a silver and a bronze medal in the same competition.\n", "\n\n* Index of Andorra-related articles\n* Outline of Andorra\n* Bibliography of Andorra\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* Govern d'Andorra Official governmental site \n* \n* Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress\n* Andorra from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n* Andorra from the BBC News\n* Andorra – Guía, turismo y de viajes \n* History of Andorra: Primary Documents from ''EuroDocs''\n* A New Path for Andorra – slideshow by ''The New York Times''\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "History", "Politics", "Law and criminal justice", "Foreign relations, defence, and security", "Geography", "Economy", "Demographics", "Statistics", "Education", "Healthcare", "Transport", "Media and telecommunications", "Culture", "Sports", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nIn mathematics and statistics, the '''arithmetic mean''' (, stress on third syllable of \"arithmetic\"), or simply the mean or '''average''' when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results of an experiment, or a set of results from a survey. The term \"arithmetic mean\" is preferred in some contexts in mathematics and statistics because it helps distinguish it from other means, such as the geometric mean and the harmonic mean.\n\nIn addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is used frequently in fields such as economics, sociology, and history, and it is used in almost every academic field to some extent. For example, per capita income is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population.\n\nWhile the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies, it is not a robust statistic, meaning that it is greatly influenced by outliers (values that are very much larger or smaller than most of the values). Notably, for skewed distributions, such as the distribution of income for which a few people's incomes are substantially greater than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not accord with one's notion of \"middle\", and robust statistics, such as the median, may be a better description of central tendency.\n", "The '''arithmetic mean''' (or '''mean''' or '''average''') is the most commonly used and readily understood measure of central tendency. In statistics, the term average refers to any of the measures of central tendency. The arithmetic mean is defined as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and every observation divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, if we have a data set containing the values , then the arithmetic mean is defined by the formula:\n\n:\n\n(See summation for an explanation of the summation operator).\n\nFor example, let us consider the monthly salary of 10 employees of a firm: 2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400. The arithmetic mean is\n\n: \n\nIf the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the '''population mean'''. If the data set is a statistical sample (a subset of the population), we call the statistic resulting from this calculation a '''sample mean'''.\n\nThe arithmetic mean of a variable is often denoted by a bar, for example as in (read ''bar''), which is the mean of the values .\n", "\nThe arithmetic mean has several properties that make it useful, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include:\n\n* If numbers have mean , then . Since is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is as saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right of the mean. The mean is the only single number for which the residuals (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero.\n* If it is required to use a single number as a \"typical\" value for a set of known numbers , then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best, in the sense of minimizing the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of . (It follows that the sample mean is also the best single predictor in the sense of having the lowest root mean squared error.) If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is unbiased is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population.\n", "\nThe arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger than, and no more than half are smaller than, the median. If elements in the sample data increase arithmetically, when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample . The average is , as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged so as to increase arithmetically, such as , the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is 6.2 and the median is 4. In general, the average value can vary significantly from most values in the sample, and can be larger or smaller than most of them.\n\nThere are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.\n", "\n===Weighted average===\n\nA weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more strongly than others, in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of and is , or equivalently . In contrast, a ''weighted'' mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as . Here the weights, which necessarily sum to the value one, are and , the former being twice the latter. Note that the arithmetic mean (sometimes called the \"unweighted average\" or \"equally weighted average\") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all the weights are equal to each other (equal to in the above example, and equal to in a situation with numbers being averaged).\n\n===Continuous probability distributions===\n\nComparison of mean, median and mode of two log-normal distributions with different skewness.\n\nWhen a population of numbers, and any sample of data from it, could take on any of a continuous range of numbers, instead of for example just integers, then the probability of a number falling into one range of possible values could differ from the probability of falling into a different range of possible values, even if the lengths of both ranges are the same. In such a case, the set of probabilities can be described using a continuous probability distribution. The analog of a weighted average in this context, in which there are an infinitude of possibilities for the precise value of the variable, is called the ''mean of the probability distribution''. The most widely encountered probability distribution is called the normal distribution; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the aforementioned median and the mode, are equal to each other. This property does not hold however, in the cases of a great many probability distributions, such as the lognormal distribution illustrated here.\n", "\n\nParticular care must be taken when using cyclic data, such as phases or angles. Naïvely taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°.\nThis is incorrect for two reasons:\n* Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to an additive constant of 360° (or 2π, if measuring in radians). Thus one could as easily call these 1° and −1°, or 361° and 719°, each of which gives a different average.\n* Secondly, in this situation, 0° (equivalently, 360°) is geometrically a better ''average'' value: there is lower dispersion about it (the points are both 1° from it, and 179° from 180°, the putative average).\n\nIn general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation (viz., define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion), and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°).\n", "* Average\n* Fréchet mean\n* Generalized mean\n* Geometric mean\n* Mode\n* Sample mean and covariance\n* Standard error of the mean\n* Summary statistics\n", "\n", "* \n", "* Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean of two numbers\n* \n* Calculate the arithmetic mean of a series of numbers on fxSolver\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Definition", "Motivating properties", "Contrast with median", "Generalizations", "Angles", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Amphibians''' are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates of the class '''Amphibia'''. Modern amphibians are all Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terrestrial, fossorial, arboreal or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. Thus amphibians typically start out as larvae living in water, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. The young generally undergo metamorphosis from larva with gills to an adult air-breathing form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory surface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to lizards but, along with mammals and birds, reptiles are amniotes and do not require water bodies in which to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often ecological indicators; in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations for many species around the globe.\n\nThe earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from sarcopterygian fish with lungs and bony-limbed fins, features that were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, but were later displaced by reptiles and other vertebrates. Over time, amphibians shrank in size and decreased in diversity, leaving only the modern subclass Lissamphibia.\n\nThe three modern orders of amphibians are Anura (the frogs and toads), Urodela (the salamanders), and Apoda (the caecilians). The number of known amphibian species is approximately 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from New Guinea (''Paedophryne amauensis'') with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), but this is dwarfed by the extinct ''Prionosuchus'' from the middle Permian of Brazil. The study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology.\n", "\nThe world's smallest known vertebrate, ''Paedophryne amauensis'', sitting on a U.S. dime, which is 17.9 mm in diameter, for scale\n\nThe word \"amphibian\" is derived from the Ancient Greek term ἀμφίβιος (''amphíbios''), which means \"both kinds of life\", ''ἀμφί'' meaning \"of both kinds\" and ''βιος'' meaning \"life\". The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense (''sensu lato'') was divided into three subclasses, two of which are extinct:\n*Subclass Lepospondyli† (small Paleozoic group, which may actually be more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia)\n* Subclass Temnospondyli† (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade)\n* Subclass Lissamphibia (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians)\n** Salientia (frogs, toads and relatives): Jurassic to present—6,200 current species in 53 families\n** Caudata (salamanders, newts and relatives): Jurassic to present—652 current species in 9 families\n** Gymnophiona (caecilians and relatives): Jurassic to present—192 current species in 10 families\n\nTriadobatrachus massinoti'', a proto-frog from the Early Triassic of Madagascar\nThe actual number of species in each group depends on the taxonomic classification followed. The two most common systems are the classification adopted by the website AmphibiaWeb, University of California, Berkeley and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and the American Museum of Natural History, available as the online reference database \"Amphibian Species of the World\". The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known amphibian species is over 7,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs.\n\nWith the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy, and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group.\n\nAll modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs and toads), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians). It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a Temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians, and thus of amniotes. Although the fossils of several older proto-frogs with primitive characteristics are known, the oldest \"true frog\" is ''Prosalirus bitis'', from the Early Jurassic Kayenta Formation of Arizona. It is anatomically very similar to modern frogs. The oldest known caecilian is another Early Jurassic species, ''Eocaecilia micropodia'', also from Arizona. The earliest salamander is ''Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis'' from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China.\n\nAuthorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders, but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, ''Triadobatrachus''.\n", "\n\n\nThe first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian period, around 370 million years ago, from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs to help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods, including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills.\n\nMany examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered. ''Ichthyostega'' was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, ''Eusthenopteron''. Amphibians evolved adaptations that allowed them to stay out of the water for longer periods. Their lungs improved and their skeletons became heavier and stronger, better able to support the weight of their bodies on land. They developed \"hands\" and \"feet\" with five or more digits; the skin became more capable of retaining body fluids and resisting desiccation. The fish's hyomandibula bone in the hyoid region behind the gills diminished in size and became the stapes of the amphibian ear, an adaptation necessary for hearing on dry land. An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra-occipital bones at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom.\n\nThe Permian lepospondyl ''Diplocaulus'' was largely aquatic\nAt the end of the Devonian period (360 million years ago), the seas, rivers and lakes were teeming with life while the land was the realm of early plants and devoid of vertebrates, though some, such as ''Ichthyostega'', may have sometimes hauled themselves out of the water. It is thought they may have propelled themselves with their forelimbs, dragging their hindquarters in a similar manner to that used by the elephant seal. In the early Carboniferous (360 to 345 million years ago), the climate became wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with mosses, ferns, horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, occupying the ecological position currently held by the crocodile. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. They were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the amniotic egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed.\n\nAfter the Carboniferous rainforest collapse amphibian dominance gave way to reptiles, and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian–Triassic extinction event. During the Triassic Period (250 to 200 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the biosphere. According to the fossil record, Lissamphibia, which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating, but the most recent molecular study, based on multilocus sequence typing, suggests a Late Carboniferous/Early Permian origin for extant amphibians.\n\nThe temnospondyl ''Eryops'' had sturdy limbs to support its body on land\nThe origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on rDNA analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the fossil record, but the discovery of a proto-frog from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. Molecular analysis suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence indicates. Newer research indicates that the common ancestor of all Lissamphibians lived about 315 million years ago, and that stereospondyls are the closest relatives to the caecilians.\n\nAs they evolved from lunged fish, amphibians had to make certain adaptations for living on land, including the need to develop new means of locomotion. In the water, the sideways thrusts of their tails had propelled them forward, but on land, quite different mechanisms were required. Their vertebral columns, limbs, limb girdles and musculature needed to be strong enough to raise them off the ground for locomotion and feeding. Terrestrial adults discarded their lateral line systems and adapted their sensory systems to receive stimuli via the medium of the air. They needed to develop new methods to regulate their body heat to cope with fluctuations in ambient temperature. They developed behaviours suitable for reproduction in a terrestrial environment. Their skins were exposed to harmful ultraviolet rays that had previously been absorbed by the water. The skin changed to become more protective and prevent excessive water loss.\n", "The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp.\n\nThe smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea (''Paedophryne amauensis'') first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus'') but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct ''Prionosuchus'', a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil! The largest frog is the African Goliath frog (''Conraua goliath''), which can reach and weigh .\n\nAmphibians are ectothermic (cold-blooded) vertebrates that do not maintain their body temperature through internal physiological processes. Their metabolic rate is low and as a result, their food and energy requirements are limited. In the adult state, they have tear ducts and movable eyelids, and most species have ears that can detect airborne or ground vibrations. They have muscular tongues, which in many species can be protruded. Modern amphibians have fully ossified vertebrae with articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, apart from a few fish-like scales in certain caecilians. The skin contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands (a type of granular gland). The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Most amphibians lay their eggs in water and have aquatic larvae that undergo metamorphosis to become terrestrial adults. Amphibians breathe by means of a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin.\n\n=== Anura ===\nRed-eyed tree frog (''Agalychnis callidryas'') with limbs and feet specialised for climbing\nThe order Anura (from the Ancient Greek ''a(n)-'' meaning \"without\" and ''oura'' meaning \"tail\") comprises the frogs and toads. They usually have long hind limbs that fold underneath them, shorter forelimbs, webbed toes with no claws, no tails, large eyes and glandular moist skin. Members of this order with smooth skins are commonly referred to as frogs, while those with warty skins are known as toads. The difference is not a formal one taxonomically and there are numerous exceptions to this rule. Members of the family Bufonidae are known as the \"true toads\". Frogs range in size from the Goliath frog (''Conraua goliath'') of West Africa to the ''Paedophryne amauensis'', first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas.\n\nAnura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships. The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of primitive frogs. These are Ascaphidae, Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages. The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae, Pelobatidae, Pelodytidae, Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and the obligatorily aquatic Pipidae. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. Neobatrachia is by far the largest suborder and includes the remaining families of modern frogs, including most common species. Ninety-six percent of the over 5,000 extant species of frog are neobatrachians.\n\n=== Caudata ===\nJapanese giant salamander (''Andrias japonicus''), a primitive salamander\n\nThe order Caudata (from the Latin ''cauda'' meaning \"tail\") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with tubercles, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), which has been reported to grow to a length of , to the diminutive ''Thorius pennatulus'' from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length. Salamanders have a mostly Laurasian distribution, being present in much of the Holarctic region of the northern hemisphere. The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin; South America was apparently invaded from Central America by about the start of the Miocene, 23 million years ago. Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the extant species of salamanders. Members of several salamander families have become paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults. Most salamanders are under long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates.\n\nDanube crested newt (''Triturus dobrogicus''), an advanced salamander\n\nThe suborder Cryptobranchoidea contains the primitive salamanders. A number of fossil cryptobranchids have been found, but there are only three living species, the Chinese giant salamander (''Andrias davidianus''), the Japanese giant salamander (''Andrias japonicus'') and the hellbender (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') from North America. These large amphibians retain several larval characteristics in their adult state; gills slits are present and the eyes are unlidded. A unique feature is their ability to feed by suction, depressing either the left side of their lower jaw or the right. The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has capillaries close to the surface.\n\nThe suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the spermatophore, and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid. The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name \"newt\" is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae.\n\nThe third suborder, Sirenoidea, contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, Sirenidae. Members of this order are eel-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation.\n\n=== Gymnophiona ===\nThe limbless South American caecilian ''Siphonops paulensis''\nThe order Gymnophiona (from the Greek ''gymnos'' meaning \"naked\" and ''ophis'' meaning \"serpent\") or Apoda (from the Latin ''an-'' meaning \"without\" and the Greek ''poda'' meaning \"legs\") comprises the caecilians. These are long, cylindrical, limbless animals with a snake- or worm-like form. The adults vary in length from 8 to 75 centimetres (3 to 30 inches) with the exception of Thomson's caecilian (''Caecilia thompsoni''), which can reach . A caecilian's skin has a large number of transverse folds and in some species contains tiny embedded dermal scales. It has rudimentary eyes covered in skin, which are probably limited to discerning differences in light intensity. It also has a pair of short tentacles near the eye that can be extended and which have tactile and olfactory functions. Most caecilians live underground in burrows in damp soil, in rotten wood and under plant debris, but some are aquatic. Most species lay their eggs underground and when the larvae hatch, they make their way to adjacent bodies of water. Others brood their eggs and the larvae undergo metamorphosis before the eggs hatch. A few species give birth to live young, nourishing them with glandular secretions while they are in the oviduct. Caecilians have a mostly Gondwanan distribution, being found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia and Central and South America.\n", "\n=== Skin ===\nbright colours of the common reed frog (''Hyperolius viridiflavus'') are typical of a toxic species\nThe integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the dermis between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.\nCross section of frog skin. A: Mucus gland, B: Chromatophore, C: Granular poison gland, D: Connective tissue, E: Stratum corneum, F: Transition zone, G: Epidermis, H: Dermis\nAmphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin (cutaneous respiration) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds. To compensate for their thin and delicate skin, amphibians have evolved mucous glands, principally on their heads, backs and tails. The secretions produced by these help keep the skin moist. In addition, most species of amphibian have granular glands that secrete distasteful or poisonous substances. Some amphibian toxins can be lethal to humans while others have little effect. The main poison-producing glands, the paratoids, produce the neurotoxin bufotoxin and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians.\n\nThe skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators.\n\n=== Skeletal system and locomotion ===\nAmphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle, and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals.\n\nSkeleton of the Surinam horned frog(''Ceratophrys cornuta'')\nIn most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side.\n\nIn frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Some salamanders in the genus ''Aneides'' and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails. In aquatic salamanders and in frog tadpoles, the tail has dorsal and ventral fins and is moved from side to side as a means of propulsion. Adult frogs do not have tails and caecilians have only very short ones.\n\nSalamanders use their tails in defence and some are prepared to jettison them to save their lives in a process known as autotomy. Certain species in the Plethodontidae have a weak zone at the base of the tail and use this strategy readily. The tail often continues to twitch after separation which may distract the attacker and allow the salamander to escape. Both tails and limbs can be regenerated. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so.\n\n=== Circulatory system ===\nDidactic model of an amphibian heart.\nJuvenile amphibian circulatory systems are single loop systems which resemble fish. 1 – Internal gills where the blood is reoxygenated2 – Point where the blood is depleted of oxygen and returns to the heart via veins3 – Two chambered heart.Red indicates oxygenated blood, and blue represents oxygen depleted blood.\nAmphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers.\n\n=== Nervous and sensory systems ===\nThe nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain. The brain consists of equal parts, cerebrum, midbrain and cerebellum. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians.\n\nTadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Some caecilians possess electroreceptors that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes, to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called ''papilla amphibiorum'', in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals. The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound.\n\nThe eyes of tadpoles lack lids, but at metamorphosis, the cornea becomes more dome-shaped, the lens becomes flatter, and eyelids and associated glands and ducts develop. The adult eyes are an improvement on invertebrate eyes and were a first step in the development of more advanced vertebrate eyes. They allow colour vision and depth of focus. In the retinas are green rods, which are receptive to a wide range of wavelengths.\n\n=== Digestive and excretory systems ===\nDissected frog: 1 Right atrium, 2 Liver, 3 Aorta, 4 Egg mass, 5 Colon, 6 Left atrium, 7 Ventricle, 8 Stomach, 9 Left lung, 10 Gallbladder, 11 Small intestine, 12 Cloaca\nMany amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage. The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey.\n\nAmphibians possess a pancreas, liver and gall bladder. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen (in internal structures called fat bodies), under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail.\n\n\nThere are two kidneys located dorsally, near the roof of the body cavity. Their job is to filter the blood of metabolic waste and transport the urine via ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored before being passed out periodically through the cloacal vent. Larvae and most aquatic adult amphibians excrete the nitrogen as ammonia in large quantities of dilute urine, while terrestrial species, with a greater need to conserve water, excrete the less toxic product urea. Some tree frogs with limited access to water excrete most of their metabolic waste as uric acid.\n\n=== Respiratory system ===\nThe axolotl (''Ambystoma mexicanum'') retains its larval form with gills into adulthood\nThe lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal septa and large alveoli, and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping. Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration, the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the Titicaca water frog and the hellbender salamander. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the plethodontid salamanders, which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the axolotl) retaining gills as aquatic adults.\n", "\nMale orange-thighed frog (''Litoria xanthomera'') grasping the female during amplexus\nFor the purpose of reproduction most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. ''Fejervarya raja'') can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid ''Pelophylax esculentus'' reported in 2010.\n\nSeveral hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., ''Eleutherodactylus'', the Pacific ''Platymantis'', the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for breeding in the wild. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing.\n\nIn the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active.\n\nIn caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an intromittent organ, the phallodeum, and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct.\n\nThe majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the substrate either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass.\n\nWith a few exceptions, frogs use external fertilisation. The male grasps the female tightly with his forelimbs either behind the arms or in front of the back legs, or in the case of ''Epipedobates tricolor'', around the neck. They remain in amplexus with their cloacae positioned close together while the female lays the eggs and the male covers them with sperm. Roughened nuptial pads on the male's hands aid in retaining grip. Often the male collects and retains the egg mass, forming a sort of basket with the hind feet. An exception is the granular poison frog (''Oophaga granulifera'') where the male and female place their cloacae in close proximity while facing in opposite directions and then release eggs and sperm simultaneously. The tailed frog (''Ascaphus truei'') exhibits internal fertilisation. The \"tail\" is only possessed by the male and is an extension of the cloaca and used to inseminate the female. This frog lives in fast-flowing streams and internal fertilisation prevents the sperm from being washed away before fertilisation occurs. The sperm may be retained in storage tubes attached to the oviduct until the following spring.\n\nMost frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females.\n\nSexual selection has been studied in the red back salamander\n\n\nThere is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with. Some species store sperm through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.\n", "Most amphibians go through metamorphosis, a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and prolactin, which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.\n\n=== Eggs ===\nFrogspawn, a mass of eggs surrounded by jelly\nAmphibian egg: 1. Jelly capsule 2. Vitelline membrane 3. Perivitelline fluid 4. Yolk plug 5. Embryo\n\nThe egg of an amphibian is typically surrounded by a transparent gelatinous covering secreted by the oviducts and containing mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides. This capsule is permeable to water and gases, and swells considerably as it absorbs water. The ovum is at first rigidly held, but in fertilised eggs the innermost layer liquefies and allows the embryo to move freely. This also happens in salamander eggs, even when they are unfertilised. Eggs of some salamanders and frogs contain unicellular green algae. These penetrate the jelly envelope after the eggs are laid and may increase the supply of oxygen to the embryo through photosynthesis. They seem to both speed up the development of the larvae and reduce mortality. Most eggs contain the pigment melanin which raises their temperature through the absorption of light and also protects them against ultraviolet radiation. Caecilians, some plethodontid salamanders and certain frogs lay eggs underground that are unpigmented. In the wood frog (''Rana sylvatica''), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to warmer than its surroundings, which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat.\n\nThe eggs may be deposited singly or in small groups, or may take the form of spherical egg masses, rafts or long strings. In terrestrial caecilians, the eggs are laid in grape-like clusters in burrows near streams. The amphibious salamander ''Ensatina'' attaches its similar clusters by stalks to underwater stems and roots. The greenhouse frog (''Eleutherodactylus planirostris'') lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage. The tungara frog (''Physalaemus pustulosus'') builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female.\n\n=== Larvae ===\nEarly stages in the development of the embryos of the common frog (''Rana temporaria'')\nThe eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the alpine salamander (''Salamandra atra'') and some of the African live-bearing toads (''Nectophrynoides spp.'') are viviparous. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are ovoviviparous. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species. The toad genus ''Nectophrynoides'' exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members.\n\n==== Frogs ====\nFrog larvae are known as tadpoles and typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails with fins. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species (such as ''Nannophrys ceylonensis'') are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks. Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), lateral line systems and large tails that they use for swimming. Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak. Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later.\n\nAmphibian metamorphosis\nIodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular apoptosis programmed cell death of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.\n\nIn fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria. They also feed on diatoms, filtered from the water through the gills, and stir up the sediment at bottom of the pond, ingesting edible fragments. They have a relatively long, spiral-shaped gut to enable them to digest this diet. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the Cuban tree frog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') can occasionally be cannibalistic, the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis.\n\n\nAt metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral‐shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place.\n\n==== Salamanders ====\nLarva of the long-toed salamander (''Ambystoma macrodactylum'')\nLarvae of the alpine newt (''Ichthyosaura alpestris'')\nAt hatching, a typical salamander larva has eyes without lids, teeth in both upper and lower jaws, three pairs of feathery external gills, a somewhat laterally flattened body and a long tail with dorsal and ventral fins. The forelimbs may be partially developed and the hind limbs are rudimentary in pond-living species but may be rather more developed in species that reproduce in moving water. Pond-type larvae often have a pair of balancers, rod-like structures on either side of the head that may prevent the gills from becoming clogged up with sediment. Some members of the genera ''Ambystoma'' and ''Dicamptodon'' have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, but this varies with species and with populations. The northwestern salamander (''Ambystoma gracile'') is one of these and, depending on environmental factors, either remains permanently in the larval state, a condition known as neoteny, or transforms into an adult. Both of these are able to breed. Neoteny occurs when the animal's growth rate is very low and is usually linked to adverse conditions such as low water temperatures that may change the response of the tissues to the hormone thyroxine. Other factors that may inhibit metamorphosis include lack of food, lack of trace elements and competition from conspecifics. The tiger salamander (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') also sometimes behaves in this way and may grow particularly large in the process. The adult tiger salamander is terrestrial, but the larva is aquatic and able to breed while still in the larval state. When conditions are particularly inhospitable on land, larval breeding may allow continuation of a population that would otherwise die out. There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of ''Necturus'', ''Proteus'' and ''Amphiuma'', and many examples of facultative ones that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances.\n\nLungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus ''Ensatinas'', the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion.\n\nIn newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.\n\n==== Caecilians ====\nThe caecilian ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'' with eggs and developing embryo\nMost terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of ''Ichthyophis glutinosus'', a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land.\n\nringed caecilian (''Siphonops annulatus'') resembles an earthworm\nIn the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by vivipary. ''Typhlonectes compressicauda'', a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth.\n\nThe ringed caecilian (''Siphonops annulatus'') has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca.\n\n=== Parental care ===\nMale common rocket frog (''Colostethus panamensis'') carrying tadpoles on his back\n\nThe care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young. Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young.\n\nMany woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The black mountain salamander (''Desmognathus welteri'') does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen.\n\nMale common midwife toad (''Alytes obstetricans'') carrying eggs\nThe male ''Colostethus subpunctatus'', a tiny frog, protects the egg cluster which is hidden under a stone or log. When the eggs hatch, the male transports the tadpoles on his back, stuck there by a mucous secretion, to a temporary pool where he dips himself into the water and the tadpoles drop off. The male midwife toad (''Alytes obstetricans'') winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The female gastric-brooding frog (''Rheobatrachus spp.'') reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply. The pouched frog (''Assa darlingtoni'') lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. The aquatic Surinam toad (''Pipa pipa'') raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis. The granular poison frog (''Oophaga granulifera'') is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family Dendrobatidae. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles.\n", "Northwestern salamander (''Ambystoma gracile'') eating a worm\nWith a few exceptions, adult amphibians are predators, feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (''Siren spp.'') often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog (''Xenohyla truncata'') includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet. The Mexican burrowing toad (''Rhinophrynus dorsalis'') has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front.\n\nFood is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs (''Rana clamitans'') have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past. Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness.\n\nAmphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. They typically have small hinged pedicellate teeth, a feature unique to amphibians. The base and crown of these are composed of dentine separated by an uncalcified layer and they are replaced at intervals. Salamanders, caecilians and some frogs have one or two rows of teeth in both jaws, but some frogs (''Rana spp.'') lack teeth in the lower jaw, and toads (''Bufo spp.'') have no teeth. In many amphibians there are also vomerine teeth attached to a facial bone in the roof of the mouth.\n\nEdible frog (''Pelophylax esculentus'') exhibiting cannibalism\nThe tiger salamander (''Ambystoma tigrinum'') is typical of the frogs and salamanders that hide under cover ready to ambush unwary invertebrates. Others amphibians, such as the ''Bufo spp.'' toads, actively search for prey, while the Argentine horned frog (''Ceratophrys ornata'') lures inquisitive prey closer by raising its hind feet over its back and vibrating its yellow toes. Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged. Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole.\n\nWhen they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic.\n", "Male treefrog (''Dendropsophus microcephalus'') inflating his air sac as he calls\nThe calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the California giant salamander (''Dicamptodon ensatus'') has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked.\n\nAmerican toad, (''Anaxyrus americanus'') singing\nFrogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into an air sac or sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged. The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream. The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (''Osteopilus septentrionalis'') produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours.\n", "Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs.\n\nThe red back salamander (''Plethodon cinereus'') defends a territory against intruders.\nIn salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of red back salamanders (''Plethodon cinereus'') has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock. A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of , found their way back to their home base. The salamanders left odour marks around their territories which averaged in size and were sometimes inhabited by a male and female pair. These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food.\n\nIn frogs, male territorial behaviour is often observed at breeding locations; calling is both an announcement of ownership of part of this resource and an advertisement call to potential mates. In general, a deeper voice represents a heavier and more powerful individual, and this may be sufficient to prevent intrusion by smaller males. Much energy is used in the vocalization and it takes a toll on the territory holder who may be displaced by a fitter rival if he tires. There is a tendency for males to tolerate the holders of neighbouring territories while vigorously attacking unknown intruders. Holders of territories have a \"home advantage\" and usually come off better in an encounter between two similar-sized frogs. If threats are insufficient, chest to chest tussles may take place. Fighting methods include pushing and shoving, deflating the opponent's vocal sac, seizing him by the head, jumping on his back, biting, chasing, splashing, and ducking him under the water.\n", "Cane toad (''Rhinella marina'') with poison glands behind the eyes\n\nAmphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed frogs (''Xenopus laevis''), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape. Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (''Typhlonectes compressicauda'') produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The rough-skinned newt (''Taricha granulosa'') from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake (''Thamnophis sirtalis'').\nIn locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity. Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity. Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back. These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms. Altogether, over 200 toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated.\n\nThe fire salamander (''Salamandra salamandra''), a toxic species, wears warning colours.\nPerhaps the most poisonous animal in the world, the golden poison frog (''Phyllobates terribilis'') is endemic to Colombia.\n\nPoisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander (''Salamandra salamandra'') being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad (''Bombina spp.''), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog ''Allobates zaparo'' is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators.\n\nMany amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew (''Blarina brevicauda''). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands. A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant.\nSome frogs and toads inflate themselves to make themselves look large and fierce, and some spadefoot toads (''Pelobates spp'') scream and leap towards the attacker. Giant salamanders of the genus ''Andrias'', as well as Ceratophrine and ''Pyxicephalus'' frogs possess sharp teeth and are capable of drawing blood with a defensive bite. The blackbelly salamander (''Desmognathus quadramaculatus'') can bite an attacking common garter snake (''Thamnophis sirtalis'') two or three times its size on the head and often manages to escape.\n", "In amphibians, there is evidence of habituation, associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning, and discrimination abilities.\n\nIn one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (''Drosophila virilis''), salamanders choose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area.\n", "\n\nThe extinct golden toad (''Bufo periglenes''), last seen in 1989\nDramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinction, have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. In 2004, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds, mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher.\nIn 2006 there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including habitat destruction and modification, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, climate change, endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the ozone layer (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like chytridiomycosis. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion.\n\nThe Hula painted frog (''Discoglossus nigriventer'') was believed to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2011.\nWith their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often considered to be ecological indicators. In many terrestrial ecosystems, they constitute one of the largest parts of the vertebrate biomass. Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was linked to an increase in mosquitoes. Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The western terrestrial garter snake (''Thamnophis elegans'') in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the Yosemite toad (''Bufo canorus'') and the mountain yellow-legged frog (''Rana muscosa''), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences.\n\nA global strategy to stem the crisis was released in 2005 in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan. Developed by over eighty leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the following five years and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the IUCN is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation. Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians. One such project is the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conservation Project that built on existing conservation efforts in Panama to create a country-wide response to the threat of chytridiomycosis.\n", "* List of amphibians\n* List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States\n", "\n\n=== Cited texts ===\n* \n* \n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n\n\n* Amphibians – AnimalSpot.net\n* ArchéoZooThèque : Amphibians skeletons drawings : available in vector, image and PDF formats\n* Amphibian Specialist Group\n* Amphibian Ark\n* AmphibiaWeb\n* Global Amphibian Assessment\n* Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Classification ", " Evolutionary history ", " Characteristics ", " Anatomy and physiology ", " Reproduction ", " Life cycle ", " Feeding and diet ", " Vocalization ", " Territorial behaviour ", " Defence mechanisms ", " Cognition ", " Conservation ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alaska''' () is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east, its most extreme western part is Attu Island, and it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean. The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. It is the largest state in the United States by area and the \nseventh largest subnational division in the world. In addition, it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States; nevertheless, it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America, its population (the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. Approximately half of Alaska's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaska's economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, and oil industries, resources which it has in abundance. Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy.\n\nThe United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30, 1867, for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ($4.74/km2). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.\n", "The name \"Alaska\" () was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which figuratively refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means ''object to which the action of the sea is directed''.\n", "\nAlaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about of British Columbia (Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is sometimes not included in colloquial use; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called \"the Lower 48\". The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system.\n\nThe state is bordered by Yukon and British Columbia in Canada, to the east, the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest, the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.\n\n48 contiguous states. (Albers equal-area conic projection)\n\nAlaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at , over twice the size of Texas, the next largest state. Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the combined area of the next three largest states: Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the combined area of the 22 smallest U.S. states.\n\n===Regions===\nThere are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, but there are six widely accepted regions:\n\n====South Central====\n\nThe most populous region of Alaska, containing Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.\n\n====Southeast====\n\nAlso referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system. Officially designated in 1963.\n\n====Interior====\n\nDenali is the highest peak in North America.\nThe Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. ''Denali'' is the highest mountain in North America.\n\n====Southwest====\n\nGrizzly bear fishing for salmon at Brooks Falls, part of Katmai National Park and Preserve.\n\nSouthwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of Southwest, with the remaining portions included with the Aleutian Islands (see below).\n\n====North Slope====\n\nThe North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil, and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. Barrow, the northernmost city in the United States, is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often regarded as being part of this region. However, the respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.\n\n====Aleutian Islands====\n\nMore than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches over into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.\n\n===Natural features===\n\nAugustine Volcano erupting on January 12, 2006\n\nWith its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to above the North Pacific. It is the most perfect volcanic cone on Earth, even more symmetrical than Japan's Mount Fuji. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.\n\nOne of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage – tidal differences can be more than .\n\n\nAlaska has more than three million lakes. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers some of land and of tidal zone. The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with Yukon covers alone. With over 100,000 glaciers, Alaska has half of all in the world.\n\n===Land ownership===\nAlaska has more public land owned by the federal government than any other state.\n\nAccording to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages , or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising .\n\nOf the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns , its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to organized boroughs, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.\n\nAnother are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments can be and are sold on the open market, however.\n\nVarious private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.\n\n===Climate===\n\nKöppen climate types of Alaska.\nMap depicting the climate zones of Alaska.\n\nThe climate in Southeast Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: ''Cfb'') in the southern sections and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc'') in the northern parts. On an annual basis, Southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over . This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.\n\nThe climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives of precipitation a year, with around of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: ''Dfc'') due to its brief, cool summers.\n\nThe climate of Western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i. e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around of precipitation.\n\nThe climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic. Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. The summers may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the winter, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.\n\nThe highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is in Fort Yukon (which is just inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971, one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada).\n\nThe climate in the extreme north of Alaska is Arctic (Köppen: ''ET'') with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Barrow is . Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.\n\n\n+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Alaska\n\nLocation\nJuly (°F)\nJuly (°C)\nJanuary (°F)\nJanuary (°C)\n\nAnchorage \n 65/51 \n 18/10 \n 22/11 \n −5/–11\n\nJuneau \n 64/50 \n 17/11 \n 32/23 \n 0/–4\n\nKetchikan \n 64/51 \n 17/11 \n 38/28 \n 3/–1\n\nUnalaska \n 57/46 \n 14/8 \n 36/28 \n 2/–2\n\nFairbanks \n 72/53 \n 22/11 \n 1/–17 \n −17/–27\n\nFort Yukon \n 73/51 \n 23/10 \n −11/–27 \n −23/–33\n\nNome \n 58/46 \n 14/8 \n 13/–2 \n −10/–19\n\nBarrow \n 47/34 \n 8/1 \n −7/–19 \n −21/–28\n\n", "\n\n===Pre-colonization===\n\nAlutiiq dancer in traditional festival garb.\n\nNumerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.\n\nThe Aleutian Islands are still home to the Aleut people's seafaring society, although they were the first Native Alaskans to be exploited by Russians. Western and Southwestern Alaska are home to the Yup'ik, while their cousins the Alutiiq ~ Sugpiaq lived in what is now Southcentral Alaska. The Gwich'in people of the northern Interior region are Athabaskan and primarily known today for their dependence on the caribou within the much-contested Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The North Slope and Little Diomede Island are occupied by the widespread Inupiat people.\n\n===Colonization===\n\nThe Russian America in 1860\nSome researchers believe that the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by \"bearded men\" who \"pray to the icons\". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River.\n\nThe first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the ''St. Gabriel'' under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian cossak A. F. Shestakov and Belorussian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735).\n\nAnother European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the ''St. Peter''. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.\nKodiak town), Kodiak Island, 1814.\n\nBetween 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789 a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century.\n\nSitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survive throughout southeast Alaska.\n\nWilliam H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (also known as Seward's Folly) with the Russians in 1867 for $7.2 million. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially, and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the President of the United States. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka.\n\nMiners and prospectors climb the Chilkoot Trail during the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush.\n\nFor most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a \"provisional city government,\" which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.\n\n===Territory===\n\nStarting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.\n\nU.S. troops navigate snow and ice during the Battle of Attu in May 1943.\n\nDuring World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on the three outer Aleutian Islands – Attu, Agattu and Kiska – that were invaded by Japanese troops and occupied between June 1942 and August 1943. During the occupation, one Alaskan civilian was killed by Japanese troops and nearly fifty were interned in Japan, where about half of them died. Unalaska/Dutch Harbor became a significant base for the United States Army Air Forces and Navy submariners.\n\nThe United States Lend-Lease program involved the flying of American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.\n\n===Statehood===\n\nStatehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by Congress on July 7, 1958. Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.\n\nIn 1960, the Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% White, 3% Black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.\n\nKodiak, before and after the tsunami which followed the Good Friday earthquake in 1964, destroying much of the townsite.\n\n===Good Friday earthquake===\n\nOn March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the second-most-powerful earthquake in the recorded history of the world, with a moment magnitude of 9.2. It was over one thousand times more powerful than the 1989 San Francisco earthquake. The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage.\n\n===Discovery of oil===\nThe 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward. That same year, not coincidentally, Alaska repealed its state income tax.\n\nIn 1989, the ''Exxon Valdez'' hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling over of crude oil over of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.\n\n===Alaska Heritage Resources Survey===\nThe Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are over 50 years old. As of January 31, 2012, over 35,000 sites have been reported.\n", "\n\n\nThe United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Alaska was 738,432 on July 1, 2015, a 3.97% increase since the 2010 United States Census.\n\nIn 2010, Alaska ranked as the 47th state by population, ahead of North Dakota, Vermont, and Wyoming (and Washington, D.C.) Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). As of November 2014, the state's unemployment rate was 6.6%.\n\n===Ancestry===\nMap of the largest racial/ethnic group by borough. Red indicates Native American, blue indicates non-Hispanic white, and green indicates Asian. Darker shades indicate a higher proportion of the population.\nAccording to the 2010 United States Census, Alaska had a population of 710,231. In terms of race and ethnicity, the state was 66.7% White (64.1% Non-Hispanic White), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% Black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from Some Other Race, and 7.3% from Two or More Races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 5.5% of the population.\n\n, 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).\n\n\n+ '''Alaska Racial Breakdown of Population'''\n\n Racial composition !! 1970 !! 1990 !! 2000!! 2010\n\n White \n 78.8% \n 75.5% \n 69.3% \n 66.7%\n\n Native \n 16.9% \n 15.6% \n 15.6% \n 14.8%\n\n Asian \n 0.9% \n 3.6% \n 4.0% \n 5.4%\n\n Black \n 3.0% \n 4.1% \n 3.5% \n 3.3%\n\n Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander \n – \n – \n 0.5% \n 1.0%\n\n Other race \n 0.4% \n 1.2% \n 1.6% \n 1.6%\n\n Multiracial \n – \n – \n 5.5% \n 7.3%\n\n\n===Languages===\n\nAccording to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five speak only English at home. About 3.5% speak Spanish at home. About 2.2% speak another Indo-European language at home and about 4.3% speak an Asian language (including Tagalog) at home. About 5.3% speak other languages at home.\n\nThe Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families however some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic).\n nearly all of Alaska's native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.\n\nA total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 indigenous languages, known locally as \"native languages\".\n\nIn October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages as official languages. This bill gave the languages symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:\n# Inupiaq\n# Siberian Yupik\n# Central Alaskan Yup'ik\n# Alutiiq\n# Unangax\n# Dena'ina\n# Deg Xinag\n# Holikachuk\n# Koyukon\n# Upper Kuskokwim\n# Gwich'in\n# Tanana\n# Upper Tanana\n# Tanacross\n# Hän\n# Ahtna\n# Eyak\n# Tlingit\n# Haida\n# Tsimshian\n\n===Religion===\nSt. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral in downtown Sitka.\nAccording to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. 100,960 people identified as Evangelical Protestants, 50,866 as Roman Catholic, and 32,550 as mainline Protestants. Roughly 4% are Mormon, 0.5% are Jewish, 1% are Muslim, 0.5% are Buddhist, and 0.5% are Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska were the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 38,070 adherents, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents, and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Pacific Northwest states Washington and Oregon, as being the least religious states of the USA, in terms of church membership.\n\nIn 1795, the First Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009 there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains.\n\nEstimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque will be the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.\n\n\n Religious affiliation in Alaska (2014)\n\n Affiliation\n% of population\n\n Christian\n '''\n\n Protestant\n '''\n\n Evangelical Protestant\n '''\n\n Mainline Protestant\n '''\n\n Black church\n '''\n\n Catholic\n '''\n\n Mormon\n '''\n\n Jehovah's Witnesses\n '''\n\n Eastern Orthodox\n '''\n\n Other Christian\n '''\n\n Unaffiliated\n '''\n\n Nothing in particular\n '''\n\n Agnostic\n '''\n\n Atheist\n '''\n\n Non-Christian faiths\n '''\n\n Jewish\n '''\n\n Muslim\n '''\n\n Buddhist\n '''\n\n Hindu\n '''\n\n Other Non-Christian faiths\n '''\n\n Don't know/refused answer\n '''\n\n '''Total''' \n ''''''\n\n", "\n\nAerial view of infrastructure at the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field.\n\nThe 2007 gross state product was $44.9 billion, 45th in the nation. Its per capita personal income for 2007 was $40,042, ranking 15th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, Pollock and crab.\n\nAgriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.\n\nEmployment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.\n\n===Energy===\n\nThe Trans-Alaska Pipeline transports oil, Alaska's most financially important export, from the North Slope to Valdez. Pertinent are the heat pipes in the column mounts, which disperse heat upwards and prevent melting of permafrost.\nAlaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about , although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over . Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.\n\nThe Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.\n\n\nAlaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Though wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems (e.g. with special low-cost electric interties) were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska today is usually 30–60¢ higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.\n\n====Permanent Fund====\nThe Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.\n\nThe Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.\n\nStarting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 \"Resource Rebate\"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.\n\nThe Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a \"Basic Income\" policy in the world.\n\n===Cost of living===\nThe cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.\n\nRural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.\n\n===Agriculture and fishing===\nHalibut is important to the state's economy as both a commercial and sport-caught fish.\n\nDue to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.\n\nThe Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominately of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community-supported agriculture.\n\nAlaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers' markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers' markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.\n\n\nAlaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. However, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. \"Alaska Grown\" is used as an agricultural slogan.\n\nAlaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.\n\nHunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.\n\nAlaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.\n\nMost food in Alaska is transported into the state from \"Outside\", and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Though most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high, because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically, due to varying climate and precipitation changes. The cost of transport can reach as high as 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or more in some remote areas, during the most difficult times, if these locations can be reached at all during such inclement weather and terrain conditions. The cost of delivering a of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely 20–30¢ higher than the continental United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.\n", "The Sterling Highway, near its intersection with the Seward Highway.\n\n\n===Roads===\n\nThe Susitna River bridge on the Denali Highway is long.\nAlaska Interstate Highways.\n\nAlaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, only a car ferry, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska.\n\nAlaska welcome sign on the Klondike Highway.\nOne unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America.\n\n===Rail===\nAn Alaska Railroad locomotive and tanker cars crossing the George Parks Highway in 1994.\nThe White Pass and Yukon Route traverses rugged terrain north of Skagway near the Canada–US border.\n\nBuilt around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links north Pacific shipping through providing critical infrastructure with tracks that run from Seward to Interior Alaska by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as \"The Railbelt\". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy.\n\nThe railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward (i.e., coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage). It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.\n\nThe Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.\n\nIn northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series ''Great Little Railways.''\n\nThe Alaska Rail network is not connected to Outside. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.\n\nAlaska Rail Marine provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.\n\n===Marine transport===\nMany cities, towns and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.\n\nThe (named after Tustumena Glacier) is one of the state's many ferries, providing service between the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island and the Aleutian Chain.\n\nAlaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.\n\nIn recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan may rise by over 10,000 people on many days during the summer, as up to four large cruise ships at a time can dock, debarking thousands of passengers.\n\n===Air transport===\nCities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage and, to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost 2 million visitors).\n\nRegular flights to most villages and towns within the state that are commercially viable are challenging to provide, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.\n\nA Bombardier Dash 8, operated by Era Alaska, on approach to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport.\n\nThe bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.\n\nMany communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006 Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.\n\n===Other transport===\nAnother Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at ). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The \"Serum Run\" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.\n\nIn areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or \"snow machine,\" as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.\n\n===Data transport===\nAlaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and as of late 2011 Alaska Communications advertised that it has \"two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.\n", "\n===State government===\nThe center of state government in Juneau. The large buildings in the background are, from left to right: the Court Plaza Building (known colloquially as the \"Spam Can\"), the State Office Building (behind), the Alaska Office Building, the John H. Dimond State Courthouse, and the Alaska State Capitol. Many of the smaller buildings in the foreground are also occupied by state government agencies.\n\n\nLike all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the Governor of Alaska and the other independently elected constitutional officers; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.\n\nThe state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.\n\nThe Alaska Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The Governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.\n\nAlaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts only hear certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.\n\nThe Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus. The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.\n\n===State politics===\n\n\n\nGubernatorial election results\n\n Year\n Republican\n Democratic\n\n1958\n39.4% ''19,299\n'''59.6%''' ''29,189\n\n1962\n47.7% ''27,054\n'''52.3%''' ''29,627\n\n1966\n'''50.0%''' ''33,145\n48.4% ''32,065\n\n1970\n46.1% ''37,264\n'''52.4%''' ''42,309\n\n1974\n'''47.7%''' ''45,840\n47.4% ''45,553\n\n1978\n'''39.1%''' ''49,580\n20.2% ''25,656\t\n\n1982\n37.1% ''72,291\n'''46.1%''' ''89,918\t\n\n1986\n42.6% ''76,515\n'''47.3%''' ''84,943\n\n1990\n26.2% ''50,991\n30.9% ''60,201\n\n1994\n40.8% ''87,157\t\n'''41.1%''' ''87,693\n\n1998\n17.9% ''39,331\n'''51.3%''' ''112,879\n\n2002\n'''55.9%''' ''129,279\n40.7% ''94,216\t\n\n2006\n'''48.3%''' ''114,697\n41.0% ''97,238\n\n2010\n'''59.1%''' ''151,318\n37.7% ''96,519\n\n2014\n45.9% ''128,435\n\n\n\nAlthough in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.\n\nAlaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.\n\nThe state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party.\n\nSix Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican Governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.\n\nAlaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over age 21 can consume small amounts of pot – if they can find it. There is a rather lengthy and involved application process, per Alaska Measure 2 (2014). The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.\n\n===Taxes===\nTo finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no state sales tax, one of seven states that do not levy an individual income tax, and one of the two states that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The Department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division.\n\nWhile Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0–7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.\n\nFairbanks has one of the highest property taxes in the state as no sales or income taxes are assessed in the Fairbanks North Star Borough (FNSB). A sales tax for the FNSB has been voted on many times, but has yet to be approved, leading lawmakers to increase taxes dramatically on goods such as liquor and tobacco.\n\nIn 2014 the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most \"business friendly\" tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada.\n\n===Federal politics===\n\n\nA line graph showing the presidential vote by party from 1960 to 2016 in Alaska.\n\nPresidential election results\n\n Year\n Republican\n Democratic\n\n1960\n'''50.9%''' ''30,953\n49.1% ''29,809\n\n1964\n34.1% ''22,930\n'''65.9%''' ''44,329\n\n1968\n'''45.3%''' ''37,600\n42.7% ''35,411\n\n1972\n'''58.1%''' ''55,349\n34.6% ''32,967\n\n1976\n'''57.9%''' ''71,555\n35.7% ''44,058\n\n1980\n'''54.4%''' ''86,112\n26.4% ''41,842\t\n\n1984\n'''66.7%''' ''138,377\n29.9% ''62,007\n\n1988\n'''59.6%''' ''119,251\n36.3% ''72,584\n\n1992\n'''39.5%''' ''102,000\n30.3% '' ''78,294\n\n1996\n'''50.8%''' ''122,746\n33.3% ''80,380\n\n2000\n'''58.6%''' ''167,398\n27.7% ''79,004\n\n2004\n'''61.1%''' ''190,889\n35.5% ''111,025\n\n2008\n'''59.4%''' ''193,841\n37.8% ''123,594\n\n2012\n'''54.8%''' ''164,676\n40.8% ''122,640\n\n2016\n'''51.3%''' ''163,387\n36.6% ''116,454\n\n\nAlaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, however, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968.\n\nThe Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. , well over half of all registered voters have chosen \"Non-Partisan\" or \"Undeclared\" as their affiliation, despite recent attempts to close primaries to unaffiliated voters.\n\nBecause of its population relative to other U.S. states, Alaska has only one member in the U.S. House of Representatives. This seat is held by Republican Don Young, who was re-elected to his 21st consecutive term in 2012. Alaska's at-large congressional district is one of the largest parliamentary constituencies in the world.\n\nIn 2008, Governor Sarah Palin became the first Republican woman to run on a national ticket when she became John McCain's running mate. She continued to be a prominent national figure even after resigning from the governor's job in July 2009.\n\nAlaska's United States Senators belong to Class 2 and Class 3. In 2008, Democrat Mark Begich, mayor of Anchorage, defeated long-time Republican senator Ted Stevens. Stevens had been convicted on seven felony counts of failing to report gifts on Senate financial discloser forms one week before the election. The conviction was set aside in April 2009 after evidence of prosecutorial misconduct emerged.\n\nRepublican Frank Murkowski held the state's other senatorial position. After being elected governor in 2002, he resigned from the Senate and appointed his daughter, State Representative Lisa Murkowski as his successor. She won full six-year terms in 2004 and 2010.\n\n\nFile:Bill Walker.jpg|Bill Walker, Governor\nFile:Byron Mallott.jpg|Byron Mallott, Lieutenant Governor\nFile:Lisa Murkowski.jpg|Lisa Murkowski, senior United States Senator\nFile:Senator Dan Sullivan official.jpg|Dan Sullivan, junior United States Senator\nFile:Don Young, official photo portrait, color, 2006.jpg|Don Young, at-large United States Representative\n\n", "\nAnchorage, Alaska, Alaska's largest city.\nFairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city and by a significant margin the largest city in Alaska's interior.\nJuneau, Alaska's third-largest city and its capital.\nBethel, the largest city in the Unorganized Borough and in rural Alaska.\nHomer, showing (from bottom to top) the edge of downtown, its airport and the Spit.\nBarrow (Browerville neighborhood near Eben Hopson Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname \"Top of the World\", is the northernmost city in the United States.\nCordova, built in the early 20th century to support the Kennecott Mines and the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, has persevered as a fishing community since their closure.\nMain Street in Talkeetna.\n\nAlaska is not divided into counties, as most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into ''boroughs''. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. However, unlike county-equivalents in the other 49 states, the boroughs do not cover the entire land area of the state. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.\n\nThe Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A ''recording district'' is a mechanism for administration of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a State Recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.\n\nWhereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.\n\nAnchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).\n\nThe state's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 278,700 people in 2006, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Halibut Cove ($89,895). Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.\n\n===Cities and census-designated places (by population)===\nAs reflected in the 2010 United States Census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places (CDPs). The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as \"The Bush\" and are unconnected to the contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order.\n\nOf Alaska's 2010 Census population figure of 710,231, 20,429 people, or 2.88% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 Census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, North Tongass Highway, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.\n\n\n\n\n\n № !! Community name !! Type !! 2010 Pop.\n\n 1 \n Anchorage \n City \n 291,826\n\n 2 \n Fairbanks \n City \n 31,535\n\n 3 \n Juneau \n City \n 31,275\n\n 4 \n Badger \n CDP \n 19,482\n\n 5 \n Knik-Fairview \n CDP \n 14,923\n\n 6 \n College \n CDP \n 12,964\n\n 7 \n Sitka \n City \n 8,881\n\n 8 \n Lakes \n CDP \n 8,364\n\n 9 \n Tanaina \n CDP \n 8,197\n\n 10 \n Ketchikan \n City \n 8,050\n\n 11 \n Kalifornsky \n CDP \n 7,850\n\n 12 \n Wasilla \n City \n 7,831\n\n 13 \n Meadow Lakes \n CDP \n 7,570\n\n 14 \n Kenai \n City \n 7,100\n\n 15 \n Steele Creek \n CDP \n 6,662\n\n 16 \n Kodiak \n City \n 6,130\n\n 17 \n Bethel \n City \n 6,080\n\n 18 \n Palmer \n City \n 5,937\n\n 19 \n Chena Ridge \n CDP \n 5,791\n\n 20 \n Sterling \n CDP \n 5,617\n\n 21 \n Gateway \n CDP \n 5,552\n\n 22 \n Homer \n City \n 5,003\n\n 23 \n Farmers Loop \n CDP \n 4,853\n\n 24 \n Fishhook \n CDP \n 4,679\n\n 25 \n Nikiski \n CDP \n 4,493\n\n 26 \n Unalaska \n City \n 4,376\n\n 27 \n Barrow \n City \n 4,212\n\n 28 \n Soldotna \n City \n 4,163\n\n 29 \n Valdez \n City \n 3,976\n\n 30 \n Nome \n City \n 3,598\n\n 31 \n Goldstream \n CDP \n 3,557\n\n 32 \n Big Lake \n CDP \n 3,350\n\n 33 \n Butte \n CDP \n 3,246\n\n 34 \n Kotzebue \n City \n 3,201\n\n 35 \n Petersburg \n City \n 2,948\n\n 36 \n Seward \n City \n 2,693\n\n 37 \n Eielson AFB \n CDP \n 2,647\n\n 38 \n Ester \n CDP \n 2,422\n\n 39 \n Wrangell \n City \n 2,369\n\n 40 \n Dillingham \n City \n 2,329\n\n 41 \n Deltana \n CDP \n 2,251\n\n 42 \n Cordova \n City \n 2,239\n\n 43 \n Prudhoe Bay \n CDP \n 2,174\n\n 44 \n North Pole \n City \n 2,117\n\n 45 \n Willow \n CDP \n 2,102\n\n 46 \n Ridgeway \n CDP \n 2,022\n\n 47 \n Bear Creek \n CDP \n 1,956\n\n 48 \n Fritz Creek \n CDP \n 1,932\n\n 49 \n Anchor Point \n CDP \n 1,930\n\n 50 \n Houston \n City \n 1,912\n\n\n\n\n № !! Community name !! Type !! 2010 Pop.\n\n 51 \n Haines \n CDP \n 1,713\n\n 52 \n Lazy Mountain \n CDP \n 1,479\n\n 53 \n Sutton-Alpine \n CDP \n 1,447\n\n 54 \n Metlakatla \n CDP \n 1,405\n\n 55 \n Cohoe \n CDP \n 1,364\n\n 56 \n Kodiak Station \n CDP \n 1,301\n\n 57 \n Susitna North \n CDP \n 1,260\n\n 58 \n Tok \n CDP \n 1,258\n\n 59 \n Craig \n City \n 1,201\n\n 60 \n Diamond Ridge \n CDP \n 1,156\n\n 61 \n Salcha \n CDP \n 1,095\n\n 62 \n Hooper Bay \n City \n 1,093\n\n 63 \n Farm Loop \n CDP \n 1,028\n\n 64 \n Akutan \n City \n 1,027\n\n 65 \n Healy \n CDP \n 1,021\n\n 66 \n Salamatof \n CDP \n 980\n\n 67 \n Sand Point \n City \n 976\n\n 68 \n Delta Junction \n City \n 958\n\n 69 \n Chevak \n City \n 938\n\n King Cove \n City\n\n 71 \n Skagway \n CDP \n 920\n\n 72 \n Ninilchik \n CDP \n 883\n\n 73 \n Funny River \n CDP \n 877\n\n 74 \n Talkeetna \n CDP \n 876\n\n 75 \n Buffalo Soapstone \n CDP \n 855\n\n 76 \n Selawik \n City \n 829\n\n 77 \n Togiak \n City \n 817\n\n 78 \n Mountain Village \n City \n 813\n\n 79 \n Emmonak \n City \n 762\n\n 80 \n Hoonah \n City \n 760\n\n 81 \n Klawock \n City \n 755\n\n 82 \n Moose Creek \n CDP \n 747\n\n 83 \n Knik River \n CDP \n 744\n\n 84 \n Pleasant Valley \n CDP \n 725\n\n 85 \n Kwethluk \n City \n 721\n\n86 \n Two Rivers \n CDP \n 719\n\n Women's Bay \n CDP\n\n 88 \n Unalakleet \n City \n 688\n\n 89 \n Fox River \n CDP \n 685\n\n 90 \n Gambell \n City \n 681\n\n 91 \n Alakanuk \n City \n 677\n\n 92 \n Point Hope \n City \n 674\n\n 93 \n Savoonga \n City \n 671\n\n 94 \n Quinhagak \n City \n 669\n\n 95 \n Noorvik \n City \n 668\n\n 96 \n Yakutat \n CDP \n 662\n\n 97 \n Kipnuk \n CDP \n 639\n\n 98 \n Akiachak \n CDP \n 627\n\n 99 \n Happy Valley \n CDP \n 593\n\n 100 \n Big Delta \n CDP \n 591\n\n\n", "The Kachemak Bay Campus of the University of Alaska Anchorage, located in downtown Homer.\n\nThe Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena.\n\nThere are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no institutions that are part of the NCAA Division I.\n\nThe Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer 1 week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics.\n\nAlaska has had a problem with a \"brain drain\". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.\n", "\nThe Alaska State Troopers are Alaska's statewide police force. They have a long and storied history, but were not an official organization until 1941. Before the force was officially organized, law enforcement in Alaska was handled by various federal agencies. Larger towns usually have their own local police and some villages rely on \"Public Safety Officers\" who have police training but do not carry firearms. In much of the state, the troopers serve as the only police force available. In addition to enforcing traffic and criminal law, wildlife Troopers enforce hunting and fishing regulations. Due to the varied terrain and wide scope of the Troopers' duties, they employ a wide variety of land, air, and water patrol vehicles.\n\nMany rural communities in Alaska are considered \"dry,\" having outlawed the importation of alcoholic beverages. Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban.\n\nDomestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends or acquaintances.\n", "\nA dog team in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, arguably the most popular winter event in Alaska.\n\nSome of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race that starts in Anchorage and ends in Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.\n\nThe Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.\n\n===Music===\n\nInfluences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.\n\nThere are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, and the Sitka Summer Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.\n\nThe official state song of Alaska is \"Alaska's Flag\", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.\n\n===Alaska in film and on television===\n\nFilms featuring Alaskan wolves usually employ domesticated wolf-dog hybrids to stand in for wild wolves.\n\nAlaska's first independent picture entirely made in Alaska was ''The Chechahcos'', produced by Alaskan businessman Austin E. Lathrop and filmed in and around Anchorage. Released in 1924 by the Alaska Moving Picture Corporation, it was the only film the company made.\n\nOne of the most prominent movies filmed in Alaska is MGM's ''Eskimo/Mala The Magnificent'', starring Alaska Native Ray Mala. In 1932 an expedition set out from MGM's studios in Hollywood to Alaska to film what was then billed as \"The Biggest Picture Ever Made.\" Upon arriving in Alaska, they set up \"Camp Hollywood\" in Northwest Alaska, where they lived during the duration of the filming. Louis B. Mayer spared no expense in spite of the remote location, going so far as to hire the chef from the Hotel Roosevelt in Hollywood to prepare meals.\n\nWhen ''Eskimo'' premiered at the Astor Theatre in New York City, the studio received the largest amount of feedback in its history to that point. ''Eskimo'' was critically acclaimed and released worldwide; as a result, Mala became an international movie star. ''Eskimo'' won the first Oscar for Best Film Editing at the Academy Awards, and showcased and preserved aspects of Inupiat culture on film.\n\nThe 1983 Disney movie ''Never Cry Wolf'' was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film ''White Fang'', based on Jack London's novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 ''On Deadly Ground'', starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. The 1999 John Sayles film ''Limbo'', starring David Strathairn, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio, and Kris Kristofferson, was filmed in Juneau.\n\nThe psychological thriller ''Insomnia'', starring Al Pacino and Robin Williams, was shot in Canada, but was set in Alaska. The 2007 film directed by Sean Penn, ''Into The Wild'', was partially filmed and set in Alaska. The film, which is based on the novel of the same name, follows the adventures of Christopher McCandless, who died in a remote abandoned bus along the Stampede Trail west of Healy in 1992.\n\nMany films and television shows set in Alaska are not filmed there; for example, ''Northern Exposure'', set in the fictional town of Cicely, Alaska, was filmed in Roslyn, Washington. The 2007 horror feature ''30 Days of Night'' is set in Barrow, but was filmed in New Zealand.\n\nMany reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011 the ''Anchorage Daily News'' found ten set in the state.\n", "\nThe forget-me-not is the state's official flower and bears the same blue and gold as the state flag.\n\n* State motto: North to the Future\n* Nicknames: \"The Last Frontier\" or \"Land of the Midnight Sun\" or \"Seward's Icebox\"\n* State bird: willow ptarmigan, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1955. It is a small () Arctic grouse that lives among willows and on open tundra and muskeg. Plumage is brown in summer, changing to white in winter. The willow ptarmigan is common in much of Alaska.\n* State fish: king salmon, adopted 1962.\n* State flower: wild/native forget-me-not, adopted by the Territorial Legislature in 1917. It is a perennial that is found throughout Alaska, from Hyder to the Arctic Coast, and west to the Aleutians.\n* State fossil: woolly mammoth, adopted 1986.\n* State gem: jade, adopted 1968.\n* State insect: four-spot skimmer dragonfly, adopted 1995.\n* State land mammal: moose, adopted 1998.\n* State marine mammal: bowhead whale, adopted 1983.\n* State mineral: gold, adopted 1968.\n* State song: \"Alaska's Flag\"\n* State sport: dog mushing, adopted 1972.\n* State tree: Sitka spruce, adopted 1962.\n* State dog: Alaskan Malamute, adopted 2010.\n* State soil: Tanana, adopted unknown.\n", "\n* Index of Alaska-related articles\n* Outline of Alaska – organized list of topics about Alaska\n* Sports in Alaska\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* Alaska's Digital Archives\n* Alaska Inter-Tribal Council\n* \n* \n* Who Owns/Manages Alaska? (map)\n\n'''US federal government'''\n* Alaska State Guide from the Library of Congress\n* Energy & Environmental Data for Alaska\n* USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alaska\n* US Census Bureau\n* Alaska State Facts\n* Alaska Statehood Subject Guide from the Eisenhower Presidential Library\n* Alaska Statehood documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library\n\n'''Alaska state government'''\n* State of Alaska website\n* Alaska State Databases – Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Alaska state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.\n* Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Recorder's Office\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Geography", "History", "Demographics", "Economy", "Transportation", "Law and government", "Cities, towns and boroughs", "Education", "Public health and public safety", "Culture", "State symbols", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' (; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer, novelist, philosopher, and prominent member of the Huxley family. He graduated from Balliol College at the University of Oxford with a first-class honours in English literature.\n\nThe author of nearly fifty books, he was best known for his novels including ''Brave New World'', set in a dystopian future; for non-fiction works, such as ''The Doors of Perception'', which recalls experiences when taking a psychedelic drug; and a wide-ranging output of essays. Early in his career Huxley edited the magazine ''Oxford Poetry'' and published short stories and poetry. Mid career and later, he published travel writing, film stories, and scripts. He spent the later part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. In 1962, a year before his death, he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature.\n\nHuxley was a humanist, pacifist, and satirist. He later became interested in spiritual subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism, in particular universalism. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in seven different years.\n", "\nEnglish Heritage blue plaque at 16 Bracknell Gardens, Hampstead, London, commemorating Aldous, his brother Julian, and father Leonard\nHuxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited ''Cornhill Magazine'', and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist (\"Darwin's Bulldog\"). His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley (1891–1914), who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression.\n\nAs a child, Huxley's nickname was \"Ogie\", short for \"Ogre\". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently \"contemplated the strangeness of things\". According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing.\n\nHuxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside, he went on to Eton College. His mother died in 1908 when he was 14. In 1911 he contracted the eye disease (keratitis punctata) which \"left him practically blind for two to three years\". This \"ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor.\" In October 1913, Huxley went up to Balliol College, Oxford, where he read English Literature. In January 1916, he volunteered to join the British Army in the Great War, but was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. His eyesight later partly recovered. In 1916 he edited ''Oxford Poetry'' and in June of that year graduated BA with First Class honours. His brother Julian wrote:\n\n\n\nFollowing his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. From April to July 1917, he was in charge of ordering supplies at the Air Ministry . He taught French for a year at Eton, where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name George Orwell) and Steven Runciman were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his brilliant command of language.\n\nSignificantly, Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond, a high-tech chemical plant in Billingham in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his great science fiction novel ''Brave New World'' (1932), the experience he had there of \"an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence\" was an important source for the novel.\n", "Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early 20s, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, ''Crome Yellow'' (1921), ''Antic Hay'' (1923), ''Those Barren Leaves'' (1925), and ''Point Counter Point'' (1928). ''Brave New World'' was Huxley's fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s he was also a contributor to ''Vanity Fair'' and British ''Vogue'' magazines.\n\n=== Bloomsbury Set ===\nLeft to right: Bloomsbury Group members Lady Ottoline Morrell, Maria Nys, Lytton Strachey, Duncan Grant, and Vanessa Bell \nDuring World War I, Huxley spent much of his time at Garsington Manor near Oxford, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, working as a farm labourer. There he met several Bloomsbury figures, including Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Clive Bell. Later, in ''Crome Yellow'' (1921) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919 John Middleton Murry was reorganising the ''Athenaeum'' and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys, also at Garsington. They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend D. H. Lawrence. Following Lawrence's death in 1930, Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932).\n\nWorks of this period included important novels on the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''Brave New World'', and on pacifist themes (for example, ''Eyeless in Gaza''). In ''Brave New World'', set in a dystopian London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and Pavlovian conditioning. Huxley was strongly influenced by F. Matthias Alexander and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''.\n\nStarting from this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including ''Ends and Means'', ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'', and ''Pacifism and Philosophy'', and was an active member of the Peace Pledge Union.\n\n=== United States ===\nIn 1937, Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son Matthew Huxley, and friend Gerald Heard. He lived in the US, mainly in southern California, until his death, but also for a time in Taos, New Mexico, where he wrote ''Ends and Means'' (published in 1937). The book contains tracts on war, religion, nationalism and ethics.\n\nHeard introduced Huxley to Vedanta (Upanishad-centered philosophy), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of ahimsa. In 1938, Huxley befriended Jiddu Krishnamurti, whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a Vedantist in the circle of Hindu Swami Prabhavananda, and introduced Christopher Isherwood to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''The Perennial Philosophy'', which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley's book affirmed a sensibility that insists there are realities beyond the generally accepted \"five senses\" and that there is genuine meaning for humans beyond both sensual satisfactions and sentimentalities.\n\nHuxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of Occidental College. He spent much time at the college, which is in the Eagle Rock neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as \"Tarzana College\" in his satirical novel ''After Many a Summer'' (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel.\n\nDuring this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; Christopher Isherwood, in his autobiography ''My Guru and His Disciple'', states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (an enormous sum in those days) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the U.S. In March 1938, his friend Anita Loos, a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer who hired Huxley for ''Madame Curie'', which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed by George Cukor. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for ''Pride and Prejudice'' (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including ''Jane Eyre'' (1944). Huxley was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however.\n\nHuxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of J. D. Unwin's 1940 book ''Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society''.\n\nOn 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', congratulating him on \"how fine and how profoundly important the book is\". In his letter to Orwell, he predicted:\n\n\nHuxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist Mike Wallace, Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency toward distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to wily persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities.\n\n=== Post World War II ===\nIn 1953, Huxley and Maria applied for United States citizenship and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the US and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the McCarran Act, the judge had to adjourn the proceedings. He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the US. In 1959 Huxley turned down an offer of a Knight Bachelor by the Macmillan government without putting forward a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while another brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974.\n", "Beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood, and other followers he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices.\n\nIn 1944, Huxley wrote the introduction to the \"Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God\", translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by The Vedanta Society of Southern California.\n\nFrom 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to ''Vedanta and the West'', published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John van Druten from 1951 through 1962.\n\nHuxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: ''Knowledge and Understanding'' and ''Who Are We?'' from 1955. Nonetheless, Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him to fully embrace any form of institutionalized religion.\n\nIn the spring of 1953, Huxley had his first experience with psychedelic drugs (in this case, mescaline). Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Dr. Humphry Osmond, a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution, and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley’s session in southern California. After the publication of ''The Doors of Perception'', in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions.\n", "There are differing accounts about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. About 1939, Huxley encountered the Bates method for better eyesight, and a teacher, Margaret Darst Corbett, who was able to teach the method to him. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a ''ranchito'' in the high desert hamlet of Llano, California, in northernmost Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates Method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his successes with the Bates Method, ''The Art of Seeing'', which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight.\n\nIt was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of ''The Art of Seeing'', in 1952, Bennett Cerf was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: \"Then suddenly he faltered — and the disturbing truth became obvious. He wasn't reading his address at all. He had learned it by heart. To refresh his memory he brought the paper closer and closer to his eyes. When it was only an inch or so away he still couldn't read it, and had to fish for a magnifying glass in his pocket to make the typing visible to him. It was an agonising moment.\"\n\nBrazilian author João Ubaldo Ribeiro, who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys company in the late 1950's, wrote that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile: “I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really.” Ribeiro then proceeds to confirm Bennett Cerf's experience, as described above.\n\nOn the other hand, Huxley's second wife, Laura Archera, would later emphasise in her biographical account, ''This Timeless Moment'': \"One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight.\" After revealing a letter she wrote to the ''Los Angeles Times'' disclaiming the label of Huxley as a \"poor fellow who can hardly see\" by Walter C. Alvarez, she tempered this: \"Although I feel it was an injustice to treat Aldous as though he were blind, it is true there were many indications of his impaired vision. For instance, although Aldous did not wear glasses, he would quite often use a magnifying lens.\" Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, is discernibly congruent with the following sample of Huxley's own words from ''The Art of Seeing'': \"The most characteristic fact about the functioning of the total organism, or any part of the organism, is that it is not constant, but highly variable.\" Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight continues to endure similar, significant controversy, regardless of how trivial a subject matter it might initially appear.\n\nAmerican popular science author Steven Johnson, in his book ''Mind Wide Open'', quotes Huxley about his difficulties with visual encoding: \"I am and, for as long as I can remember, I have always been a poor visualizer. Words, even the pregnant words of poets, do not evoke pictures in my mind. No hypnagogic visions greet me on the verge of sleep. When I recall something, the memory does not present itself to me as a vividly seen event or object. By an effort of the will, I can evoke a not very vivid image of what happened yesterday afternoon ...\"\n", "Huxley married Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian he met at Garsington, Oxfordshire, in 1919. They had one child, Matthew Huxley (19 April 1920 – 10 February 2005), who had a career as an author, anthropologist, and prominent epidemiologist. In 1955, Maria died of cancer.\n\nIn 1956, Huxley married Laura Archera (1911–2007), also an author as well as a violinist and psychotherapist. She wrote ''This Timeless Moment'', a biography of Huxley. Laura felt inspired to illuminate the story of their marriage through Mary Ann Braubach's 2010 documentary, \"Huxley on Huxley\".\n\nIn 1960, Huxley was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer and, in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the Utopian novel ''Island'', and gave lectures on \"Human Potentialities\" both at the University of California's San Francisco Medical Center and at the Esalen Institute. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the Human Potential Movement.\n\nHuxley was a close friend of Jiddu Krishnamurti and Rosalind Rajagopal and was involved in the creation of the Happy Valley School (now Besant Hill School of Happy Valley) in Ojai, California.\n\nThe most substantial collection of Huxley's few remaining papers (following the destruction of most in a fire) is at the Library of the University of California, Los Angeles. Some are also at the Stanford University Libraries.\n\nOn 9 April 1962, Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962. The correspondence between Huxley and the society are kept at the Cambridge University Library. The society invited Huxley to appear at a banquet and give a lecture at Somerset House, London in June 1963. Huxley wrote a draft of the speech he intended to give at the society; however, his deteriorating health meant he would not be able to attend.\n", "On his deathbed, unable to speak due to advanced laryngeal cancer, Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for \"LSD, 100 µg, intramuscular\". According to her account of his death in ''This Timeless Moment'', she obliged with an injection at 11:20 a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20 p.m. (Los Angeles time), on 22 November 1963.\n\nMedia coverage of Huxley's death — as with that of the author C. S. Lewis – was overshadowed by the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on the same day. This coincidence served as the basis for Peter Kreeft's book ''Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley'', which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths.\n\nHuxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963 which was led by his older brother Julian, and on 27 October 1971 his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the Watts Mortuary Chapel in Compton, Guildford, Surrey, England.\n\nHuxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who later dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. Stravinsky began ''Variations'' in Santa Fé, New Mexico, in July 1963, and completed the composition in Hollywood on 28 October 1964. It was first performed in Chicago on 17 April 1965, by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra conducted by Robert Craft.\n", "* 1939 James Tait Black Memorial Prize \n* 1959 American Academy of Arts and Letters Award of Merit .\n* 1962 Companion of Literature \n", "* 1968 ''Point Counter Point'' \n* 1971 ''The Devils'' \n* 1980 ''Brave New World'' \n* 1998 ''Brave New World'' \n", "\n;Novels \n* 1921 ''Crome Yellow''\n* 1923 ''Antic Hay''\n* 1925 ''Those Barren Leaves''\n* 1928 ''Point Counter Point''\n* 1932 ''Brave New World''\n* 1936 ''Eyeless in Gaza''\n* 1939 ''After Many a Summer''\n* 1944 ''Time Must Have a Stop''\n* 1948 ''Ape and Essence''\n* 1955 ''The Genius and the Goddess''\n* 1962 ''Island''\n\n;Novellas \n* 1930 ''After the Fireworks''\n; Short story collections \n* 1920 ''Limbo''\n* 1922 ''Mortal Coils''\n* 1924 ''Little Mexican'' \n* 1926 ''Two or Three Graces''\n* 1930 ''Brief Candles''\n* 1944 ''Collected Short Stories''\n* ''Jacob's Hands: A Fable'' \n\n;Poetry collections\n* 1916 ''Oxford Poetry'' \n* 1916 ''The Burning Wheel''\n* 1917 ''Jonah''\n* 1918 ''The Defeat of Youth and Other Poems''\n* 1920 ''Leda''\n* 1925 ''Selected Poems''\n* 1929 ''Arabia Infelix and Other Poems''\n* 1931 ''The Cicadas and Other Poems''\n* 1971 ''Collected Poems''\n\n;Essay collections\n* 1923 ''On the Margin''\n* 1925 ''Along the Road''\n* 1926 ''Essays New and Old''\n* 1927 ''Proper Studies''\n* 1929 ''Do What You Will''\n* 1930 ''Vulgarity in Literature''\n* 1931 ''Music at Night''\n* 1932 ''Texts and Pretexts''\n* 1936 ''The Olive Tree and other essays''\n* 1937 ''Ends and Means''\n* 1940 ''Words and their Meanings''\n* 1945 ''The Perennial Philosophy''\n* 1946 ''Science, Liberty and Peace''\n* 1950 ''Themes and Variations''\n* 1954 ''The Doors of Perception''\n* 1956 ''Heaven and Hell''\n* 1956 ''Adonis and the Alphabet'' \n* 1958 ''Collected Essays''\n* 1958 ''Brave New World Revisited''\n* 1960 ''On Art and Artists''\n* 1963 ''Literature and Science''\n* 1977 ''Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience 1931–63''\n* 1977 ''The Human Situation: Lectures at Santa Barbara, 1959''\n\n;Screenplays\n* ''Brave New World''\n* ''Ape and Essence''\n* 1940 ''Pride and Prejudice'' \n* 1943 ''Madame Curie'' \n* 1944 ''Jane Eyre'' \n* 1947 ''A Woman's Vengeance''\n* 1950 ''Prelude to Fame''\n* 1951 Original screenplay (rejected) for Disney's animated ''Alice in Wonderland''\n* 1971 ''Eyeless in Gaza'' \n\n;Travel books\n* 1925 ''Along The Road: Notes and essays of a tourist''\n* 1926 ''Jesting Pilate: The Diary of a Journey''\n* 1934 ''Beyond the Mexique Bay: A Traveller's Journey''\n\n;Children's fiction\n* 1967 ''The Crows of Pearblossom''\n\n; Drama\n* 1924 ''The Discovery'' \n* 1931 ''The World of Light''\n* 1948 ''Mortal Coils – A Play'' \n* 1958 ''The Genius and the Goddess'' \n* 1967 ''The Ambassador of Captripedia''\n* 2000 ''Now More Than Ever'' \n\n;Articles written for ''Vedanta and the West''\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* 1949 \"Art and Religion\n* 1950 \"Foreword to an Essay on the Indian Philosophy of Peace\"\n* \n* \n* 1955 \"Who Are We?\"\n* \n* 1957 \"The \"Inanimate\" is Alive\"\n* 1960 \"Symbol and Immediate Experience\"\n\n;Audio recordings \n* 1955 ''Knowledge and Understanding''\n* 1955 ''Who Are We?''\n\n; Other \n* 1936 ''Pacifism and Philosophy''\n* 1937 ''An Encyclopedia of Pacifism'' \n* 1941 ''Grey Eminence''\n* 1942 ''The Art of Seeing'' (exploration of Bates method of vision improvement)\n* 1953 ''The Devils of Loudun''\n* 1962 ''The Politics of Ecology''\n* 2007 ''Selected Letters''\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Anderson, Jack 1982. \"Ballet: Suzanne Farrell in 'Variations' Premiere\". ''New York Times'' (4 July).\n* Barnes Clive. 1966. \"Ballet: Still Another Balanchine-Stravinsky Pearl; City Troupe Performs in Premiere Here 'Variations' for Huxley at State Theater\". ''New York Times'' (1 April): 28.\n* Spies, Claudio. 1965. \"Notes on Stravinsky's Variations\". ''Perspectives of New Music'' 4, no. 1 (Fall-Winter): 62–74. Reprinted in ''Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky'', revised edition, edited by Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone, pages. New York:W. W. Norton, 1972.\n* White, Eric Walter. 1979. ''Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works'', second edition. Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press. .\n\n", "\n\n* Atkins, John. ''Aldous Huxley: A Literary Study'', J. Calder, 1956\n* \n* \n* \n* Firchow, Peter. ''Aldous Huxley: Satirist and Novelist'', U of Minnesota P, 1972\n* Firchow, Peter. ''The End of Utopia: A Study of Aldous Huxley's Brave New World'', Bucknell UP, 1984\n* \n* Huxley, Aldous. ''The Human Situation: Aldous Huxley Lectures at Santa Barbara 1959'', Flamingo Modern Classic, 1994, \n* Huxley, Laura Archera. ''This Timeless Moment'', Celestial Arts, 2001, \n* Meckier, Jerome. ''Aldous Huxley: Modern Satirical Novelist of ideas'', Firchow and Nugel editors, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2006, \n* Murray, Nicholas. ''Aldous Huxley'', Macmillan, 2003, \n* Rolo, Charles J. (ed.). ''The World of Aldous Huxley'', Grosset Universal Library, 1947.\n* Sexton, James (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley: Selected Letters'', Ivan R. Dee, 2007, \n* Sawyer, Dana. ''Aldous Huxley'', Crossroad Publishing Co., 2002, \n* Shaw, Jeffrey M. ''Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition''. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock. 2014. .\n* Watt, Conrad (ed.). ''Aldous Huxley'', Routledge, 1997, \n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery\n* \n* Raymond Fraser, George Wickes (Spring 1960). \"Interview: Aldous Huxley: The Art of Fiction No. 24\". ''The Paris Review''.\n* BBC discussion programme ''In our time'': \"Brave New World\". Huxley and the novel. 9 April 2009. (Audio, 45 minutes)\n* BBC ''In their own words'' series. 12 October 1958 (video, 12 mins)\n* \"The Ultimate Revolution\" (talk at UC Berkeley, 20 March 1962)\n* Huxley interviewed on ''The Mike Wallace Interview'' 18 May 1958 (video)\n* Centre for Huxley Research\n* Aldous Huxley Papers at University of California, Los Angeles Library Special Collections \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Career ", " Association with Vedanta ", " Eyesight ", " Personal life ", " Death ", " Awards ", " Film adaptations of Huxley's work ", " Works ", " References ", " Sources ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n'''Ada''' may refer to:\n\n", "\n===Africa===\n* Ada Foah or Ada, Ghana, a town\n* Ada (Ghana parliament constituency)\n* Ada, Delta, an Isoka town in Delta State, Nigeria\n* Ada, Osun, a town in Osun State, Nigeria\n\n===Asia===\n* Adeh, Urmia, also known as Ada, a village in West Azerbaijan Province\n* Ada, Karaman, a village in Karaman Province, Turkey\n\n===Australia and New Zealand===\n* Ada River (disambiguation), three rivers\n\n===Europe===\n* Ada, Croatia, a village\n* Ada, Serbia, a town and municipality\n* Ada Ciganlija or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia\n\n===North America===\n* Ada, Alabama, an unincorporated community\n* Ada County, Idaho\n* Ada, Kansas, an unincorporated community\n* Ada Township, Michigan\n* Ada, Minnesota, a city\n* Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota\n* Ada, Ohio, a village\n* Ada, Oklahoma, a city\n* Ada, Oregon, an unincorporated community\n* Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota\n* Ada, West Virginia, an unincorporated community\n* Ada, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community\n\n===Outer space===\n* 523 Ada, an asteroid\n", "* Ada TV, a television channel in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus\n* ''Ada'' (film), a 1961 film by Daniel Mann\n* ''Ada... A Way of Life'', a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed\n* Ada (dog actor), a dog that played Colin on the sitcom ''Spaced''\n", "* ''Ada'' (plant), a genus of orchids\n* Adenosine deaminase, an enzyme involved in purine metabolism\n* Ada (protein), an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells\n", "* Ada (programming language), programming language based on Pascal\n* Ada (computer virus)\n", "* Ada Air, a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania\n* Ada International Airport or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands\n* Aerolínea de Antioquia, a Colombian airline\n* Airline Deregulation Act, a 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation\n", "* Ada College, a further education college in Tottenham Hale, London\n* Ada High School (Ohio), Ada, Ohio\n* Ada High School (Oklahoma), Ada, Oklahoma\n", "* Ada (name), a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters\n", "* List of tropical storms named Ada\n* Ada (food), a traditional Kerala delicacy\n* Ada Bridge, Belgrade, Serbia\n* , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway\n* ''Ada'' (ship), a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia\n* Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle, novel by Vladimir Nabokov\n* Dangme language, spoken in Ghana (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code \"ada\")\n", "* ADA (disambiguation)\n* Ada regulon, an Escherichia coli adaptive response proteins\n* Adah (disambiguation)\n* Adha (disambiguation)\n* Ada'a, a ''woreda'' in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia\n* Ade (disambiguation)\n* USS ''Little Ada'' (1864), a steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Places", "Film and television", "Biology", "Computer science", "Air travel", " Schools ", "Personal name", "Other uses", "See also" ]

[ "\n'''Aberdeen''' is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom.\n\n'''Aberdeen''' may also refer to:\n\n", "=== Africa ===\n* Aberdeen, Sierra Leone\n* Aberdeen, Eastern Cape, South Africa\n\n=== Asia ===\n==== Hong Kong ====\n* Aberdeen Channel, a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong\n* Aberdeen floating village, at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people\n* Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between Aberdeen, Hong Kong and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island)\n* Aberdeen, Hong Kong, an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island\n* Aberdeen Tunnel, a tunnel in Hong Kong Island\n* Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong\n\n==== India ====\n* Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in Port Blair, South Andaman Island\n\n==== Sri Lanka ====\n* Aberdeen Falls, a waterfall in Sri Lanka\n\n=== Australia ===\n* Aberdeen, New South Wales\n* Aberdeen, South Australia, one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra\n* Aberdeen, Tasmania, a suburb of the City of Devonport\n\n=== Caribbean ===\n* Aberdeen, Jamaica, a town in Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica\n\n===Europe===\n* Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)\n* Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency) 1832-1885\n* Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) 1801-1832\n* Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency)\n* Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency)\n* Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency)\n* County of Aberdeen, a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen\n* Old Aberdeen, a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland\n\n===North America===\n==== Canada ====\n* Aberdeen, Abbotsford, a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia\n* Aberdeen, Kamloops, an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia\n* Aberdeen Centre, a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia\n* Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick\n* Aberdeen, Nova Scotia, part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia\n* New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia\n* Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern Baffin Island and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory\n* Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut), a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada\n* Aberdeen, community in the township of Champlain, Prescott and Russell County, Ontario\n* Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario\n* Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec\n* Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan\n* Aberdeen, Saskatchewan\n\n==== United States ====\n* Aberdeen, Arkansas\n* Aberdeen, California\n* Aberdeen, Florida\n* Aberdeen, Georgia\n* Aberdeen, Idaho\n* Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana\n* Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana\n* Aberdeen, Kentucky\n* Aberdeen, Maryland\n:* Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army facility located in Aberdeen, Maryland\n* Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of Brighton, Boston\n* Aberdeen, Mississippi\n:* Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi), a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi\n* Aberdeen, North Carolina\n* Aberdeen, Ohio\n* Aberdeen Township, New Jersey\n* Aberdeen, South Dakota\n* Aberdeen, Texas\n* Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia)\n* Aberdeen, Washington\n* Aberdeen, West Virginia\n", "* Aberdeen College, formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College\n* Aberdeen Hall, a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada\n* University of Aberdeen, a public research university in the city of Aberdeen\n", "* ''Aberdeen'' (2000 film), a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey\n* ''Aberdeen'' (2014 film), a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo\n* Aberdeen (band), an American rock band\n* Aberdeen (song), a song by Cage The Elephant\n* Aberdeen City (band), Boston based indie/alternative rock band\n", "* Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina\n* Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina\n* Aberdeen Line, a British shipping company founded in 1825\n* Aberdeen Lock and Dam, one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway\n* Aberdeen Railway, a railway company which built a line from Aberdeen to Forfar and Arbroath\n", "* SS Aberdeen, a steamship operating for the Canadian Pacific Railway on Okanagan Lake from 1893 to 1919\n* SS Aberdeen (1881), an innovative British steamship built for the Aberdeen Line in 1881\n* SS Aberdeen (1912), a coastal whale catcher operating out of Gray's Harbor from the Canada–US border south to Cape Blanco in Oregon\n* SS Aberdeen Victory, a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS Altair\n", "* Aberdeen F.C. (1881), a Scottish football team formed in 1881. On 14 April 1903 they merged with the two other Aberdeen clubs Victoria United and Orion to form the current Aberdeen F.C.\n* Aberdeen F.C., a Scottish professional football club based in Aberdeen\n* Aberdeen GSFP RFC, an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen\n* Aberdeen IronBirds, a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles\n* Aberdeen L.F.C., a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C.\n", "* Aberdeen Asset Management\n", "* Aberdeen Act\n* Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen High School (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Island (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen Line (disambiguation)\n* Aberdeen station (disambiguation)\n* Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)\n* Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney, one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church\n* Etymology of Aberdeen\n* Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom\n* \n* \n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Places ", " Education ", " Entertainment ", " Other transportation ", " Ships ", " Sports ", "Business", " See also " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Algae''' (; singular '''alga''' ) is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as ''Chlorella'' and the diatoms, to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 m in length. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem, which are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds, while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, ''Spirogyra'' and the stoneworts.\n\nNo definition of algae is generally accepted. One definition is that algae \"have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells\". Some authors exclude all prokaryotes and thus do not consider cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) as algae.\n\nAlgae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga.\n\nAlgae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction.\n\nAlgae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago.\n", "The singular ''alga'' is the Latin word for \"seaweed\" and retains that meaning in English. The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin ''algēre'', \"be cold\", no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is ''alliga'', \"binding, entwining\".\n\nThe Ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος (''phŷcos''), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, ''fūcus'', meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך (''pūk''), \"paint\" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue.\n\nAccordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name ''Fucus'' appears in a number of taxa.\n", "\nFalse-color scanning electron micrograph of the unicellular coccolithophore ''Gephyrocapsa oceanica''\n\nMost algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely.\n\nPhylogeny based on plastid not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy:\n\n\n\n\n Supergroup affiliation !! Members !! Endosymbiont !! Summary\n\nPrimoplantae/Archaeplastida\n\n* Chlorophyta\n* Rhodophyta\n* Glaucophyta\nCyanobacteria\nThese algae have 'primary' chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c'' (often), and phycobilins, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'' without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the Charophyta, and land plants are grouped together as the Viridiplantae.\n\n Excavata and Rhizaria\n\n* Chlorarachniophytes\n* Euglenids\nGreen algae\n\nThese groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''b''. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae.\n\n'''Chlorarachniophytes''', which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus.\n\n'''Euglenids''', which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.\n\nChromista and Alveolata\n\n* Heterokonts\n* Haptophyta\n* Cryptomonads\n* Dinoflagellates\nRed algae\n\nThese groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c'', and phycobilins. The shape varies from plant to plant; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there.\n\nIn the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the heterokonts, Haptophyta, and cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups.\n\nThe typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called apicoplasts, which are not photosynthetic, but appear to have a common origin with dinoflagellate chloroplasts.\n\n\nGmelin's ''Historia Fucorum'', dated 1768\n\nLinnaeus, in ''Species Plantarum'' (1753), the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In ''Systema Naturae'', Linnaeus described the genera ''Volvox'' and ''Corallina'', and a species of ''Acetabularia'' (as ''Madrepora''), among the animals.\n\nIn 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the ''Historia Fucorum'', the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.\n\nW.H.Harvey (1811—1866) and Lamouroux (1813) were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae.\n\nAt this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Even the nonmotile (coccoid) microalgae were sometimes merely seen as stages of the lifecycle of plants, macroalgae, or animals.\n\nAlthough used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), in further classifications, the \"algae\" are seen as an artificial, polyphyletic group.\n\nThroughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes).\n\nWith the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists).\n\nSome parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae ''Prototheca'' and ''Helicosporidium'', parasites of metazoans, or ''Cephaleuros'', parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of ''incertae sedis'', while others (e.g., the green algae ''Phyllosiphon'' and ''Rhodochytrium'', parasites of plants, or the red algae ''Pterocladiophila'' and ''Gelidiocolax mammillatus'', parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates ''Oodinium'', parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., ''Chlorochytrium''), but later were seen as endophytic algae. Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., ''Beggiatoa'') were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae.\n", "The first land plants probably evolved from shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like ''Chara'' almost 500 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago.\n", "The kelp forest exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus\n\nA range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different from those of reds and browns, because they have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes. Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns.\n\nMost of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and nonmotile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the lifecycle of a species, are\n* Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells\n* Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage\n* Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls\n* Palmelloid: nonmotile cells embedded in mucilage\n* Filamentous: a string of nonmotile cells connected together, sometimes branching\n* Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues\n\nIn three lines, even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae,—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these nonalgal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other algal groups.\n", "Many algae, particularly members of the Characeae, have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, turgor regulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials.\n\nPhytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too.\n", "Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are:\n\n===Lichens===\n\nRock lichens in Ireland\nLichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be \"an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure.\" The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. They are not found alone in nature; but when they began to associate is not known. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence \"photobiont\" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont.\n\n===Coral reefs===\n\nFloridian coral reef Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating immediately available sugar and oxygen through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus ''Symbiodinium'' to be in a healthy condition. The loss of ''Symbiodinium'' from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef.\n\n===Sea sponges===\n\nGreen algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (''Halichondria panicea''). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.\n", "Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have lifecycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae.\n\n\n", "Shihtiping in Taiwan\nThe ''Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium'' (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the British Isles the ''UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report'' estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: \"It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...\"\n\nRegional and group estimates have been made, as well:\n* 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide\n* \"some 1,300 in Australian Seas\"\n* 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines.\n* 669 marine species from California (US)\n* 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland\nand so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton.\n\nThe most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide.\n", "The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. This dispersal can be accomplished by air, water, or other organisms. Due to this, spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions where the spore lands.\n\nThe spores of freshwater algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers. However, not all bodies of water can carry all species of algae, as the chemical composition of certain water bodies limits the algae that can survive within them. Marine spores are often spread by ocean currents. Ocean water presents many vastly different habitats based on temperature and nutrient availability, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions, and provinces.\n\nTo some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as \"Pacific algae\" or \"North Sea algae\". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, ''Ulva reticulata'' and ''U. fasciata'' travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner.\n\nMapping is possible for select species only: \"there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns.\" For example, ''Clathromorphum'' is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the \"difficulties of undertaking such studies.\"\n", "Phytoplankton, Lake Chuzenji\nAlgae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under deep; however, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of .\n\nThe various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.\n\nAlgae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. To detect these changes, algae can be sampled from the environment and maintained in laboratories with relative ease.\n\nOn the basis of their habitat, algae can be categorized as: aquatic (planktonic, benthic, marine, freshwater, lentic, lotic), terrestrial, aerial (subareial), lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont).\n", "In classical Chinese, the word is used both for \"algae\" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for \"literary talent\". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao, which thus simultaneously means \"Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall\" and \"Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent\".\n", "Harvesting algae\n\n===Agar===\nAgar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.\n\n===Alginates===\nAlginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours.\n\nBetween 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of ''Macrocystis'' are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.\n\n===Energy source===\n\n\nTo be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.\n\n===Fertilizer===\n\nSeaweed-fertilized gardens on Inisheer\nFor centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales:This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass.\n\nToday, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner.\n\n===Nutrition===\n\nDulse, a type of food\nNaturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium, and calcium. In addition, commercially cultivated microalgae, including both algae and cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as spirulina, ''Chlorella'' and the vitamin-C supplement from ''Dunaliella'', high in beta-carotene.\n\nAlgae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including ''fat choy'', a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make \"laver bread\" in Wales, where it is known as ''bara lawr''; in Korea, ''gim''; in Japan, ''nori'' and ''aonori''. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Māori of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are salad ingredients in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland, and Iceland.\n\nThe oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, ''Parietochloris incisa'' is very high in arachidonic acid, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Algae have emerged in recent years as a popular source of omega-3 fatty acids for vegetarians who cannot get long-chain EPA and DHA from other vegetarian sources such as flaxseed oil, which only contains the short-chain alpha-linolenic acid (ALA).\n\n===Pollution control===\n* Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed.\n* Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer.\n* Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber.\n\nAgricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.\n\n===Bioremediation===\nThe alga ''Stichococcus bacillaris'' has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance.\n\n===Pigments===\nThe natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents.\nThe presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly high-performance liquid chromatography, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural alga populations in sea water samples.\n\n===Stabilizing substances===\n\nCarrageenan, from the red alga ''Chondrus crispus'', is used as a stabilizer in milk products.\n", "\n", "* AlgaeBase\n* AlgaePARC\n* Toxoid - anatoxin\n* Eutrophication\n* ''Marimo'' algae\n* Iron fertilization\n* Microbiofuels\n* Microphyte\n* Photobioreactor\n* Plant\n", "\n", "\n\n===General===\n* \n* Fritsch, F.E. (1935/1945). ''The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae''. I. and II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press\n* van den Hoek, C., D.G. Mann, and H.M. Jahns (1995). ''Algae: an introduction to phycology''. Cambridge University Press (623 pp).\n* \n* .\n* \n* Smith, G.M. (1938). ''Cryptogamic Botany'', vol. 1. McGraw-Hill, New York.\n\n===Regional===\n;Britain and Ireland\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Australia\n* \n\n;New Zealand\n* \n\n;Europe\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Arctic\n* \n\n;Greenland\n* \n\n;Faroe Islands\n* .\n\n;Canary Islands\n* \n\n;Morocco\n* \n\n;South Africa\n* \n\n;North America\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts\n* Algae – Cell Centered Database\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts\n* \n* Algae glossary (Australian Biological Resources Study).\n* \n* EnAlgae \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology and study", "Classification", "Relationship to land plants", "Morphology", "Physiology", "Symbiotic algae", "Lifecycle", "Numbers", "Distribution", "Ecology", "Cultural associations", "Uses", "Additional images", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n'''Analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the differences among group means and their associated procedures (such as \"variation\" among and between groups), developed by statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher. In the ANOVA setting, the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several groups are equal, and therefore generalizes the ''t''-test to more than two groups. ANOVAs are useful for comparing (testing) three or more means (groups or variables) for statistical significance. It is conceptually similar to multiple two-sample t-tests, but is more conservative (results in less type I error) and is therefore suited to a wide range of practical problems.\n\n", "While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler. These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. Laplace was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s. The development of least-squares methods by Laplace and Gauss circa 1800 provided an improved method of combining observations (over the existing practices then used in astronomy and geodesy). It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace soon knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares. By 1827 Laplace was using least squares methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides. Before 1800 astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting \nfrom reaction times (the \"personal equation\") and had developed methods of reducing the errors. The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added. An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was\navailable in 1885.\n\nRonald Fisher introduced the term variance and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article ''The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance''. His first application of the analysis of variance was published in 1921. Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book ''Statistical Methods for Research Workers''.\n\nRandomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by Jerzy Neyman in 1923.\n\nOne of the attributes of ANOVA which ensured its early popularity was computational elegance. The structure of the additive model allows solution for the additive coefficients by simple algebra rather than by matrix calculations. In the era of mechanical calculators this simplicity was critical. The determination of statistical significance also required access to tables of the F function which were supplied by early statistics texts.\n", "No fit.Fair fitVery good fitThe analysis of variance can be used as an exploratory tool to explain observations. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show might plausibly be rather complex, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. Before we could do that, we would need to ''explain'' the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way).\nIn the illustrations to the right, each group is identified as ''X''1, ''X''2, etc. In the first illustration, we divide the dogs according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (thus, group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a large variance, and since the means are very close across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in does not allow us to make any reasonable statements as to what that dog's weight is likely to be. Thus, this grouping fails to ''fit'' the distribution we are trying to explain (yellow-orange).\n\nAn attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as (pet vs working breed) and (less athletic vs more athletic) would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big strong working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more reasonably distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot reliably say that ''X''1 and ''X''2 are truly distinct (i.e., it is perhaps reasonably likely that splitting dogs according to the flip of a coin—by pure chance—might produce distributions that look similar).\n\nAn attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship.\n", "ANOVA is a particular form of statistical hypothesis testing heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. A test result (calculated from the null hypothesis and the sample) is called statistically significant if it is deemed unlikely to have occurred by chance, ''assuming the truth of the null hypothesis''. A statistically significant result, when a probability (p-value) is less than a threshold (significance level), justifies the rejection of the null hypothesis, but only if the priori probability of the null hypothesis is not high.\n\nIn the typical application of ANOVA, the null hypothesis is that all groups are simply random samples of the same population. For example, when studying the effect of different treatments on similar samples of patients, the null hypothesis would be that all treatments have the same effect (perhaps none). Rejecting the null hypothesis would imply that different treatments result in altered effects.\n\nBy construction, hypothesis testing limits the rate of Type I errors (false positives) to a significance level. Experimenters also wish to limit Type II errors (false negatives). \nThe rate of Type II errors depends largely on sample size (the rate will increase for small numbers of samples), significance \nlevel (when the standard of proof is high, the chances of overlooking \na discovery are also high) and effect size (a smaller effect size is more prone to Type II error).\n\nThe terminology of ANOVA is largely from the statistical \ndesign of experiments. The experimenter adjusts factors and \nmeasures responses in an attempt to determine an effect. Factors are \nassigned to experimental units by a combination of randomization and \nblocking to ensure the validity of the results. Blinding keeps the\nweighing impartial. Responses show a variability that is partially \nthe result of the effect and is partially random error.\n\nANOVA is the synthesis of several ideas and it is used for multiple \npurposes. As a consequence, it is difficult to define concisely or precisely.\n\n\"Classical ANOVA for balanced data does three things at once:\n\nIn short, ANOVA is a statistical tool used in several ways to develop and confirm an explanation for the observed data.\n\nAdditionally:\n\nAs a result:\nANOVA \"has long enjoyed the status of being the '''most used''' (some would \nsay abused) statistical technique in psychological research.\"\nANOVA \"is probably the '''most useful''' technique in the field of \nstatistical inference.\"\n\nANOVA is difficult to teach, particularly for complex experiments, with split-plot designs being notorious. In some cases the proper \napplication of the method is best determined by problem pattern recognition \nfollowed by the consultation of a classic authoritative test.\n\n===Design-of-experiments terms===\n(Condensed from the NIST Engineering Statistics handbook: Section 5.7. A \nGlossary of DOE Terminology.)\n\n; Balanced design: An experimental design where all cells (i.e. treatment combinations) have the same number of observations.\n; Blocking: A schedule for conducting treatment combinations in an experimental study such that any effects on the experimental results due to a known change in raw materials, operators, machines, etc., become concentrated in the levels of the blocking variable. The reason for blocking is to isolate a systematic effect and prevent it from obscuring the main effects. Blocking is achieved by restricting randomization.\n; Design: A set of experimental runs which allows the fit of a particular model and the estimate of effects.\n; DOE: Design of experiments. An approach to problem solving involving collection of data that will support valid, defensible, and supportable conclusions.\n; Effect: How changing the settings of a factor changes the response. The effect of a single factor is also called a main effect.\n; Error: Unexplained variation in a collection of observations. DOE's typically require understanding of both random error and lack of fit error.\n; Experimental unit: The entity to which a specific treatment combination is applied.\n; Factors: Process inputs that an investigator manipulates to cause a change in the output.\n; Lack-of-fit error: Error that occurs when the analysis omits one or more important terms or factors from the process model. Including replication in a DOE allows separation of experimental error into its components: lack of fit and random (pure) error.\n; Model: Mathematical relationship which relates changes in a given response to changes in one or more factors.\n; Random error: Error that occurs due to natural variation in the process. Random error is typically assumed to be normally distributed with zero mean and a constant variance. Random error is also called experimental error.\n; Randomization: A schedule for allocating treatment material and for conducting treatment combinations in a DOE such that the conditions in one run neither depend on the conditions of the previous run nor predict the conditions in the subsequent runs.\n; Replication: Performing the same treatment combination more than once. Including replication allows an estimate of the random error independent of any lack of fit error.\n; Responses: The output(s) of a process. Sometimes called dependent variable(s).\n; Treatment: A treatment is a specific combination of factor levels whose effect is to be compared with other treatments.\n", "There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here.\n\n===Fixed-effects models===\n\nThe fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the response variable values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole.\n\n===Random-effects models===\n\nRandom effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model.\n\n===Mixed-effects models===\n\nA mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types.\n\nExample:\nTeaching experiments could be performed by a college or university department \nto find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a \ntreatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate \ntexts. The random-effects model would determine whether important \ndifferences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The \nmixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to \nrandomly selected alternatives.\n\nDefining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with competing \ndefinitions arguably leading toward a linguistic quagmire.\n", "The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.\n\n===Textbook analysis using a normal distribution===\nThe analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a linear model, which makes the following assumptions about the probability distribution of the responses:\n* Independence of observations – this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis.\n* Normality – the distributions of the residuals are normal.\n* Equality (or \"homogeneity\") of variances, called homoscedasticity — the variance of data in groups should be the same.\n\nThe separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the errors are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors () are independent and\n\n:\n\n===Randomization-based analysis===\n\nIn a randomized controlled experiment, the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of C. S. Peirce and Ronald Fisher. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by Francis J. Anscombe at Rothamsted Experimental Station and by Oscar Kempthorne at Iowa State University. Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'', which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and David R. Cox.\n\n====Unit-treatment additivity====\nIn its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity states that the observed response from experimental unit when receiving treatment can be written as the sum of the unit's response and the treatment-effect , that is \n: \nThe assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment , the th treatment has exactly the same effect on every experiment unit.\n\nThe assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly falsified, according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many ''consequences'' of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity ''implies'' that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by contraposition, a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant.\n\nThe use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population survey sampling.\n\n====Derived linear model====\nKempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of ''unit treatment additivity'' to produce a ''derived linear model'', very similar to the textbook model discussed previously. The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies. However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations. In the randomization-based analysis, there is ''no assumption'' of a ''normal'' distribution and certainly ''no assumption'' of ''independence''. On the contrary, ''the observations are dependent''!\n\nThe randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments.\n\n====Statistical models for observational data====\nHowever, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or observational studies, model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization. For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use ''subjective'' models, as emphasized by Ronald Fisher and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, \"statistical models\" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public.\n\n===Summary of assumptions===\nThe normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality and \nhomogeneity of the variances of the residuals. The \nrandomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the \nvariances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment \nadditivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. \nBoth these analyses require homoscedasticity, as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis.\n\nHowever, studies of processes that \nchange variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have \nbeen successfully conducted using ANOVA. There are\n''no'' necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the\nF-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical \nlimitations which are of continuing interest.\n\nProblems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. \nThe property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a \"change of scale\", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance. Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses, which are believed to follow a multiplicative model.\nAccording to Cauchy's functional equation theorem, the logarithm is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition.\n", "ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in \nwhich only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical\nsignificance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two \nvariances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations\nto the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all \nobservations does not alter significance. Multiplying all \nobservations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA \nstatistical significance result is independent of constant bias and \nscaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. \nIn the era of mechanical calculation it was common to \nsubtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to \ndropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of data\ncoding.\n", "The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number\nof means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio \nto a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating \na treatment effect is then trivial, \"the effect of any treatment is \nestimated by taking the difference between the mean of the \nobservations which receive the treatment and the general mean\".\n\n===Partitioning of the sum of squares===\n\nANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional \nequation of sample variance is\n, where the \ndivisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called \nthe sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and \nthe squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA \nestimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the \nobservation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on \nall the observation deviations from their appropriate \ntreatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is\nbased on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the \nresult being multiplied by the number of observations in each \ntreatment to account for the difference between the variance of \nobservations and the variance of means.\n\nThe fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares ''SS'' into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels.\n\n:\n\nThe number of degrees of freedom ''DF'' can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a chi-squared distribution which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for \"treatments\" if there is no treatment effect.\n\n:\n\nSee also Lack-of-fit sum of squares.\n\n===The F-test===\n\nThe F-test is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic\n\n:\n\n:\nwhere ''MS'' is mean square, = number of treatments and \n = total number of cases\n\nto the F-distribution with , degrees of freedom. Using the F-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled chi-squared distribution.\n\nThe expected value of F is (where n is the treatment sample size)\nwhich is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls.\n\nThere are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result:\n* The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ FCritical, the null hypothesis is rejected.\n* The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability is less than or equal to the significance level (α).\nThe ANOVA F-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the F-test's p-values closely approximate the permutation test's p-values: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced. Such permutation tests characterize tests with maximum power against all alternative hypotheses, as observed by Rosenbaum. The ANOVA F–test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions.\n\n===Extended logic===\nANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance \nand hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to \nsupport other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more \ncomplex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the \nobjective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the \ndata. \"Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but \nANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, \nand to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients.\" \n\"We think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring \nmultilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool \nfor summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences ...\"\n", "\nThe simplest experiment suitable for ANOVA analysis is the completely \nrandomized experiment with a single factor. More complex experiments \nwith a single factor involve constraints on randomization and include \ncompletely randomized blocks and Latin squares (and variants: \nGraeco-Latin squares, etc.). The more complex experiments share many \nof the complexities of multiple factors. A relatively complete \ndiscussion of the analysis (models, data summaries, ANOVA table) of \nthe completely randomized experiment is \navailable.\n", "\nANOVA generalizes to the study of the effects of multiple factors. \nWhen the experiment includes observations at all combinations of \nlevels of each factor, it is termed factorial. \nFactorial experiments \nare more efficient than a series of single factor experiments and the \nefficiency grows as the number of factors increases. Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used.\n\nThe use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for interactions (xy, xz, yz, xyz). \nAll terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare. \nThe ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple \nfactor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but \nproduces apparently inconsistent experimental results.\n\nCaution is advised when encountering interactions; Test \ninteraction terms first and expand the analysis beyond ANOVA if \ninteractions are found. Texts vary in their recommendations regarding \nthe continuation of the ANOVA procedure after encountering an \ninteraction. Interactions complicate the interpretation of \nexperimental data. Neither the calculations of significance nor the \nestimated treatment effects can be taken at face value. \"A \nsignificant interaction will often mask the significance of main effects.\" Graphical methods are recommended\nto enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958). Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot.\n\nA variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of analytical trickery) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications.\n", "Several fully worked numerical examples are available. A \nsimple case uses one-way (a single factor) analysis. A more complex case uses two-way (two-factor) analysis.\n", "Some analysis is required in support of the ''design'' of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments.\n\n===Preparatory analysis===\n\n====The number of experimental units====\n\nIn the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential.\n\nEarly experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals.\n\nReporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. \"Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions.\" The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards.\n\nBesides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting\nthe probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confident interval.\n\n====Power analysis====\nPower analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true.\n\n====Effect size====\n\nSeveral standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable (e.g., η2, ω2, or ƒ2) or the overall standardized difference (Ψ) of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately \"meaningful\" units may be preferable for reporting purposes.\n\n===Follow-up analysis===\nIt is always appropriate to carefully consider outliers. They have a disproportionate impact on statistical conclusions and are often the result of errors.\n\n====Model confirmation====\nIt is prudent to verify that the assumptions of ANOVA have been met. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm homoscedasticity and gross normality. Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and \nmodeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. One rule of thumb: \"If the largest standard deviation is less than twice the smallest standard deviation, we can use methods based on the assumption of equal standard deviations and our results \nwill still be approximately correct.\"\n\n====Follow-up tests====\nA statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed up with one or more different follow-up tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are planned (a priori) or post hoc. Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are performed after looking at the data.\n\nOften one of the \"treatments\" is none, so the treatment group can act as a control. Dunnett's test (a modification of the t-test) tests whether each of the other treatment groups has the same \nmean as the control.\n\nPost hoc tests such as Tukey's range test most commonly compare every group mean with every other group mean and typically incorporate some method of controlling for Type I errors. Comparisons, which are most commonly planned, can be either simple or compound. Simple comparisons compare one group mean with one other group mean. Compound comparisons typically compare two sets of groups means where one set has two or more groups (e.g., compare average group means of group A, B and C with group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels.\n\nFollowing ANOVA with pair-wise multiple-comparison tests has been criticized on several grounds. There are many such tests (10 in one table) and recommendations regarding their use are vague or conflicting.\n", "There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the design of the experiment, especially on the protocol that specifies the random assignment of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any blocking. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model.\n\nSome popular designs use the following types of ANOVA:\n*One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more independent groups (means),e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several bacterial species, or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a t-test. When there are only two means to compare, the t-test and the ANOVA F-test are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and ''t'' is given by ''F'' = ''t''2.\n*Factorial ANOVA is used when the experimenter wants to study the interaction effects among the treatments.\n*Repeated measures ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each treatment (e.g., in a longitudinal study).\n*Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one response variable.\n", "Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; Unbalanced \nexperiments offer more complexity. For single factor (one way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. \"The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. \nConsequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs.\" In the general case, \"The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and F-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation \nare considered.\" The simplest techniques for handling unbalanced data restore balance by either throwing out data or by synthesizing missing data. More complex techniques use regression.\n\nANOVA is (in part) a significance test. The American Psychological Association holds the view that simply reporting significance is insufficient and that reporting confidence bounds is preferred.\n\nWhile ANOVA is conservative (in maintaining a significance level) against multiple comparisons in one dimension, it is not conservative against comparisons in multiple dimensions.\n", "ANOVA is considered to be a special case of linear regression which in turn is a special case of the general linear model. All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized.\n\nThe Kruskal–Wallis test and the Friedman test are nonparametric tests, which do not rely on an assumption of normality.\n\n===Connection to linear regression===\nBelow we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that observation is associated with a response and factors where denotes the different factors and is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA and in two-way ANOVA . Furthermore, we assume the factor has levels. Now, we can one-hot encode the factors into the dimensional vector .\n\nThe one-hot encoding function is defined such that the entry of is\n\nThe vector is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all . Thus, . In order to obtain a fully general -way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be .\n\nWith this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response against the vector . However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use F-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors.\n\n====Example====\nWe can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels.\n\nDefine if and if , i.e. is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and is the one-hot encoding of the second factor.\n\nWith that,\n\nwhere the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that\n\nThen,\n\n", "\n\n\n*AMOVA (analysis of molecular variance)\n*Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)\n*ANORVA (analysis of rhythmic variance)\n*ANOVA on ranks\n*ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis\n*Explained variation\n*Mixed-design analysis of variance\n*Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)\n*One-way analysis of variance\n*Permutational analysis of variance\n*Repeated measures ANOVA\n*Two-way analysis of variance\n*Variance decomposition\n\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* Pre-publication chapters are available on-line.\n* \n* \n* Cohen, Jacob (1988). ''Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences'' (2nd ed.). Routledge \n* \n*Cox, David R. (1958). ''Planning of experiments''. Reprinted as \n*\n* Freedman, David A.(2005). ''Statistical Models: Theory and Practice'', Cambridge University Press. \n* \n*\n*\n* \n*\n* Lehmann, E.L. (1959) Testing Statistical Hypotheses. John Wiley & Sons.\n* \n* Moore, David S. & McCabe, George P. (2003). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (4e). W H Freeman & Co. \n* Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2002). ''Observational Studies'' (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. \n* \n*\n* \n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*Cox, David R. & Reid, Nancy M. (2000). ''The theory of design of experiments''. (Chapman & Hall/CRC). \n* \n* Freedman, David A.; Pisani, Robert; Purves, Roger (2007) ''Statistics'', 4th edition. W.W. Norton & Company \n* \n* \n* Tabachnick, Barbara G. & Fidell, Linda S. (2007). ''Using Multivariate Statistics'' (5th ed.). Boston: Pearson International Edition. \n* \n* \n", "\n* SOCR ANOVA Activity and interactive applet.\n* Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R (University of Southampton)\n* NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, section 7.4.3: \"Are the means equal?\"\n* Analysis of variance: Introduction\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", "Motivating example", "Background and terminology", " Classes of models ", "Assumptions", "Characteristics", "Logic", "For a single factor", "For multiple factors", "Worked numeric examples", "Associated analysis", "Study designs", "Cautions", "Generalizations", "See also", "Footnotes", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nChemical structure of methane, the simplest alkane\n\nIn organic chemistry, an '''alkane''', or '''paraffin''' (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon-carbon bonds are single. Alkanes have the general chemical formula ''n''2''n''+2. The alkanes range in complexity from the simplest case of methane, CH4 where ''n'' = 1 (sometimes called the parent molecule), to arbitrarily large molecules. \n\nBesides this standard definition by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, in some authors' usage the term ''alkane'' is applied to any saturated hydrocarbon, including those that are either monocyclic (i.e. the cycloalkanes) or polycyclic.\n\nIn an alkane, each carbon atom has 4 bonds (either C-C or C-H), and each hydrogen atom is joined to one of the carbon atoms (so in a C-H bond). The longest series of linked carbon atoms in a molecule is known as its carbon skeleton or carbon backbone. The number of carbon atoms may be thought of as the size of the alkane.\n\nOne group of the higher alkanes are waxes, solids at standard ambient temperature and pressure (SATP), for which the number of carbons in the carbon backbone is greater than about 17.\n\nWith their repeated -CH2- units, the alkanes constitute a homologous series of organic compounds in which the members differ in molecular mass by multiples of 14.03 u (the total mass of each such methylene-bridge unit, which comprises a single carbon atom of mass 12.01 u and two hydrogen atoms of mass ~1.01 u each).\n\nAlkanes are not very reactive and have little biological activity. They can be viewed as molecular trees upon which can be hung the more active/reactive functional groups of biological molecules.\n\nThe alkanes have two main commercial sources: petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.\n\nAn '''alkyl group''', generally abbreviated with the symbol R, is a functional group that, like an alkane, consists solely of single-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms connected acyclically—for example, a methyl or ethyl group.\n", "\nSaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons having only single covalent bonds between their carbons. They can be:\n* linear (general formula ) wherein the carbon atoms are joined in a snake-like structure\n* branched (general formula , ''n'' > 2) wherein the carbon backbone splits off in one or more directions\n* cyclic (general formula , ''n'' > 3) wherein the carbon backbone is linked so as to form a loop.\n\nAccording to the definition by IUPAC, the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic (e.g., polycyclic) and branching structures; the general formula is , where ''k'' is the number of independent loops. Alkanes are the acyclic (loopless) ones, corresponding to ''k'' = 0.\n", "''n''-butane and isobutane are the two C4H10 isomers; cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are the two C4H8 isomers. Bicyclo1.1.0butane is the only C4H6 compound and has no isomer; tetrahedrane (below) is the only C4H4 compound and also has no isomer.\n\nTetrahedrane \n\nAlkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in various different ways, forming structural isomers. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the ''n''-isomer (''n'' for \"normal\", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example:\n* C1: methane only\n* C2: ethane only\n* C3: propane only\n* C4: 2 isomers: ''n''-butane and isobutane\n* C5: 3 isomers: pentane, isopentane, and neopentane\n* C6: 5 isomers: hexane, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, and 2,3-dimethylbutane\n* C12: 355 isomers\n* C32: 27,711,253,769 isomers\n* C60: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable.\n\nBranched alkanes can be chiral. For example, 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more loops. Such compounds are called cycloalkanes.\n", "\nThe IUPAC nomenclature (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix \"-ane\".\n\nIn 1866, August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the hydrocarbons CnH2''n''+2, CnH2''n'', CnH2''n''−2, CnH2''n''−4, CnH2''n''−6. Now, the first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; \"-one\" represents a ketone; \"-ol\" represents an alcohol or OH group; \"-oxy-\" means an ether and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxymethane is the IUPAC name for dimethyl ether.\n\nIt is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one IUPAC name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name.\n\n===Linear alkanes===\n\nStraight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix \"''n''-\" (for ''normal'') where a non-linear isomer exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., ''n''-hexane or 2- or 3-methylpentane. Alternative names for this group are: '''linear paraffins''' or '''''n''-paraffins'''.\n\nThe members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows:\n:methane, CH4 – one carbon and four hydrogen\n:ethane, C2H6 – two carbon and six hydrogen\n:propane, C3H8 – three carbon and 8 hydrogen\n:butane, C4H10 – four carbon and 10 hydrogen\n:pentane, C5H12 – five carbon and 12 hydrogen\n:hexane, C6H14 – six carbon and 14 hydrogen\n\nThe first four names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid, respectively (hexadecane is also sometimes referred to as cetane). Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix '''-ane''' to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel (''-a'' or ''-o'') from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C5H12; hexane, C6H14; heptane, C7H16; octane, C8H18; etc. The prefix is generally Greek, however alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example nonane, use the Latin prefix '''non-'''. For a more complete list, see List of alkanes.\n\n===Branched alkanes===\nBall-and-stick model of isopentane (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)\nSimple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example ''n''-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane.\n\nIUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name.\n\nThe key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows:\n* Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms\n* Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules\n* Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from \"-ane\" to \"-yl\"\n* Number the root chain in order to give the lowest possible numbers for the side-chains\n* Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain\n* If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as \"di-\" and \"tri-\" to indicate it as such, and number each one.\n* Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding \"di-\" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain\n\n\n+ Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C5H12\n\n Common name\n ''n''-pentane \n isopentane \n neopentane\n\n IUPAC name\n pentane \n 2-methylbutane \n 2,2-dimethylpropane\n\n Structure\n 120px \n 90px \n 70px\n\n\n===Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons===\n\n\nThough technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the \"cyclic alkanes.\" As their description implies, they contain one or more rings.\n\nSimple cycloalkanes have a prefix \"cyclo-\" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones, e.g., cyclopentane (C5H10) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane (C5H12), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, propane and cyclopropane, butane and cyclobutane, etc.\n\nSubstituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes — the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules.\n\n===Trivial/common names===\nThe trivial (non-systematic) name for alkanes is ''paraffins''. Together, alkanes are known as the ''paraffin series''. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes.\n\nIt is almost certain that the term ''paraffin'' stems from the petrochemical industry. Branched-chain alkanes are called ''isoparaffins''. The use of the term \"paraffin\" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of isomers, i.e., compounds of the same chemical formula, e.g., pentane and isopentane.\n\n;Examples\nThe following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system:\n* isobutane for 2-methylpropane\n* isopentane for 2-methylbutane\n* neopentane for 2,2-dimethylpropane.\n", "\nAll alkanes are colourless and odourless.\n\n===Table of alkanes===\n\n\n\n'''Alkane'''\n'''Formula'''\n'''Boiling point °C'''\n'''Melting point °C'''\n'''Density g·cm−3 (at 20 °C''')\n\nMethane\nCH4\n −162\n −182\n gas\n\nEthane\nC2H6\n −89\n −183\n gas\n\nPropane\nC3H8\n −42\n −188\n gas\n\nButane\nC4H10\n 0\n −138\n gas\n\nPentane\nC5H12\n 36\n −130\n 0.626 (liquid)\n\nHexane\nC6H14\n 69\n −95\n 0.659 (liquid)\n\nHeptane\nC7H16\n 98\n −91\n 0.684 (liquid)\n\nOctane\nC8H18\n 126\n −57 \n 0.703 (liquid)\n\nNonane\nC9H20\n 151\n −54\n 0.718 (liquid)\n\nDecane\nC10H22\n 174\n −30\n 0.730 (liquid)\n\nUndecane\nC11H24\n 196\n −26\n 0.740 (liquid)\n\nDodecane\nC12H26\n 216\n −10\n 0.749 (liquid)\n\nPentadecane\nC15H32\n 270\n 10-17\n 0.769\n\nHexadecane\nC16H34\n 287\n 18\n 0.773 (liquid)\n\nIcosane\nC20H42\n 343\n 37\n solid\n\nTriacontane\nC30H62\n 450\n 66\n solid\n\nTetracontane\nC40H82\n 525\n 82\n solid\n\nPentacontane\nC50H102\n 575\n 91\n solid\n\nHexacontane\nC60H122\n 625\n 100\n solid\n\n\n===Boiling point===\nMelting (blue) and boiling (orange) points of the first 16 ''n''-alkanes in °C.\n\nAlkanes experience intermolecular van der Waals forces. Stronger intermolecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes.\n\nThere are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces:\n* the number of electrons surrounding the molecule, which increases with the alkane's molecular weight\n* the surface area of the molecule\n\nUnder standard conditions, from CH4 to C4H10 alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12 to C17H36 they are liquids; and after C18H38 they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size (molecular weight) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series.\n\nA straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare isobutane (2-methylpropane) and n-butane (butane), which boil at −12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively. For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can \"lock\" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces.\n\nOn the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact.\n\n===Melting points===\nThe melting points of the alkanes follow a similar trend to boiling points for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organized structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-numbered alkanes pack less well and so the \"looser\" organized solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart.\n\nThe melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to pack well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues.\n\n===Conductivity and solubility===\nAlkanes do not conduct electricity, nor are they substantially polarized by an electric field. For this reason, they do not form hydrogen bonds and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in entropy). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the second law of thermodynamics suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimized by minimizing the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be hydrophobic in that they repel water.\n\nTheir solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called lipophilicity. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves.\n\nThe density of the alkanes usually increases with the number of carbon atoms but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane–water mixture.\n\n===Molecular geometry===\nsp3-hybridization in methane.\nThe molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always sp3 hybridized, that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of cos−1(−) ≈ 109.47° between them.\n\n===Bond lengths and bond angles===\nAn alkane molecule has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp3 orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp3 orbitals on different carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09 × 10−10 m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10−10 m for a C–C bond.\nThe tetrahedral structure of methane.\n\nThe spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp3 orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality.\n\n===Conformation===\n\n\nThe structural formula and the bond angles are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further degree of freedom for each carbon–carbon bond: the torsion angle between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation.\nNewman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.\nBall-and-stick models of the two rotamers of ethane\n\nEthane forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C–C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C–C bond, one will see the so-called Newman projection. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation.\n\nThe two conformations, also known as rotamers, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable).\n\nThis difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the torsion energy, is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C–C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH3 group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10−11 seconds.\n\nThe case of higher alkanes is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favored around each carbon–carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealized forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest.\n\n===Spectroscopic properties===\nVirtually all organic compounds contain carbon–carbon, and carbon–hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characteristic spectroscopic features of a different functional group like –OH, –CHO, –COOH etc.\n\n====Infrared spectroscopy====\nThe carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm−1, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm−1. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm−1.\n\n====NMR spectroscopy====\nThe proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at ''δ''H = 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: ''δ''C = 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH3), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH2–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time, and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time.\n\n====Mass spectrometry====\nAlkanes have a high ionization energy, and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (''M'' − 15) is often absent, and other fragments are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH2 groups.\n", "\nAlkanes are only weakly reactive with ionic and other polar substances. The acid dissociation constant (pKa) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: carbon acids). This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' (with the meaning here of \"lacking affinity\"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years.\n\nHowever redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen (''if'' present in sufficient quantity to satisfy the reaction stoichiometry) leads to combustion without any smoke, producing carbon dioxide and water. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of haloalkanes. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in C–H bond activation.\n\nFree radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers.\n\nIn highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hindrance, and can substantially increase the reactivity.\n\n===Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)===\nAll alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is:\n:C''n''H2''n''+2 + (''n'' + ) O2 → (''n'' + 1) H2O + ''n'' CO2\n:or C''n''H2''n''+2 + () O2 → (''n'' + 1) H2O + ''n'' CO2\n\nIn the absence of sufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed, as shown below:\n\n:C''n''H2''n''+2 + (''n'' + ) O2 → (''n'' + 1) H2O + ''n'' CO\n\n:C''n''H2''n''+2 + (''n'' + ) O2 → (''n'' + 1) H2O + ''n'' C\n\nFor example, methane:\n:2 CH4 + 3 O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2O\n:CH4 +  O2 → CO + 2 H2O\n\nSee the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data.\nThe standard enthalpy change of combustion, Δc''H''o, for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH2 group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δc''H''o than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable.\n\n=== Reactions with halogens ===\n\nAlkanes react with halogens in a so-called ''free radical halogenation'' reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. Free radicals are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly exothermic, and can lead to an explosion.\n\nThese reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps:\n* '''Initiation''' the halogen radicals form by homolysis. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required.\n* '''Chain reaction''' or '''Propagation''' then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further.\n* '''Chain termination''' where the radicals recombine.\n\nExperiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane:\nMonobromination of propane\n\n=== Cracking ===\n\nCracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free-radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites), which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation and the very unstable hydride anion. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position beta (i.e., cracking) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.\n\n=== Isomerization and reformation ===\nDragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight. In reformation, the alkanes become cycloalkanes or aromatic hydrocarbons, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the octane number of the substance. Butane is the most common alkane that is put under the process of isomerization, as it makes many branched alkanes with high octane numbers.\n\n===Other reactions===\nAlkanes will react with steam in the presence of a nickel catalyst to give hydrogen. Alkanes can be chlorosulfonated and nitrated, although both reactions require special conditions. The fermentation of alkanes to carboxylic acids is of some technical importance. In the Reed reaction, sulfur dioxide, chlorine and light convert hydrocarbons to sulfonyl chlorides. Nucleophilic Abstraction can be used to separate an alkane from a metal. Alkyl groups can be transferred from one compound to another by transmetalation reactions.\n", "\n\n===Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe===\nMethane and ethane make up a tiny proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere\nExtraction of oil, which contains many different hydrocarbons including alkanes\n\nAlkanes form a small portion of the atmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.1% methane, 2 ppm ethane), Saturn (0.2% methane, 5 ppm ethane), Uranus (1.99% methane, 2.5 ppm ethane) and Neptune (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). Titan (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the ''Huygens'' probe, which indicated that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface. Also on Titan the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites.\n\n===Occurrence of alkanes on Earth===\nTraces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms, such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants.\n\nThe most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some propane and butane: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons were formed when marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction:\n:C6H12O6 → 3 CH4 + 3 CO2\n\nThese hydrocarbon deposits, collected in porous rocks trapped beneath impermeable cap rocks, comprise commercial oil fields. They have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons reserves is the basis for what is known as the energy crisis.\n\nMethane is also present in what is called biogas, produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible renewable energy source.\n\nAlkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid methane clathrate (methane hydrate). Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane clathrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together. Methane extracted from methane clathrate is, therefore, a candidate for future fuels.\n\n===Biological occurrence===\nAcyclic alkanes occur in nature in various ways.\n\n;Bacteria and archaea\nMethanogenic archaea in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the methane in Earth's atmosphere.\nCertain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.\n\nOn the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidized organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen:\n:CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2 H2O\n\nMethanogens are also the producers of marsh gas in wetlands, and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of cattle and other herbivores, which can release up to 150 liters per day, and of termites, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the intestines of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the carbon cycle, with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by photosynthesis. It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way.\n\n;Fungi and plants\nAlkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three eukaryotic groups of organisms: fungi, plants and animals. Some specialized yeasts, e.g., ''Candida tropicale'', ''Pichia'' sp., ''Rhodotorula'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus ''Amorphotheca resinae'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel, and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.\n\nIn plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants by decarboxylation of even-numbered fatty acids. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.\n\nMore volatile short-chain alkanes are also produced by and found in plant tissues. The Jeffrey pine is noted for producing exceptionally high levels of ''n''-heptane in its resin, for which reason its distillate was designated as the zero point for one octane rating. Floral scents have also long been known to contain volatile alkane components, and ''n''-nonane is a significant component in the scent of some roses. Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as ethane, pentane, and hexane by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution.\n\nEdible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction.\n\n;Animals\nAlkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C19H40). They are important as pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle ''Xylotrechus colonus'', pentacosane (C25H52), 3-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C18H38), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C40H82), and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.\n\n===Ecological relations===\nEarly spider orchid (''Ophrys sphegodes'')\nOne example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee (''Andrena nigroaenea'') and the early spider orchid (''Ophrys sphegodes''); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of tricosane (C23H48), pentacosane (C25H52) and heptacosane (C27H56) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen,\nwhich will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms.\n", "\n===Petroleum refining===\nAn oil refinery at Martinez, California.\nAs stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Alkanes are separated in an oil refinery by fractional distillation and processed into many different products.\n\n===Fischer–Tropsch===\nThe Fischer–Tropsch process is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates.\n\n===Laboratory preparation===\nThere is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally unreactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo functional group interconversions cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of ''n''-butyllithium as a strong base gives the conjugate acid, ''n''-butane as a side-product:\n\n: C4H9Li + H2O → C4H10 + LiOH\n\nHowever, at times it may be desirable to make a section of a molecule into an alkane-like functionality (alkyl group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an ethyl group is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a hydroxy group, it gives ethanol, which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are hydrogenation of alkenes:\n\n:RCH=CH2 + H2 → RCH2CH3(R = alkyl)\n\nAlkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from alkyl halides in the Corey–House–Posner–Whitesides reaction. The Barton–McCombie deoxygenation removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g.\n:Barton–McCombie deoxygenation scheme\n\nand the Clemmensen reduction removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.:\n:Clemmensen Reduction\n", "The applications of alkanes depend on the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. Methane and ethane are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas.\n\nPropane and butane are gases at atmospheric pressure that can be liquefied at fairly low pressures and are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). Propane is used in propane gas burners and as a fuel for road vehicles, butane in space heaters and disposable cigarette lighters. Both are used as propellants in aerosol sprays.\n\nFrom pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances.\n\nAlkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly.\n\nAlkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters.\n\nAlkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking.\n\nSome synthetic polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year.\n", "\nAlkanes are chemically very inert apolar molecules which are not very reactive as organic compounds. This inertness yields serious ecological issues if they are released into the environment. Due to their lack of functional groups and low water solubility, alkanes show poor bioavailability for microorganisms.\n\nThere are, however, some microorganisms possessing the metabolic capacity to utilize n-alkanes as both carbon and energy sources. Some bacterial species are highly specialised in degrading alkanes; these are referred to as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria.\n", "\n\n\nMethane is flammable, explosive and dangerous to inhale, because it is a colorless, odorless gas, special caution must be taken around methane. Ethane is also extremely flammable, dangerous to inhale and explosive. Both of these may cause suffocation. Similarly, propane is flammable and explosive. It may cause drowsiness or unconsciousness if inhaled. Butane has the same hazards to consider as propane.\n\nAlkanes also pose a threat to the environment. Branched alkanes have a lower biodegradability than unbranched alkanes. However, methane is ranked as the most dangerous greenhouse gas. Although the amount of methane in the atmosphere is low, it does pose a threat to the environment. \n", "\n\n* Alkene\n* Alkyne\n* Cycloalkane\n* Higher alkanes\n\n\n", "\n", "* Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Structure classification", "Isomerism", "Nomenclature", "Physical properties", "Chemical properties", "Occurrence", "Production", "Applications", "Environmental transformations", "Hazards", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]

[ "\nCourt of Appeals in Washington, D.C.\n'''United States appellate procedure''' involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as ''de novo'' and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision.\n\nAn appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.\n\nThe specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.\n", "A party who files an appeal is called an \"appellant\", \"plaintiff in error\", \"petitioner\" or \"pursuer\", and a party on the other side is called a \"appellee\". A \"cross-appeal\" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000.\n\nThe appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence.\n\nThe appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal.\n\nAn appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed.\n", "An appeal \"as of right\" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal \"by leave\" or \"permission\" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the Supreme Court, review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.\n\nIn tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal \"as of right\". And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal \"as of right\" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law \"by leave\" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard.\n\nBy convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court.\n", "Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional \"direct\" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case.\n\nThe key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts.\n\nRelief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence.\n\n===Appellate review===\n\"Appellate review\" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction).\n\nIn most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed \"as of right\". However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of.\n\nThere are two distinct forms of appellate review, \"direct\" and \"collateral\". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on \"direct appeal\" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a \"collateral\" action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, \"direct appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... Collateral review, on the other hand, provides an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial.\" \"Graham v. Borgen\", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04-4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted).\n\nIn Anglo-American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs.\n\n====Direct Appeal====\nAfter exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process.\n\n=====Preservation Issues=====\nAn appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.\n\n====State Post Conviction Relief: Collateral Appeal====\nAll States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered.\n\n====Habeas Corpus====\n\n", "A \"notice of appeal\" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country.\n\nThe specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both.\n\nSome courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.\n\nThe deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.\n", "\nGenerally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue).\n\nIf the appellate court finds no defect, it \"affirms\" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision \"below\" (i.e., in the lower court), it may \"modify\" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify (\"reverse\" or \"vacate\") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back (\"remand\" or \"remit\") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.\n\nIn some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision \"de novo\" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.\n\nAnother situation is where appeal is by way of \"re-hearing\". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court.\n\nSometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.)\n\nGenerally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in \"very\" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct.\n\nIn some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.\n\nThe appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or \"pro se\" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.\n\nIn an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal.\n\nThe United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial \"de novo\" or an appeal on the record.\n\nA trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial \"de novo\" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.\n\nIn some cases, an application for \"trial de novo\" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '\"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to \"annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial.\"' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. \"A trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in the district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense,\npermitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense.\"\n\nIn an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not \"preserve the issue for appeal\" by objecting.\n\nIn cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an \"abuse of discretion\" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.\n\nIn some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial.\n\nA lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words \"May it please the court.\"\n\nAfter an appeal is heard, the \"mandate\" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the \"remittitur\".\n", "The result of an appeal can be:\n:*Affirmed: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s). \n:*Reversed: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts ruling(s), and overturns their decision.\n:*Remanded: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court.\n\nThere can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. \"Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'\".\n\nSome reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than ''review improvidently granted''. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of ''review improvidently granted'' is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval.\n", "\n\n\n* Appellate court\n* Appellee\n* Civil procedure\n* Court of Appeals\n* Courts-martial in the United States\n* Criminal procedure\n* Defendant\n* Interlocutory appeal\n* List of legal topics\n* Petition for stay\n* Plaintiff\n* Pursuer\n* Reversible error\n* Supreme Court of the United States\n* Writ of Certiorari\n* Writ of habeas corpus\n* Writ of mandamus\n*List of wrongful convictions in the United States\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Access to appellant status", "Ability to appeal", "Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions", "Notice of appeal", "Appellate procedure", "Results", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\nIn law, an '''Answer''' was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.\n\nIn the common law, an '''Answer''' is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' \"pre-answer\" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment.\n\nIn a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment.\n\nThe famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentium'' (\"answers of the learned ones\") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.\n\nDuring debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question.\n", "\n", "* Answers key\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Notes", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nAn '''appellate court''', commonly called an '''''appeals court''''', '''''court of appeals''''' (American English), '''''appeal court''''' (British English), '''''court of second instance''''' or '''''second instance court''''', is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules.\n\nThe authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified.\n", "\n\nThe Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court.\n", "\n\nThe Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka is located in Colombo, is the second most senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system.\n", "\nIn the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal.\n\nIn most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case.\n\n===Institutional titles===\nMany U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a '''''court of appeal''''' or '''''court of appeals'''''. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a '''''court of errors''''' (or '''''court of errors and appeals'''''), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, courts able to hear appeals are known as an '''appellate division'''.\n\nThe phrase \"court of appeals\" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the New York system is different: the \"New York Court of Appeals\" is the highest appellate court; and the phrase \"New York Supreme Court\" applies to the trial court of general jurisdiction.\n\nDepending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other.\n", "*Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)\n*Court of Criminal Appeals (disambiguation)\n*Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)\n*High Court (Hong Kong)\n", "\n*Lax, Jeffrey R. \"Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts.\" American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591-604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012.\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "New Zealand", "Sri Lanka", "United States", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n'''Arraignment''' is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant to inform the defendant of the charges against him or her. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdiction but they generally include \"guilty\", \"not guilty\", and the peremptory pleas (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of \"nolo contendere\" (no contest) and the \"''Alford'' plea\" are allowed in some circumstances.\n", "\nIn Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. The judge will testify during the indictment process.\n", "\nIn every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia, arraignment takes places in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge.\n", "\nIn France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime. The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent).\n", "\nIn Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest.\n", "\nAt the first appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance.\n", "\nIn South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned.\n", "\nIn England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment.\n\nIn England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable.\n", "\nUnder the United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, \"arraignment shall consist of an open...reading of the indictment...to the defendant...and call on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he/she is called upon to plead.\"\n\nIn federal courts, arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment or PIA, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea.\n\nIn New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours.\n\nIn California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays. Thus, an individual arrested without a warrant, in some cases, may be held for as long as 168 hours (7 days) without arraignment or charge.\n", "The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles:\n# The accused person (defendant) is addressed by name;\n# The charge against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and,\n# The accused person is asked formally how he or she pleads.\n", "'''Video arraignment''' is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the courts to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom.\n\nUse of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation.\n", "If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence.\n\nIf the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial.\n\nIn the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or \"stood mute\") was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for \"strong and hard punishment\"). Today in common-law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence.\n", "This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction.\n", "*Desk appearance ticket\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Australia ", " Canada ", " France ", " Germany ", " New Zealand ", " South Africa ", " United Kingdom ", " United States ", "Form of the arraignment", "Video arraignment", "Guilty and not-guilty pleas", "Pre-trial release", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\nGrace Church in Newark where Samuel Ward worked as organist, and wrote and perfected the tune \"Materna\" for America the Beautiful.\n\n\"'''America the Beautiful'''\" is an American patriotic song. The lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates, and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey.\n\nBates originally wrote the words as a poem, \"Pikes Peak\", first published in the Fourth of July edition of the church periodical ''The Congregationalist'' in 1895. At that time, the poem was titled \"America\" for publication.\n\nWard had originally written the music, \"Materna\", for the hymn \"O Mother dear, Jerusalem\" in 1882, though it was not first published until 1892. Ward's music combined with the Bates poem was first published in 1910 and titled ''America the Beautiful''.\n\nThe song is one of the most popular of the many American patriotic songs.\n", "Commemoration plaque atop Pikes Peak in July 1999\n\nIn 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the \"White City\" with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Pikes Peak.\n\nOn the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in ''The Congregationalist'' to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1911.\n\nThe first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in ''The Congregationalist.'' By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A hymn tune composed by Samuel A. Ward was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired to compose his tune. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home in New York City, after a leisurely summer day in 1882, and he immediately wrote it down. Supposedly, he was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on. He composed the tune for the old hymn \"O Mother Dear, Jerusalem\", retitling the work \"Materna\". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled \"America the Beautiful\".\n\nWard died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain since the music was only first applied to the song in 1904. Bates was more fortunate since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929.\n\nAt various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give \"America the Beautiful\" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer \"America the Beautiful\" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". Some prefer \"America the Beautiful\" over \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. Others prefer \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, \"America the Beautiful\" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans.\n\nThis song was used as the background music of the television broadcast of the Tiangong-1 launch.\n\nThe song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the United States.\n\n", "{| style=\"white-space:nowrap\"\n+'''America. A Poem for July 4.'''\nOriginal poem (1893)\n\nO beautiful for halcyon skies,\nFor amber waves of grain,\nFor purple mountain majesties\nAbove the enameled plain!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee,\nTill souls wax fair as earth and air\nAnd music-hearted sea!\n\nO beautiful for pilgrim feet\nWhose stern, impassioned stress\nA thoroughfare for freedom beat\nAcross the wilderness!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee\nTill paths be wrought through wilds of thought\nBy pilgrim foot and knee!\n\nO beautiful for glory-tale\nOf liberating strife,\nWhen once or twice, for man's avail,\nMen lavished precious life!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee\nTill selfish gain no longer stain,\nThe banner of the free!\n\nO beautiful for patriot dream\nThat sees beyond the years\nThine alabaster cities gleam\nUndimmed by human tears!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee\nTill nobler men keep once again\nThy whiter jubilee!\n1904 version\n \nO beautiful for spacious skies,\nFor amber waves of grain,\nFor purple mountain majesties\nAbove the fruited plain!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee,\nAnd crown thy good with brotherhood\nFrom sea to shining sea!\n\nO beautiful for pilgrim feet\nWhose stern impassioned stress\nA thoroughfare for freedom beat\nAcross the wilderness.\nAmerica! America!\nGod mend thine ev'ry flaw,\nConfirm thy soul in self-control,\nThy liberty in law.\n\nO beautiful for glorious tale\nOf liberating strife,\nWhen valiantly for man's avail\nMen lavish precious life.\nAmerica! America!\nMay God thy gold refine\nTill all success be nobleness,\nAnd ev'ry gain divine.\n\nO beautiful for patriot dream\nThat sees beyond the years\nThine alabaster cities gleam\nUndimmed by human tears.\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee,\nAnd crown thy good with brotherhood\nFrom sea to shining sea.\n1911 version\n \nO beautiful for spacious skies,\nFor amber waves of grain,\nFor purple mountain majesties\nAbove the fruited plain!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee\nAnd crown thy good with brotherhood\nFrom sea to shining sea!\n\nO beautiful for pilgrim feet,\nWhose stern, impassioned stress\nA thoroughfare for freedom beat\nAcross the wilderness!\nAmerica! America!\nGod mend thine every flaw,\nConfirm thy soul in self-control,\nThy liberty in law!\n\nO beautiful for heroes proved\nIn liberating strife,\nWho more than self their country loved\nAnd mercy more than life!\nAmerica! America!\nMay God thy gold refine,\nTill all success be nobleness,\nAnd every gain divine!\n\nO beautiful for patriot dream\nThat sees beyond the years\nThine alabaster cities gleam\nUndimmed by human tears!\nAmerica! America!\nGod shed His grace on thee\nAnd crown thy good with brotherhood\nFrom sea to shining sea!\n\n", "In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B Charts, and is included on the soundtrack for the movie ''The Sandlot''.\n\nThree different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of \"America the Beautiful\" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherrié Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks.\n\nA punk rock adaptation of the song was recorded in 1976 by New York band The Dictators, and released on their album Every Day is Saturday.\n\nPopularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse.\n\nFor Super Bowl XLVIII, The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI, the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and in patriotic holidays.\n", "\"From sea to shining sea\", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an American idiom meaning \"from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean\" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song \"God Bless the USA\" and Schoolhouse Rock's \"Elbow Room\". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase \"''''\" (\"From sea to sea\"), which serves as the official motto of Canada.\n\n\"Purple mountain majesties\" refers to the shade of the Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which inspired Bates to write the poem.\n", "Lynn Sherr's 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of \"Auld Lang Syne\"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates. The song appears in Ellen Raskin's ''The Westing Game''.\n", "\n", "\n*Collins, Ace. ''Songs Sung, Red, White, and Blue: The Stories Behind America's Best-Loved Patriotic Songs''. HarperResource, 2003. \n", "\n\n* MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress\n* \n* Words, sheet music & MIDI file at the Cyber Hymnal\n* America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words.\n* Archival collection of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s.\n* Another free sheet music\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", "Lyrics", "Popular versions", "Idioms", "Books", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nHearing aid\n\n'''Assistive technology''' is an umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and also includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks.\n", "The term adaptive technology is often used as the synonym for assistive technology; however, they are different terms. Assistive technology refers to \"any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities\", while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for persons with disabilities and would seldom be used by non-disabled persons. In other words, \"assistive technology is any object or system that increases or maintains the capabilities of people with disabilities,\" while adaptive technology is \"any object or system that is specifically designed for the purpose of increasing or maintaining the capabilities of people with disabilities.\" Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access.\n", "\n=== Wheelchairs ===\n\nWheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people enjoy. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices comes in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker.\n\n=== Transfer devices ===\n\nPatient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are Patient lifts (for vertical transfer), Transfer benches, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), and sliding boards (usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair). Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a Patient lift (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association.\n\n=== Walkers ===\nA walker or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front.\n\n=== Prosthesis ===\nA '''prosthesis''', '''prosthetic''', or '''prosthetic limb''' is a device that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with human muscle, skeleton, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma, disease, or defect. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth (congenital) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include hearing aids, artificial eyes, palatal obturator, gastric bands, and dentures.\n\nProstheses are specifically ''not'' orthoses, although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is ''not'' a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic ''component''. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system  to the residual limb — usually a \"socket\", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Keep this in mind as nomenclature is often interchanged.\n\nThe terms \"prosthetic\" and \"orthotic\" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms \"prosthetics\" and \"orthotics\" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. The devices themselves are properly referred to as \"prostheses\" and \"orthoses\" in the plural and \"prosthesis\" and \"orthosis\" in the singular.\n", "\nMany people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders.\n\n=== Screen readers ===\n\n\nScreen readers allow the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs connect to a computer to read the text displayed out loud. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs.Braille is a system of raised dots representing letters, numbers, punctuation, and words.\n\n=== Braille and braille embossers ===\n\nBraille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots.\n\nA braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch.\n\n=== Desktop video magnifier ===\n\nDesktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand.\n\n=== Screen magnification software ===\n\nA screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of \"computer magnifying glass.\" Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities.\n\nalt=MAGic Large Print This MAGic large-print keyboard has tactile elements and special keys for the visually impaired\n\n=== Large-print and tactile keyboards ===\nA large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The \"bump dots\" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way.\n\n=== Navigation Assistance ===\nAssistive technology for navigation has exploded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past 5 years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what’s in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination.\n\nSome navigation assistants (for both indoors and outdoors) include:\n# Ariadne GPS\n# Be My Eyes\n# Blavigator\n# BlindSquare\n# BrailleNote GPS\n# Buzzclip\n# Cydalion\n# EyeMusic\n# GetThere\n# Horus\n# Low Viz Guide\n# Nearby Explorer\n# PERCEPT System\n# Sendero GPS LookAround\n# Talking Goggles\n# The vOICe\n# WalkyTalky\n\n=== Wearable Technology ===\n\nWearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices. \n\nSome wearable devices for visual impairment include:\n# eSight\n# Brainport\n", "\nThis voter with a manual dexterity disability is making choices on a touchscreen with a head dauber\nPersonal emergency response systems (PERS), or Telecare (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for hypothermia risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild dementia). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately.\n", "\nIn human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include web accessibility guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems - Man-Machine Interface. This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by SNAPI and has been successfully incorporated into the Lasseo specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers.\n", "\nThe deaf or hard of hearing community has a difficult time to communicate and perceive information as compared to hearing individuals. Thus, these individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to their problems by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing utilize a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with improved accessibility to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: Hearing Technology, alerting devices, and communication support.\n\n=== Hearing aids ===\n\nA hearing aid or deaf aid is an electroacoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids.\n\n=== Assistive listening devices ===\n\nAssistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission method. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume.\n\n=== Amplified telephone equipment ===\n\nThis type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss.\n", "\nAn AAC user uses number coding on an eye gaze communication board\n'''Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)''' is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced speech generating devices, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words.\n", "\nAssistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, emotion recognition and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include: NeuroPage which prompts users about meetings, Wakamaru, which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems.\n\n=== Memory aids ===\nMemory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes and the pen saves it and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record \"in the moment\" information for fast and easy recall at a later time.\n\n=== Educational software ===\n\n\nEducational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software.\n", "A New York City Marathon competitor uses a racing wheelchair\nAssistive technology in sport is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in adaptive sports, where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind.\n\nAn increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can be simple, or \"low-tech\", or they may use highly advanced technology, with some even using computers. Assistive technology for sports may also be simple, or advanced. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite Paralympic Games. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities \"have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity\".\n", "In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: \"any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device.\" \n\nAssistive technology in this area is broken down into low, mid, and high tech categories. Low tech encompasses equipment that is often low cost and does not include batteries or requires charging. Examples include adapted paper and pencil grips for writing or masks and color overlays for reading. Mid tech supports used in the school setting include the use of handheld spelling dictionaries and portable word processors used to keyboard writing. High tech supports involve the use of tablet devices and computers with accompanying software. Software supports for writing include the use of auditory feedback while keyboarding, word prediction for spelling, and speech to text. Supports for reading include the use of text to speech (TTS) software and font modification via access to digital text. Limited supports are available for math instruction and mostly consist of grid based software to allow younger students to keyboard equations and auditory feedback of more complex equations using MathML and Daisy.\n", "\nA sip-and-puff device which allows a person with substantial disability to make selections and navigate computerized interfaces by controlling inhalations and exhalations\nOne of the largest problems that affect people with disabilities is discomfort with prostheses. An experiment performed in Massachusetts utilized 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. The subjects tried different arm exercises, and the sensors recorded their movements. All of the data helped engineers develop new engineering concepts for prosthetics.\n\nAssistive technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves such as Dvorak and other alternative keyboard layouts, which offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys.\nAssistive technology devices have been created to enable people with disabilities to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the iPad, iPhone and iPod touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons.\n\nFor users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may utilize single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted.\n", "The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders utilize motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door.\n", "Overall, assistive technology aims to allow people with disabilities to \"participate more fully in all aspects of life (home, school, and community)\" and increases their opportunities for \"education, social interactions, and potential for meaningful employment.\" It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in \"cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities.\" It has been found to lighten caregiver load.\n", "\n\n\n* Accessibility\n* Augmentative and alternative communication\n* Braille technology\n* Design for All (in ICT)\n* Durable medical equipment\n* Matching Person & Technology Model\n* OATS: Open Source Assistive Technology Software\n* Occupational Therapy\n* Transgenerational design\n* Universal access to education\n\n\n", ";Sources\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n;Notes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Adaptive technology", "Mobility impairments", " Visual impairments ", "Personal emergency response systems", "Accessibility software", "Hearing impairments", "Augmentative and alternative communication", "Cognitive impairments", "Assistive technology in sport", "Assistive technology in education", "Computer accessibility", "Home automation", " Impacts of assistive technology ", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\nA Chinese abacus\n''Calculating-Table'' by Gregor Reisch: ''Margarita Philosophica'', 1503. The woodcut shows ''Arithmetica'' instructing an algorist and an abacist (inaccurately represented as Boethius and Pythagoras). There was keen competition between the two from the introduction of the ''Algebra'' into Europe in the 12th century until its triumph in the 16th.\n\nThe '''abacus''' (''plural'' '''abaci''' or '''abacuses'''), also called a '''counting frame''', is a calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before the adoption of the written Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of the abacus is still unknown. Today, abaci are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal.\n\nAbaci come in different designs. Some designs, like the bead frame consisting of beads divided into tens, are used mainly to teach arithmetic, although they remain popular in the post-Soviet states as a tool. Other designs, such as the Japanese soroban, have been used for practical calculations even involving several digits. For any particular abacus design, there usually are numerous different methods to perform a certain type of calculation, which may include basic operations like addition and multiplication, or even more complex ones, such as calculating square roots. Some of these methods may work with non-natural numbers (numbers such as and ).\n\nAlthough today many use calculators and computers instead of abaci to calculate, abaci still remain in common use in some countries. Merchants, traders and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China and Africa use abaci, and they are still used to teach arithmetic to children. Some people who are unable to use a calculator because of visual impairment may use an abacus.\n", "The use of the word ''abacus'' dates before 1387 AD, when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from Greek ἄβαξ ''abax'' which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank. \nAlternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means \"a square tablet strewn with dust\", or \"drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)\" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive form of the Greek word, ἄβακoς ''abakos''). Whereas the table strewn with dust definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all and in fact state that it is not proven. Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of a Northwest Semitic, perhaps Phoenician, word akin to Hebrew ''ʾābāq'' (אבק), \"dust\" (or in post-Biblical sense meaning \"sand used as a writing surface\").\n\nThe preferred plural of ''abacus'' is a subject of disagreement, with both ''abacuses'' and ''abaci'' in use. The user of an abacus is called an ''abacist''.\n", "\n===Mesopotamian===\nThe period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system.\n\nSome scholars point to a character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars such as Carruccio that Old Babylonians \"may have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations\".\n\n===Egyptian===\nThe use of the abacus in Ancient Egypt is mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus, who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered.\n\n===Persian===\nDuring the Achaemenid Empire, around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus. Under the Parthian, Sassanian and Iranian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire, when it is thought to have been exported to other countries.\n\n=== Greek ===\nAn early photograph of the Salamis Tablet, 1899. The original is marble and is held by the National Museum of Epigraphy, in Athens.\nThe earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. Also Demosthenes (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head. A play by Alexis from the 4th century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and both Diogenes and Polybius mention men that sometimes stood for more and sometimes for less, like the pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world.\n\nA tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD (the Salamis Tablet), dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is a slab of white marble long, wide, and thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame the ''Darius Vase'' was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a \"treasurer\" holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other.\n\n===Chinese===\n\nA Chinese abacus (''suanpan'') (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408)\n\nThe earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC.\n\nThe Chinese abacus, known as the ''suanpan'' (算盤, lit. \"counting tray\"), is typically tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom. The beads are usually rounded and made of a hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. If you move them toward the beam, you count their value. If you move away, you don't count their value. The ''suanpan'' can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center.\n\n''Suanpan'' can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root and cube root operations at high speed. There are currently schools teaching students how to use it.\n\nIn the long scroll ''Along the River During the Qingming Festival'' painted by Zhang Zeduan during the Song dynasty (960–1297), a ''suanpan'' is clearly visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an apothecary's (Feibao).\n\nThe similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abaci may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Korean and Japanese) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard ''suanpan'' has 5 plus 2. (Incidentally, this allows use with a hexadecimal numeral system, which was used for traditional Chinese measures of weight.) Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower.\n\nAnother possible source of the ''suanpan'' is Chinese counting rods, which operated with a decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty (618–907) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians.\n\n===Roman===\n\nCopy of a Roman abacus\nThe normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (''calculi'') were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the Roman numeral system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to Pope Sylvester II's reintroduction of the abacus with very useful modifications, it became widely used in Europe once again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires, unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be used much faster.\n\nWriting in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus.\n\nOne example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc., essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, obviously related to the Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman \"ounces\" (i.e. fractions).\n\n===Indian===\nThere is no clear evidence for use of the abacus in India. The decimal number system invented in India replaced the abacus in Western Europe.\n\nThe ''Abhidharmakośabhāṣya'' of Vasubandhu (316-396), a Sanskrit work on Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE philosopher Vasumitra said that \"placing a wick (Sanskrit ''vartikā'') on the number one (''ekāṅka'') means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it is a thousand\". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus. Hindu texts used the term ''śūnya'' (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.\n\n===Japanese===\n\nJapanese soroban\nIn Japanese, the abacus is called ''soroban'' (, lit. \"Counting tray\"), imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling class. The 1/4 abacus, which is suited to decimal calculation, appeared circa 1930, and became widespread as the Japanese abandoned hexadecimal weight calculation which was still common in China. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics, primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical instrument.\n\n===Korean===\nThe Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans call it ''jupan'' (주판), ''supan'' (수판) or ''jusan'' (주산).\n\n===Native American===\nRepresentation of an Inca quipu\nA yupana as used by the Incas.\nSome sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system.\nThe word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl and it is formed by the roots; ''Ne'' – personal -; ''pōhual'' or ''pōhualli'' – the account -; and ''tzintzin'' – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the Calmecac to the ''temalpouhqueh'' , who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood.\n\nThe Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row.\n\nAltogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91 beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times 13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (1 days short). When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to the 18 in floating point, which calculated stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was allowed.\n\nThe rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. There have also been found very old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the Olmec culture, and even some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures.\n\nGeorge I. Sanchez, \"Arithmetic in Maya\", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another base 5, base 4 abacus in the Yucatán peninsula that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with Sylvanus Morley, a noted Mayanist.\n\nThe quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for \"counting tool\"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.\n\n===Russian===\nRussian abacus\nThe Russian abacus, the ''schoty'' (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color.\n\nAs a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia and likewise the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce their use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of microcalculators had started in the Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by the handheld calculator.\n\nThe Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and algorismic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people also used abaci similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a ''coulba'' by the Turks and a ''choreb'' by the Armenians.\n", "Early 20th century abacus used in Danish elementary school.\nA twenty bead ''rekenrek''\nAround the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic.\n\nIn Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy.\n\nThe wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abaci (thus the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use.\n\nThe red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its Dutch name ''rekenrek'' (\"calculating frame\"), is often used, sometimes on a string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework.\n\n\n", "\nFile:Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, 1508 (1230x1615).png\nFile:Rechentisch.png\nFile:Rechnung auff der Linihen und Federn.JPG\nFile:Köbel Böschenteyn 1514.jpg\nFile:Rechnung auff der linihen 1525 Adam Ries.PNG\nFile:1543 Robert Recorde.PNG\nFile:Peter Apian 1544.PNG\nFile:Adam riesen.jpg\nFile:Rekenaar 1553.jpg\n\n", "An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a '''Cranmer abacus''' is still commonly used by individuals who are blind. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root and cube root.\n\nAlthough blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students. Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life.\n", "Two binary abaci constructed by Dr. Robert C. Good, Jr., made from two Chinese abaci\nThe binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on the computer in either an \"on\" or \"off\" position.\n\n", "* Chinese Zhusuan\n* Chisanbop\n* Logical abacus\n* Mental abacus\n* Napier's bones\n* Sand table\n* Slide rule\n* Soroban\n* Suanpan\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n\n===Tutorials===\n\n* \n* Min Multimedia\n* \n\n===Abacus curiosities===\n* \n* Abacus in Various Number Systems at cut-the-knot\n* Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci\n* An atomic-scale abacus\n* Examples of Abaci\n* Aztex Abacus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "History", "School abacus", "Renaissance abaci gallery", "Uses by the blind", "Binary abacus", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nZinc, a typical metal, reacting with hydrochloric acid, a typical acid\n\nAn '''acid''' is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H+), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).\n\nThe first category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H+.\n\nAqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word ''acid'' is derived from the Latin ''acidus/acēre'' meaning ''sour''. An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as 'acid' (as in 'dissolved in acid'), while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be '''acidic'''.\n\nCommon aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes), acetic acid (vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid.\n\nThe second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF3), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly ''or'' by releasing protons (H+) into the solution, which then accept electron pairs. However, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an ''acid'' is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as ''a Lewis acid''.\n", "\nModern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids.\n\nMost acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions are the most relevant.\n\nThe Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base.\n\nHydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms.\n\n===Arrhenius acids===\nSvante Arrhenius\n\nThe Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H+) or protons in 1884. An '''Arrhenius acid''' is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Note that chemists often write H+(''aq'') and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H3O+. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid.\n\nAn Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH−) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H2O molecules:\n\nH3O + OH ⇌ H2O(l) + H2O(l)\n\nDue to this equilibrium, any increase in the concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it.\n\nIn an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have a pH of less than 7.\n\n===Brønsted–Lowry acids===\n\n\nAcetic acid, a weak acid, donates a proton (hydrogen ion, highlighted in green) to water in an equilibrium reaction to give the acetate ion and the hydronium ion. Red: oxygen, black: carbon, white: hydrogen.\n\nWhile the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A '''Brønsted-Lowry acid''' (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base. Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste:\n\n: + + \n: + + \n\nBoth theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH3COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted-Lowry acid.\n\nBrønsted-Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius's definition:\n# H3O + Cl + NH3 → Cl + NH(aq) + H2O\n# HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s)\n# HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s)\n\nAs with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene) react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid.\n\n===Lewis acids===\n\nA third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis, which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A '''Lewis acid''' is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted-Lowry acids. Contrast how the following reactions are described in terms of acid-base chemistry:\n:374px\nIn the first reaction a fluoride ion, F−, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride \"loses\" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile. Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce a Lewis acid, H+, but at the same time also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). Few, if any, of the acids discussed in the following are Lewis acids.\n", "\nReactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H+ + A−, where HA represents the acid and A− is the conjugate base. This reaction is referred to as '''protolysis'''. The protonated form (HA) of an acid is also sometimes referred to as the '''free acid'''.\n\nAcid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant ''K'' is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that H2O means ''the concentration of H2O''. The acid dissociation constant ''K''a is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of ''K''a is equal to the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+.\n:\nThe stronger of two acids will have a higher ''K''a than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for ''K''a spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, p''K''a is more frequently used, where p''K''a = −log10 ''K''a. Stronger acids have a smaller p''K''a than weaker acids. Experimentally determined p''K''a at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.\n", "In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below.\nFor example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. In the IUPAC naming system, \"aqueous\" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix \"hydro-\" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element.\n\nClassical naming system:\n\nAnion prefix\nAnion suffix\nAcid prefix\nAcid suffix\nExample\n\nper\nate\nper\nic acid\nperchloric acid (HClO4)\n\n\nate\n\nic acid\nchloric acid (HClO3)\n\n\nite\n\nous acid\nchlorous acid (HClO2)\n\nhypo\nite\nhypo\nous acid\nhypochlorous acid (HClO)\n\n\nide\nhydro\nic acid\nhydrochloric acid (HCl)\n\n", "\n\nThe strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, A−, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base.\n\nStronger acids have a larger ''K''a and a more negative p''K''a than weaker acids.\n\nSulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable.\n\nSuperacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium \"salts\". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations.\n\nWhile ''K''a measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's ''K''a.\n", "\n===Monoprotic acids===\nMonoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA):\n:HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O + A         ''K''a\n\nCommon examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH).\n\n\n===Polyprotic acids===\nPolyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate).\n\nA diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2.\n:\n:\n\nThe first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''a1 > ''K''a2. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO), for which ''K''a1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO), wherein the ''K''a2 is intermediate strength. The large ''K''a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO). Both ''K''a values are small, but ''K''a1 > ''K''a2 .\n\nA triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''a1 > ''K''a2 > ''K''a3.\n:\n:\n:\n\nAn inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO, then HPO, and finally PO, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive ''K''a values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion.\n\nAlthough the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, ''α'' (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H2A, HA−, and A2−. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the H+) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases:\n:\nA plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given ''K''1 and ''K''2, is known as a Bjerrum plot. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general ''n'' -protic acid that has been deprotonated ''i'' -times:\n:\n\nwhere ''K''0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid.\n\n\n===Neutralization===\nHydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke).\nNeutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:\n:HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)\n\nNeutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction.\n\nNeutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide.\n\n===Weak acid–weak base equilibrium===\n\nIn order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the p''K''a of the acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form.\n\nSolutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions.\n", "There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery.\n\nStrong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning.\n\nIn the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters.\n\nAcids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Carbonic acid is an important part of some cola drinks and soda. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles.\n\nTartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid.\n\nAscorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava.\n\nCertain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers.\n\nAcids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids in digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body.\n\n===Acid catalysis===\n\nAcids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis.\n", "Basic structure of an amino acid.Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids.\n\nAn α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or ''alpha'' carbon) which is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the L-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some D-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO−) and the basic amine group (-NH2) gains a proton (-NH). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH.\n\nFatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate \"head\" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid-base reactions.\n\nIn humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid.\n\nAcid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion.\n: CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO\nIt is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2.\n\nAspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid. Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids.\n", "\n===Mineral acids (inorganic acids)===\n* Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI)\n* Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO2), chloric acid (HClO3), perchloric acid (HClO4), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine\n** Hypofluorous acid (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine.\n* Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)\n* Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO3F)\n* Nitric acid (HNO3)\n* Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)\n* Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6)\n* Fluoroboric acid (HBF4)\n* Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF6)\n* Chromic acid (H2CrO4)\n* Boric acid (H3BO3)\n\n===Sulfonic acids===\nA sulfonic acid has the general formula RS(=O)2–OH, where R is an organic radical.\n* Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH3SO3H)\n* Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH3CH2SO3H)\n* Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C6H5SO3H)\n* p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH3C6H4SO3H)\n* Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF3SO3H)\n* Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, CH2CH(C6H4)SO3Hn)\n\n===Carboxylic acids===\nA carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a carbonyl group, C=O, and a hydroxyl group, O-H.\n* Acetic acid (CH3COOH)\n* Citric acid (C6H8O7)\n* Formic acid (HCOOH)\n* Gluconic acid HOCH2-(CHOH)4-COOH\n* Lactic acid (CH3-CHOH-COOH)\n* Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH)\n* Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH)\n\n===Halogenated carboxylic acids===\nHalogenation at alpha position increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid.\n* Fluoroacetic acid\n* Trifluoroacetic acid\n* Chloroacetic acid\n* Dichloroacetic acid\n* Trichloroacetic acid\n\n===Vinylogous carboxylic acids===\nNormal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.\n\n* Ascorbic acid\n\n===Nucleic acids===\n* Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)\n* Ribonucleic acid (RNA)\n", "\n\n* Listing of strengths of common acids and bases\n* IUPAC Gold Book - acid\n* Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition.\n* Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). ''General chemistry'' (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. \n* Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). ''Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351.'' Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. \n", "* Curtipot: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis – freeware\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Definitions and concepts", "Dissociation and equilibrium", "Nomenclature", "Acid strength", "Chemical characteristics", "Applications of acids", "Biological occurrence", "Common acids", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nNatural bitumen from the Dead Sea\nRefined asphalt\nThe University of Queensland pitch drop experiment, demonstrating the viscosity of asphalt\n\n'''Asphalt''' , also known as '''bitumen''' , is a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term '''asphaltum''' was also used. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ''ásphaltos''.\n\nThe primary use (70%) of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt and for sealing flat roofs.\n\nThe terms \"asphalt\" and \"bitumen\" are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, \"asphalt\" (or \"asphalt cement\") is commonly used for a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called \"bitumen\", and geologists worldwide often prefer the term for the naturally occurring variety. Common colloquial usage often refers to various forms of asphalt as \"tar\", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits.\n\nNaturally occurring asphalt is sometimes specified by the term \"crude bitumen\". Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at is sometimes referred to as \"refined bitumen\". The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural asphalt, covering , an area larger than England.\n", "\n=== Etymology ===\nThe word \"asphalt\" is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French ''asphalte'', based on Late Latin ''asphalton'', ''asphaltum'', which is the latinisation of the Greek ἄσφαλτος (''ásphaltos'', ''ásphalton''), a word meaning \"asphalt/bitumen/pitch\", which perhaps derives from ἀ-, \"without\" and σφάλλω (''sfallō''), \"make fall\". The first use of asphalt by the ancients was in the nature of a cement for securing or joining together various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (''asphalte'') and English (\"asphaltum\" and \"asphalt\"). In French, the term ''asphalte'' is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the \"asphaltic concrete\" used to pave roads.\n\nThe expression \"bitumen\" originated in the Sanskrit words ''jatu'', meaning \"pitch,\" and ''jatu-krit'', meaning \"pitch creating\" or \"pitch producing\" (referring to coniferous or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally ''gwitu-men'' (pertaining to pitch), and by others, ''pixtumens'' (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to ''bitumen'', thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the Anglo-Saxon word ''cwidu'' (mastix), the German word ''Kitt'' (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word ''kvada''.\n\n=== Modern terminology ===\nIn British English, \"bitumen\" is used instead of \"asphalt.\" The word \"asphalt\" is instead used to refer to asphalt concrete, a mixture of construction aggregate and asphalt itself (also called \"tarmac\" in common parlance). Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called \"asphaltum\", but the term is less commonly used today.\n\nIn Australian English, \"bitumen\" is often used as the generic term for road surfaces.\n\nIn American English, \"asphalt\" is equivalent to the British \"bitumen\". However, \"asphalt\" is also commonly used as a shortened form of \"asphalt concrete\" (therefore equivalent to the British \"asphalt\" or \"tarmac\").\n\nIn Canadian English, the word \"bitumen\" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while \"asphalt\" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with naphtha to make it flow in pipelines) is known as \"dilbit\" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen \"upgraded\" to synthetic crude oil is known as \"syncrude\", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called \"synbit\".\n\n\"Bitumen\" is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. \"Bituminous rock\" is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The tar sands of Alberta, Canada are a similar material.\n\nNeither of the terms \"asphalt\" or \"bitumen\" should be confused with tar or coal tars.\n", "\nThe components of asphalt include four main classes of compounds: \n* Naphthene aromatics (naphthalene), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds\n* Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids produced by partial oxidation of the material\n* Saturated hydrocarbons; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point\n* Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds\n\nThe naphthene aromatics and polar aromatics are typically the majority components. Most natural bitumens also contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in an overall sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found at <10 parts per million, as is typical of some petroleum.\n\nThe substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase. \"It is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large\".\n\nAsphalt may be confused with coal tar, which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-20th century, when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to macadam roads led to the word \"tarmac\", which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. \"Pitch\" is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt, as in Pitch Lake.\n", "Bituminous outcrop of the Puy de la Poix, Clermont-Ferrand, France\nThe majority of asphalt used commercially is obtained from petroleum. Nonetheless, large amounts of asphalt occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50 °C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum.\n\nNatural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits and in the Dead Sea.\n\nBitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as \"oil sands\" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar \"tar sands\" in Utah, US.\nThe Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering , an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States.\n\nThe world's largest deposit of natural bitumen, known as the Athabasca oil sands, is located in the McMurray Formation of Northern Alberta. This formation is from the early Cretaceous, and is composed of numerous lenses of oil-bearing sand with up to 20% oil. Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage.\n\nMuch smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah, US. The Tar Sand Triangle deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen.\n\nBitumen may occur in hydrothermal veins. An example of this is within the Uinta Basin of Utah, in the US, where there is a swarm of laterally and vertically extensive veins composed of a solid hydrocarbon termed Gilsonite. These veins formed by the polymerization and solidification of hydrocarbons that were mobilized from the deeper oil shales of the Green River Formation during burial and diagenesis.\n\nBitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites. However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly algae, that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of . Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands.\n", "\n=== Ancient times ===\nThe use of asphalt for waterproofing and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth millennium BC in the early Indus valley sites like Mehrgarh, where it was used to line the baskets in which crops were gathered.\n\nIn the ancient Middle East, the Sumerians used natural bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship caulking, and for waterproofing. The Greek historian Herodotus said hot bitumen was used as mortar in the walls of Babylon.\n\nThe long Euphrates Tunnel beneath the river Euphrates at Babylon in the time of Queen Semiramis (ca. 800 BC) was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent.\n\nBitumen was used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. The Persian word for asphalt is ''moom'', which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the Dead Sea, which the Romans knew as ''Palus Asphaltites'' (Asphalt Lake).\n\nApproximately 40 AD, Dioscorides described the Dead Sea material as ''Judaicum bitumen'', and noted other places in the region where it could be found.\nThe Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to materiall found at Hasbeya. Pliny refers also to bitumen being found in Epirus. It was a valuable strategic resource, the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit—between the Seleucids and the Nabateans in 312 BC.\n\nIn the ancient Far East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight that when layered on objects became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, such as scabbards and other items. Statuettes of household deities were also cast with this type of material in Japan, and probably also in China.\n\nIn North America, archaeological recovery has indicated bitumen was sometimes used to adhere stone projectile points to wooden shafts. In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the Athabasca and other rivers to waterproof birch bark canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off mosquitoes in the summer.\n\n===Continental Europe===\nIn 1553, Pierre Belon described in his work ''Observations'' that ''pissasphalto'', a mixture of pitch and bitumen, was used in the Republic of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia) for tarring of ships.\n\nAn 1838 edition of ''Mechanics Magazine'' cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by \"a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel\", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – \"principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth\", which at that time made the water unusable. \"He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces\" in palaces, \"the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation\".\n\nBut the substance was generally neglected in France until the revolution of 1830. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used \"for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes\". Its rise in Europe was \"a sudden phenomenon\", after natural deposits were found \"in France at Osbann (Bas-Rhin), the Parc (Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix (Puy-de-Dôme)\", although it could also be made artificially. One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the Place de la Concorde in 1835.\n\n===United Kingdom===\nAmong the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's ''Polygraphice'' (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of mastic, and one ounce of asphaltum. By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources.\n\nThe first British patent for the use of asphalt was \"Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen\" in 1834. Then on 25 November 1837, Richard Tappin Claridge patented the use of Seyssel asphalt (patent #7849), for use in asphalte pavement, having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also \"instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)\". Indeed, mastic pavements had been previously employed at Vauxhall by a competitor of Claridge, but without success.\n\nClaridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851, extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge. ''Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company''—formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain \"Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France\",—\"laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall\". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, \"and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park\". \"The formation in 1838 of Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company (with a distinguished list of aristocratic patrons, and Marc and Isambard Brunel as, respectively, a trustee and consulting engineer), gave an enormous impetus to the development of a British asphalt industry\". \"By the end of 1838, at least two other companies, Robinson's and the Bastenne company, were in production\", with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving \"continue(d) in good order\".\n\nIn 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving asphalt, which had uses beyond paving. For example, asphalt could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of asphalt quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, \"Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s\".\n\nIn 1914, Claridge's Company entered into a joint venture to produce tar-bound macadam, with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd. Two products resulted, namely ''Clarmac'', and ''Clarphalte'', with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although ''Clarmac'' was more widely used. However, the First World War ruined the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915. The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up, ceasing operations in 1917, having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset and in a subsequent attempt to save the Clarmac Company.\n\n=== United States ===\nThe first use of bitumen in the New World was by indigenous peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water. Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes.\n\nRoads in the US have been paved with materials that include asphalt since at least 1870, when a street in front of the Newark (New Jersey) City Hall was paved. In many cases, these early pavings were made from naturally occurring \"bituminous rock\", such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. Asphalt was also used for flooring, paving and waterproofing of baths and swimming pools during the early 20th century, following similar trends in Europe.\n\n=== Canada ===\n\nCanada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the Athabasca oil sands, and Canadian First Nations along the Athabasca River had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a Cree named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to Henry Kelsey of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, \"At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance.\"\n\nThe value of the deposit was obvious from the start, but the means of extracting the bitumen was not. The nearest town, Fort McMurray, Alberta, was a small fur trading post, other markets were far away, and transportation costs were too high to ship the raw bituminous sand for paving. In 1915, Sidney Ells of the Federal Mines Branch experimented with separation techniques and used the product to pave 600 feet of road in Edmonton, Alberta. Other roads in Alberta were paved with material extracted from oil sands, but it was generally not economic. During the 1920s Dr. Karl A. Clark of the Alberta Research Council patented a hot water oil separation process and entrepreneur Robert C. Fitzsimmons built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Eventually Fitzsimmons ran out of money and the plant was taken over by the Alberta government. Today the Bitumount plant is a Provincial Historic Site.\n\n===Photography and art===\nBitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826 or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes.\n\nBitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle.\n", "\n=== Global use ===\nThe vast majority of refined asphalt is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, asphalt is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of asphalt is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the asphalt produced is used as the binder in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse aggregates such as sand, gravel and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers (e.g., rubber tyres), may be added to the asphalt to modify its properties according to the application for which the asphalt is ultimately intended.\n \nA further 10% of global asphalt production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable.\nThe remaining 5% of asphalt is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint.\nAsphalt is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as the following:\n\n* Highways\n* Airport runways\n* Footways and pedestrian ways\n* Car parks\n* Racetracks\n* Tennis courts\n* Roofing\n* Damp proofing\n* Dams\n* Reservoir and pool linings\n* Soundproofing\n* Pipe coatings\n* Cable coatings\n* Paints\n* Building water proofing\n* Tile underlying waterproofing\n* Newspaper ink production\n* and many other applications\n\n\n=== Rolled asphalt concrete ===\nThe largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% asphalt cement and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt cement must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the asphalt and the aggregates, but warm-mix asphalt technologies allow producers to reduce the temperature required. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe.\n\nWhen maintenance is performed on asphalt pavements, such as milling to remove a worn or damaged surface, the removed material can be returned to a facility for processing into new pavement mixtures. The asphalt in the removed material can be reactivated and put back to use in new pavement mixes. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the asphalt removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments.\n\nAsphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for runways.\n\n=== Mastic asphalt ===\n\nMastic asphalt is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt concrete) in that it has a higher asphalt (binder) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about thick.\n\n=== Asphalt emulsion ===\nA number of technologies allow asphalt to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing with petroleum solvents to form \"cutbacks\" with reduced melting point or mixing with water to turn the asphalt into an emulsion. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, cationic and anionic. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock, gravel or crushed slag. Slurry seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold-mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth, and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low-cost pavements.\n\n=== Synthetic crude oil ===\n\n\nSynthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100 ton capacity) power shovels and loaded into even larger (400 ton capacity) dump trucks for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by Dr. Karl Clark of the University of Alberta during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader which converts it into a light crude oil equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional oil pipelines and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States.\n\nIn Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants.\n\n=== Non-upgraded crude bitumen ===\n\nCanadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. By 2015 Canadian production and exports of non-upgraded bitumen exceeded that of synthetic crude oil at over per day, of which about 65% was exported to the United States.\n\nBecause of the difficulty of moving crude bitumen through pipelines, non-upgraded bitumen is usually diluted with natural-gas condensate in a form called dilbit or with synthetic crude oil, called synbit. However, to meet international competition, much non-upgraded bitumen is now sold as a blend of multiple grades of bitumen, conventional crude oil, synthetic crude oil, and condensate in a standardized benchmark product such as Western Canadian Select. This sour, heavy crude oil blend is designed to have uniform refining characteristics to compete with internationally marketed heavy oils such as Mexican Mayan or Arabian Dubai Crude.\n\n===Radioactive waste encapsulation matrix===\n\nAsphalt was used starting in the 1960s as an hydrophobic matrix aiming to encapsulate radioactive waste such as medium-activity salts (mainly soluble sodium nitrate and sodium sulfate) produced by the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels or radioactive sludges from sedimentation ponds. Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic elements from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in Japan) and long-term stability problems related to their geological disposal in deep rock formations. One of the main problem is the swelling of asphalt exposed to radiation and to water. Asphalt swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma radiolysis. A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the asphalt acting as a semi-permeable membrane. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the redox conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions, preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences, radionuclides of elements such as selenium, technetium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium have an higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded anions. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging.\n\nDifferent type of asphalt have been used: blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation, and harder) and direct distillation bitumen (softer). Blown bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons, are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen, with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons.\n\nConcrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the nuclear industry and the waste management organisations.\n\n===Other uses===\nRoofing shingles account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Asphalt is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker. Asphalt is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process.\n", "Typical asphalt plant for making asphalt\nAbout 40,000,000 tons were produced in 1984. It is obtained as the \"heavy\" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a boiling point greater than around 500 °C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and diesel). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a de-asphalting unit, the crude asphalt is treated with either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by \"blowing\" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This step makes the product harder and more viscous.\n\nAsphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around . Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called \"bitumen feedstock\", or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is no longer used as a release agent due to environmental concerns.\n\n===Oil sands===\n\nNaturally occurring crude bitumen impregnated in sedimentary rock is the prime feed stock for petroleum production from \"oil sands\", currently under development in Alberta, Canada. Canada has most of the world's supply of natural bitumen, covering 140,000 square kilometres (an area larger than England), giving it the second-largest proven oil reserves in the world. The Athabasca oil sands are the largest bitumen deposit in Canada and the only one accessible to surface mining, although recent technological breakthroughs have resulted in deeper deposits becoming producible by ''in situ'' methods. Because of oil price increases after 2003, producing bitumen became highly profitable, but as a result of the decline after 2014 it became uneconomic to build new plants again. By 2014, Canadian crude bitumen production averaged about per day and was projected to rise to per day by 2020. The total amount of crude bitumen in Alberta that could be extracted is estimated to be about , which at a rate of would last about 200 years.\n\n===Alternatives and bioasphalt ===\n\nAlthough uncompetitive economically, asphalt can be made from nonpetroleum-based renewable resources such as sugar, molasses and rice, corn and potato starches. Asphalt can also be made from waste material by fractional distillation of used motor oil, which is sometimes otherwise disposed of by burning or dumping into landfills. Use of motor oil may cause premature cracking in colder climates, resulting in roads that need to be repaved more frequently.\n\nNonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the urban heat island effect. Parking lots that use asphalt alternatives are called green parking lots.\n\n===Albanian deposits===\nSelenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in Selenice, in Albania, the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring and ball) around 120 °C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%.\n \nAlbanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale.\n\nToday the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine.\n \nSelenizza is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional asphalt to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot asphalt in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags.\n\nA life-cycle assessment study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum asphalt has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission.\n", "People can be exposed to asphalt in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 over a 15-minute period.\n\nAsphalt is basically an inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with asphalt, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the asphalt emissions. In particular, temperatures greater than 199 °C (390 °F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when asphalt was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement. IARC has classified asphalt as a Class 2B possible carcinogen. An asphalt mixing plant for hot aggregate\n", "\n* Alveodren\n* Asphalt plant\n* Asphaltene \n* Bioasphalt\n* Bitumen-based fuel\n* Bituminous coal\n* Bituminous rocks\n* Blacktop\n* Cooper Research Technology\n* Duxit\n* Edward de Smedt \n* International Grooving & Grinding Association\n* Macadam\n* Oil sands\n* Pitch (resin)\n* Tar\n* Tarmac\n* Sealcoat\n* Stamped asphalt\n\n", "\n", "\n\n", "* Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt: Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962). .\n* \n*\n", "\n\n\n*\n*\n* Pavement Interactive – Asphalt\n* Asphalt Magazine\n* CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum!\n* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Terminology ", " Composition ", "Occurrence", "History", "Modern use", "Production", " Health and safety ", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''American National Standards Institute''' ('''ANSI''', ) is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.\n\nANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.\n\nThe organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI's operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs.\n", "ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the '''American Engineering Standards Committee''' ('''AESC'''). In 1928, the AESC became the '''American Standards Association''' ('''ASA'''). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became '''United States of America Standards Institute''' ('''USASI'''). The present name was adopted in 1969.\n\nPrior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies:\n*American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, now IEEE)\n*American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)\n*American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)\n*American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers)\n*American Society for Testing and Materials (now ASTM International)\nhad been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the Department of Defense or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization.\n\nAccording to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies.\n\nIn 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.\n", "ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, corporations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals.\n", "Though ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process.\n\nANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders.\n\nVoluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation.\n\nThe American National Standards process involves:\n*consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties\n*broad-based public review and comment on draft standards\n*consideration of and response to comments\n*incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard\n*availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process.\n", "In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate.\n\nThe Institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as a founding member, and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards.\n\n===Standards panels===\n\nThe Institute administers nine standards panels:\n*ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC)\n*ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)\n*ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP)\n*ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC)\n*Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC)\n*Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP)\n*ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation\n*ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel\n*Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP)\n\nEach of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas.\n\nIn 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry.\n\n===American national standards===\n*The ASA (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934), became the basis for the ISO system (since 1974), currently used worldwide (ISO 6, ISO 2240, ISO 5800, ISO 12232).\n*A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created ASCII seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code or EBCDIC). In Microsoft Windows, the phrase \"ANSI\" refers to the Windows ANSI code pages (even though they are not ANSI standards). Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for ideographic languages are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the ISO-8859 series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical.\n*The first computer programming language standard was \"American Standard Fortran\" (informally known as \"FORTRAN 66\"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966.\n*The programming language COBOL had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by ISO.\n*The original standard implementation of the programming language C was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known ANSI C.\n*A popular Unified Thread Standard for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003.\n*The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc.\n*The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance.\n*The ANSI/HI (Hydraulic Institute) standards used for pumps.\n*The ANSI for eye protection is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear.\n*The ANSI paper sizes (ANSI/ASME Y14.1).\n\n===Other initiatives===\n*In 2008 ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, created the first dynamic, online web library for ISO 14000 standards.\n*On June 23, 2009, ANSI announced a product and services agreement with Citation Technologies to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality.\n*ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, AAMI, ASTM, and DIN, created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009.\n*In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard ASTM E2659-09.\n*In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP’s product certification bodies.\n*In 2006, ANSI launched www.StandardsPortal.org, an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content.\n*ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to \"Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems\", for example.\n", "* Accredited Crane Operator Certification\n* ANSI ASC X9\n* ANSI ASC X12\n* ANSI C\n* Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST)\n* Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM)\n* ISO (to which ANSI is the official US representative)\n* National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)\n* Open standards\n", "\n", "* \n* ANSI eStandardsStore\n* ANSI Blog\n* ANSI Overview\n* ANSI Historical Overview\n** Historical Overview Brochure\n* Documents of interest:\n** ''ANSI Essential Requirements: Due process requirements for American National Standards''\n** ANSI Critical Issue Paper: ''Current Attempts to Change Established Definition of “Open” Standards''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " History ", "Members", "Process", "International activities", "See also", "References", " External links " ]

[ "\n\nIn logic and philosophy, an '''argument''' is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion.\n\n'''Argument''' may also refer to: \n\n\n", "*Argument (complex analysis), a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number\n*Parameter (computer programming), a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine\n*Argument principle, a theorem in complex analysis \n*An argument of a function, also known as an independent variable\n", "*Argument (literature), a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work\n*Argument (linguistics), a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause\n*Oral argument, in US law, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail\n*Closing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case\n", "*Musical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form\n", "*''Argument'' (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809\n*''The Argument'', the sixth studio album from the post-hardcore band Fugazi\n*Argument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch\n*A disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Mathematics and computer science", "Language and rhetoric", "Music", "Other uses" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 8''', the second human spaceflight mission in the United States Apollo space program, was launched on December 21, 1968, and became the first crewed spacecraft to leave Earth orbit, reach the Earth's Moon, orbit it and return safely to Earth. The three-astronaut crew — Commander Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders — became the first humans to: travel beyond low Earth orbit; escape Earth's gravity; see Earth as a whole planet; enter the gravity well of another celestial body (Earth's moon); orbit another celestial body (Earth's moon); directly see the far side of the Moon with their own eyes; witness an Earthrise; escape the gravity of another celestial body (Earth's moon); and re-enter the gravitational well of Earth. The 1968 mission, the third flight of the Saturn V rocket and that rocket's first crewed launch, was also the first human spaceflight launch from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, located adjacent to Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.\n\nOriginally planned as a second Lunar Module/Command Module test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit in early 1969, the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious Command Module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December, because the Lunar Module was not yet ready to make its first flight. This meant Borman's crew was scheduled to fly two to three months sooner than originally planned, leaving them a shorter time for training and preparation, thus placing more demands than usual on their time and discipline.\n\nApollo 8 took three days to travel to the Moon. It orbited ten times over the course of 20 hours, during which the crew made a Christmas Eve television broadcast where they read the first 10 verses from the Book of Genesis. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo 8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo 11 to fulfill U.S. President John F. Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s. The Apollo 8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the Northern Pacific Ocean. The crew was named ''Time'' magazine's \"Men of the Year\" for 1968 upon their return.\n", "\n\nLovell was originally the CMP on the back-up crew, with Michael Collins as the prime crew's CMP. However, Collins was replaced in July 1968, after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair.\n\nThis crew was unique among pre-shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew, as Lovell had flown twice before, on Gemini VII and Gemini XII. This was also the first case of the rarity of an astronaut who had commanded a spaceflight mission subsequently flying as a non-commander, as Lovell had previously commanded Gemini XII.\n\n===Backup crew===\n\nOn a lunar mission, the Command Module Pilot (CMP) was assigned the role of navigator, while the Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) was assigned the role of flight engineer, responsible for monitoring all spacecraft systems, even if the flight didn't include a Lunar Module.\n\nEdwin \"Buzz\" Aldrin was originally the backup LMP. When Lovell was rotated to the prime crew, no one with experience on CSM-103 (the specific spacecraft used for the mission) was available, so Aldrin was moved to CMP and Fred Haise brought in as backup LMP. Neil Armstrong went on to command Apollo 11, where Aldrin was returned to the LMP position and Collins was assigned as CMP. Haise was rotated out of the crew and onto the backup crew of Apollo 11 as LMP.\n\n===Mission control===\nThe Earth-based mission control teams for Apollo 8 consisted of astronauts assigned to the support crew, as well as non-astronaut flight directors and their staffs. The support crew members were not trained to fly the mission, but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They also served as CAPCOMs during the mission. For Apollo 8, these crew members included astronauts John S. Bull, Vance D. Brand, Gerald P. Carr, and Ken Mattingly. The mission control teams on Earth rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo 8 included Clifford E. Charlesworth (Green team), Glynn Lunney (Black team), and Milton Windler (Maroon team).\n\n===Mission insignia===\nRobbins medallion\nThe triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo Command Module (CM). It shows a red figure-8 looping around the Earth and Moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts.\n\nThe initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell. Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston, shortly after learning of the re-designation of the flight to become a lunar-orbital mission. The graphic design of the insignia was done by Houston artist and animator William Bradley.\n", "\n\n\nApollo 4 and Apollo 6 had been \"A\" missions, unmanned tests of the Saturn V launch vehicle using an unmanned Block I production model of the Apollo Command and Service Module in Earth orbit. , scheduled for October 1968, would be a manned Earth-orbit flight of the CSM, completing the objectives for Mission \"C\".\n\nApollo CSM diagram\nFurther missions depended on the readiness of the Lunar Module. Apollo 8 was planned as the \"D\" mission, to test the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell Schweickart, while Borman's crew would fly the \"E\" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo 9, in early 1969.\n\nBut production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo 8's LM arrived at the Kennedy Space Center in June 1968, significant defects were discovered, leading Grumman, the lead contractor for the LM, to predict that the first mission-ready LM would not be ready until at least February 1969. This would mean delaying the \"D\" and subsequent missions, endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969.\n\nGeorge Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the Command/Service Module (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of just repeating the \"C\" mission flight of Apollo 7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have to wait until Apollo 10, the scheduled \"F\" mission. This also meant that the medium Earth orbit \"E\" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the \"D\" mission had to be delayed.\n\nVertical Assembly Building (VAB) on February 1, 1968\nAlmost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing both confidence in the hardware and personnel, and the potential for a significant morale boost provided by a circumlunar flight. The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. With the rest of his agency in support of the new mission, Webb eventually approved the mission change. The mission was officially changed from a \"D\" mission to a \"C-Prime\" lunar-orbit mission, but was still referred to in press releases as an Earth-orbit mission at Webb's direction. No public announcement was made about the change in mission until November 12, three weeks after Apollo 7's successful Earth-orbit mission and less than 40 days before launch.\n\nWith the change in mission for Apollo 8, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.\n\nOn September 9, the crew entered the simulators to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew had spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained in all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the re-entry. Lovell was trained on navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking that the spacecraft was in working order.\n\nAdded pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union's flight of some living creatures, including Russian tortoises, in a cislunar loop around the Moon on Zond 5 and return to Earth on September 21. There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch cosmonauts on a similar circumlunar mission before the end of 1968.\n\nThe Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, the night before the launch. They talked about how, before his 1927 flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo 8 from a nearby dune.\n", "\nPad 39A\nThe Saturn V rocket used by Apollo 8 was designated SA-503, or the \"03rd\" model of the Saturn V (\"5\") Rocket to be used in the Saturn-Apollo (\"SA\") program. When it was erected in the Vertical Assembly Building on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned Earth-orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate Command/Service Module. Apollo 6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage, two second stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a manned mission until additional unmanned test flights proved that the Saturn V was ready.\n\nTeams from the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system using helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed.\n\nOf equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches.\n\nThe teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the Marshall Space Flight Center. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems were solved, they gave their approval for a manned mission using SA-503.\n\nThe Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on October 9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December 5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, a mere three days before the scheduled launch.\n", "\n===Parameter summary===\n Dec 21, 1968, 12:51 (UTC): Launch—15:47 (2h56m): Translunar injectionDec 24, 09:59\n(2d21h08m): Lunar orbit insertion (10 orbits)Dec 25, 06:10 (3d17h19m): Transearth injectionDec 27, 15:37 (6d02h46m): Reentry—15:51 (6d03h00m): Splashdown.\n\nAs the first manned spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo 8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver.\n\nApollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo 8 was launched into an initial orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of , with an inclination of 32.51° to the Equator, and an orbital period of 88.19 minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by over the 2 hours, 44 minutes and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit.\n\nThis was followed by a Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds, accelerating the spacecraft from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of , which set a record for the highest speed, relative to Earth, that humans had ever traveled. This speed was slightly less than the Earth's escape velocity of , but put Apollo 8 into an elongated elliptical Earth orbit, to a point where the Moon's gravity would capture it.\n\nThe standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned as a nominal circular orbit above the Moon's surface. Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune of and an apolune of , at an inclination of 12° from the lunar equator. This was then circularized at by , with an orbital period of 128.7 minutes. The effect of lunar mass concentrations (\"masscons\") on the orbit was found to be greater than initially predicted; over the course of the twenty-hour mission, the orbit was perturbated to by .\n\nApollo 8 achieved a maximum distance from Earth of .\n\n===Launch and trans-lunar injection===\ndouble exposure of the Moon, which was not visible at the time\nApollo 8 launched at 7:51:00 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn V's three stages to achieve Earth orbit. The S-IC first stage impacted the Atlantic Ocean at and the S-II second stage at . The S-IVB third stage injected the craft into Earth orbit, but remained attached to later perform the trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn that put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon.\n\nThe Titan II launch vehicle used for the Gemini program had been notoriously rough-riding, and technicians promised the astronauts that the Saturn V, which was designed for the Apollo program rather than adapted from a missile, would have a much smoother ride. Lovell and Borman, both Gemini veterans, found this promise did not disappoint. During liftoff, they reported feeling nothing but a dull, muted rumble in the distance.\n\nOnce the vehicle reached Earth orbit, both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2 hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of the S-IVB third stage of the rocket was crucial: in the last unmanned test, it had failed to re-ignite for TLI.\n\nDuring the flight, three fellow astronauts served on the ground as Capsule Communicators (usually referred to as \"CAPCOMs\") on a rotating schedule. The CAPCOMs were the only people who regularly communicated with the crew. Michael Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed, \"Apollo 8. You are Go for TLI.\" This communication signified that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo 8 to go to the Moon. Over the next 12 minutes before the TLI burn, the Apollo 8 crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the S-IVB. The engine ignited on time and performed the TLI burn perfectly.\n\nAfter the S-IVB had performed its required tasks, it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This marked the first time humans could view the whole Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the Command/Service Module and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module (SM) to add away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in this direction, but at instead. These discussions put the crew an hour behind their flight plan.\n\nApollo 8 S-IVB rocket stage, shortly after separation\n\nFive hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change the booster's trajectory. This S-IVB would then pass the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, posing no further hazard to Apollo 8. The S-IVB subsequently went into a solar orbit with an inclination of 23.47° from the plane of the ecliptic, and an orbital period of 340.80 days. After the insertion into trans-Lunar orbit, the Saturn IVB third stage became a derelict object. It will continue to orbit the Sun for many years.\n\nThe Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray, or 1 milligray (during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy.\n\n===Lunar trajectory===\nThe first image ever taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by William Anders; South is up with South America in the middle\n\nJim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as navigator. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member serving as navigator so that the crew could return to Earth in case of loss of communication with Mission Control. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) horizon. This task was difficult, because a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft, formed by the venting S-IVB, made it hard to distinguish the stars.\n\nBy seven hours into the mission, the crew was about one hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan, because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also called \"barbecue roll\", in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over while the parts in shadow would be . These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger.\n\nThe first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown that the Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was \"coated\" first. Burning the engine for a short period would accomplish coating. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about velocity prograde (in the direction of travel). This change was less than the planned , because of a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines, which caused unexpectedly low propellant pressure. The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled because the Apollo 8 trajectory was found to be perfect.\n\nEleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for more than 16 hours. Before launch, NASA had decided that at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with problems that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift, but found sleeping difficult because of the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises.\n\nAbout an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman obtained permission from ground control to take a Seconal sleeping pill. The pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep, and then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea; this left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces, which the crew cleaned up as well as they could. Borman initially did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they asked Mission Control to check the recording, stating that they \"would like an evaluation of the voice comments\".\n\nThe Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston, on the second and third floors, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space-adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space-adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft (Mercury and Gemini), because those astronauts couldn't move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo Command Module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Russell Schweickart during Apollo 9.\n\nFilm of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center\n\nThe cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo 8 crew used a 2 kg camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens.\n\nDuring this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source without proper filters. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday.\n\nBy this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32½ hours into the flight—3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill.\n\nThe crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the silicone sealant, and the attitude required for the PTC. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.\n\nApollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23 minutes.\n\n===Lunar sphere of influence===\nAt about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of Apollo 8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. In other words, the effect of the Moon's gravitational force on Apollo 8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo 8 was from the Moon and had a speed of relative to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew since they were still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only 13 hours until they would be in lunar orbit.\n\nThe last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) was a second mid-course correction. It was in retrograde (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by , effectively lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass from the lunar surface.\n\nAt 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a \"go/no go\" decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and \"riding the best bird we can find\". Lovell replied, \"We'll see you on the other side\", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.\n\nWith 10 minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.\n\n===Lunar orbit===\nThe SPS ignited at 69 hours, 8 minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4 minutes and 7 seconds, placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.\n\nOn Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However, this time came and went without Apollo 8 reappearing. Exactly at the calculated moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a orbit about the Moon.\n\nAfter reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like:\n\n\nlunar far side as seen from Apollo 8\n\nLovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that would be the Apollo 11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo 8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew had taken 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth.\n\nThroughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a \"go/no go\" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.\n\nAs they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the 11-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to .\n\nThrough the next two orbits, the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He had been scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's Episcopal Church near Seabrook, Texas, but due to the Apollo 8 flight he was unable to. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.\n\n====Earthrise====\n\nWhen the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed \"Earthrise\" for the first time in human history (NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 took the very first picture of an Earthrise from the vicinity of the Moon, on August 23, 1966). Borman saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon, and then called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. In the ensuing scramble Anders took ''Earthrise'', a more famous color photo, later picked by ''Life'' magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century.\n\nDue to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. Earthrise is generally only visible when orbiting the Moon, other than at selected places near the Moon's limb, where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon.\n\nAnders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. On subsequent Apollo missions, crews would avoid this situation by sleeping on the same schedule.\nThe Apollo 8 Genesis reading.\n\nAs they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being \"a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing\". Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board read a section from the Biblical creation story from the Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said, \"And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas and God bless all of you—all of you on the good Earth.\"\n\nThe only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection (TEI), which was scheduled for 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth.\n\nThe burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, \"Please be informed, there is a Santa Claus\", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, \"That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know.\" The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, Christmas Day.\n\n===Unplanned manual re-alignment===\nLater, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to \"correct\" the module's attitude.\n\nOnce the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned, and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.\n\nSixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the Apollo 13 mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'', Lovell wrote, \"My training on Apollo 8 came in handy!\" In that book he dismissed the incident as a \"planned experiment\", requested by the ground crew. In subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake.\n\n===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry===\nReentry, December 27, 1968, photographed from a KC-135 at 40,000 feet\n\nThe cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter two-and-half days after TEI and splashdown in the Pacific.\n\nOn Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack that the troops in Vietnam received. Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles of brandy, that Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight. There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the earth, in a four-minute broadcast.\n\nCommand Module on the deck of \nAfter two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.\n\nOnce the Command Module was separated from the Service Module, the astronauts were committed to re-entry. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s2). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft, Apollo 8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as in the North Pacific Ocean south of Hawaii.\n\nWhen it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. About six minutes later the Command Module was righted into its normal apex-up splashdown orientation by the inflatable bag uprighting system. As they were buffeted by a swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first frogman from arrived, as the spacecraft had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later, the crew was safe on the deck of the aircraft carrier.\n", "Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval in the United States and most of the world. Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the Prague Spring, ''Time'' magazine chose the crew of Apollo 8 as its Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo 8 can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, \"Thank you Apollo 8. You saved 1968.\"\n\nOne of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture whilst actually behind the camera, and it has been credited with a role in inspiring the first Earth Day in 1970. It was selected as the first of ''Life'' magazine's ''100 Photographs That Changed the World''. Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, \"Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost\"; while many space historians, such as Robert K. Poole, see Apollo 8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions.\n\nThe mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, Mercury-Atlas 6 by John Glenn in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the BBC coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''Pravda'' featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet Interkosmos program, who described the flight as an \"outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology\". It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo 8 broadcasts won an Emmy Award, the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences.\n\nApollo 8 commemorative stampMadalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist, later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis. O'Hair wished the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States for lack of jurisdiction, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo 11, self-communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the Moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time.\n\nIn 1969, the United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp (Scott catalogue #1371) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, \"In the beginning God ...\" Just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they were featured during the 1969 Super Bowl pre-game show reciting the Pledge of Allegiance prior to the national anthem being performed by Anita Bryant.\n", "In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka, Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at Expo '70. It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the space suit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo 8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's Glenn Research Center. Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the Science Museum in London, United Kingdom.\n", "Apollo 8's historic mission has been shown and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo 8 was compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary, ''Debrief: Apollo 8'', which was hosted by Burgess Meredith. In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight. Portions of the Apollo 8 mission can be seen in the 1989 documentary ''For All Mankind'', which won the Grand Jury Prize Documentary at the Sundance Film Festival. The television series ''American Experience'' aired a documentary, \"Race to the Moon\", in 2005 during season 18. The Apollo 8 mission was well-covered in the 2007 British documentary ''In the Shadow of the Moon''.\n\nPortions of the Apollo 8 mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'' episode \"1968\". The S-IVB stage of Apollo 8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 ''UFO'' episode \"Conflict\".\n\nThe Apollo 8 mission was also featured in the Discovery channel's 6-part documentary series ''When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions'' (Part 3, \"Landing the Eagle\"). All three astronauts were featured in this documentary, telling the story of their historic mission to the Moon in their own words.\n", "\n\n* List of Apollo astronauts\n* Space Race\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 8\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* – Article about the 40th Anniversary of Apollo 8\n\n;NASA reports\n* Apollo 8 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 68-208, December 15, 1968\n* \"Apollo 8 Mission Report\" (PDF), NASA, MSC-PA-R-69-1, February 1969\n\n;Multimedia\n* ''Apollo 8: Go for TLI'' – 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive\n* \"The Apollo 8 Christmas Eve Broadcast\" – NASA audio of Christmas Genesis transmission\n* ''Debrief: Apollo 8'' – 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive\n* Apollo Atmospheric Entry Phase, 1968, NASA Mission Planning and Analysis Division, Project Apollo. video (25:14).\n* \"APOLLO 07 and 08 16MM ONBOARD FILM (1968)\" – raw footage taken from Apollos 7 and 8 at the Internet Archive\n* Apollo launch and mission videos at ApolloTV.net\n* \"Earth Viewed by Apollo 8\" at NASA\n* Recovery - 23min video\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Planning", "Saturn V", "Mission", "Historical importance", "Spacecraft location", "In popular culture", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nNASA Astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside on shuttle mission STS-41-B in 1984.\n\nAn '''astronaut''' or '''cosmonaut''' () is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists.\n\nStarting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.\n", "Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7\n\nThe criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of . In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of are awarded astronaut wings.\n\n, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.\nOf these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, to either lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or in one case a loop around the Moon; three of the 24 did so twice: Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan. The three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie.\n\n, under the U.S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, above altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62 miles).\nSpace travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days (114.5 man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks. As of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, 377 days.\n", "\n\nIn 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Dr. Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called ''astronauts'' or ''cosmonauts''. Dryden preferred \"cosmonaut\", on the grounds that flights would occur in the ''cosmos'' (near space), while the \"astro\" prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred \"astronaut\", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term. When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to \"cosmonaut\".\n\n===English===\nIn English-speaking nations, a professional space traveler is called an ''astronaut''. The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' (ἄστρον), meaning \"star\", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning \"sailor\". The first known use of the term \"astronaut\" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story \"The Death's Head Meteor\" in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier. For example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book ''Across the Zodiac'', \"astronaut\" referred to a spacecraft. In ''Les Navigateurs de l'Infini'' (1925) of J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word ''astronautique'' (astronautic) was used. The word may have been inspired by \"aeronaut\", an older term for an air traveler first applied (in 1784) to balloonists. An early use in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem \"The Astronaut\" in the November 1934 ''Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society''.\n\nThe first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950 and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.\n\nNASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.\n\n===Russian===\n\n\nBy convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its Soviet predecessor) is called a ''cosmonaut'' in English texts. The word is an anglicisation of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'' ( ), one who works in space outside the Earth's atmosphere, a space traveler, which derives from the Greek words ''kosmos'' (κόσμος), meaning \"universe\", and ''nautes'' (ναύτης), meaning \"sailor\". Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian word ''kosmonavt'', such as the Polish ''kosmonauta''.\n\nCoinage of the term ''kosmonavt'' has been credited to Soviet aeronautics pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974). The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. Valentina Tereshkova, a Russian factory worker, was the first woman in space, as well as the first civilian among the Soviet cosmonaut or NASA astronaut corps to make a spaceflight. On March 14, 1995, Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first \"American cosmonaut\".\n\n===Chinese===\n\n\nOfficial English-language texts issued by the government of China use ''astronaut'' while texts in Russian use космонавт (''cosmonaut''). In official Chinese-language texts, \"yǔ háng yuán\" (, \"space navigating personnel\") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts, and \"háng tiān yuán\" (, \"space navigating personnel\") is used for Chinese astronauts. The phrase \"tài kōng rén\" (, \"spaceman\") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.\n\nThe term ''taikonaut'' is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China. The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, the latter of which describes it as \"a hybrid of the Chinese term ''taikong'' (space) and the Greek ''naut'' (sailor)\"; the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the ''Shenzhou 5'' spacecraft. This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese ''People's Daily'' since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih () from Malaysia, used it in newsgroups.\n\n===Other terms===\nWith the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term \"spaceflight participant\" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.\n\nWhile no nation other than the Russian Federation (and previously the former Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a manned spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term ''spationaut'' (French spelling: ''spationaute'') is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word ''spatium'' for \"space\", the Malay term ''angkasawan'' was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program, and the Indian Space Research Organisation hope to launch a spacecraft in 2018 that would carry ''vyomanauts'', coined from the Sanskrit word for space.\n", "\nYuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)\nValentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)\nNeil Armstrong, first human to walk on the Moon (1969)\nDr. Sally Ride, the first American female astronaut (1980s)\nYang Liwei, first person sent into space by China (2003)\n\nThe first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on April 12, 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on June 16, 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.\n\nAlan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on May 5, 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on June 18, 1983. In 1992 Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.\n\nCosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a \"spacewalk\"), on March 18, 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.\n\nThe first manned mission to orbit the Moon, ''Apollo 8'', included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.\n\nThe Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other \"socialist\" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exception of France participating in Soyuz TM-7. An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek, the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket.\n\nOn July 23, 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry (France), in 1985. In 1985, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space. In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station.\n\nWith the larger number of seats available on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of 8 Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010).\nIn 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space.\nIn 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident.\n\nOn October 15, 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.\n\n===Age milestones===\n\nThe youngest person to fly in space is Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. (Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness).\nThe oldest person who has flown in space is John Glenn, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95.\n\n===Duration and distance milestones===\nThe longest stay in space thus far has been 438 days, by Russian Valeri Polyakov.\nAs of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was , when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency.\n\n===Civilian and non-government milestones===\nThe first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission).\nTereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which had no female pilots whatsoever at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. \nThe first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.\n\nThe first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler as a reporter for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was \"Research Cosmonaut\". Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity.\n\nThe first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on April 28, 2001.\n\n===Self-funded travelers===\n\nThe first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist. Seven others have paid the Russian Space Agency to fly into space:\n\n# Dennis Tito (American): April 28 – May 6, 2001 (ISS)\n# Mark Shuttleworth (South African): April 25 – May 5, 2002 (ISS)\n# Gregory Olsen (American): October 1–11, 2005 (ISS)\n# Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): September 18–29, 2006 (ISS)\n# Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): April 7–21, 2007 (ISS), March 26 – April 8, 2009 (ISS)\n# Richard Garriott (British / American): October 12–24, 2008 (ISS)\n# Guy Laliberté (Canadian): September 30, 2009 – October 11, 2009 (ISS)\n", "Elliot See during water egress training with NASA (1965)\n\n\nThe first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959. Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both America and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots.\n\nOnce selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. Astronauts-in-training may also experience short periods of weightlessness in aircraft called the \"vomit comet\", the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004 respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights. Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are done out of Edwards Air Force Base.\n\n===NASA candidacy requirements===\n* Be citizens of the United States.\n* Pass a strict physical examination, and have a near and distant visual acuity correctable to 20/20 (6/6). Blood pressure, while sitting, must be no greater than 140 over 90. There are currently no age restrictions.\n\n====Commander and Pilot====\n* A bachelor's degree in engineering, biological science, physical science or mathematics is required.\n* At least 1,000 hours' flying time as pilot-in-command in jet aircraft. Experience as a test pilot is desirable.\n* Height must be 5 ft 2 in to 6 ft 2 in (1.58 m to 1.88 m).\n* Distant visual acuity must be correctable to 20/20 in each eye.\n* The refractive surgical procedures of the eye, PRK (Photorefractive keratectomy) and LASIK, are now allowed, providing at least 1 year has passed since the date of the procedure with no permanent adverse after effects. For those applicants under final consideration, an operative report on the surgical procedure will be requested.\n\n====Mission Specialist====\n* A bachelor's degree in engineering, biological science, physical science or mathematics, as well as at least three years of related professional experience (graduate work or studies) and an advanced degree, such as a master's degree (one to three years) or a doctoral degree (three years or more).\n* Applicant's height must be between 4 ft 10.5 in and 6 ft 4 in (1.49 m and 1.93 m).\n\n====Mission Specialist Educator====\n\n* Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.\nMission Specialist Educators, or \"Educator Astronauts\", were first selected in 2004, and as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.\nBarbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.\nThe Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s.\n", "Gennady Padalka performing ultrasound on Michael Fincke during ISS Expedition 9.\n\nAstronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.\n\nA 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that ''Salmonella typhimurium'', a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.\n\nOn December 31, 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that manned spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.\n\nIn October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.\n\nOver the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).\n", "\n\n\nAn astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 0.83 kilograms (1.83 pounds) weight of food inclusive of food packaging per meal each day. (The packaging for each meal weighs around 0.12 kilograms - 0.27 pounds) Longer-duration missions require more food.\n\nShuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appeal to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus are selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula.\nOn Earth, the average American uses about 35 gallons (132 liters) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three gallons (11 liters) per day.\n", "In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.\n\nAt NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed in altitude.\n\nSpace Mirror Memorial\n", "\n\nEighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have lost their lives during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American (including one born in India), four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.\n\nEleven people (all men) have lost their lives training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.\n\nThe Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the John F. Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of a U.S. Air Force X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant.\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* NASA: How to become an astronaut 101\n* List of International partnership organizations\n* Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts\n* collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar\n* spacefacts Spacefacts.de\n* Manned astronautics: facts and figures\n* Astronaut Candidate Brochure online\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Definition", "Terminology", "Space travel milestones", "Training", "Health risks of space travel", "Food and drink", "Insignia", "Deaths", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''''A Modest Proposal For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the Publick''''', commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729. Swift suggests that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food for rich gentlemen and ladies. This satirical hyperbole mocked heartless attitudes towards the poor, as well as British policy toward the Irish in general.\n\nIn English writing, the phrase \"a modest proposal\" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire.\n", "Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses methods of argument throughout his essay which lampoon the then-influential William Petty and the social engineering popular among followers of Francis Bacon. These lampoons include appealing to the authority of \"a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London\" and \"the famous Psalmanazar, a native of the island Formosa\" (who had already confessed to ''not'' being from Formosa in 1706). This essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states, \"A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout.\"\n \nIn the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by paralipsis:\n\n", "George Wittkowsky argued that Swift’s main target in ''A Modest Proposal'' was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills. Swift was especially insulted by projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution. A memorable example of these sorts of schemes \"involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company\". In response, Swift's ''Modest Proposal'' was \"a burlesque of projects concerning the poor\" that were in vogue during the early 18th century.\n\n''A Modest Proposal'' also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who \"regard people as commodities\". In the piece, Swift adopts the \"technique of a political arithmetician\" to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics.\n\nCritics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically \"the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defense of crime (arrogated to Marx) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population\". Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that \"springs from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake\".\n", "Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a \"trap\" to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, \"details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty\" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class. Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create \"two opposing points of view\" that \"alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way.\"\n\nSwift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses \"the vocabulary of animal husbandry\" to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn \"people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound\".\n\nSwift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument from Swift's time (which was derived from the Latin rhetorician Quintilian). The contrast between the \"careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme\" and \"the ridiculousness of the proposal\" create a situation in which the reader has \"to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan\".\n", "Scholars have speculated about which earlier works Swift may have had in mind when he wrote ''A Modest Proposal''.\n\n===Tertullian's ''Apology''===\nJames Johnson argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was largely influenced and inspired by Tertullian's ''Apology'': a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity. James William Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations. Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works ''A Modest Proposal'' and ''Apology''. In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that \"human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human.\" Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language. In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes the uncanny way that both authors imply an ironic \"justification by ownership\" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor.\n\n===Defoe's ''The Generous Projector''===\nIt has also been argued that ''A Modest Proposal'' was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay ''The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children'' by Swift's rival Daniel Defoe.\n\n=== Mandeville's ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews'' ===\nBernard Mandeville's ''Modest Defence of Publick Stews'' asked to introduce public and state controlled bordellos. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests andwhile not being a complete satirical texthas been discussed as well as an inspiration for Jonathan Swifts title. Mandeville had become famous with the Fable of The Bees and deliberations on private vices and public benefits in 1705 already.\n\n'''John Locke from the First Treatise of Government'''\n\n\"Be it then as Sir Robert says, that Anciently, it was usual for Men to sell and Castrate their Children. Let it be, that they exposed them; Add to it, if you please, for this is still greater Power, ''that they begat them for their Tables to fat and eat them'': If this proves a right to do so, we may, by the same Argument, justifie Adultery, Incest and Sodomy, for there are examples of these too, both Ancient and Modern; Sins, which I suppose, have the Principle Aggravation from this, that they cross the main intention of Nature, which willeth the increase of Mankind, and the continuation of the Species in the highest perfection, and the distinction of Families, with the Security of the Marriage Bed, as necessary thereunto\" (First Treatise, sec. 59).\n", "Robert Phiddian's article \"Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal\" focuses on two aspects of ''A Modest Proposal'': the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satiric voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that \"there is a gap between the narrator's meaning and the text's, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody\".\n\nWhile Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of \"Swift's Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet\", argues that to understand the piece fully, it is important to understand the economics of Swift’s time. Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have taken the time to focus directly on the mercantilism and theories of labour in 18th century England. \"If one regards the ''Modest Proposal'' simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact\".\n\n===\"People are the riches of a nation\"===\n\nAt the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that \"people are the riches of the nation\", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less. Furthermore, \"in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry\". In those times, the \"somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity\".\n\nLouis A. Landa presents Swift's ''A Modest Proposal'' as a critique of the popular and unjustified maxim of mercantilism in the 18th century that \"people are the riches of a nation\". Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that mere population itself, in Ireland's case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy. The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer. Swift also recognises the implications of such a fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens. Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticising economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanising them by viewing them as a mere commodity.\n", "''A Modest Proposal'' is included in many literature programs as an example of early modern western satire. It also serves as an exceptional introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language, lending itself well to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies, ''A Modest Proposal'' is a relevant piece included in many comparative and global literature and history courses, as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts, humanities, and even the social sciences.\n\nThe essay has been emulated many times. In his book ''A Modest Proposal'' (1984), evangelical author Frank Schaeffer emulated Swift's work in social conservative polemic against abortion and euthanasia in a future dystopia that advocated recycling of aborted embryos and fetuses, as well as some disabled infants with compound intellectual, physical and physiological difficulties. (Such Baby Doe Rules cases were then a major concern of the pro-life movement of the early 1980s, which viewed selective treatment of those infants as disability discrimination.) In his book ''A Modest Proposal for America'' (2013), statistician Howard Friedman opens with a satirical reflection of the extreme drive to fiscal stability by ultra-conservatives.\n\nA Modest Video Game Proposal is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney Jack Thompson on October 10, 2005. He proposed that, if someone could \"create, manufacture, distribute, and sell a video game in 2006\" that allows players to play the scenario he has written, in which the character kills video game developers.A Modest Video Game Proposal#cite note-ModestProposal-1|1\n\nHunter S. Thompson's ''Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist'', which contains hundreds of private letters written by Thompson over the years, contains a letter in which he uses ''A Modest Proposal'''s satire technique against the Vietnam War. Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he was going to use napalm to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. This letter protests against the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas.\n\nThe 2012 film ''Butcher Boys,'' written by ''The Texas Chain Saw Massacre'' co-scribe Kim Henkel, is said to be loosely based on Jonathan Swift's ''A Modest Proposal.'' The film's opening scene takes place in a restaurant named \"J. Swift's.\"\n", "\n", "* \n* (subscription needed)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* ''A Modest Proposal'' (CELT)\n* ''A Modest Proposal'' (Gutenberg)\n* '' A Modest Proposal -'' Annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards\n* \n* ''A Modest Proposal'' BBC Radio 4 ''In Our Time'' with Melvyn Bragg\n* ' ''A modest proposal For preventing the children of poor people From being a Burthen to their Parents or the Country, And for making them Beneficial to the publick''. The Third Edition, Dublin, Printed: And Reprinted at London, for Weaver Bickerton, in Devereux-Court near the Middle-Temple, 1730.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Details", "Population solutions", "Rhetoric", "Influences", "Economic themes", "Modern usage", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''alkali metals''' are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table of elements as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital: this shared electron configuration results in them having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised homologous behaviour.\n\nThe alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen (and in the case of lithium, nitrogen). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the '''group 1 elements''', excluding hydrogen (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.\n\nAll of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of abundance, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity; francium occurs only in the minutest traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues.\n\nMost alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate and precise representation of time. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp, which emits light very efficiently. Table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Sodium and potassium are also essential elements, having major biological roles as electrolytes, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful.\n__TOC__\n\n", "\n=== Physical and chemical ===\nThe physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation, and dissociation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, as well as very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity; thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.\n\n\n\n\n+ Properties of the alkali metals\n Name\n Lithium\n Sodium\n Potassium\n Rubidium\n Caesium\n Francium\n\nAtomic number\n 3 \n 11 \n 19 \n 37 \n 55 \n 87\n\nStandard atomic weight (u)\n 6.94(1) \n 22.98976928(2) \n 39.0983(1) \n 85.4678(3) \n 132.9054519(2) \n 223\n\nElectron configuration\n He 2s1 \n Ne 3s1 \n Ar 4s1 \n Kr 5s1 \n Xe 6s1 \n Rn 7s1\n\nMelting point (°C)\n 180.54 \n 97.72\n 63.38 \n 39.31 \n 28.44 \n?\n\nBoiling point (°C)\n 1342 \n 883 \n 759 \n 688 \n 671 \n?\n\nDensity (g·cm−3)\n 0.534 \n 0.968 \n 0.89 \n 1.532 \n 1.93 \n?\n\nHeat of fusion (kJ·mol−1)\n 3.00 \n 2.60 \n 2.321 \n 2.19 \n 2.09 \n?\n\nHeat of vaporisation (kJ·mol−1)\n 136 \n 97.42 \n 79.1 \n 69 \n 66.1 \n?\n\nHeat of formation of monatomic gas (kJ·mol−1)\n 162 \n 108 \n 89.6 \n 82.0 \n 78.2 \n?\n\nElectrical resistivity at 25 °C (nΩ·cm)\n 94.7 \n 48.8 \n 73.9 \n 131 \n 208 \n?\n\nAtomic radius (pm)\n 152 \n 186 \n 227 \n 248 \n 265 \n?\n\nIonic radius of hexacoordinate M+ ion (pm)\n 76 \n 102 \n 138 \n 152 \n 167 \n?\n\nFirst ionisation energy (kJ·mol−1)\n 520.2 \n 495.8 \n 418.8 \n 403.0 \n 375.7 \n 392.8\n\nElectron affinity (kJ·mol−1)\n 59.62 \n 52.87 \n 48.38 \n 46.89 \n 45.51 \n?\n\nEnthalpy of dissociation of M2 (kJ·mol−1)\n 106.5 \n 73.6 \n 57.3 \n 45.6 \n 44.77 \n?\n\nPauling electronegativity\n 0.98 \n 0.93 \n 0.82 \n 0.82 \n 0.79 \n?\n\nStandard electrode potential (''E''°(M+→M0); V)\n −3.04 \n −2.71 \n −2.93 \n −2.98 \n −3.03 \n?\n\nFlame test colourPrincipal emission/absorption wavelength (nm)\n Crimson670.8 \n Yellow589.2 \n Violet766.5 \n Red-violet780.0 \n Blue455.5 \n?\n\n\n\n\nThe alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar ionic radii; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials: lithium's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li+ ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.\n\nThe stable alkali metals are all silver-coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, and barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.\n\nPotassium reacts violently with water at room temperature\nCaesium reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures\nAll the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored in mineral oil or kerosene (paraffin oil). They react aggressively with the halogens to form the alkali metal halides, which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all soluble in water except lithium fluoride (LiF). The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods of the periodic table because of their low effective nuclear charge and the ability to attain a noble gas configuration by losing just one electron. Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like alcohols and phenols, gaseous ammonia, and alkynes, the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.\n\nThe second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus; thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations. The alkalides are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a −1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form anions and were thought to be able to appear in salts only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells, which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides, and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and low ionisation potentials. Alkalides are chemically similar to the electrides, which are salts with trapped electrons acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is \"inverse sodium hydride\", H+Na− (both ions being complexed), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na+H−: it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be metastable or stable.\n\nIn aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula M(H2O)''n''+, where ''n'' is the solvation number. Their coordination numbers and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the first coordination sphere, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a dative covalent bond, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by hydrogen bonds to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to polarise the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. The solvation number for Li+ has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the tetrahedral Li(H2O)4+: while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact ion pairs, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach Li(H2O)4+ through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an octahedral hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral Na(H2O)6+ ion. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the K(H2O)8+ and Rb(H2O)8+ ions, which have the square antiprismatic structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate Cs(H2O)12+ ion.\n\n\n==== Lithium ====\nThe chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li+ cation polarises anions and gives its compounds a more covalent character. Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable nitride, a property common among all the alkaline earth metals (magnesium's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form organometallic compounds with significant covalent character (e.g. LiMe and MgMe2).\n\nLithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent. Conversely, lithium perchlorate and other lithium salts with large anions that cannot be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li+ has a high solvation energy. This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely hygroscopic: this allows salts like lithium chloride and lithium bromide to be used in dehumidifiers and air-conditioners.\n\n==== Francium ====\nFrancium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high atomic weight, causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making relativistic effects more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing electronegativities and ionisation energies of the alkali metals, francium's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its atomic radius is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47.2 kJ/mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr2 molecule (42.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr−, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO2) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.\n\n=== Nuclear ===\n\n\n+Primordial isotopes of the alkali metals\n\n Z\n Alkali metal\n Stable\n ''Decays''\n''unstable: italics''odd–odd isotopes coloured pink\n\n 3 \nlithium \n 2 \n — \n \n style=\"background:pink;\"\n \n\n 11 \nsodium \n 1 \n — \n\n \n \n\n 19 \npotassium \n 2 \n 1 \n\n\n''''\n\n 37 \nrubidium \n 1 \n 1 \n\n''''\n \n\n 55 \ncaesium \n 1 \n — \n\n \n \n\n 87 \nfrancium \n — \n — \n''No primordial isotopes''('''' is a radiogenic nuclide)\n\nRadioactive: \n\nAll the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either odd–odd (both proton and neutron number are odd) or odd–even (proton number is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd–odd nuclei have even mass numbers, whereas odd–even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd–odd primordial nuclides are rare because most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.\n\nDue to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived radioisotope potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number (isobars) free to beta decay toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. Beryllium is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.\n\nAll of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope: sodium-22 and sodium-24 are trace radioisotopes produced cosmogenically, potassium-40 and rubidium-87 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally, and all isotopes of francium are radioactive. Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87.\n\nCaesium-137, with a half-life of 30.17 years, is one of the two principal medium-lived fission products, along with strontium-90, which are responsible for most of the radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the Chernobyl accident. Caesium-137 undergoes high-energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable barium-137. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and cannot be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay. Caesium-137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of tritium. Small amounts of caesium-134 and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents, most notably the Goiânia accident and the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.\n", "The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.\n\n=== Atomic and ionic radii ===\n\nEffective nuclear charge on an atomic electron\nThe atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the shielding effect, when an atom has more than one electron shell, each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals, the outermost electron only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the nuclear charge (which is equal to the atomic number) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.\n\nThe ionic radii of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different electron shell than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the effective nuclear charge has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.\n\n=== First ionisation energy ===\n\nPeriodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the noble gases.\nThe first ionisation energy of an element or molecule is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one mole of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with electric charge +1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge, the amount of shielding by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in main group elements. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. (This trend is broken in francium due to the relativistic stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.)\n\nThe second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled electron shell and is thus difficult to remove.\n\n=== Reactivity ===\n\nThe reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and atomisation energies of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in chemical reactions, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the metallic bond of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in radius and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the activation energy of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.\n\n=== Electronegativity ===\n\nmain groups of the periodic table from the second to the sixth period\nElectronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent, the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an ionic bond). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.\n\nBecause of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, lithium iodide (LiI) will dissolve in organic solvents, a property of most covalent compounds. Lithium fluoride (LiF) is the only alkali halide that is not soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent.\n\n=== Melting and boiling points ===\n\nThe melting point of a substance is the point where it changes state from solid to liquid while the boiling point of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. (The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.)\n\n=== Density ===\n\nThe alkali metals all have the same crystal structure (body-centred cubic) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight of all the elements in their period and having the largest atomic radius for their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at room temperature.\n", "The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na.\n\n=== Hydroxides ===\n\npounds (≈ 1.4 kg) of sodium with water\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an aqueous solution of a strongly basic alkali metal hydroxide and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with effervescence, but sodium and potassium can ignite and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing hydrogen gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water). The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.\n\nRecent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a Coulomb explosion rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.\n\nThe hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give oligomeric alkoxides. They easily react with carbon dioxide to form carbonates or bicarbonates, or with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfides or bisulfides, and may be used to separate thiols from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of aluminium, zinc, tin, and lead react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. Silicon dioxide is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack silicate glass.\n\n=== Intermetallic compounds ===\nLiquid NaK alloy at room temperature\nThe alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each other and the elements from groups 2 to 13 in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the sodium amalgams with mercury, including Na5Hg8 and Na3Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and CsAu are semiconductors. NaK is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The eutectic mixture melts at −12.6 °C. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C.\n\n=== Compounds with the group 13 elements ===\nThe intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium), such as NaTl, are poor conductors or semiconductors, unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the Zintl anions involved. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl−—)n with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na+ ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.\n\nBoron is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal borides tend to be boron-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving deltahedral structures, and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high vapour pressure at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 °C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 °C, but sodium at 900 °C and potassium not until 1200 °C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB10, NaB6, NaB15, and KB6. Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following Wade's rules to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13.\n\n=== Compounds with the group 14 elements ===\n\nLithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides, Li2C2 and Na2C2, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with graphite; their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC60 (dark grey, almost black), MC48 (dark grey, almost black), MC36 (blue), MC24 (steel blue), and MC8 (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). Upon heating of KC8, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC24, KC36, KC48 and finally KC60. KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water. While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC8, the smaller ones initially form MC6, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce buckminsterfullerene to produce solid fullerides M''n''C60; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where ''n'' = 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve ''n'' = 1.\n\nWhen the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the carbon group (silicon, germanium, tin, and lead), ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed, such as the silicides M4Si4 (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M+ and tetrahedral ions. The chemistry of alkali metal germanides, involving the germanide ion Ge4− and other cluster (Zintl) ions such as , , , and (Ge9)26−, is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion (Sn4−), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as , which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K4Sn9). The monatomic plumbide ion (Pb4−) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.\n\n=== Nitrides and pnictides ===\nUnit cell ball-and-stick model of lithium nitride. On the basis of size a tetrahedral structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.\nLithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions, and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule (N2) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M+ ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N2 and the formation of N3− ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of +1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen exothermic, forming lithium nitride. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic, so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. Sodium nitride (Na3N) and potassium nitride (K3N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions. Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless azide salts involving the linear anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.\n\nAll the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M3Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a pnictogen – phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth). This is due to the greater size of the P3− and As3− ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K3P, K4P3, K5P4, KP, K4P6, K3P7, K3P11, KP10.3, and KP15. While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na3As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M3As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some metallic bonding. The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb3− ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine (SbH3). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.\n\n=== Oxides and chalcogenides ===\n\n\nAll the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple oxides (containing the O2− ion), peroxides (containing the ion, where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms), superoxides (containing the ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide, but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide. Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide, while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric (spontaneously catch fire in air).\n\nThe smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition, the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers; the presence of water vapour, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO3) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M2O3, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, .\n\nRubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below +1. Rubidium can form Rb6O and Rb9O2 (copper-coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO3 and several brightly coloured suboxides, such as Cs7O (bronze), Cs4O (red-violet), Cs11O3 (violet), Cs3O (dark green), CsO, Cs3O2, as well as Cs7O2. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs2O.\n\nThe alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens (sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the sulfide (Na2S) and various polysulfides with the formula Na2S''x'' (''x'' from 2 to 6), containing the ions. Due to the basicity of the Se2− and Te2− ions, the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the and ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal polonides are all ionic compounds containing the Po2− ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300–400 °C.\n\n=== Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides ===\n\nThe alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table, the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine), forming salts known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well-known of the twenty is certainly sodium chloride, otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water except for lithium fluoride (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li+ and F− ions, causing the electrostatic interactions between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for magnesium fluoride, consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.\n\nThe alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the hydride anion acts as a pseudohalide: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the cyanides. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for lithium cyanide, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na3ClO, K3BrO (yellow), Na4Br2O, Na4I2O, and K4Br2O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.\n\n=== Coordination complexes ===\n\nAlkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li+ ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits coordination numbers from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes (M(H2O)6)+), with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes (Li(H2O)4)+); the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as desiccants. Alkali metals also readily form complexes with crown ethers (e.g. 12-crown-4 for Li+, 15-crown-5 for Na+, 18-crown-6 for K+, and 21-crown-7 for Rb+) and cryptands due to electrostatic attraction.\n\n=== Ammonia solutions ===\nThe alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia, forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated M+ and e−, which react to form hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide (MNH2, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a catalyst. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides, europium and ytterbium. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause identified the colour as being due to the presence of solvated electrons, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper-coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like mercury. In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M+), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), diatomic alkali metal molecules (M2) and alkali metal anions (M−). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis.\n\n=== Organometallic ===\n\n==== Organolithium ====\n\n''n''-butyllithium hexamer, (C4H9Li)6. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain. There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.\nSolid phenyllithium forms monoclinic crystals can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2(C6H5)2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the ''ipso'' carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups are perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.\n\nBeing the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds, which are bonded covalently. Organolithium compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form oligomers with the structure (RLi)''x'' where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a carbanion, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. For use as bases, butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ((CH3Li)''x''), which exists in tetrameric (''x'' = 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (''x'' = 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially ''n''-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the Grignard reaction. For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise aldehydes and ketones by reaction with metal carbonyls. The reaction with nickel tetracarbonyl, for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes electrophilic substitution to give the desired aldehyde (using H+ as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.\n\n:LiR + Ni(CO)4 Li+RCONi(CO)3−\n:Li+RCONi(CO)3− Li+ + RCHO + (solvent)Ni(CO)3\n:Li+RCONi(CO)3− Li+ + R'COR + (solvent)Ni(CO)3\n\nAlkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with ''N'',''N''-disubstituted amides to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with carbon monoxide. They thermally decompose to eliminate a β-hydrogen, producing alkenes and lithium hydride: another route is the reaction of ethers with alkyl- and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic carboxylic acids (ArCO2H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'2C(Ar)OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal-halogen exchange.\n\n==== Heavier alkali metals ====\nUnlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide. Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is Schlosser's base, a mixture of ''n''-butyllithium and potassium ''tert''-butoxide. This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium (KCH2CHCH2). ''cis''-2-Butene and ''trans''-2-butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas isomerisation is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.\n\nAlkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of ethers, generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums cannot be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because Wurtz coupling occurs:\n:RM + R'X → R–R' + MX\n\nAs such, they have to be made by reacting alkylmercury compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the nickel arsenide structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.\n\nThe alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example cyclopentadienes and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being tetrahydrofuran. The most important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide, NaC5H5, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with cyclooctatetraene in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal cyclooctatetraenides; for example, dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide (K2C8H8) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as uranocene. The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark-green sodium naphthalenide, Na+C10H8•−, a strong reducing agent.\n", "Empirical (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in angstroms\nAlthough francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of the hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first period 8 element, the undiscovered element ununennium (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties. Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as periodic trends, ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron, increasing ununennium's first ionisation energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii; this effect is already seen for francium. This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects. The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium. On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 °C and 30 °C.\n\neighth period, measured in electron volts\nThe stabilisation of ununennium's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm, very close to that of rubidium (247 pm), so that the chemistry of ununennium in the +1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue+ ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb+, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p-orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state, which is not seen in any other alkali metal, in addition to the +1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p3/2 spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character, due to the involvement of the 7p3/2 electrons in the bonding.\n\nEmpirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts\nNot as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next alkali metal after ununennium may actually be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration Og 5 g18 6f14 7d10 8s2 8p1/22 9s1. Furthermore, this element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s-block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh).\n\nThe probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unhexpentium have not been explored yet as of 2015; in fact, it is suspected that they may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell-structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell-structure effects (which stabilise the s-orbitals and destabilise and expand the d-, f-, and g-orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium and unhexpentium stems from the fact that both elements are located close to the expected locations of islands of stabilities, centered at elements 122 (306Ubb) and 164 (482Uhq).\n", "Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called \"pseudo-alkali metals\". These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.\n\n=== Hydrogen ===\nThe element hydrogen, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal; when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H2); however, the alkali metals only form diatomic molecules (such as dilithium, Li2) at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.\n\nHydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens, but the similarities end there because of the small size of a bare proton H+ compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration. It is sometimes placed above carbon due to their similar electronegativities or fluorine due to their similar chemical properties.\n\nThe first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 kJ/mol) is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as alkalides, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H− anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H− is very diffuse because its single proton cannot easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high pressures, such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as metallic hydrogen. The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition.\n\nThe 1s1 electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns1), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H+, or gain one to form the hydride ion H−. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but makes chemical nonsense because hydrogen cannot be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid-base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to the 50–220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of acid-base chemistry. Also unique is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge-transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).\n\n=== Ammonium and derivatives ===\nSimilarly to the alkali metals, ammonia reacts with hydrochloric acid to form the salt ammonium chloride.\nThe ammonium ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal salts are soluble in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 GPa), and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.\n\nOther \"pseudo-alkali metals\" include the alkylammonium cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the quaternary ammonium cations () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs+ to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic pnictogens), creating a phosphonium () or arsonium () cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while stibonium () itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.\n\n=== Cobaltocene and derivatives ===\nCobaltocene, Co(C5H5)2, is a metallocene, the cobalt analogue of ferrocene. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the 18-electron rule. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co–C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency to lose this \"extra\" electron, yielding a very stable 18-electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and decamethylcobaltocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene (involving iridium) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability.\n\n=== Thallium ===\nVery pure thallium pieces in a glass ampoule, stored under argon gas\n\nThallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its +1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl+ (164 pm), K+ (152 pm) and Ag+ (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer's 1868 periodic table. (Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group and left the space below caesium blank.) However, thallium also displays the oxidation state +3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the +3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium. While Tl+ is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except TlF) are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.\n\n=== Copper, silver, and gold ===\n\n\nThe group 11 metals (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. \"The filled ''d'' subshell and free ''s'' electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between ''s'' electrons and the partially filled ''d'' subshell that lower electron mobility.\" Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as \"group IB\", paralleling the alkali metals' \"group IA\". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are paramagnetic and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.\n\nIn Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the iron triad and platinum group metals), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A–B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium-long 18-column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.\n\nThe coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s1 electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p6s1; group 11: d10s1). However, the similarities are largely confined to the stoichiometries of the +1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia, as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series, whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than +1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au−) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a pseudohalogen because its 5d106s1 configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d106s2 configuration of mercury.\n", "Petalite, the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated\nSodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt (sodium chloride) has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word ''salary'', referring to ''salarium'', money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did include the alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.\n\nPure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance caustic soda (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different. Later that year, the first pieces of pure molten sodium metal were similarly prepared by Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of molten caustic soda (now called sodium hydroxide).\n\nJohann Wolfgang Döbereiner was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.\nPetalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist José Bonifácio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore. This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name \"''lithion''/''lithina''\", from the Greek word ''λιθoς'' (transliterated as ''lithos'', meaning \"stone\"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material \"''lithium''\". Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1850 as having similar properties.\n\nLepidolite, the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated\nRubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope, invented in 1859 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff. The next year, they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra: a bright red line for rubidium (from the Latin word ''rubidus'', meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word ''caesius'', meaning sky-blue).\n\nAround 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens.\n\nMendeleev's periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I, along with copper, silver, and gold\nAfter 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the boron group. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of group IB, and once as part of a \"group VIII\" encompassing today's groups 8 to 11. After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the d-block, while alkali metals were left in ''group IA''. Later the group's name was changed to ''group 1'' in 1988. The trivial name \"alkali metals\" comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong alkalis when dissolved in water.\n\nThere were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium-227, which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%.\n: '''''' \n\nThe next element below francium (eka-francium) in the periodic table would be ununennium (Uue), element 119. The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of einsteinium-254 with calcium-48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 nb.\n\n: + → * → ''no atoms''\n\nIt is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium-254, which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass, relatively long half-life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms, to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of ultraheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table, it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed attempts to synthesise it in 2019 and 2020 are currently planned at laboratories at Japan and Russia. Currently, none of the period 8 elements have been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to drip instabilities, that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals, such as unhexpentium, due to their extremely high atomic number: they would require new, more powerful technology to make.\n", "\n=== In the Solar System ===\nEstimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium, and boron) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.\nThe Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.\n\n=== On Earth ===\nSpodumene, an important lithium mineral\nThe Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to planetary differentiation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.\n\nThe alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica, forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii.\n\nSodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near-equal abundance in Earth's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.\n\nDespite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm) or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm, comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is spodumene, which occurs in large deposits worldwide.\n\nRubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, zinnwaldite, and lepidolite, although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten, but is much less abundant than rubidium.\n\nFrancium-223, the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the product of the alpha decay of actinium-227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1018 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the earth's crust at any time, due to its extremely short half-life of 22 minutes.\n", "\nThe production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their silicate ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium(III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide. The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, is more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and magnesium or calcium for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes fractional distillation for purification.\n\nLithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride.\n\nSodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 °C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide, found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 °C.\n:Na (g) + KCl (l) NaCl (l) + K (g)\nAlthough sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.\n\nThis sample of alt=A shiny gray 5-centimeter piece of matter with a rough surface.\nFor several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by-product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite. Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and caesium alum (Cs,Rb)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with calcium metal at 750 °C and low pressure.\n\nAs a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n, yielding francium-209, francium-210, and francium-211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium-223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium-227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium-226, one of the daughters of natural uranium-238.\n", "FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland\nLithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is often used in batteries, and lithium oxide can help process silica. Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide in space capsules and submarines. Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.\n\nSodium compounds have many applications, the most well-known being sodium chloride as table salt. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in sodium-vapour lamps, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as titanium and zirconium, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point, viscosity, and cross-section towards neutron absorption.\n\nPotassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base, and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.\n\nRubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks, and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.\n\nFrancium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory.\n", "\n=== Metals ===\nPure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.\n\nExperiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.\n\n=== Ions ===\nLithium carbonate\nThe bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed.\nSolid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.\n\nLithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder (manic-depression) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side-effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.\n\nSodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.\n\nPotassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a \"spike\" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions.\n\nA wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long collimator to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93 grams of caesium-137 chloride.\nDue to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate metabolism, and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency. Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.\n\nCaesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The median lethal dose (LD50) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.\n\nRadioisotopes of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium-134, iodine-131, and strontium-90, caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Properties ", " Periodic trends ", " Compounds ", " Extensions ", " Pseudo-alkali metals ", " History ", " Occurrence ", " Production and isolation ", " Applications ", " Biological role and precautions ", " Notes ", " References " ]

[ "\n\n\nEdward Bernard's \"Orbis eruditi\", comparing all known alphabets as of 1689\n\n\nAn '''alphabet''' is a standard set of letters (basic written symbols or graphemes) that is used to write one or more languages based upon the general principle that the letters represent phonemes (basic significant sounds) of the spoken language. This is in contrast to other types of writing systems, such as syllabaries (in which each character represents a syllable) and logographies (in which each character represents a word, morpheme, or semantic unit).\n\nThe Proto-Canaanite script, later known as the Phoenician alphabet, is the first fully phonemic script. Thus the Phoenician alphabet is considered to be the first alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is the ancestor of most modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Hebrew, and possibly Brahmic. Under a terminological distinction promoted by Peter T. Daniels, an \"alphabet\" is a script that represents both vowels and consonants as letters equally. In this narrow sense of the word the first \"true\" alphabet was the Greek alphabet, which was developed on the basis of the earlier Phoenician alphabet. In other alphabetic scripts such as the original Phoenician, Hebrew or Arabic, letters predominantly or exclusively represent consonants; such a script is also called an abjad. A third type, called abugida or alphasyllabary, is one where vowels are shown by diacritics or modifications of consonantal base letters, as in Devanagari and other South Asian scripts. The Khmer alphabet (for Cambodian) is the longest, with 74 letters.\n\nThere are dozens of alphabets in use today, the most popular being the Latin alphabet (which was derived from the Greek). Many languages use modified forms of the Latin alphabet, with additional letters formed using diacritical marks. While most alphabets have letters composed of lines (linear writing), there are also exceptions such as the alphabets used in Braille.\n\nAlphabets are usually associated with a standard ordering of letters. This makes them useful for purposes of collation, specifically by allowing words to be sorted in alphabetical order. It also means that their letters can be used as an alternative method of \"numbering\" ordered items, in such contexts as numbered lists and number placements.\n", "The English word ''alphabet'' came into Middle English from the Late Latin word ''alphabetum'', which in turn originated in the Greek ἀλφάβητος (''alphabētos''). The Greek word was made from the first two letters, ''alpha'' and ''beta''. The names for the Greek letters came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet; ''aleph'', which also meant ''ox'', and ''bet'', which also meant ''house''.\n\nSometimes, like in the alphabet song in English, the term \"ABCs\" is used instead of the word \"alphabet\" (''Now I know my ABCs''...). \"Knowing one's ABCs\", in general, can be used as a metaphor for knowing the basics about anything.\n", "\n''A Specimen'' of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 ''Cyclopaedia''\n\n===Ancient Northeast African and Middle Eastern scripts===\nThe history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names.\n\nA specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script, one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts\nIn the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently \"alphabetic\" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appears in Egyptian turquoise mines in the Sinai peninsula dated to circa the 15th century BC, apparently left by Canaanite workers. In 1999, John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version of this first alphabet at Wadi el-Hol dated to circa 1800 BC and showing evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to circa 2000 BC, strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had been developed about that time. Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs. This script had no characters representing vowels, although originally it probably was a syllabary, but unneeded symbols were discarded. An alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs including three that indicate the following vowel was invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BC. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit.\n\nThe Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, which is conventionally called \"Proto-Canaanite\" before ca. 1050 BC. The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram. This script is the parent script of all western alphabets. By the tenth century, two other forms can be distinguished, namely Canaanite and Aramaic. The Aramaic gave rise to the Hebrew script. The South Arabian alphabet, a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the Ge'ez alphabet (an abugida) is descended. Vowelless alphabets, which are not true alphabets, are called abjads, currently exemplified in scripts including Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution and some \"weak\" consonants are sometimes used to indicate the vowel quality of a syllable (matres lectionis). These letters have a dual function since they are also used as pure consonants.\n\nThe Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs, in contrast to the other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script and it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically.\n\nThe script was spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean. In Greece, the script was modified to add the vowels, giving rise to the ancestor of all alphabets in the West. The vowels have independent letter forms separate from the consonants, therefore it was the first true alphabet. The Greeks chose letters representing sounds that did not exist in Greek to represent the vowels. The vowels are significant in the Greek language, and the syllabical Linear B script that was used by the Mycenaean Greeks from the 16th century BC had 87 symbols including 5 vowels. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation that caused many different alphabets to evolve from it.\n\n===European alphabets===\nCodex Zographensis in the Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval Bulgaria\nThe Greek alphabet, in its Euboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to write the Italic languages. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin (the Romance languages) and then for most of the other languages of Europe.\n\nSome adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures, such as æ in Danish and Icelandic and Ȣ in Algonquian; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the thorn þ in Old English and Icelandic, which came from the Futhark runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the eth ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and Italian, which uses the letters ''j, k, x, y'' and ''w'' only in foreign words.\n\nAnother notable script is Elder Futhark, which is believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from AD 100 to the late Middle Ages. Its usage is mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century.\n\nThe Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century it once again became more and more popular.\n\nThe Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the Cyrillic script. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius, while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by Clement of Ohrid, who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by the Greek alphabet and the Hebrew alphabet.\n\nThe longest European alphabet is the Latin-derived Slovak alphabet which has 46 letters.\n\n===Asian alphabets===\nBeyond the logographic Chinese writing, many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The Arabic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet, Syriac alphabet, and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet, but because these writing systems are largely consonant-based they are often not considered true alphabets.\n\nMost alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the Brahmi script, which is often believed to be a descendant of Aramaic.\n\nZhuyin on a cell phone\n\nIn Korea, the Hangul alphabet was created by Sejong the Great. Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is a featural alphabet, where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation (P to look like the widened mouth, L to look like the tongue pulled in, etc.); its design was planned by the government of the day; and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as Chinese characters, to allow for mixed-script writing (one syllable always takes up one type-space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block).\n\nZhuyin (sometimes called ''Bopomofo'') is a semi-syllabary used to phonetically transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China. After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin, the use of Zhuyin today is limited, but it is still widely used in Taiwan where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the medial glide) is represented by its own symbol. For example, ''luan'' is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (''l-u-an''), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final ''-an''. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system—that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones.\n\nEuropean alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with Urdu and Persian) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with Kurdish and Uyghur).\n", " \n\n\n\nThe term \"alphabet\" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is ''segmental'' at the phoneme level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish \"true\" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters. The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet) and Hebrew (via Aramaic).\n\nExamples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts; true alphabets include Latin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya, Amharic, Hindi, and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant that is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.)\n\nAll three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. Ugaritic, for example, is basically an abjad, but has syllabic letters for . (These are the only time vowels are indicated.) Cyrillic is basically a true alphabet, but has syllabic letters for (я, е, ю); Coptic has a letter for . Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a zero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels.\n\nThe boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida (ironically, the original source of the term \"abugida\") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. (See below.)\nGe'ez Script of Ethiopia and Eritrea\nThus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For tonal languages, further classification can be based on their treatment of tone, though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in Somali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for Vietnamese (a true alphabet) and Thai (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the Pollard script, an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for Hmong and Zhuang. For most of these scripts, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas; in Zhuyin not only is one of the tones unmarked, but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone, like the virama of Indic.\n\nThe number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book Pahlavi script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters. (The Hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the ʻokina and five long vowels. However, Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated''—that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in Arabic, another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' or ''j''. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi papyri, up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole—that is, they had become logograms as in Egyptian Demotic.\nGreek, Cyrillic and Latin Alphabets, which share many of the same letters, although they have different pronunciations\nThe largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari. When written in Devanagari, Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ,'' though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. Thai has a total of 59 symbols, consisting of 44 consonants, 13 vowels and 2 syllabics, not including 4 diacritics for tone marks and one for vowel length.\n\nThe largest known abjad is Sindhi, with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz (for Cyrillic), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and Slovak (for the Latin script), with 46. However, these scripts either count di- and tri-graphs as separate letters, as Spanish did with ''ch'' and ''ll'' until recently, or uses diacritics like Slovak ''č''.\n\nThe Georgian alphabet ( '''') is alphabetical writing system. It is the largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent with 33 letters. Original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters were removed in 19th century by Ilia Chavchavadze. The Georgian Alphabet is much closer to Greek than the other Caucasian alphabets. The numeric value runs parallel to the Greek one, the consonants without a Greek equivalent are organized at the end of the alphabet. Origins of the Alphabet are still unknown, some Armenian and Western scholars believe it was created by Mesrop Mashtots (Armenian: Մեսրոպ Մաշտոց Mesrop Maštoc')also known as Mesrob the Vartabed,who was an early medieval Armenian linguist, theologian, statesman and hymnologist, best known for inventing the Armenian alphabet c. 405 AD, other Georgian and Western, scholars are against this theory.\n\nSyllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs, and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script.\n\nThe Armenian alphabet ( '''' or '''') is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced by Mesrob Mashdots around 405 AD, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (o) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages. During the 1920s orthography reform, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, while the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before).\n\nOld Georgian alphabet inscription on Monastery gate\n\nThe Armenian word for \"alphabet\" is '''' (), named after the first two letters of the Armenian alphabet Ա այբ ayb and Բ բեն ben. The Armenian script's directionality is horizontal left-to-right, like the Latin and Greek alphabets.\n", "\nAlphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters, which can then be used for purposes of collation—namely for the listing of words and other items in what is called ''alphabetical order''.\n\nThe basic ordering of the Latin alphabet (A\nB\nC\nD\nE\nF\nG\nH\nI\nJ\nK\nL\nM\nN\nO\nP\nQ\nR\nS\nT\nU\nV\nW\nX\nY\nZ), which is derived from the Northwest Semitic \"Abgad\" order, is well established, although languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the French ''é'', ''à'', and ''ô'') and of certain combinations of letters (multigraphs). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for the purposes of collation. However, in Icelandic, the accented letters such as ''á'', ''í'', and ''ö'' are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from the sounds represented by their unaccented counterparts. In Spanish, ''ñ'' is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as ''á'' and ''é'' are not. The ''ll'' and ''ch'' were also considered single letters, but in 1994 the Real Academia Española changed the collating order so that ''ll'' is between ''lk'' and ''lm'' in the dictionary and ''ch'' is between ''cg'' and ''ci'', and in 2010 the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies changed it so they were no longer letters at all.\n\nIn German, words starting with ''sch-'' (which spells the German phoneme ) are inserted between words with initial ''sca-'' and ''sci-'' (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after initial ''sz'', as though it were a single letter—in contrast to several languages such as Albanian, in which ''dh-'', ''ë-'', ''gj-'', ''ll-'', ''rr-'', ''th-'', ''xh-'' and ''zh-'' (all representing phonemes and considered separate single letters) would follow the letters ''d'', ''e'', ''g'', ''l'', ''n'', ''r'', ''t'', ''x'' and ''z'' respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with umlaut are collated ignoring the umlaut—contrary to Turkish that adopted the graphemes '''ö''' and '''ü''', and where a word like ''tüfek'', would come after ''tuz'', in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory where umlauts are sorted like ''ä'' = ''ae'' since names as ''Jäger'' appear also with the spelling ''Jaeger'', and are not distinguished in the spoken language.\n\nThe Danish and Norwegian alphabets end with ''æ''—''ø''—''å'', whereas the Swedish and Finnish ones conventionally put ''å''—''ä''—''ö'' at the end.\n\nIt is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ''ABCDE'' order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, Gothic, Cyrillic, and Latin; the other, ''HMĦLQ,'' was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic. Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years.\n\nRunic used an unrelated Futhark sequence, which was later simplified. Arabic uses its own sequence, although Arabic retains the traditional abjadi order for numbering.\n\nThe Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on phonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean hangul, and even Japanese kana, which is not an alphabet.\n", "The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter was associated with a word that begins with that sound (acrophony), continue to be used to varying degrees in Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Greek and Arabic.\n\nThe names were abandoned in Latin, which instead referred to the letters by adding a vowel (usually e) before or after the consonant; the two exceptions were Y and Z, which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan, and were known as ''Y Graeca'' \"Greek Y\" (pronounced ''I Graeca'' \"Greek I\") and ''zeta'' (from Greek)—this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the term ''zed'' for Z in all forms of English other than American English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as in ''double U'' for W (\"double V\" in French), the English name for Y, and American ''zee'' for Z. Comparing names in English and French gives a clear reflection of the Great Vowel Shift: A, B, C and D are pronounced /eɪ, biː, siː, diː/ in today's English, but in contemporary French they are /a, be, se, de/. The French names (from which the English names are derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels from before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N and S (/ɛf, ɛl, ɛm, ɛn, ɛs/) remain the same in both languages, because \"short\" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift.\n\nIn Cyrillic originally the letters were given names based on Slavic words; this was later abandoned as well in favor of a system similar to that used in Latin.\n", "\nWhen an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an orthography generally comes into being, providing rules for the spelling of words in that language. In accordance with the principle on which alphabets are based, these rules will generally map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes (significant sounds) of the spoken language. In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes, so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However this ideal is not usually achieved in practice; some languages (such as Spanish and Finnish) come close to it, while others (such as English) deviate from it to a much larger degree.\n\nThe pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.\n\nLanguages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways:\n* A language may represent a given phoneme by a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called digraphs and three-letter groups are called trigraphs. German uses the tetragraphs (four letters) \"tsch\" for the phoneme and (in a few borrowed words) \"dsch\" for . Kabardian also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely \"кхъу\". Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance, ''cs'' stands for tʃ, ''sz'' for s, ''zs'' for ʒ, ''dzs'' for dʒ).\n* A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example is modern Greek which may write the phoneme in six different ways: , , , , , and (though the last is rare).\n* A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for \"beer\" เบียร์ retains a letter for the final consonant \"r\" present in the English word it was borrowed from, but silences it.\n* Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence (sandhi).\n* Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word.\n* A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items, such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original Germanic vocabulary.\n\nNational languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as English, it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet.\n\nSome national languages like Finnish, Turkish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, these national languages lack a word corresponding to the verb \"to spell\" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell (out)', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard Spanish, one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy.\n\nAt the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.\n\nSometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet.\n\nThe standard system of symbols used by linguists to represent sounds in any language, independently of orthography, is called the International Phonetic Alphabet.\n", "\n* ''A Is For Aardvark''\n* Abecedarium\n* Acrophony\n* Akshara\n* Alphabet book\n* Alphabet effect\n* Alphabet song\n* Alphabetical order\n* ''Butterfly Alphabet''\n* Character encoding\n* Constructed script\n* Cyrillic\n* English alphabet\n* Hangul\n* ICAO (NATO) spelling alphabet\n* Lipogram\n* List of alphabets\n* Pangram\n* Thai script\n* Thoth\n* Transliteration\n* Unicode\n\n", "\n", "* \n* Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems.\n* \n*\n* Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing.\n* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n* \n* \n* Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing\n", "\n\n* The Origins of abc\n* \"Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico\", ''Damqātum 3'' (2007)\n* Michael Everson's Alphabets of Europe\n* Evolution of alphabets, animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland\n* How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs—Biblical Archaeology Review\n* An Early Hellenic Alphabet\n* Museum of the Alphabet \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "History", "Types", "Alphabetical order", "Names of letters", "Orthography and pronunciation", " See also ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\nAn explanation of the superscripts and subscripts seen in atomic number notation. Atomic number is the number of protons, and therefore also the total positive charge, in the atomic nucleus.\nThe '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' of the hydrogen atom () or a hydrogen-like ion (). In this model it is an essential feature that the photon energy (or frequency) of the electromagnetic radiation emitted (shown) when an electron jumps from one orbital to another, be proportional to the mathematical square of atomic charge (). Experimental measurement by Henry Moseley of this radiation for many elements (from ) showed the results as predicted by Bohr. Both the concept of atomic number and the Bohr model were thereby given scientific credence.\n\nThe '''atomic number''' or '''proton number''' (symbol '''''Z''''') of a chemical element is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.\n\nThe sum of the atomic number ''Z'' and the number of neutrons, ''N'', gives the mass number ''A'' of an atom. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in unified atomic mass units (making a quantity called the \"relative isotopic mass\"), is within 1% of the whole number ''A''.\n\nAtoms with the same atomic number ''Z'' but different neutron numbers ''N'', and hence different atomic masses, are known as isotopes. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see monoisotopic elements), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth, determines the element's standard atomic weight. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century.\n\nThe conventional symbol ''Z'' comes from the German word meaning ''number'', which, prior to the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order is approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this ''Z'' number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word (and its English equivalent ''atomic number'') come into common use in this context.\n", "\n===The periodic table and a natural number for each element===\nRussian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created a periodic table of the elements that ordered them numerically by atomic weight, yet occasionally used chemical properties in contradiction to weight.\nLoosely speaking, the existence or construction of a periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order.\n\nDmitri Mendeleev claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables in order of atomic weight (\"Atomgewicht\"). However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of iodine (atomic weight 126.9). This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, ''Z'', but that number was not known or suspected at the time.\n\nA simple numbering based on periodic table position was never entirely satisfactory, however. Besides the case of iodine and tellurium, later several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were known to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. However the gradual identification of more and more chemically similar lanthanide elements, whose atomic number was not obvious, led to inconsistency and uncertainty in the periodic numbering of elements at least from lutetium (element 71) onwards (hafnium was not known at this time).\n\nNiels Bohr's 1913 Bohr model of the atom required van den Broek's atomic number of nuclear charges, and Bohr believed that Moseley's work contributed greatly to the acceptance of the model.\nHenry Moseley helped develop the concept of atomic number by showing experimentally (1913) that \nVan den Broek's 1911 hypothesis combined with the Bohr model nearly correctly predicted atomic X-ray emissions.\n\n===The Rutherford-Bohr model and van den Broek===\nIn 1911, Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom in which a central core held most of the atom's mass and a positive charge which, in units of the electron's charge, was to be approximately equal to half of the atom's atomic weight, expressed in numbers of hydrogen atoms. This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight (though it was almost 25% different from the atomic number of gold , ), the single element from which Rutherford made his guess). Nevertheless, in spite of Rutherford's estimation that gold had a central charge of about 100 (but was element on the periodic table), a month after Rutherford's paper appeared, Antonius van den Broek first formally suggested that the central charge and number of electrons in an atom was ''exactly'' equal to its place in the periodic table (also known as element number, atomic number, and symbolized ''Z''). This proved eventually to be the case.\n\n=== Moseley's 1913 experiment ===\nThe experimental position improved dramatically after research by Henry Moseley in 1913. Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his Bohr model of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of ''Z''.\n\nTo do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminum (''Z'' = 13) to gold (''Z'' = 79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube. The square root of the frequency of these photons increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion (Moseley's law) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i.e. the element number ''Z''. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series (from lanthanum to lutetium inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from the chemistry at that time.\n\n===Missing elements===\nAfter Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (''Z'' = 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with ''Z'' < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (''Z'' = 96).\n\n===The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons===\nIn 1915 the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of ''Z'', which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or \"protyles\") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907 Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms.\n\nIn 1917 Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to be composed of four protons plus two \"nuclear electrons\" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two of the charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen, was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of + 79, consistent with its atomic number.\n\n===The discovery of the neutron makes ''Z'' the proton number===\nAll consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. After 1932, therefore, an element's atomic number ''Z'' was also realized to be identical to the proton number of its nuclei.\n", "The conventional symbol ''Z'' possibly comes from the German word (atomic number). However, prior to 1915, the word ''Zahl'' (simply ''number'') was used for an element's assigned number in the periodic table.\n", "Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is ''Z'' (the atomic number). The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics. The number of electrons in each element's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of ''any'' mixture of atoms with a given atomic number.\n", "The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of 2010, all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though an \"island of stability\" may exist for undiscovered isotopes with certain numbers of protons and neutrons.\n", "\n*History of the periodic table\n*Effective atomic number\n*Atomic theory\n*Prout's hypothesis\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", "The symbol of ''Z''", "Chemical properties", "New elements", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\nOne of the large, detailed illustrations in Andreas Vesalius's ''De humani corporis fabrica'' 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy\nA dissected body, lying prone on a table - from a series of anatomical drawings made by the 19th Century English artist Charles Landseer.\n\n'''Anatomy''' (Greek anatomē, “dissection”) is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science dealing with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated over immediate (embryology) and long (evolution) timescales. Human anatomy is one of the basic essential sciences of medicine.\n\nThe discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic anatomy. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells.\n\nThe history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th century medical imaging techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.\n\nAnatomy and physiology, which study (respectively) the structure and function of organisms and their parts, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and they are often studied together.\n", "Human compared to elephant frame. Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, 1860\nDerived from the Greek ''anatomē'' \"dissection\" (from ''anatémnō'' \"I cut up, cut open\" from ἀνά ''aná'' \"up\", and τέμνω ''témnō'' \"I cut\"), anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.\n\nThe discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition).\n\nAnatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection, in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in which a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels.\n\nThe term \"anatomy\" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy. However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term ''zootomy'' is also sometimes used to specifically refer to animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy.\n", "Stylized cutaway diagram of an animal cell (with flagella)\nThe kingdom Animalia or '''metazoa''', contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted a sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans. They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development. Metazoans do not include the sponges, which have undifferentiated cells.\n\nUnlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cell, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic. All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.\n\nAnimal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue.\nHyaline cartilage at high magnification (H&E stain)\n\n===Connective tissue===\nConnective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed.\n\n===Epithelium===\nGastric mucosa at low magnification (H&E stain)\nEpithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules, with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal lamina, the upper layer of the basement membrane, the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin. The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins. In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells.\n\n===Muscle tissue===\nCross section through skeletal muscle and a small nerve at high magnification (H&E stain)\nMuscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body.\n\n===Nervous tissue===\nNervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.\n", "\nMouse skull\nAll vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics; a stiffening rod, the notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube; pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm, connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution.\n\n=== Fish anatomy ===\n\nCutaway diagram showing various organs of a fish\nThe body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.\n\nSharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases.\n\nThe bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column.\n\n=== Amphibian anatomy ===\n\nSkeleton of Surinam horned frog (''Ceratophrys cornuta'')\nPlastic model of a frog\nAmphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs, salamanders and caecilians. They are tetrapods, but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes. Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to the vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle. They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea. Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping, a pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist.\n\nIn frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side.\n\n=== Reptile anatomy ===\n\nSkeleton of a diamondback rattlesnake\n'''Reptiles''' are a class of animals comprising turtles, tuataras, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. They are tetrapods, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with a copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid.\n\n'''Turtles''' are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers.\n\n'''Tuataras''' superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living species, ''Sphenodon punctatus''. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead.\n\n'''Lizards''' have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but a few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye.\n\n'''Snakes''' are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain a vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs. The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent \"spectacle\" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey.\n\n'''Crocodilians''' are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.\n\n=== Bird anatomy ===\n\nPart of a wing. Albrecht Dürer, c. 1500–1512\nBirds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks.\n\nThe feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes.\n\n=== Mammal anatomy ===\n\nMammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below the trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel. The teeth are shed once (milk teeth) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans. Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear. They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat. Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands, producing milk to feed the young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea.\n\nMammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, giving birth to live young. The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a nipple and completes its development.\n\n====Human anatomy====\n\nMRI scan\nIn the human, the development of skilled hand movements and increased brain size is likely to have evolved simultaneously.\nHumans have the overall body plan of a mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet.\n\nGenerally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials, and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope.\n\n\nHuman anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology.\n\n\nAcademic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells.\n", "Head of a male ''Daphnia'', a planktonic crustacean\nInvertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as ''Paramecium'' to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus, lobster and dragonfly. They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into the equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia, food may be gathered by phagocytosis, energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton. Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies.\n\nMetazoans are multicellular organism, different groups of cells of which have separate functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods. Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria. Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (polyps, sea anemones, jellyfish) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles.\n\nMarcello Malpighi, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring.\n\n=== Arthropod anatomy ===\n\nArthropods comprise the largest phylum in the animal kingdom with over a million known invertebrate species.\n\nInsects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes (ocelli) and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts.\n\nSpiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ.\n", "* Superficial or surface anatomy is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body. It enables physicians or veterinary surgeons to gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial is a directional term that indicates that structures are located relatively close to the surface of the body.\n* Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals.\n* Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons.\n", "\n\n=== Ancient ===\nImage of early rendition of anatomy findings\n\nIn 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a \"treatise on the heart\", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body.\n\nAncient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which have contributed towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and the nervous system.\n\nThe Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek states.\n\nSome of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus’s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the \"seat of intellect\" and not a \"cooling chamber\" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.\n13th century anatomical illustration\nGreat feats were made during the third century in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland.\n\nThe anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the ''Hippocratic Corpus'', an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.\n\nIn the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time in the 15th century.\n\n=== Medieval to early modern ===\nMondino de Luzzi, ''Anathomia'', 1541\nAnatomical study of the arm, by Leonardo da Vinci, (about 1510)\nAnatomical chart in Vesalius's ''Epitome'', 1543\n\nMichiel Jansz van Mierevelt – ''Anatomy lesson of Dr. Willem van der Meer'', 1617\n\nAnatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, \"Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500 is startlingly rapid\". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's ''Anatomy'' of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, then the thorax, then the head and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century.\n\nLeonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio. He made use of his anatomical knowledge in his artwork, making many sketches of skeletal structures, muscles and organs of humans and other vertebrates that he dissected.\n\nAndreas Vesalius (1514–1564) (Latinized from Andries van Wezel), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Originally from Brabant, Vesalius published the influential book ''De humani corporis fabrica'' (\"the structure of the human body\"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543. The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian.\n\nIn England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were given by the Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians.\n\n=== Late modern ===\n\nIn the United States, medical schools began to be set up towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins. A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers. Some graveyards were in consequence protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832, while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of \"complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery\".\n\nThe teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of \"pre-clinical\" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching. Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically.\nAn electron microscope from 1973\nBefore the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and inspection, palpation and auscultation of the living. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens. The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy.\n\nEqually important advances have occurred in ''non-invasive'' techniques for examining the interior structures of the body. X-rays can be passed through the body and used in medical radiography and fluoroscopy to differentiate interior structures that have varying degrees of opaqueness. Magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and ultrasound imaging have all enabled examination of internal structures, living or dead, in unprecedented detail to a degree far beyond the imagination of earlier generations.\n", "* Outline of human anatomy\n", "\n", "\n\n* \"Anatomy of the Human Body\". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray\n", "\n* \n* Anatomy, ''In Our Time''. BBC Radio 4. Melvyn Bragg with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and Harold Ellis.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Definition ", " Animal tissues ", " Vertebrate anatomy ", " Invertebrate anatomy ", " Other branches of anatomy ", " History ", " See also ", " Notes ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]

[ "\n'''Affirming the consequent''', sometimes called '''converse error''', '''fallacy of the converse''' or '''confusion of necessity and sufficiency''', is a formal fallacy of inferring the converse from the original statement. The corresponding argument has the general form:\n\n:\n\nAn argument of this form is invalid, i.e., the conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since ''P'' was never asserted as the ''only'' sufficient condition for ''Q'', other factors could account for ''Q'' (while ''P'' was false).\n\nTo put it differently, if ''P'' implies ''Q'', the '''only''' inference that can be made is ''non-Q'' implies ''non-P''. (''Non-P'' and ''non-Q'' designate the opposite propositions to ''P'' and ''Q''.) This is known as logical contraposition. Symbolically:\n\n\n\nThe name ''affirming the consequent'' derives from the premise ''Q'', which affirms the \"then\" clause of the conditional premise.\n", "'''Example 1'''\n\nOne way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example:\n\n:If someone owns Fort Knox, then he is rich.\n:Bill Gates is rich.\n:Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox.\n\nOwning Fort Knox is not the ''only'' way to be rich. Any number of other ways exist to be rich.\n\nHowever, one can affirm with certainty that \"if someone is not rich\" (''non-Q''), then \"this person does not own Fort Knox\" (''non-P''). This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true.\n\n'''Example 2'''\n\nArguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example:\n\n:If I have the flu, then I have a sore throat.\n:I have a sore throat.\n:Therefore, I have the flu.\n\nBut having the flu is not the ''only'' cause of a sore throat since many illnesses cause sore throat, such as the common cold or strep throat.\n\nAffirming the consequent is commonly used in rationalization, and thus appears as a coping mechanism in some people.\n\n'''Example 3'''\n\nIn ''Catch-22'', the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being 'Washinton Irving'/'Irving Washington', who has been blocking out large portions of soldier's letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed.\n\n:'You can read, though, can't you?' the colonel persevered sarcastically. 'The author signed his name.'\n:'That's my name there.'\n:'Then you wrote it. Q.E.D.'\n\n''P'' in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and ''Q'' 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes ''(and in fact he did not, as in the novel, Yossarian signed the name'''')''.\n", "* Confusion of the inverse\n* Denying the antecedent\n* ELIZA effect\n* Fallacy of the single cause\n* Fallacy of the undistributed middle\n* Inference to the best explanation\n* ''Modus ponens''\n* ''Modus tollens''\n* ''Post hoc ergo propter hoc''\n* Necessity and sufficiency\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Examples", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\nAn '''animal''' is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.\n\n'''Animal''' or '''Animals''' or '''The Animal''' may also refer to:\n\n", "* The Animal (nickname), a set index of people nicknamed \"The Animal\" or \"Animal\"\n\n===Professional wrestlers===\n* Road Warrior Animal, commonly shortened to \"Animal\" (born 1960), the best-known ring persona of Joe Laurinaitis\n* Animal Hamaguchi (born 1947), ring name of Japanese retired wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi\n* George Steele (1937–2017), American retired professional wrestler, author and actor known as \"The Animal\"\n", "* ''Animal'' (book), full title ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife'', a 2003 non-fiction book by David Burnie and several co-authors\n* ''Animal'', 2012 novel by K'wan Foye\n* ''Animal'' (journal), full title: ''Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience'', British academic journal\n", "* ''Animal'' (1977 film), French film (''L'Animal'') starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch\n* ''Animal'' (2001 film), Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé\n* ''The Animal'', 2001 US comedy film featuring Rob Schneider\n* ''Animals'' (film), a stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais, filmed in 2003\n* ''Animals'', a 2014 film written by and starring David Dastmalchian\n* ''Animal'' (2005 film), US direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard\n* ''The Animals'' (film), 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos\n* ''Animal'' (2014 film), 2014 US horror film starring Keke Palmer\n\n===Television===\n* ''Animals.'', a 2016 American animated television series\n* ''Animals'' (South Korean TV series), a South Korean TV series\n* \"Animals\" (''The Goodies''), television series episode\n* \"Animals\", an episode of ''Men Behaving Badly''\n* \"Animals\", an episode of ''Off the Air''\n* \"Animals\", an episode of ''The Vicar of Dibley''\n* ''Animal'' (audio play), an audio drama based on the television series ''Doctor Who''\n\n===Fictional characters===\n* Animal (Muppet), a character from the television series ''The Muppet Show''\n* Animal, a character in the television series ''Takeshi's Castle''\n* Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom ''Herman's Head''\n", "===Bands===\n* The Animals, a British rock band\n* A.N.I.M.A.L., an Argentinian heavy metal band\n\n===Albums===\n* ''The Animals'' (American album) (1964), by the Animals\n* ''The Animals'' (British album) (1964), by the Animals\n* ''Animals'' (Pink Floyd album) (1977)\n* ''Animal'' (1988), by the Bar-Kays\n* ''Animal'' (Motor Ace album) (2005)\n* ''Animal'' (Animosity album) (2007)\n* ''Animal!'' (2008), by Margot & the Nuclear So and So's\n* ''Animals'' (This Town Needs Guns album) (2008)\n* ''Animal'' (2008), by Far East Movement\n* ''Animal'' (2009), by the London-based electronic band autoKratz\n* ''Animal'' (Kesha album) (2010)\n* ''Animal'' (2013), by Berlin\n* Animals (EP) (2013), by Ryan Starx\n\n===Songs===\n* \"Animal\" (Conor Maynard song)\n* \"Animal\" (Def Leppard song)\n* \"Animal\" (Jebediah song)\n* \"Animal\" (Juvenile song)\n* \"Animal\" (Kesha song)\n* \"Animal\" (Miike Snow song)\n* \"Animal\" (Neon Trees song)\n* \"Animal\" (Pearl Jam song)\n* \"Animal\" (R.E.M. song)\n* \"Animals\" (Kevin Ayers song)\n* \"Animals\" (Maroon 5 song)\n* \"Animals\" (Martin Garrix song)\n* \"Animals\" (Muse song)\n* \"Animals\" (Nickelback song)\n* \"The Animal\" (Disturbed song)\n* \"Animal\" (Fuck Like a Beast)\", by W.A.S.P.\n* \"Animal\", by Against Me! from ''New Wave''\n* \"Animal\", by Ani DiFranco from ''Educated Guess''\n* \"Animal\", by Black Light Burns from ''Cruel Melody''\n* \"Animal\", by Ellie Goulding from ''Lights''\n* \"Animal\", by Karen O and the Kids from ''Where the Wild Things Are''\n* \"Animal\", by Kat DeLuna from ''9 Lives''\n* \"Animal\", by Mindless Self Indulgence from ''If''\n* \"Animal\", by Mudmen from ''Overrated''\n* \"Animal\" by Subhumans from ''Demolition War''\n* \"Animal\", by Sunhouse from ''Crazy On The Weekend''\n* \"Animal\", by the Kinks from ''To the Bone''\n* \"Animal\", by Toto from Past to Present 1977–1990\n* \"Animals\", by CocoRosie from ''The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn''\n* \"Animals\", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for \"Clocks\"\n* \"Animals\", by Dead Poetic from ''Vices''\n* \"Animals\", by Talking Heads from ''Fear of Music''\n* \"Animals\", by the End from ''Elementary''\n* \"The Animal\", by Steve Vai from ''Passion and Warfare''\n", "* ANIMAL (computer worm), an early self-replicating computer program\n* ANIMAL (image processing), an interactive software environment for image processing\n* Animal (clothing), a sportswear retailer and brand based in the United Kingdom\n* Animal (restaurant), a restaurant based in Los Angeles, California, United States\n", "* ''Animals, Animals, Animals'', an American educational television series (1976–1981)\n* Animalia (disambiguation)\n* Animalism (disambiguation)\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "People", "Books and Publications", "Film and television", "Music", "Other", "See also" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''aardvark''' ( ; ''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. Unlike other insectivores, it has a long pig-like snout, which is used to sniff out food. It roams over most of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. A nocturnal feeder, it subsists on ants and termites, which it will dig out of their hills using its sharp claws and powerful legs. It also digs to create burrows in which to live and rear its young. It receives a \"least concern\" rating from the IUCN, although its numbers seem to be decreasing.\n", "\n=== Naming ===\nThe aardvark is sometimes colloquially called \"African ant bear\", \"anteater\" (not to be confused with the South American anteater), or the \"Cape anteater\" after the Cape of Good Hope. The name \"aardvark\" () comes from earlier Afrikaans (erdvark) and means \"earth pig\" or \"ground pig\" (''aarde'': earth/ground, ''vark'': pig), because of its burrowing habits (similar origin to the name groundhog). The name ''Orycteropus'' means burrowing foot, and the name ''afer'' refers to Africa. The name of the aardvarks's order, ''Tubulidentata,'' comes from the tubule-style teeth.\n\n=== Taxonomy ===\nThe aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus ''Orycteropus'', the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs and golden moles. Along with the sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra, and given the clade's status as a wastebasket taxon it may mean some species traditionally classified as \"condylarths\" are actually stem-aardvarks.\n\n=== Evolutionary history ===\nBased on fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.\n\nThe first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably ''Myorycteropus africanus'' from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the ''Orycteropus'' genus was the ''Orycteropus mauritanicus'' found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally aged version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East.\n\nThe mysterious Pleistocene ''Plesiorycteropus'' from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that ''Plesiorycteropus'' is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.\n\n===Subspecies===\nThe aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed:\n\n* ''Orycteropus afer afer''\n* ''O. a. adametzi'' Grote, 1921\n* ''O. a. aethiopicus'' Sundevall, 1843\n* ''O. a. angolensis'' Zukowsky & Haltenorth, 1957\n* ''O. a. erikssoni'' Lönnberg, 1906\n* ''O. a. faradjius'' Hatt, 1932\n* ''O. a. haussanus'' Matschie, 1900\n* ''O. a. kordofanicus'' Rothschild, 1927\n* ''O. a. lademanni'' Grote, 1911\n* ''O. a. leptodon'' Hirst, 1906\n* ''O. a. matschiei'' Grote, 1921\n* ''O. a. observandus'' Grote, 1921\n* ''O. a. ruvanensis'' Grote, 1921\n* ''O. a. senegalensis'' Lesson, 1840\n* ''O. a. somalicus'' Lydekker, 1908\n* ''O. a. wardi'' Lydekker, 1908\n* ''O. a. wertheri'' Matschie, 1898\n\nThe 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions ''O. a. capensis'' or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.\n", "An aardvark skeleton and mounted individual\nThe aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at time to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles.\n\nAn aardvark's weight is typically between . An aardvark's length is usually between , and can reach lengths of when its tail (which can be up to ) is taken into account. It is tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3-4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.\n\n===Head===\nThe greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten nasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal.\n\nThe sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods.\n\n===Digestive system===\nThe aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of teats in the inguinal region.\n\nGenetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa.\n", "Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark underground burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions. These exceptions include the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar.\n", "Aardvark resting\nEntrance to a burrow\nEmerging from a burrow\nAardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, hunting dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can, when pressed, dig extremely quickly. Their thick skin also protects them to some extent.\n\n===Feeding===\nThe aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (formivore); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing . While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.\n\nDuring a foraging period, they will stop and dig a \"V\" shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to ) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone don't provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from Odontotermes, Microtermes, and Pseudacanthotermes genera.\n\nOn a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of the night time (20:00-00:00); however, they don't seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as in a night.\n\n===Vocalization===\nThe aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.\n\n===Movement===\nThe aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly.\n\nWhen leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.\n\nAside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live; of which they generally fall into three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main burrow is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as . These burrows can be large enough for a man to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog, ant-eating chat, ''Nycteris thebaica'' and warthogs. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, which also serves as protection from its predators.\n\n===Reproduction===\nAardvark mother and young\nAardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a gestation period of seven months, one cub weighing around is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks, is eating termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season, and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.\n", "Aardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly due to the fact that they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It receives an official designation from the IUCN as least concern. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically.\n\nAardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was London Zoo in 1869, which had an animal from South Africa.\n", "F-14 Tomcat from VF-114 Aardvarks with the squadron mascot painted on the tail\n\nIn African folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures.\n\nThe Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship.\n\nThe titular character of ''Arthur'', an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by WGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark.\n\nOtis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming.\n\nAn aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon ''The Ant and the Aardvark'' as well as in the Canadian animated series ''The Raccoons''.\n\nIn the military, the Air Force supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip ''B.C.'', which the F-4 was said to resemble.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group - Aardvark website\n* Antbear/Aardvark at wackywildlifewonders.com\n* Information at Animal Diversity Web: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology\n* \"The Biology of the Aardvark\" (''Orycteropus afer'') diploma thesis (without pictures)\n* \"The Biology of the Aardvark\" (''Orycteropus afer'') same diploma thesis (including the pictures)\n* Some good photos of baby aardvarks\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Naming and taxonomy", "Description", "Habitat and range", "Ecology and behavior", "Conservation", "Mythology and popular culture", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristata'') is a small, insectivorous mammal, native to East and Southern Africa. Its name means \"earth wolf\" in Afrikaans and Dutch. It is also called \"maanhaar jackal\" (Afrikaans for \"mane jackal\") or ''civet hyena'', based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland, a characteristic shared with the civet. The aardwolf is in the same family as the hyena. Unlike many of its relatives in the order Carnivora, the aardwolf does not hunt large animals. It eats insects, mainly termites – one aardwolf can eat about 250,000 termites during a single night, using its long, sticky tongue to capture them. The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of eastern and southern Africa – open lands covered with stunted trees and shrubs. It is nocturnal, resting in burrows during the day and emerging at night to seek food. Its diet consists mainly of termites and insect larvae.\n", "The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the mammalian subfamily Protelinae. There is disagreement as to whether the species is monotypic. or can be divided into subspecies ''P. c. cristatus'' of Southern Africa and ''P. c. septentrionalis'' of East Africa. Recent studies have shown that the aardwolf probably broke away from the rest of the hyena family early on; however, how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years.\n\nThe aardwolf is generally classified with the Hyaenidae, though it was formerly placed into the family Protelidae. Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena, which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae.\n", "The generic name ''proteles'' comes from two words both of Greek origin, ''protos'' and ''teleos'' which combined means \"complete in front\" based on the fact that they have five toes on their front feet and four on the rear. The specific name, ''cristatus'', comes from Latin and means \"provided with a comb\", relating to their mane.\n", "Detail of head – taken at the Cincinnati Zoo\nThe aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena, but with a more slender muzzle, black vertical stripes on a coat of yellowish fur, and a long, distinct mane down the midline of the neck and back. It also has one or two diagonal stripes down the fore- and hind-quarters, along with several stripes on its legs. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. Its lower leg (from the knee down) is all black, and its tail is bushy with a black tip. The aardwolf is about long, excluding its bushy tail, which is about long, and stands about tall at the shoulders. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about ), whereas the eastern version weighs more (around ). The front feet have five toes each, unlike the four-toed hyena. The teeth and skull are similar to those of other hyenas, though smaller, and its cheek teeth are specialised for eating insects. It does still have canines, but, unlike other hyenas, these teeth are used primarily for fighting and defense. Its ears, which are large, are very similar to those of the striped hyena.\n\nAs an aardwolf ages, it will normally lose some of its teeth, though this has little impact on its feeding habits due to the softness of the insects that it eats.\nAardwolf skull\n", "Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and bushland, avoiding mountainous areas. Due to their specific food requirements, they are only found in regions where termites of the family Hodotermitidae occur. Termites of this family depend on dead and withered grass and are most populous in heavily grazed grasslands and savannahs, including farmland. For most of the year, aardwolves spend time in shared territories consisting of up to a dozen dens, which are occupied for six weeks at a time.\n\nThere are two distinct populations: one in Southern Africa, and another in East and Northeast Africa. The species does not occur in the intermediary miombo forests.\n\nAn adult pair, along with their most recent offspring, occupies a territory of .\n", "San Antonio Zoo\nAardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in underground burrows by day. They will, on occasion during the winter, become diurnal feeders. This happens during the coldest periods as they then stay in at night to conserve heat.\n\nThey have often been mistaken for solitary animals. In fact, they live as monogamous pairs with their young. If their territory is infringed upon, they will chase the intruder up to or to the border. If the intruder is caught, which rarely happens, a fight will occur, which is accompanied by soft clucking, hoarse barking, and a type of roar. The majority of incursions occur during mating season, when they can occur once or twice per week. When food is scarce, the stringent territorial system may be abandoned and as many as three pairs may occupy a \"single territory\".\n\nThe territory is marked by both sexes, as they both have developed anal glands from which they extrude a black substance that is smeared on rocks or grass stalks in -long streaks. Aardwolves also have scent glands on the forefoot and penile pad. They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, and upwards of 200 per night.\n\nAn aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens, and numerous middens, within their territory. When they deposit feces at their middens, they dig a small hole and then cover it with sand. Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark, springhare, or porcupine dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. They typically will only use one or two dens at a time, rotating through all of their dens every six months. During the summer, they may rest outside their den during the night, and sleep underground during the heat of the day.\n\nAardwolves are not fast runners nor are they particularly adept at fighting off predators. Therefore, when threatened, the aardwolf may attempt to mislead its foe by doubling back on its tracks. If confronted, it may raise its mane in an attempt to appear more menacing. It also emits a foul-smelling liquid from its anal glands.\n\n===Feeding===\nThe aardwolf feeds primarily on termites and more specifically on ''Trinervitermes''. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat ''T. bettonianus'', and in central Africa, they eat ''T. rhodesiensis'', and finally in southern Africa, they eat ''T. trinervoides''. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark, which digs into the mound. They locate their food by sound and also from the scent secreted by the soldier termites. An aardwolf may consume up to 250,000 termites per night using its sticky, long tongue. They do not destroy the termite mound or consume the entire colony, thus ensuring that the termites can rebuild and provide a continuous supply of food. They often memorize the location of such nests and return to them every few months. During certain seasonal events, such as the onset of the rainy season and the cold of midwinter, the primary termites become scarce, so the need for other foods becomes pronounced. During these times, the southern aardwolf will seek out ''Hodotermes mossambicus'', a type of harvester termite active in the afternoon, which explains some of their diurnal behavior in the winter. The eastern aardwolf, during the rainy season, subsists on termites from the genera ''Odontotermes'' and ''Macrotermes''. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, eggs, and, some sources say, occasionally small mammals and birds, but these constitute a very small percentage of their total diet. Unlike other hyenas, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Contrary to popular myths, aardwolves do not eat carrion, and if they are seen eating while hunched over a dead carcass, they are actually eating larvae and beetles. Also, contrary to some sources, they do not like meat, unless it is finely ground or cooked for them. The adult aardwolf was formerly assumed to forage in small groups, but more recent research has shown that they are primarily solitary foragers, necessary because of the scarcity of their insect prey. Their primary source, ''Trinervitermes'', forages in small but dense patches of . While foraging, the aardwolf can cover about per hour, which translates to per summer night and per winter night.\n\n===Breeding===\nThe breeding season varies depending on location, but normally takes place during autumn or spring. In South Africa, breeding occurs in early July. During the breeding season, unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory, as well as others, for a female to mate with. Dominant males also mate opportunistically with the females of less dominant neighboring aardwolves, which can result in conflict between rival males. Dominant males even go a step further and as the breeding season approaches, they make increasingly greater and greater incursions onto weaker males' territories. As the female comes into oestrus, they add pasting to their tricks inside of the other territories, sometimes doing so more in rivals' territories than their own. Females will also, when given the opportunity, mate with the dominant male, which increases the chances of the dominant male guarding \"his\" cubs with her. Copulation lasts between 1 and 4.5 hours. Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days, producing two to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season (November–December), when termites are more active. They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless, and weigh around . The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents. The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food. After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season. By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on. Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age.\n", "The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and they are relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if the food is good. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern. In some areas, they are persecuted by man because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental. In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides are also common killers of the aardwolf.\n", "Aardwolfs are common sights at zoos. Frankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months.\n\n\nIllustration of ''Proteles cristatus''\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n", "\n\n* Animal Diversity Web\n* IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Taxonomy", "Etymology", "Physical characteristics", "Distribution and habitat", "Behavior", "Conservation", "Interaction with humans", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n \n\n\nAdobe wall (detail) in Bahillo, Palencia, Spain.\nRenewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico\nShiraz, Iran. Its urban gardens are separated by adobe walls.\n\n'''Adobe''' (, ; ) is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe means mudbrick in Spanish, but in some English speaking regions of Spanish heritage it refers to any kind of earth construction, as most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world.\n", "Adobe bricks are most often made into units weighing less than 100 pounds and small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking and be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud, to bond the individual bricks into a structure. Modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel.\n", "In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not somehow reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake.\n", "Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, southwestern North America, Spain, and Eastern Europe.) Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica, and the Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics.\n\nA distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes'', which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines'', some of which may be one to two yards (1–2 m) long.\n", "Church at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile\nThe word ''adobe'' has existed for around 4000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian (c. 2000 BC) word ''ɟbt'' \"mudbrick.\" Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or \"pre-Coptic\", and finally to Coptic (c. 600 BC), where it appeared as τωωβε . This was borrowed into Arabic as ''aṭ-ṭawbu'' or ''aṭ-ṭūbu'', with the definite article ''al-'' attached, ''tuba'', which was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as ''adobe'' , probably via Mozarabic. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century.\n\nAdobe style in Santa Fe, New Mexico\nIn more modern English usage, the term \"adobe\" has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico.\n", "An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight.\n\nNo more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction is in use, are an adequate composition.\n", "The Great Mosque of Djenné, Mali is built in adobe. The struts projecting from the wall serve as decoration, as well as supports for scaffolding during maintenance\nAdobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of 300 lbf/in2 (2.07 newton/mm2) for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least 50 lbf/in2 (0.345 newton/mm2) for the finished block.\n\nIn addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the living space temperature. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun (radiation) and from the surrounding air (convection) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will then continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material.\n\nThermodynamic material properties are sparsely quoted. The thermal resistance of adobe is quoted as having an R-value of R0 = 0.41 h ft2 °F/(Btu in) and a conductivity of 0.57 W/(m K) quoted from another source. A third source provides the following properties: conductivity=0.30 Btu/(h ft °F); heat capacity=0.24 Btu/(lb °F); density=106 lb/ft3 (1700 kg/m3). To determine the total R-value of a wall for example, multiply R0 by the thickness of the wall. From knowledge of the adobe density, heat capacity and a diffusivity value, the conductivity is found to be k = 0.20 Btu/(h ft °F) or 0.35 W/(m K). The heat capacity is commonly quoted as cp = 0.20 Btu/(lb F) or 840 joules/(kg K). The density is 95 lb/ft3 or 1520 kg/m3. The thermal diffusivity is calculated to be 0.0105 ft2/h or 2.72x10−7 m2/s.\n", "===Poured and puddled adobe walls===\nCliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at Cuarenta Casas in Mexico.\nPoured and puddled adobe (puddled clay, piled earth) today called ''cob'', is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than making by individual dried bricks or using a form. Puddle is a general term for a clay or clay and sand based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms and then later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish.\n\n===Adobe bricks===\nAdobe bricks near a construction site in Milyanfan, Kyrgyzstan\nBricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is then is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking.\n\nThe same mixture, without straw, is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage.\n\nDepending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar or wooden posts. Experience has shown straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can all produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than 1/3 clay, not less than 1/2 sand, and never more than 1/3 silt.\n\n===Adobe wall construction===\nThe earthen plaster removed exposing the adobe bricks at Fort St. Sebastian in France\nThe ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly 24 and 14 inches thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters.\n\n===Adobe roof===\nThe traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe.\n\nDepending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking.\n\nThe more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called vigas, lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied.\n\nTo construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick’s edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. \n\nDepending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls\n", "The largest structure ever made from adobe is the Arg-é Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks and the ''ciudellas'' of Chan Chan and Tambo Colorado, both in Peru.\n\n\n\nImage:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, Romania's Danube Delta\nImage:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG|Mixing mud and straw in brick frames\nImage:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG|Community effort\nImage:Milyanfan-adobe-brick-house-8039.jpg|Adobe brick house under construction in Kyrgyzstan\nImage: Sa'dah 02.jpg|House in Sa'dah, Yemen\nImage:AdobeHouseVrancea.JPG|Adobe brick house under construction in Romania\nImage:5640-Linxia-City-Dongguan-back-street.jpg|An adobe wall in Linxia City, Gansu, China\nImage:Poeh museum, night.jpg|Poeh Museum tower, the tallest adobe structure in New Mexico, USA\nImage:16 21 2688 san miguel.jpg|San Miguel Mission in Santa Fe, New Mexico\nImage:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg|Great Mosque of Djenné, famous building made from banco, a type of adobe\nImage:Adobe house in middle america.jpg|Adobe house in Middle America\n\n", "* Alker\n* Cob (building)\n* Compressed earth block\n* Earth structure\n* Hassan Fathy\n* Mudbrick\n* Qadad (waterproofing plaster)\n* Qalat (fortress)\n* Rammed earth\n* San Xavier del Bac\n* Sod house\n* Super Adobe\n* Wattle and daub\n* Cas di torto\n* Monterey Colonial architecture used adobe walls\n* Ctesiphon Arch in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world built beginning in 540 AD\n", "\n", "\n\n* ''Building With Awareness'' A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls\n* Cal-Earth (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture) has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood.\n* Earth Architecture – A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture.\n* Earth Architecture and Conservation in East Anglia – British organisation that focuses on the proper maintenance and conservation of earth buildings in a region of the UK that has a long history of building with mud.\n* Kerpic.org – A website on earthen architecture researches stabilized with gypsum.\n* Kleiwerks – International organization recognized for their unique contribution to modern earthen and natural building techniques throughout the world, their focus is on education through hands on experience. Very experienced experts are contactable and there are regular demonstrations in the area.\n* Valle de Sensaciones – Artistic construction with adobe, Experimental ground and theme park for creative living close to nature\n* World Monuments Fund – Adobe Missions of New Mexico – Description of a project of the World Monuments Fund for the preservation of adobe churches in New Mexico, in the United States.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Description", "Strength", "Distribution", "Etymology", "Composition", "Material properties", "Uses", "Adobe around the world", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nFridtjof Nansen reached a record latitude of 86°14′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893–96. \n\nAn '''adventure''' is an exciting or unusual experience. It may also be a bold, usually risky undertaking, with an uncertain outcome. Adventures may be activities with some potential for physical danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting or participating in extreme sports. The term also broadly refers to any enterprise that is potentially fraught with physical, financial or psychological risk, such as a business venture, or other major life undertakings.\n\nThe word '''adventuress''' can mean a female who enjoys or partakes in adventures, but (particularly in older literature) it can also have the negative connotation of one who schemes for material advancement by the use her sexuality; a gold digger As an instance of the latter the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' cites \"Our Adventuress had the pickings of a few Feathers from an old Gentleman who fell in Love with her\".\n", "Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal, which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. fear) or positive (e.g. flow). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer André Malraux, in his ''La Condition Humaine'' (1933), \"If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?\". Similarly, Helen Keller stated that \"Life is either a daring adventure or nothing.\"\n\nOutdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of recreation or excitement: examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneers – the British adventurer Jason Lewis, for example, uses adventures to draw global sustainability lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. Adventure education intentionally uses challenging experiences for learning.\n", "Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure such as Homer's ''The Odyssey''. \n\nThe knight errant was the form the \"adventure seeker\" character took in the late Middle Ages.\n\nThe adventure novel exhibits these \"protagonist on adventurous journey\" characteristics as do many popular feature films, such as ''Star Wars'' and ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''.\n\nLewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' is a well-known example of a fantasized adventure story.\n\n===Outdoors===\nAdventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the wilderness or Mother Nature. Examples include books such as Hatchet or My Side of the Mountain. These books are less about \"questing\", such as in mythology or other adventure novels, but more about surviving on their own, living off the land, gaining new experiences, and becoming closer to the natural world.\n===Questing===\nMany adventures are based on the idea of a quest: the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward, whether it be a skill, prize, or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way, the hero must overcome various obstacles. Mythologist Joseph Campbell discussed his notion of the monomyth in his book, ''The Hero with a Thousand Faces''. Campbell proposed that the heroic mythological stories from culture to culture followed a similar underlying pattern, starting with the \"call to adventure\", followed by a hazardous journey, and eventual triumph.\n===Video games===\nMany video games are adventure games.\n", "From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as Marco Polo's journal ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' or Mark Twain's ''Roughing It''. Others were personal journals, only later published, such as the journals of Lewis and Clark or Captain James Cook's journals. There are also books written by those not directly a part of the adventure in question, such as The Right Stuff by Tom Wolfe, or books written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other than that of a journal, such as Conquistadors of the Useless by Lionel Terray. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well.\n", "There are many sports classified as adventure sports, due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include mountain climbing, skydiving, or other extreme sports.\n", "*List of genres\n*Exploration\n*Tourism\n*Travel\n*Sports\n*Adventure travel\n", "\n\n", "\n* What is an adventure? A definition of \"adventure\", \"hero\" and \"epic\" with an illustration of the hero's journey.\n* Wikivoyage\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Motivation", "Adventure in mythology and fiction", "Adventure in nonfiction", "Adventure sports", "See also", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''Articles of Confederation''', formally the '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution. Its drafting by a committee appointed by the Second Continental Congress began on July 12, 1776, and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The federal government received only those powers which the colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.\n\nThe Articles formed a war-time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the American Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the ''Continental Congress'', since its organization remained the same.\n\nAs the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays' Rebellion, individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers.\n", "The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.\n\nIt was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.\n\nTo transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of ''Common Sense'' that the “custom of nations” demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a “manifesto” which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, “the custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations.”\n\nBeyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve “to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances” and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established “a firm league” among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.\n", "Articles of Confederation 200th Anniversary commemorative stamp.First issued in York, Pennsylvania., 1977\nOn June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures. The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate.\nIn practice, the Articles were in use beginning in 1777; the final draft of the Articles served as the de facto system of government used by the Congress (\"the United States in Congress assembled\") until it became de jure by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the Congress of the Confederation. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the United States government. It was made capable of making war and peace, negotiating diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and deciding disputes between the states, including their additional and contested western territories. Article XIII stipulated that \"their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state\" and \"the Union shall be perpetual\".\n\nJohn Dickinson's and Benjamin Franklin's handwritten drafts of the Articles of Confederation are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC.\n", "The Articles were created by delegates from the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a need to have \"a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States.\" After the war, nationalists, especially those who had been active in the Continental Army, complained that the Articles were too weak for an effective government. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived.\n\nIn 1788, with the approval of Congress, the Articles were replaced by the United States Constitution and the new government began operations in 1789.\n", "Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1777:\n\n\n\nThe document could not become officially effective until it was ratified by all 13 states. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; the thirteenth state to ratify was Maryland on February 2, 1781. A ceremonial confirmation of this thirteenth, final ratification took place in the Congress on March 1, 1781, at high noon. Twelve states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. Maryland, however, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland legislature became satisfied that they would follow through, and voted to ratify. The various states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:\n\n\n#!!State!!Date\n\n \n Virginia\n \n\n \n South Carolina\n \n\n \n New York\n \n\n \n Rhode Island\n \n\n \n Connecticut\n \n\n \n Georgia\n \n\n \n New Hampshire\n \n\n \n Pennsylvania\n \n\n \n Massachusetts\n \n\n \n North Carolina\n \n\n \n New Jersey\n \n\n \n Delaware\n \n\n \n Maryland\n \n\n", "The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The preamble declares that the states \"agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union.\"\nWhat follows here summarizes the purpose and content of each of the thirteen articles.\n# Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: \"The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'\"\n# Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: \"Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated.\"\n# Declares the purpose of the confederation: \"The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.\"\n# Elaborates upon the intent \"to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union,\" and to establish equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding \"paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice.\" All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.\n# Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the \"United States in Congress Assembled\") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years.\n# Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia.\n# Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below.\n# Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each.\n# Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled. \n#* Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.\n#* The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final.\n#* Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces.\n#* The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress.\n#* Congress may request requisitions from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit.\n#* Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assented. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months.\n# When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by \"The committee of the states, or any nine of them\", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states ''in'' Congress to execute.\n# If \"Canada\" (as the British-held Province of Quebec was also known) accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted. No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states.\n# Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the existence of the Articles.\n# Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures.\n\nWhile still at war with Britain, the revolution's leaders were divided between forming a national government with powers either strong and centralized (the \"federalists\"), or strictly limited (the \"anti federalists\"). The Continental Congress compromised by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. It empowered Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, but provided no mechanism to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, or even food.\n", "The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed. Many revolutionaries had gone to their respective home countries after the war, and local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory.\n", "\n===The Army===\nThe Articles supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:\n\n\n\nThe Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote:\n\n\n\nAs Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, \"As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution.\"\n\nOnce the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had Navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.\n\nThe Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.\n\n===Foreign policy===\nEven after peace had been achieved in 1783, the weakness of the Confederation government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1789, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote to James Monroe, \"It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod.”\n\nFurthermore, the Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain in 1789 also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty — which was never ratified due to its immense unpopularity — the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris (1783) was superseded by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 under the new U.S. Constitution.\n\n===Taxation and commerce===\nUnder the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.\n\nCongress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, \"that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions.\" Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were \"the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity.\" He argued that Americans should avoid having it said \"that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent\" or that \"her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith.\" The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.\n\nCongress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.\n\n===Accomplishments of the Confederation===\n\n\nNevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.\n\nThe Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers.\n\nThe Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in said territory would never be slave states.\n\nNo new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as \"Canada\" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.\n", "The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no national court. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.\n\nBy 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.\n\nThe Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression \"not worth a continental\". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.\n\nWhen John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.\n\nBy 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.\n\nThe idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.\n", "The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.\n\nThe Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.\n\nOn July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.\n\nAfter the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.\n\nThe other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims.\n\nThe Act of the Maryland legislature to ratify the Articles of Confederation on February 2, 1781\nOn February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, \"among engrossed Bills\" was \"signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation\" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned \"to the first Monday in August next.\" The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.\n\nCongress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.\n\n\n===Signers===\nThe signers and the states they represented were:\n\n\n'''Connecticut'''\n* Roger Sherman\n* Samuel Huntington\n* Oliver Wolcott\n* Titus Hosmer\n* Andrew Adams\n\n'''Delaware'''\n* Thomas McKean\n* John Dickinson\n* Nicholas Van Dyke\n\n'''Georgia'''\n* John Walton\n* Edward Telfair\n* Edward Langworthy\n\n'''Maryland'''\n* John Hanson\n* Daniel Carroll\n\n'''Massachusetts Bay'''\n* John Hancock\n* Samuel Adams\n* Elbridge Gerry\n* Francis Dana\n* James Lovell\n* Samuel Holten\n\n'''New Hampshire'''\n* Josiah Bartlett\n* John Wentworth Jr.\n\n\n'''New Jersey'''\n* John Witherspoon\n* Nathaniel Scudder\n\n'''New York'''\n* James Duane\n* Francis Lewis\n* William Duer\n* Gouverneur Morris\n\n'''North Carolina'''\n* John Penn\n* Cornelius Harnett\n* John Williams\n\n'''Pennsylvania'''\n* Robert Morris\n* Daniel Roberdeau\n* Jonathan Bayard Smith\n* William Clingan\n* Joseph Reed\n\n'''Rhode Island and Providence Plantations'''\n* William Ellery\n* Henry Marchant\n* John Collins\n\n'''South Carolina'''\n* Henry Laurens\n* William Henry Drayton\n* John Mathews\n* Richard Hutson\n* Thomas Heyward Jr.\n\n'''Virginia'''\n* Richard Henry Lee\n* John Banister\n* Thomas Adams\n* John Harvie\n* Francis Lightfoot Lee\n\n\nRoger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.\n\nRobert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.\n\nJohn Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).\n", "The following list is of those who led the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation as the Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the successor President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.\n\n\n\nPresident of Congress\nOffice Start\nOffice Exit\n\n Samuel Huntington \nMarch 1, 1781 \n July 9, 1781\n\n Thomas McKean \nJuly 10, 1781 \n November 4, 1781\n\n John Hanson \nNovember 5, 1781 \n November 3, 1782\n\n Elias Boudinot \nNovember 4, 1782 \n November 2, 1783\n\n Thomas Mifflin \nNovember 3, 1783 \n October 31, 1784\n\n Richard Henry Lee \nNovember 30, 1784 \n November 6, 1785\n\n John Hancock \nNovember 23, 1785 \n May 29, 1786\n\n Nathaniel Gorham \nJune 6, 1786 \n November 5, 1786\n\n Arthur St. Clair \nFebruary 2, 1787 \n November 4, 1787\n\n Cyrus Griffin \nJanuary 22, 1788 \n November 2, 1788\n\n\n''For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see President of the Continental Congress.''\n", "Images of an original draft of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive.\n\nImage:Articles of Confederation 1-5.jpg|Preamble through Article V, ¶1\nImage:Articles of Confederation 5-6.jpg|Article V, ¶2 through Article VI\nImage:Articles of Confederation 7-9.jpg|Article VII through Article IX, ¶2\nImage:Articles of Confederation 9-9.jpg|Article IX, ¶2 through ¶5\nImage:Articles of Confederation 9-13.jpg|Article IX, ¶5 through Article XIII, ¶2\nImage:Articles of Confederation 13.jpg|Article XIII, ¶2 through signatures\n\n", "On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a \"Grand Convention.\" Although the states' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from ''Federalist 39'', describes the change this way:\n\n\n\nIn May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.\n\nHistorian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:\n\n\n\nHistorians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.\n\nRakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures \"stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace.\" The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.\n\nWhen the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new \"merchant state,\" much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.\n\n===Legitimacy of closing down===\nPolitical scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that \"the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges.\"\n\nAccording to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: \nThe Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.\n\nOn the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:\nThe Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.\n\nThe apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in ''Federalist No. 40'') that the issue had become moot: \"As this objection...has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation.\" Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.\n\nModern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus \"other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule\". In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.\n\n===Final months===\nOn July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be \"unadvisable\" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so \"under the Articles of Confederation\" only, but not \"under the Constitution\".\n\nBy the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end.\n\nOn that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.\n", "* History of the United States (1776–1789)\n* Perpetual Union\n* Vetocracy\n* America's Critical Period\n* Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* Text version of the Articles of Confederation\n* Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union\n* Articles of Confederation and related resources, Library of Congress\n* Today in History: November 15, Library of Congress\n* United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation\n* Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio\n* //uscon.mobi/art/index.html Mobile friendly version of the Articles of Confederation\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Background and context", "Drafting", "Operation", "Ratification", "Article summaries", "End of the Revolutionary War", "Function", "The United States of America under the Articles", "Signatures", "Presidents of the Congress", "Gallery", "Revision and replacement", "See also", "Notes", "References and further reading", "External links" ]

[ "'''Asia Minor''' is an alternative name for Anatolia, the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. It may also refer to:\n* \"Asia Minor\" (instrumental), a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo)\n* ''Asia Minor'' (album), an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arthur Schopenhauer''' (; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), wherein he characterizes the phenomenal world as the product of a blind and insatiable metaphysical will. Proceeding from the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism, rejecting the contemporaneous post-Kantian philosophies of German idealism. Schopenhauer was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Eastern philosophy (e.g., asceticism, the world-as-appearance), having initially arrived at similar conclusions as the result of his own philosophical work.\n\nThough his work failed to garner substantial attention during his life, Schopenhauer has had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on aesthetics, morality, and psychology would exert important influence on thinkers and artists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Those who have cited his influence include Friedrich Nietzsche, Richard Wagner, Leo Tolstoy, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Otto Rank, Gustav Mahler, Joseph Campbell, Albert Einstein, Carl Jung, Thomas Mann, Emile Zola, George Bernard Shaw, Guy de Maupassant, Jorge Luis Borges and Samuel Beckett.\n", "Schopenhauer's birthplace house, ul. Św. Ducha (formerly Heiligegeistgasse)\nSchopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in the city of Danzig (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; present day Gdańsk, Poland) on Heiligegeistgasse (known in the present day as Św. Ducha 47), the son of Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener) and Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer, both descendants of wealthy German patrician families. When Danzig became part of Prussia in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg, although his firm continued trading in Danzig. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1805, Schopenhauer's father died, possibly by suicide. Arthur endured two long years of drudgery as a merchant in honor of his dead father, but his mother soon moved with his sister Adele to Weimar—then the centre of German literature—to pursue her writing career. He dedicated himself wholly to studies at the Gotha gymnasium () in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, but left in disgust after seeing one of the masters lampooned.\n\nSchopenhauer as a youth\nBy that time, Johanna Schopenhauer had already opened her famous salon, and Arthur was not compatible with what he considered its vain and ceremonious ways. He was also disgusted by the ease with which his mother had forgotten his father's memory. He left to become a student at the University of Göttingen in 1809. There he studied metaphysics and psychology under Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of ''Aenesidemus'', who advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Kant. In Berlin, from 1811 to 1812, he had attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte and the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher.\n\nSchopenhauer had a notably strained relationship with his mother Johanna. He wrote his first book, ''On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason'', while at university. His mother informed him that the book was incomprehensible and it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur Schopenhauer told her that his work would be read long after the \"rubbish\" she wrote would have been totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus later recalled that, when she brought them some of her son's work, his predecessors \"saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus's reputation.\" He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in Leipzig for the edification of his new editors.\n\nIn 1814, Schopenhauer began his seminal work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''). He finished it in 1818 and Brockhaus published it that December. In Dresden in 1819, Schopenhauer fathered, with a servant, an illegitimate daughter who was born and died the same year. In 1820, Schopenhauer became a lecturer at the University of Berlin. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whom Schopenhauer described as a \"clumsy charlatan\". However, only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of academia. A late essay, ''On University Philosophy'', expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies.\n\nWhile in Berlin, Schopenhauer was named as a defendant in a lawsuit initiated by a woman named Caroline Marquet. She asked for damages, alleging that Schopenhauer had pushed her. According to Schopenhauer's court testimony, she deliberately annoyed him by raising her voice while standing right outside his door. Marquet alleged that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. Her companion testified that she saw Marquet prostrate outside his apartment. Because Marquet won the lawsuit, Schopenhauer made payments to her for the next twenty years. When she died, he wrote on a copy of her death certificate, ''Obit anus, abit onus'' (\"The old woman dies, the burden is lifted\"). In 1819 the fortunes of his mother and sister, and himself, were threatened by the failure of the firm in Danzig in which his father had been a director and shareholder. His sister accepted a compromise compensation package of 70 per cent, but Schopenhauer angrily refused this, and eventually recovered 9400 thalers.\n\nIn 1821, he fell in love with nineteen-year-old opera singer, Caroline Richter (called Medon), and had a relationship with her for several years, but did not marry her. When he was forty-three years old, he took interest in seventeen-year-old Flora Weiss but she rejected him as recorded in her diary.\n\nGrave at Frankfurt ''Hauptfriedhof''\nIn 1831, a cholera epidemic broke out in Berlin and Schopenhauer left the city. Schopenhauer settled permanently in Frankfurt in 1833, where he remained for the next twenty-seven years, living alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published posthumously under the title ''Senilia''. Schopenhauer had a robust constitution, but in 1860 his health began to deteriorate. He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure, on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He was 72.\n", "\n=== Philosophy of the \"Will\" ===\n\nSchopenhauer in 1815, second of the critical five years of the initial composition of ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''. Portrait by Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl\nA key focus of Schopenhauer was his investigation of individual motivation. Before Schopenhauer, Hegel had popularized the concept of ''Zeitgeist'', the idea that society consisted of a collective consciousness that moved in a distinct direction, dictating the actions of its members. Schopenhauer, a reader of both Kant and Hegel, criticized their logical optimism and the belief that individual morality could be determined by society and reason. Schopenhauer believed that humans were motivated by only their own basic desires, or (\"Will to Live\"), which directed all of mankind. Will, for Schopenhauer, is what Kant called the \"thing-in-itself\".\n\nFor Schopenhauer, human desire was futile, illogical, directionless, and, by extension, so was all human action in the world. Einstein paraphrased his views as follows: \"Man can indeed do what he wants, but he cannot will what he wants.\" In this sense, he adhered to the Fichtean principle of idealism: \"The world is ''for'' a subject.\" This idealism so presented, immediately commits it to an ethical attitude, unlike the purely epistemological concerns of Descartes and Berkeley. To Schopenhauer, the Will is a blind force that controls not only the actions of individual, intelligent agents, but ultimately all observable phenomena—an evil to be terminated via mankind's duties: asceticism and chastity. He is credited with one of the most famous opening lines of philosophy: \"The world is my representation.\" Friedrich Nietzsche was greatly influenced by this idea of Will, although he eventually rejected it.\n\n=== Art and aesthetics ===\n\nFor Schopenhauer, human desiring, \"willing\", and craving cause suffering or pain. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation (a method comparable to Zapffe's \"''Sublimation''\"). Aesthetic contemplation allows one to escape this pain—albeit temporarily—because it stops one perceiving the world as mere presentation. Instead, one no longer perceives the world as an object of perception (therefore as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds; time, space and causality) from which one is separated; rather one becomes one with that perception: \"''one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception''\" (''The World as Will and Representation'', section 34). From this immersion with the world one no longer views oneself as an individual who suffers in the world due to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a \"''subject of cognition''\" to a perception that is \"''Pure, will-less, timeless''\" (section 34) where the essence, \"ideas\", of the world are shown. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation as it attempts to depict one's immersion with the world, thus tries to depict the essence/pure ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, was the purest form of art because it was the one that depicted the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Grounds, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, \"Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself\".\n\nHe deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody.\n\n=== Mathematics ===\nSchopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of the contemporary attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly before the discovery of hyperbolic geometry demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect concepts to prove what he held to be directly evident from perception.\n\n\n \nThroughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions.\n\n\n\nAlthough Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms.\n\n\nThis follows Kant's reasoning.\n\n=== Ethics ===\nSchopenhauer's moral theory proposed that only compassion can drive moral acts. According to Schopenhauer, compassion alone is the good of the object of the acts, that is, they cannot be inspired by either the prospect of personal utility or the feeling of duty. Mankind can also be guided by egoism and malice. Egotistic acts are those guided by self-interest, desire for pleasure or happiness. Schopenhauer believed most of our deeds belong to this class. Acts of malice are different from egotistic acts. As in the case of acts of compassion, these do not target personal utility. Their aim is to cause damage to others, independently of personal gains. He believed, like Swami Vivekananda in the unity of all with one-self and also believed that ego is the origin of pain and conflicts, that reduction of ego frames the moral principles.\n\n==== Punishment ====\n1855 painting of Schopenhauer by Jules Lunteschütz.\nAccording to Schopenhauer, whenever we make a choice, \"We assume as necessary that decision was preceded by something from which it ensued, and which we call the ground or reason, or more accurately the motive, of the resultant action.\" Choices are not made freely. Our actions are necessary and determined because \"every human being, even every animal, after the motive has appeared, must carry out the action which alone is in accordance with his inborn and immutable character\". A definite action inevitably results when a particular motive influences a person's given, unchangeable character.\nThe State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It does so by placing \"beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined...\"\n\n\n\nShould capital punishment be legal? \"For safeguarding the lives of citizens,\" he asserted, \"capital punishment is therefore absolutely necessary\". \"The murderer,\" wrote Schopenhauer, \"who is condemned to death according to the law must, it is true, be now used as a mere ''means'', and with complete right. For public security, which is the principal object of the State, is disturbed by him; indeed it is abolished if the law remains unfulfilled. The murderer, his life, his person, must be the ''means'' of fulfilling the law, and thus of re-establishing public security.\" Schopenhauer disagreed with those who would abolish capital punishment. \"Those who would like to abolish it should be given the answer: 'First remove murder from the world, and then capital punishment ought to follow.\n\nPeople, according to Schopenhauer, cannot be improved. They can only be influenced by strong motives that overpower criminal motives. Schopenhauer declared that \"real moral reform is not at all possible, but only determent from the deed...\".\n\nHe claimed this doctrine was not original to him. Previously, it appeared in the writings of Plato, Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach. Schopenhauer declared that their teaching was corrupted by subsequent errors and therefore was in need of clarification.\n\n==== God ====\nEven though Schopenhauer ended his treatise on the freedom of human will with the postulate of everyone's responsibility for their character and, consequently, acts—the responsibility following from one's being the Will as noumenon (from which also all the characters and creations come)—he considered his views incompatible with theism, on grounds of fatalism and, more generally, responsibility for evil. Schopenhauer's philosophy is incompatible with the dogmas of Christianity, and the \"Last Judgment\" is no longer preceded by anything—\"The world is itself the Last Judgment on it.\" Whereas God, if he existed, would be evil.\n\n=== Psychology ===\nPhilosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of sex, but Schopenhauer addressed it and related concepts forthrightly:\n\n:...one ought rather to be surprised that a thing sex which plays throughout so important a part in human life has hitherto practically been disregarded by philosophers altogether, and lies before us as raw and untreated material.\n\nHe named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the Will to Live or Will to Life (''Wille zum Leben''), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing.\n\nSchopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's psyche and dramatically shaped the world:\n\n:The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it. What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation ...\n\nThese ideas foreshadowed the discovery of evolution, Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general.\n\n=== Political and social thought ===\n\n==== Politics ====\nBust in Frankfurt am Main\nSchopenhauer's politics were, for the most part, an echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'', available in English as two separate books, ''On the Basis of Morality'' and ''On the Freedom of the Will''). Ethics also occupies about one quarter of his central work, ''The World as Will and Representation''.\n\nIn occasional political comments in his ''Parerga and Paralipomena'' and ''Manuscript Remains'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. What was essential, he thought, was that the state should \"leave each man free to work out his own salvation\", and so long as government was thus limited, he would \"prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of his fellow rats\"—i.e., by a monarch, rather than a democrat. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state, and of state action, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared monarchy as \"that which is natural to man\" for \"intelligence has always under a monarchical government a much better chance against its irreconcilable and ever-present foe, stupidity\" and disparaged republicanism as \"unnatural as it is unfavourable to the higher intellectual life and the arts and sciences\".\n\nSchopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes proudly of how little attention he had paid \"to political affairs of his day\". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of \"minding not the times but the eternities\". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is, \"For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect.\"\n\nSchopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern \"white races\" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus whom he saw as equal):\n\nThe highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.\n\nDespite this, he was adamantly against differing treatment of races, was fervently anti-slavery, and supported the abolitionist movement in the United States. He describes the treatment of \"our innocent black brothers whom force and injustice have delivered into the slave-master's devilish clutches\" as \"belonging to the blackest pages of mankind's criminal record\".\n\nSchopenhauer additionally maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. Schopenhauer argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual \"self-conquest\". This he saw as opposed to what he held to be the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly \"Jewish\" spirit:\n\nWhile all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.\n\n==== Views on women ====\nIn Schopenhauer's 1851 essay ''On Women'', he expressed his opposition to what he called \"Teutonico-Christian stupidity\" of reflexive unexamined reverence (\"abgeschmackten Weiberveneration\") for the female. Schopenhauer wrote that \"Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted.\" He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed opposition to monogamy. Indeed, Rodgers and Thompson in ''Philosophers Behaving Badly'' call Schopenhauer \"a misogynist without rival in....Western philosophy\". He claimed that \"woman is by nature meant to obey\". The essay does give some compliments, however: that \"women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than men are\", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others.\n\nSchopenhauer's controversial writings have influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists. Schopenhauer's biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists.\n\nAfter the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by Elisabet Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug, \"I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man.\"\n\n==== Heredity and eugenics ====\nSchopenhauer at age 58 on 16 May 1846\nNote for clarity in the following that \"genetics\" are but one component of \"heredity\". Though commonly used interchangeably, \"heritable traits\" would include socio-economic and other psycho-social potentialities.\n\nSchopenhauer believed that personality and intellect were inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, \"From the brave and good are the brave descended\" (''Odes'', iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from ''Cymbeline'', \"Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base\" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument.\nMechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his level of intellect through his mother, and personal character through one's father.\nThis belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love – placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the \"final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation.... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake.\" This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote:\n\nWith our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his ''Republic'', he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles.\n\nIn another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his antidemocratic-eugenic thesis: \"If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic.\" Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's advocacy of anti-egalitarianism and eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor.\n\n==== Animal welfare ====\nAs a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about the welfare of animals. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially the same, being phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. The word \"will\" designated, for him, force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the real essence of all external things and also our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, then humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers.\n\nCompassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to living creatures cannot be a good man.\nNothing leads more definitely to a recognition of the identity of the essential nature in animal and human phenomena than a study of zoology and anatomy.\n\nThe assumption that animals are without rights and the illusion that our treatment of them has no moral significance is a positively outrageous example of Western crudity and barbarity. Universal compassion is the only guarantee of morality.\n\nIn 1841, he praised the establishment, in London, of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and also the Animals' Friends Society in Philadelphia. Schopenhauer even went so far as to protest against the use of the pronoun \"it\" in reference to animals because it led to the treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter.\n\nHe was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. Schopenhauer criticized Spinoza's belief that animals are to be used as a mere means for the satisfaction of humans.\n\n==== Views on homosexuality ====\nIn the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the ''Metaphysics of Sexual Love''. He also wrote that homosexuality did have the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that \"the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils.\"\n\n==== Views on pederasty ====\nHe wrote that only those who were too old or too young to reproduce strong, healthy children would resort to pederasty (Schopenhauer considered pederasty in itself a vice). Shrewdly anticipating the interpretive distortion, on the part of the popular mind, of his attempted scientific ''explanation'' of pederasty as personal ''advocacy'' (when he had otherwise described the act, in terms of spiritual ethics, as an \"objectionable aberration\"), Schopenhauer sarcastically concludes the appendix with the statement that \"by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour, for they are very disconcerted by the ever-increasing publicization of my philosophy which they so carefully concealed. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty.\"\n\n=== Intellectual interests and affinities ===\n\n==== Indology ====\nSchopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts, The Upanishads, which French writer Anquetil du Perron had translated from the Persian translation of Prince Dara Shikoh entitled ''Sirre-Akbar'' (\"The Great Secret\"). He was so impressed by their philosophy that he called them \"the production of the highest human wisdom\", and believed they contained superhuman concepts. The Upanishads was a great source of inspiration to Schopenhauer. Writing about them, he said:\n\nIt is the most satisfying and elevating reading (with the exception of the original text) which is possible in the world; it has been the solace of my life and will be the solace of my death.\n\nIt is well known that the book ''Oupnekhat'' (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before sleeping at night. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature \"the greatest gift of our century\", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West.\n\nSchopenhauer was first introduced to the 1802 Latin Upanishad translation through Friedrich Majer. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Herder, and an early Indologist. Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of the Indic texts, however, until the summer of 1814. Sansfranski maintains that between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This was through his neighbor of two years, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with that of ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered Sanskrit, unlike Schopenhauer, and the two developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought.\n\nMost noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer’s work, was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose Mahavakya, Tat Tvam Asi is mentioned throughout ''The World as Will and Representation''.\n\n==== Buddhism ====\nSchopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four \"truths of the Buddha\" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, however, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral.\n\nFor Schopenhauer, Will had ontological primacy over the intellect; in other words, desire is understood to be prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of puruṣārtha or goals of life in Vedānta Hinduism.\n\nIn Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by either:\n* personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or\n* knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people.\n\nHowever, Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the ''person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the \"extinguishing\" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character. Occult historian Joscelyn Godwin (1945– ) stated, \"It was Buddhism that inspired the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, and, through him, attracted Richard Wagner. This Orientalism reflected the struggle of the German Romantics, in the words of Leon Poliakov, to \"free themselves from Judeo-Christian fetters\". In contradistinction to Godwin's claim that Buddhism inspired Schopenhauer, the philosopher himself made the following statement in his discussion of religions:\n\n\nIf I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as ''in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence'' emphasis added. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.\n\n\nBuddhist philosopher Nishitani Keiji, however, sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental:\n\n\nPhilosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.\n\n\nAlso note:\n\n\nThis actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.\n\n\nThe argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses more credence when viewed in light of the fact that Schopenhauer did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of ''The World as Will and Representation'' in 1818. Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence, however, appears in Schopenhauer's 1815/16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence. Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism.\n", "Schopenhauer said he was influenced by the Upanishads, Immanuel Kant and Plato. References to Eastern philosophy and religion appear frequently in his writing. As noted above, he appreciated the teachings of Gautama Buddha and even called himself a Buddhist. He said that his philosophy could not have been conceived before these teachings were available.\n\nConcerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in ''The World as Will and Representation'':\nIf the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.\n\nAmong Schopenhauer's other influences were: Shakespeare, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke, Thomas Reid, Baruch Spinoza, Matthias Claudius, George Berkeley, David Hume, and René Descartes.\n", "Schopenhauer at age 71 in March 1859\n\n=== Critique of the Kantian philosophy ===\n\n\nSchopenhauer accepted Kant's double-aspect of the universe—the phenomenal (world of experience) and the noumenal (the true world, independent of experience). Some commentators suggest that Schopenhauer claimed that the noumenon, or thing-in-itself, was the basis for Schopenhauer's concept of the will. Other commentators suggest that Schopenhauer considered will to be only a subset of the \"thing-in-itself\" class, namely that which we can most directly experience.\n\nSchopenhauer's identification of the Kantian ''noumenon'' (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what he termed \"will\" deserves some explanation. The noumenon was what Kant called the ''Ding an sich'' (the Thing in Itself), the reality that is the foundation of our sensory and mental representations of an external world. In Kantian terms, those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena. Schopenhauer departed from Kant in his description of the relationship between the phenomenon and the noumenon. According to Kant, things-in-themselves ground the phenomenal representations in our minds; Schopenhauer, on the other hand, believed that phenomena and noumena are two different sides of the same coin. Noumena do not ''cause'' phenomena, but rather phenomena are simply the way by which our minds perceive the noumena, according to the principle of sufficient reason. This is explained more fully in Schopenhauer's doctoral thesis, ''On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason'' (1813).\n\nSchopenhauer's second major departure from Kant's epistemology concerns the body. Kant's philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical philosophical skepticism of David Hume, who claimed that causality could not be observed empirically. Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant's demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in Itself of noumenon, contains a significant omission. There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception: our own body.\n\nWe know our human bodies have boundaries and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do. Though we seldom think of our body as a physical object, we know even before reflection that it shares some of an object's properties. We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck; we know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own body, we would obtain similar results—we know this even if we do not understand the physics involved.\n\nWe know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena. Yet our consciousness is not commensurate with our body. Most of us possess the power of voluntary motion. We usually are not aware of the breathing of our lungs or the beating of our heart unless somehow our attention is called to them. Our ability to control either is limited. Our kidneys command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose. Few of us have any idea what our liver is doing right now, though this organ is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys. The conscious mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs. These organs have an agenda the conscious mind did not choose, and over which it has limited power.\n\nWhen Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name \"will\", what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will. We cannot ''prove'' that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning; through will, we know—without thinking—that the world can stimulate us. We suffer fear, or desire: these states arise involuntarily; they arise prior to reflection; they arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay. The rational mind is, for Schopenhauer, a leaf borne along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious emotion. That stream is will, and through will, if not through logic, we can participate in the underlying reality beyond mere phenomena. It is for this reason that Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with what we call our will.\n\nIn his criticism of Kant, Schopenhauer claimed that sensation and understanding are separate and distinct abilities. Yet, for Kant, an object is known through each of them. Kant wrote: \"There are two stems of human knowledge ... namely, sensibility and understanding, objects being given by the former sensibility and thought by the latter understanding.\" Schopenhauer disagreed. He asserted that mere sense impressions, not objects, are given by sensibility. According to Schopenhauer, objects are intuitively perceived by understanding and are discursively thought by reason (Kant had claimed that (1) the understanding thinks objects through concepts and that (2) reason seeks the unconditioned or ultimate answer to \"why?\"). Schopenhauer said that Kant's mistake regarding perception resulted in all of the obscurity and difficult confusion that is exhibited in the Transcendental Analytic section of his critique.\n\nLastly, Schopenhauer departed from Kant in how he interpreted the Platonic ideas. In ''The World as Will and Representation'' Schopenhauer explicitly stated:\n\n...Kant used the word Idea wrongly as well as illegitimately, although Plato had already taken possession of it, and used it most appropriately.\n\nInstead Schopenhauer relied upon the Neoplatonist interpretation of the biographer Diogenes Laërtius from ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers''. In reference to Plato's Ideas, Schopenhauer quotes Laërtius verbatim in an explanatory footnote.\n\nDiogenes Laërtius (III, 12) Plato ideas in natura velut exemplaria dixit subsistere; cetera his esse similia, ad istarum similitudinem consistencia.\n(Plato teaches that the Ideas exist in nature, so to speak, as patterns or prototypes, and that the remainder of things only resemble them, and exist as their copies.)\n\n=== Critique of Hegel ===\nSchopenhauer expressed his dislike for the philosophy of his contemporary Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel many times in his published works. The following quotations are typical:\n\n:If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of this fellow Hegel is a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be quite right.\n\n:Further, if I were to say that this summus philosophus ... scribbled nonsense quite unlike any mortal before him, so that whoever could read his most eulogized work, the so-called ''Phenomenology of the Mind'', without feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would qualify as an inmate for Bedlam, I should be no less right.\n\n:At first Fichte and Schelling shine as the heroes of this epoch; to be followed by the man who is quite unworthy even of them, and greatly their inferior in point of talent—I mean the stupid and clumsy charlatan Hegel.\n\nIn his Foreword to the first edition of his work ''Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik'', Schopenhauer suggested that he had shown Hegel to have fallen prey to the ''Post hoc ergo propter hoc'' fallacy.\n\nSchopenhauer suggested that Hegel's works were filled with \"castles of abstraction\", and that Hegel used deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous verbiage. He also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with the search for philosophical truth. For instance, the Right Hegelians interpreted Hegel as viewing the Prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then.\n", "The British philosopher and historian Bertrand Russell deemed Schopenhauer an insincere person, because judging by his life:\n\n:\"He habitually dined well, at a good restaurant; he had many trivial love-affairs, which were sensual but not passionate; he was exceedingly quarrelsome and unusually avaricious. ... It is hard to find in his life evidences of any virtue except kindness to animals ... In all other respects he was completely selfish. It is difficult to believe that a man who was profoundly convinced of the virtue of asceticism and resignation would never have made any attempt to embody his convictions in his practice.\"\n\nBryan Magee argues that \"the answer to such shallow, but not uncommon criticism\" is found in a quotation from Schopenhauer:\n:\"It is therefore just as little necessary for the saint to be a philosopher as for the philosopher to be a saint; just as it is not necessary for a perfectly beautiful person to be a great sculptor, or for a great sculptor to be himself a beautiful person. In general, it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses. To repeat abstractly, universally, and distinctly in concepts the whole inner nature of the world, and thus to deposit it as a reflected image in permanent concepts always ready for the faculty of reason, this and nothing else is philosophy.\"\n", "Caricature of Schopenhauer by Wilhelm Busch (1832–1908)\n\nSchopenhauer has had a massive influence upon later thinkers, though more so in the arts (especially literature and music) and psychology than in philosophy. His popularity peaked in the early twentieth century, especially during the Modernist era, and waned somewhat thereafter. Nevertheless, a number of recent publications have reinterpreted and modernised the study of Schopenhauer. His theory is also being explored by some modern philosophers as a precursor to evolutionary theory and modern evolutionary psychology.\n\nRussian writer and philosopher Leo Tolstoy was greatly influenced by Schopenhauer. After reading Schopenhauer's ''The World as Will and Representation'', Tolstoy gradually became converted to the ascetic morality upheld in that work as the proper spiritual path for the upper classes: \"Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights which I've never experienced before. ... no student has ever studied so much on his course, and learned so much, as I have this summer\"\n\nRichard Wagner, writing in his autobiography, remembered his first impression that Schopenhauer left on him (when he read ''World as Will and Representation''):\n:Schopenhauer’s book was never completely out of my mind, and by the following summer I had studied it from cover to cover four times. It had a radical influence on my whole life.\n\nWagner also commented on that \"serious mood, which was trying to find ecstatic expression\" created by Schopenhauer inspired the conception of Tristan und Isolde. See also Influence of Schopenhauer on Tristan und Isolde.\n\n\n\nFriedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading ''The World as Will and Representation'' and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay ''Schopenhauer als Erzieher'' one of his ''Untimely Meditations''.\n\nJorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him.\n\nAs a teenager, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism. However, after his study of the philosophy of mathematics, he rejected epistemological idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker: \"Schopenhauer has quite a crude mind... where real depth starts, his comes to an end.\"\n\nThe philosopher Gilbert Ryle read Schopenhauer's works as a student, but later largely forgot them, only to unwittingly recycle ideas from Schopenhauer in his ''The Concept of Mind'' (1949).\n", "\n* ''On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde''), 1813\n* ''On Vision and Colors'' (''Ueber das Sehn und die Farben''), 1816 \n* ''Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum)'', 1830.\n* ''The World as Will and Representation'' (alternatively translated in English as ''The World as Will and Idea''; original German is ''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung''): vol. 1818/1819, vol. 2, 1844\n** Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, \n** Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, \n** Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, \n** Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) \n* ''The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten)'', 1831\n* ''On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur)'', 1836 \n* ''On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens''), 1839 \n* ''On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral)'', 1840\n* ''The Two Basic Problems of Ethics: On the Freedom of the Will, On the Basis of Morality (Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik: Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens, Ueber das Fundament der Moral''), 1841. \n* ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', 1851; English translation by E. F. J. Payne, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974, 2 volumes:\n** Printings:\n*** 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN\n**** Vols. 1 and 2, ,\n**** Vol. 1, ISBN\n**** Vol. 2, ,\n*** 1974/1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, ,\n*** 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, \n** ''Essays and Aphorisms'', being excerpts from Volume 2 of ''Parerga und Paralipomena'', selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: \n* ''An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt)'', 1851\n* Arthur Schopenhauer, ''Manuscript Remains'', Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., \n\n=== Online ===\n* \n* '' Illustrated version of the \"Art of Being Right\" and links to logic and sophisms used by the stratagems.\n* '' The Art Of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)''. (bilingual) ''The Art of Being Right''\n* '' Studies in Pessimism'' – audiobook from LibriVox\n* ''The World as Will and Idea'' at Internet Archive:\n** '' Volume I''\n** '' Volume II''\n** '' Volume III''\n* ''On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason'' and ''On the will in nature.'' Two essays:\n** Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903).\n** Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections\n* Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts in SchopenhauerSource\n* '' Essays of Schopenhauer''\n", "\n* Antinatalism, a position advocated by Schopenhauer that one would be better off not having been born\n* God in Buddhism\n* Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni)\n* Misotheism\n* Mortal coil\n* Nihilism\n* Eye of a needle\n", "\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n* Albright, Daniel (2004) ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources''. University of Chicago Press. \n* Beiser, Frederick C., ''Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860-1900'' (Oxford: OUP, 2016).\n* Hannan, Barbara, ''The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy'' (Oxford: OUP, 2009).\n* Magee, Bryan, ''Confessions of a Philosopher'', Random House, 1998, . Chapters 20, 21.\n* Safranski, Rüdiger (1990) ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, ; orig. German ''Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie'', Carl Hanser Verlag (1987)\n* Thomas Mann editor, ''The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer'', Longmans Green & Co., 1939\n\n", "\n=== Biographies ===\n* Cartwright, David. ''Schopenhauer: A Biography'', Cambridge University Press, 2010. \n* Frederick Copleston, ''Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism'' (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946)\n* O.F.Damm, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie'', (Reclam, 1912)\n* Kuno Fischer, ''Arthur Schopenhauer'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as ''Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre'' (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898).\n* Eduard Grisebach, ''Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens'' (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876).\n* D.W. Hamlyn, ''Schopenhauer'', London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985)\n* Heinrich Hasse, ''Schopenhauer''. (Reinhardt, 1926)\n* Arthur Hübscher, ''Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Lebensbild'' (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938).\n* Thomas Mann, ''Schopenhauer'' (Bermann-Fischer, 1938)\n* Matthews, Jack, ''Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament'', Nine Point Publishing, 2015. . A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist Jack Matthews. \n* Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie'', hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, , pocket edition Fischer: .\n* Rüdiger Safranski, ''Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy'', trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989)\n* Walther Schneider, ''Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie'' (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937).\n* William Wallace, ''Life of Arthur Schopenhauer'' (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970)\n* Helen Zimmern, '' Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy'' (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876)\n\n=== Other books ===\n* App, Urs. Arthur Schopenhauer and China. ''Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010) (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy.\n* Atwell, John. ''Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will''.\n* --------, ''Schopenhauer, The Human Character''.\n* Edwards, Anthony. ''An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics''. 123 Books, 2011.\n* Copleston, Frederick, ''Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism'', 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975).\n* Gardiner, Patrick, 1963. ''Schopenhauer''. Penguin Books.\n* --------, ''Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction''.\n* Janaway, Christopher, 2003. ''Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy''. Oxford University Press. \n* Magee, Bryan, ''The Philosophy of Schopenhauer'', Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). \n* Mannion, Gerard, \"Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics\", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp.\n* Trottier, Danick. ''L’influence de la philosophie schopenhauerienne dans la vie et l’oeuvre de Richard Wagner ; et, Qu’est-ce qui séduit, obsède, magnétise le philosophe dans l’art des sons? deux études en esthétique musicale'', Université du Québec à Montréal, Département de musique, 2000.\n* Zimmern, Helen, ''Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy'', London, Longman, and Co., 1876.\n\n=== Articles ===\n* \n* Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, \" Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin,\" ''Avinus Magazin'' (in German).\n* Luchte, James, 2009, \" The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer,\" ''Heythrop Journal'', Volume 50, Number 2, pp. 228–242.\n* Mazard, Eisel, 2005, \" Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas.\" On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors.\n* Moges, Awet, 2006, \" Schopenhauer's Philosophy.\" Galileian Library.\n* Sangharakshita, 2004, \" Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.\"\n* \n* Oxenford's \"Iconoclasm in German Philosophy,\" (See p. 388)\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ''Arthur Schopenhauer'' an article by Mary Troxell in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2011\n* Schopenhauersource: Reproductions of Schopenhauer's manuscripts\n* Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer\n* Timeline of German Philosophers\n* A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer\n* \n* Ross, Kelley L., 1998, \" Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860).\" Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of academia.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Thought ", " Influences ", " Critique of Kant and Hegel ", " Criticism of Schopenhauer's personal life ", " Influence ", " Selected bibliography ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Angola, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n\nDemographics of Angola, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\nAccording to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014.\nEthnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a Bantu language: the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of the population, the Ambundu with 25%, and the Bakongo 13%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda, the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the Ovambo, the Herero, the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese.\n\nAs a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75, over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors).\n\nThe largest religious denomination is Catholicism, to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of Protestantism (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and African Initiated Churches. In 2006, one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses. Blacks from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain African traditional religions following different ethnic faiths.\n", "According to the total population was in , compared to only 4 148 000 in 1950. The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 46.6%, 50.9% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.5% was 65 years or older\n.\nPopulation pyramid for Angola\n\n\n\nTotal population (x 1000)\nPopulation aged 0–14 (%)\nPopulation aged 15–64 (%)\nPopulation aged 65+ (%)\n\n 1950\n4 148\n41.2\n55.7\n3.1\n\n 1955\n4 542\n42.4\n54.9\n2.7\n\n 1960\n4 963\n43.7\n53.6\n2.7\n\n 1965\n5 431\n45.3\n52.0\n2.7\n\n 1970\n5 926\n46.0\n51.3\n2.7\n\n 1975\n6 637\n46.2\n51.1\n2.7\n\n 1980\n7 638\n46.5\n50.8\n2.7\n\n 1985\n9 066\n47.0\n50.4\n2.7\n\n 1990\n10 335\n47.5\n49.9\n2.6\n\n 1995\n12 105\n47.6\n49.8\n2.5\n\n 2000\n13 926\n47.7\n49.9\n2.5\n\n 2005\n16 489\n47.6\n49.9\n2.5\n\n 2010\n19 082\n46.6\n50.9\n2.5\n\n 2014\n25 789\n47.3\n50.3\n2.4\n\n\nStructure of the population (DHS 2011) (Males 19 707, Females 20 356 = 40 063) :\n\n\nAge Group\nMale (%)\nFemale (%)\nTotal (%)\n\n 0-4\n 21,3\n 21,3\n 21,3\n\n 5-9\n 15,5\n 13,7\n 14,6\n\n 10-14\n 12,2\n 12,1\n 12,1\n\n 15-19\n 9,7\n 10,9\n 10,3\n\n 20-24\n 8,1\n 10,1\n 9,1\n\n 25-29\n 7,8\n 7,7\n 7,7\n\n 30-34\n 5,5\n 5,0\n 5,3\n\n 35-39\n 4,4\n 4,5\n 4,4\n\n 40-44\n 3,4\n 2,8\n 3,1\n\n 45-49\n 3,1\n 2,0\n 2,5\n\n 50-54\n 2,9\n 4,7\n 3,8\n\n 55-59\n 2,0\n 1,9\n 1,9\n\n 60-64\n 1,6\n 1,5\n 1,6\n\n 65-69\n 1,0\n 0,7\n 0,8\n\n 70-74\n 0,8\n 0,5\n 0,6\n\n 75-79\n 0,4\n 0,3\n 0,3\n\n 80+\n 0,4\n 0,3\n 0,4\n\n unknown\n 0,1\n 0,0\n 0,1\n\n\n\n\nAge group \nMale (%)\nFemale (%)\nTotal (%)\n\n 0-14\n 49,0\n 47,1\n 48,0\n\n 15-64\n 48,3\n 51,1\n 49,8\n\n 65+\n 2,6\n 1,8\n 2,1\n\n\n", "Registration of vital events is in Angola not complete. The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.\n\n\n\nPeriod\nLive births per year\nDeaths per year\nNatural change per year\nCBR*\nCDR*\nNC*\nTFR*\nIMR*\n\n 1950-1955 \n 235 000\n 156 000\n 79 000\n54.0\n35.9\n18.1\n7.00\n230\n\n 1955-1960 \n 259 000\n 159 000\n 99 000\n54.4\n33.5\n20.9\n7.20\n215\n\n 1960-1965 \n 282 000\n 162 000\n 121 000\n54.3\n31.1\n23.2\n7.40\n200\n\n 1965-1970 \n 302 000\n 163 000\n 139 000\n53.2\n28.7\n24.5\n7.40\n186\n\n 1970-1975 \n 325 000\n 166 000\n 160 000\n51.8\n26.4\n25.5\n7.20\n173\n\n 1975-1980 \n 374 000\n 176 000\n 197 000\n52.4\n24.7\n27.7\n7.20\n161\n\n 1980-1985 \n 441 000\n 202 000\n 239 000\n52.8\n24.2\n28.6\n7.20\n157\n\n 1985-1990 \n 512 000\n 228 000\n 284 000\n52.8\n23.5\n29.3\n7.20\n153\n\n 1990-1995 \n 584 000\n 259 000\n 325 000\n52.1\n23.1\n29.0\n7.10\n150\n\n 1995-2000 \n 664 000\n 274 000\n 390 000\n51.0\n21.1\n29.9\n6.92\n138\n\n 2000-2005 \n 746 000\n 268 000\n 478 000\n49.0\n17.6\n31.4\n6.63\n116\n\n 2005-2010 \n 774 000\n 272 000\n 502 000\n43.5\n15.3\n28.2\n5.79\n104\n\n * CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1000); NC = natural change (per 1000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1000 births; TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman)\n\n\n===Fertility and Births===\nTotal Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):\n\n\n\n Year\n CBR (Total)\n TFR (Total)\n CBR (Urban)\n TFR (Urban)\n CBR (Rural)\n TFR (Rural)\n\n 2006-2007\n 42.4\n 5.8\n 35.0\n 4.4\n 50.2\n 7.7\n\n 2011\n 45.5\n 6.3\n 36.5\n 4.6\n 51.8\n 7.7\n\n 2014 (census)\n \n 5.7\n \n 5.2\n \n 6.5\n\n 2015-16\n 43.4\n 6.2 (5.2)\n 40.6\n 5.3 (4.4)\n 48.4\n 8.2 (7.1)\n\n\n", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\n===Population===\n*18,056,072 (July 2012 est.)\n\n====Population growth====\nThe population is growing by 2.184% annually. There are 44.51 births and 24.81 deaths per 1,000 citizens. The net migration rate is 2.14 migrants per 1,000 citizens. The fertility rate of Angola is 5.97 children born per woman as of 2011. The infant mortality rate is 184.44 deaths for every 1,000 live births with 196.55 deaths for males and 171.72 deaths for females for every 1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth is 37.63 years; 36.73 years for males and 38.57 years for females.\n\n===Sex ratio===\n*At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female\n*Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female\n*15–64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female\n*65 years and older: .79 male(s)/female\n*Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2011 est.)\n\n===Health===\n\nAccording to the CIA World Factbook, 2% of adults (aged 15–49) are living with HIV/AIDS (as of 2009). The risk of contracting disease is very high. There are food and waterborne diseases, bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever; vectorborne diseases, malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness); respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis, and schistosomiasis, a water contact disease, as of 2005.\n\n===Ethnic groups===\nEthnic groups of Angola 1970\nRoughly 37% of Angolans are Ovimbundu, 25% are Ambundu, 13% are Bakongo, 2% are mestiço, 1-2% are white Africans, and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population.\n\n===Religions===\n\nAngola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics don't exist, but it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are Catholic, the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pentecostal communities. Only 1 - 2% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries. Traditional indigenous religions are practized by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies.\n\n===Education===\n\nLiteracy is quite low, with 67.4% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.\n\n===Languages===\n\nPortuguese is the official language of Angola, but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, Kikongo, Kimbundu, Umbundu, Tuchokwe, Nganguela, and Ukanyama have the official status of \"national languages\". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language.\n", "\n*\n* 2003\n", "\n* Population cartogram of Angola\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Population", "Vital statistics", "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n'''Transport in Angola''' comprises:\n", "\nThere are three separate railway lines in Angola:\n* Luanda Railway (CFL) (northern)\n* Benguela Railway (CFB) (central)\n* Moçâmedes Railway (CFM) (southern)\n\nReconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and is expected to be completed by the end of the year 2012. The Benguela Railway already connects to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\n", "* 1,300 km navigable (2008)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 36\n", "* gas, 2 km; crude oil 87 km (2008)\n\nIn April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from Lobito to Lusaka, Zambia, to deliver various refined products to Zambia.\n\nAngola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years.\n", "Ship loading minerals at Namibe harbour, Angola\nThe government plans to build a deep-water port at Barra do Dande, north of Luanda, in Bengo province near Caxito.\n", "* ''total:'' 6\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 128\n* ''by type:'' cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 2, roll on/roll off 1\n* ''foreign owned:'' 1 (Spain)\n* ''registered in other countries:'' 6 (Bahamas) (2008)\n\n", "* 211 (2008)\n\n=== Airports - with paved runways ===\n* ''total:'' 30\n* ''over 3,047 m:'' 5\n* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8\n* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 12\n* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4\n* ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2008)\n\n=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===\n* ''total:'' 181 (2008)\n* ''over 3,047 m:'' 2\n* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 5\n* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 32\n* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 100\n* ''under 914 m:'' 42 (2008)\n\n=== Angolan Airlines ===\n* TAAG Angola Airlines\n* Sonair\n\n=== History ===\nAngola had an estimated total of 43 airports as of 2004, of which 31 had paved runways as of 2005. There is an international airport at Luanda. International and domestic services are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines, Aeroflot, British Airways, Brussels Airlines, Lufthansa, Air France, Air Namibia, Cubana, Ethiopian Airlines, Emirates, Delta Air Lines, Royal Air Maroc, Iberia, Hainan Airlines, Kenya Airways, South African Airways, TAP Air Portugal and several regional carriers. In 2003, domestic and international carriers carried 198,000 passengers. There are airstrips for domestic transport at Benguela, Cabinda, Huambo, Namibe, and Catumbela.\n", "''This article comes from the CIA World Factbook 2003.''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Railways ", " Waterways ", " Pipelines ", " Ports and harbors ", " Merchant marine ", " Airports ", " References " ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''Angolan Armed Forces''' (Portuguese: ''Forças Armadas Angolanas'') or '''FAA''' are the military of Angola.\n\nThe FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces and three components: the Army (''Exército''), the Navy (''Marinha de Guerra'') and the National Air Force (''National Air Force''). Reported total manpower in 2013 was about 107,000.\n\nThe FAA is headed by Chief of the General Staff Geraldo Sachipengo Nunda since 2010, who reports to the Minister of National Defense, currently João Lourenço.\n", "The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) following the abortive Bicesse Accord with the Armed Forces of the Liberation of Angola (FALA), armed wing of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). As part of the peace agreement, troops from both armies were to be demilitarized and then integrated. Integration was never completed as UNITA and FALA went back to war in 1992. Later, consequences for FALA personnel in Luanda were harsh with FAPLA veterans persecuting their erstwhile opponents in certain areas and reports of vigilantism.\n", "Angolan Second Lieutenant, First Lieutenant, and Captain training in Russia in August 2015\n\n===General description===\nThe Army (''Exército'') is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions (Cabinda, Luanda, North, Center, East and South), with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions, there are 25 motorized infantry brigades, one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment, the Military Artillery School, the Army Military Academy, an anti-aircraft defense group, a composite land artillery group, a military police regiment, a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade (including Commandos and Special Operations units), but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA.\n\n===History===\nOn August 1, 1974 a few months after a military coup d'état had overthrown the Lisbon regime and proclaimed its intention of granting independence to Angola, the MPLA announced the formation of FAPLA, which replaced the EPLA. By 1976 FAPLA had been transformed from lightly armed guerrilla units into a national army capable of sustained field operations.\n\nIn 1990-91, the Army had ten military regions and an estimated 73+ 'brigades', each with a mean strength of 1,000 and comprising inf, tank, APC, artillery, and AA units as required. The Library of Congress said in 1990 that 'the regular army's 91,500 troops were organized into more than seventy brigades ranging from 750 to 1,200 men each and deployed throughout the ten military regions. Most regions were commanded by lieutenant colonels, with majors as deputy commanders, but some regions were commanded by majors. Each region consisted of one to four provinces, with one or more infantry brigades assigned to it. The brigades were generally dispersed in battalion or smaller unit formations to protect strategic terrain, urban centers, settlements, and critical infrastructure such as bridges and factories. Counterintelligence agents were assigned to all field units to thwart UNITA infiltration. The army's diverse combat capabilities were indicated by its many regular and motorised infantry brigades with organic or attached armor, artillery, and air defense units; two militia infantry brigades; four antiaircraft artillery brigades; ten tank battalions; and six artillery battalions. These forces were concentrated most heavily in places of strategic importance and recurring conflict: the oil-producing Cabinda Province, the area around the capital, and the southern provinces where UNITA and South African forces operated.'\n\nIt was reported in 2011 that the army was by far the largest of the services with about 120,000 men and women. The Angolan Army has around 29,000 \"ghost workers\" who remain enrolled in the ranks of the FAA and therefore receive a salary.\n\nIn 2013, the International Institute for Strategic Studies reported that the FAA had six divisions, the 1st, 5th, and 6th with two or three infantry brigades, and the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th with five to six infantry brigades. The 4th Division included a tank regiment. A separate tank brigade and special forces brigade were also reported.\n\nAs of 2011, the IISS reported the ground forces had 42 armoured/infantry regiments ('detachments/groups - strength varies') and 16 infantry 'brigades'. These probably comprised infantry, tanks, APC, artillery, and AA units as required. Major equipment included over 140 main battle tanks, 600 reconnaissance vehicles, over 920 AFVs, infantry fighting vehicles, 298 howitzers.\n\nIt was reported on May 3, 2007, that the Special Forces Brigade of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) located at Cabo Ledo region, northern Bengo Province, would host a 29th anniversary celebration for the entire armed forces. The brigade was reportedly formed on 5 May 1978 and under the command at the time of Colonel Paulo Falcao.\n\n=== Equipment===\n\nThe Army operates a large amount of Russian, Soviet and ex-Warsaw pact hardware. A large amount of its equipment was acquired in the 1980s and 1990s most likely because of hostilities with neighbouring countries and its civil war which lasted from November 1975 until 2002. There is an interest from the Angolan Army for the Brazilian ASTROS II multiple rocket launcher.\n\n====Infantry Weapons====\nMany of Angola's weapons are of Portuguese colonial and Warsaw Pact origin. Jane's Information Group lists the following as in service:\n* Rifles in service with Army include the AK-47, AKM, FN FAL, G3 Assault Rifle, SKS and IMI Tavor.\n* Pistols include the Makarov pistol, Stechkin automatic pistol and the Tokarev TT pistol.\n* Submachine guns include the Škorpion vz. 61, Star Z-45, Uzi and the FBP submachine gun.\n* Machine guns include the RP-46, RPD machine gun, Vz. 52 machine gun and the DShK Heavy machine gun.\n* Grenade launchers include the AGS-17 automatic grenade launcher. \n* Mortars include the 120-PM-43 mortar (500 in service) and the 82-PM-41 (250 in service). \n* Anti-Tank weapons include the RPG-7, 9K111 Fagot (650 ordered in 1987), 9K11 Malyutka, B-10 recoilless rifle and the B-11 recoilless rifle.\n\n====Main Battle Tanks====\n* Between 116 and 267 T-55AM-2 Medium tanks. 281 T-55's were ordered between 1975 and 1999. 267 T-55AM-2's were delivered from Bulgaria and Slovakia in 1999.\n* 50 T-72M1 main battle tanks. Delivered from Belarus in 1999. \n* 50 T-62 Main battle tanks. 364 were ordered in the 1980s and 1990s.\n* 12 PT-76 Amphibious Light tanks. 68 ordered in 1975 from the Soviet Union.\n\n====Armoured Vehicles====\n* 150 BMP-1 infantry fighting vehicles.\n* 100 BMP-2 infantry fighting vehicles.\n* 10 BMD-3 infantry fighting vehicles.\n* 195 BRDM-2 and 120 BRDM-1 Amphibious Armoured Scout Cars.\n* 62 BTR-60 and 50 OT-62 TOPAS armored personnel carriers\n* 45 Casspir NG 2000B Infantry mobility vehicles\n* 24 EE-11 Urutu armored personnel carriers\n\n====Artillery====\n* 12 2S1 Gvozdika 122 mm Self-propelled guns (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic).\n* 4 2S3 Akatsiya 152 mm Self-propelled guns (Acquired in 1999 from the Bulgaria).\n* 12 2S7 Pion 203 mm Self-propelled guns (Acquired in 2000 from the Czech Republic).\n* Unknown amounts of M1942 ZiS-3 Anti-tank field guns\n* ~280 D-30 122 mm Howitzers (28 from Kazakhstan in 1998, 12 from Belarus, 240 from the Soviet Union in the 1980s)\n* 4 D-20 Howitzers.\n* Unknown amounts of 85 mm divisional gun D-44 Field Guns.\n* 48 M-46 130 mm field guns\n* 75 BM-21 Grad multiple rocket launchers\n* 40 RM-70 multiple rocket launchers\n\n====Anti-Aircraft weaponry====\n* 20 ZSU-23-4 Shilka Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns.\n* 40 ZSU-57-2 Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns\n* Unknown amounts of ZU-23-2, 57 mm AZP S-60, M-1939, ZPU-4 and M-55 anti-aircraft guns.\n* 40 SA-2 Guideline high-altitude air defense systems.\n* 12 SA-3 Goa\n* 25 SA-6\n* Unknown amounts of SA-7 Grail\n* 15 SA-8\n* 20 SA-9 Gaskin\n* 10 SA-13\n* Unknown amounts of SA-14 Gremlin and SA-16 Gimlet.\n\n====Other Vehicles====\n* Ural-4320 trucks\n* Star 266\n", "\nThe National Air Force of Angola (FANA, ''Força Aérea Nacional de Angola'') is the air component of the FAA. It is organized in six aviation regiments, each including several squadrons. To each of the regiments correspond an air base. Besides the aviation regiments, there is also a Pilot Training School.\n\nThe Air Force's personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft. In 2002 one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces.\n\nIn 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters.\n", "\nThe Angola Navy (MGA, ''Marinha de Guerra de Angola'') is the naval component of the FAA. It is organized in two naval zones (North and South), with naval bases in Luanda, Lobito and Namibe. It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School, based in Ambriz. The Navy numbers about 1,000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges.\n\nThe Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000, resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. In order to protect Angola’s 1 600 km long coastline, the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but is still lacking in many ways. Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation (CTM) programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate, three corvettes, three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats.\n\nMost of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several Fast Attack Craft for border protection in 2011.\n\nIn September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven Macaé-class patrol vessels from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering the production of the vessels as part of Angola’s Naval Power Development Programme (Pronaval). The military of Angola aims to modernize its naval capability, presumably due to a rise in maritime piracy within the Gulf of Guinea which may have an adverse effect on the country's economy.\n\nThe navy's current known inventory includes the following:\n\n* Fast attack craft\n** 4 Mandume class craft (Bazan Cormoran type, refurbished in 2009)\n* Patrol Boats\n** 3 18.3m long Patrulheiro patrol boats (refurbished in 2002)\n** 5 ARESA PVC-170\n** 2 Namacurra-class harbour patrol boats\n* Fisheries Patrol Boats\n** Ngola Kiluange and Nzinga Mbandi (delivered in September and October 2012 from Damen Shipyards)(Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries)\n** 28 metre FRV 2810 (Pensador) (Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries)\n* Landing craft\n** LDM-400 - 1 or 3 (reportedly has serviceability issues)\n* Coastal defense equipment (CRTOC)\n** SS-C1 Sepal radar system\n\nThe navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrol:\n\n\n Aircraft\n Origin\n Type\n Versions\n In service\n Notes\n\n Fokker F27\n Netherlands\n Medium transport\n\n 2\n\n\n EMB 111\n Brazil\n Maritime patrol\n\n 6\n\n\n Boeing 707\n United States\n Maritime patrol\n\n 1\n\n\n\n", "The FAA include several types of special forces, namely the Commandos, the Special Operations and the Marines. The Angolan special forces follow the general model of the analogous Portuguese special forces, receiving a similar training.\n\nThe Commandos and the Special forces are part of the Special Forces Brigade (BRIFE, ''Brigada de Forças Especiais''), based at Cabo Ledo, in the Bengo Province. The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos, a battalion of special operations and sub-units of combat support and service support. The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE, ''Grupo de Ações Especiais''), which is presently inactive and that was dedicated to long range reconnaissance, covert and sabotage operations. In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School (EFFE, ''Escola de Formação de Forças Especiais''). Both the BRIFE and the EFFE are directly under the Directorate of Special Forces of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.\n\nThe marines (''fuzileiros navais'') constitute the Marines Brigade of the Angolan Navy. The Marines Brigade is not permanently dependent of the Directorate of Special Forces, but can detach their units and elements to be put under the command of that body for the conduction of exercises or real operations.\n\nSince the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in 2004, the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit. However, elements of the commandos, special operations and marines are parachute qualified.\n", "The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast, and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared South African Border War. The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to São Tomé and Príncipe in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years, Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985.\n\nThe Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow Lusophone states Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to \"reform\" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership.\n\nA small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville). A presence during the unrest in Ivory Coast, 2010–2011, were not officially confirmed. However, the ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'', citing ''Jeune Afrique'', said that among President Gbagbo's guards were 92 personnel of President Dos Santos's Presidential Guard Unit. Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the African Union and has formed special units for this purpose.\n", "\n", "*\n*Human Rights Watch, Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process, October 1999\n*Utz Ebertz and Marie Müller, Legacy of a resource-fueled war: The role of generals in Angola’s mining sector, BICC Focus, June 2013\n*Area Handbook for Angola, August 1967, Angola, A Country Study (1979 and 1991)\n*Rocky Williams, \"National defence reform and the African Union.\" SIPRI Yearbook 2004: 231-249.\n*Weigert, Stephen L. Angola: a modern military history, 1961-2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.\n*Martin Rupiya et al., 'Angola', in Evolutions and Revolutions\n*The Twenty-Seventh of May: An Historical Note on the Abortive 1977 \"coup\" in Angola\nDavid Birmingham, African Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 309 (Oct., 1978), pp. 554–564\nPublished by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society\n", "* Official site of the Angolan Ministry of National Defence\n* World Navies\n* Brinkman, Inge \"Language, Names, and War: The Case of Angola\", African Studies Review\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History", " Army ", " Air Force ", " Navy ", " Special forces ", " Foreign deployments ", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\nThe '''foreign relations of Angola''' are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid.\n\nFrom 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc, in particular the Soviet Union, Libya, and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops remain in support of the Joseph Kabila government. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country.\n\nSince 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the United Nations Security Council to impose and carry out sanctions on UNITA. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal (its former ruler) and Brazil (which shares many cultural affinities with Angola) in particular. Angola is a member of the Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa (PMAESA).\n", "\n===Cape Verde===\n\nCape Verde signed a friendship accord with Angola in December 1975, shortly after Angola gained its independence. Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau served as stop-over points for Cuban troops on their way to Angola to fight UNITA rebels and South African troops. Prime Minister Pedro Pires sent FARP soldiers to Angola where they served as the personal bodyguards of Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos.\n\n===Democratic Republic of the Congo===\nMany thousands of Angolans fled the country after the civil war. More than 20,000 people were forced to leave the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2009, an action the DR Congo said was in retaliation for regular expulsion of Congolese diamond miners who were in Angola illegally. Angola sent a delegation to DR Congo's capital Kinshasa and succeeded in stopping government-forced expulsions which had become a \"tit-for-tat\" immigration dispute. \"Congo and Angola have agreed to suspend expulsions from both sides of the border,\" said Lambert Mende, DR Congo information minister, in October 2009. \"We never challenged the expulsions themselves; we challenged the way they were being conducted — all the beating of people and looting their goods, even sometimes their clothes,\" Mende said.\n\n===Guinea-Bissau===\nFollowing a request by the government of Guinea-Bissau, Angola sent there a contingent of about 300 troops meant to help putting an end to the political-military unrest in that country, and to reorganize the local military forces. In fact, these troops were perceived as a kind of Pretorian Guard for the ruling party, PAIGC. In the beginning of April 2012, when a new military Coup d'état was under preparation, the Angolan regime decided to withdraw its military mission from Guinea-Bissau.\n\n===Namibia===\n\nNamibia borders Angola to the south. In 1999 Namibia signed a mutual defense pact with its northern neighbor Angola.\nThis affected the Angolan Civil War that had been ongoing since Angola's independence in 1975. Namibia's ruling party SWAPO sought to support the ruling party MPLA in Angola against the rebel movement UNITA, whose stronghold is in southern Angola, bordering to Namibia. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking Jonas Savimbi's UNITA.\n\n===Nigeria===\n\nAngolan-Nigerian relations are primarily based on their roles as oil exporting nations. Both are members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the African Union and other multilateral organizations.\n\n===South Africa===\n\nAngola-South Africa relations are quite strong as the ruling parties in both nations, the African National Congress in South Africa and the MPLA in Angola, fought together during the Angolan Civil War and South African Border War. They fought against UNITA rebels, based in Angola, and the apartheid-era government in South Africa who supported them. Nelson Mandela mediated between the MPLA and UNITA factions during the last years of Angola's civil war.\n\n===Zimbabwe===\n\nAngola-Zimbabwe relations have remained cordial since the birth of both states, Angola in 1975 and Zimbabwe in 1979, during the Cold War. While Angola's foreign policy shifted to a pro-U.S. stance based on substantial economic ties, under the rule of President Robert Mugabe Zimbabwe's ties with the West soured in the late 1990s.\n", "\n===Armenia===\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1994.\n\n===Bulgaria===\n* Date started: 1975-11-20\n* Since 1976, Bulgaria has an embassy in Luanda.\n* Angola is represented in Bulgaria through its embassy in Athens (Greece).\n\n===Denmark===\n\n* Denmark is represented in Angola through its embassy in Lusaka (Zambia).\n* Angola is represented in Denmark, through its embassy in Stockholm, (Sweden).\n\n===France===\n\nRelations between the two countries have not always been cordial due to the former French government's policy of supporting militant separatists in Angola's Cabinda province and the international Angolagate scandal embarrassed both governments by exposing corruption and illicit arms deals. Following French President Nicolas Sarkozy's visit in 2008, relations have improved.\n\n===Portugal===\n\nAngola-Portugal relations have significantly improved since the Angolan government abandoned communism and nominally embraced democracy in 1991, embracing a pro-U.S. and to a lesser degree pro-Europe foreign policy. Portugal ruled Angola for 400 years, colonizing the territory from 1483 until independence in 1975. Angola's war for independence did not end in a military victory for either side, but was suspended as a result of a coup in Portugal that replaced the Caetano regime.\n\n===Russia===\n\nRussia has an embassy in Luanda. Angola has an embassy in Moscow and an honorary consulate in Saint Petersburg. Angola and the precursor to Russia, the Soviet Union, established relations upon Angola's independence.\n\n===Serbia===\n* Serbia is represented in Angola through its embassy in Luanda (Angola), with ambassador Danilo Milić.\n* Angola is represented in Serbia, through its embassy in Belgrade, (Serbia), with ambassador Toko Diakenga Serao.\n\nThe Defence Minister of Serbia, Dragan Šutanovac, stated in a 2011 meeting in Luanda that Serbia would negotiate with the Angolan military authorities for the construction of a new military hospital in Angola.\n\n===Vatican===\n* Date started: 1975-04-14\n* Since 1975, the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church has an Apostolic Nuncio to Angola.\n", "\n===Argentina===\n* Date started: 1977-09-02\n* Angola has an embassy in Buenos Aires.\n* Argentina has an embassy in Luanda.\n* Argentine reggae musician Fidel Nadal is descended from Angolan slaves.\n* Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations: list of bilateral treaties with Angola (in Spanish only)\n\n===Brazil===\n\nCommercial and economic ties dominate the relations of each country. Parts of both countries were part of the Portuguese Empire from the early 16th century until Brazil's independence in 1822. As of November 2007, \"trade between the two countries is booming as never before\"\n\n===Canada===\nCanada-Angola relations were established in 1978, and Canada is accredited to Angola from a mission in Harare, Zimbabwe. Trade was established through Canada Trade Office Johannesburg, South Africa, & ties have grown since the end of the civil war in 2002, w/ increased engagement in areas of mutual interest. As Chair of the United Nations Security Council's Angola Sanctions Committee, Canada limited the ability of UNITA to continue its military campaign, sanctions helped to bring a ceasefire agreement to end Angola’s conflict.\n\n* Angola has an embassy in Ottawa. \n* Canada has an embassy in Luanda.\n\n===Cuba===\n\nDuring Angola's civil war Cuban forces fought to install a Marxist–Leninist MPLA-PT government, against Western-backed UNITA and FLNA guerrillas and the South-African army.\n\n===Mexico===\n\n* Angola has an embassy in Mexico City.\n* Mexico is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Abuja, Nigeria and has an honorary consulate in Luanda.\n\nEmbassy of Angola in Washington, D.C.\n\n===United States===\n\nFrom the mid-1980s through at least 1992, the United States was the primary source of military and other support for the UNITA rebel movement, which was led from its creation through 2002 by Jonas Savimbi. The U.S. refused to recognize Angola diplomatically during this period.\n\nRelations between the United States of America and the Republic of Angola (formerly the People's Republic of Angola) have warmed since Angola's ideological renunciation of Marxism before the 1992 elections.\n* Angola has an embassy in Washington, DC.\n* United States has an embassy in Luanda.\n", "\n===China===\n\nChinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002. João Manuel Bernardo, the current ambassador of Angola to China, visited the PRC in November 2007.\n\nIn February 2006, Angola surpassed Saudi Arabia to become the number one supplier of oil to China. \n\n===Israel===\n\nAngola-Israel relations, primarily based on trade and pro-United States foreign policies, are excellent. In March 2006, the trade volume between the two countries amounted to $400 million. The Israeli ambassador to Angola is Avraham Benjamin.1 In 2005, President José Eduardo dos Santos visited Israel.\n* Angola/Israel business volume amounted at USD 400 million Angola Press, 22 March 2006\n* Israeli Ambassador Highlights Relations With Angola Angola Press\n\n===Japan===\n\nDiplomatic relations between Japan and Angola were established in September 1976. Japan maintains an embassy at Luanda and Angola has an embassy in Tokyo. As of 2007, economic relations played \"a fundamental role in the bilateral relations between the two governments\". Japan has donated towards demining following the civil war.\n\n===Pakistan===\nThe Government of Angola called for the support of Pakistan for the candidature of Angola to the seat of non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, whose election is set for September this year, during the 69th session of the General Assembly of United Nations. On the fringes of the ceremony, the Angolan diplomat also met with officials in charge of the economic and commercial policy of Pakistan, to assess the business opportunities between the two states. It asked to discuss aspects related to the cooperation on several domains of common interest.\n\n===South Korea===\n\n\nEstablishment of diplomatic relations 6 January 1992. The number of South Koreans living in Angola in 2011 was 279.\n\n===Vietnam===\n\nAngola-Vietnam relations were established in August 1971, four years before Angola gained its independence, when future President of Angola Agostinho Neto visited Vietnam. Angola and Vietnam have steadfast partners as both transitioned from Cold War-era foreign policies of international communism to pro-Western pragmatism following the fall of the Soviet Union.\n", "* List of diplomatic missions in Angola\n* List of diplomatic missions of Angola\n* Visa requirements for Angolan citizens\n", "\n \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Sub-Saharan Africa", "Europe", "Americas", "Asia", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n \nAn '''android''' is a humanoid robot or synthetic organism designed to look and act like a human, especially one with a body having a flesh-like resemblance. Historically, androids remained completely within the domain of science fiction where they are frequently seen in film and television. Only recently have advancements in robot technology allowed the design of functional and realistic humanoid robots.\n", "The word was coined from the Greek root ἀνδρ-, \"man\" (male, as opposed to ''anthrop-'', human being) and the suffix ''-oid'', \"having the form or likeness of\". While the term \"android\" is used in reference to human-looking robots in general, a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a \"gynoid\".\n\nThe ''Oxford English Dictionary'' traces the earliest use (as \"Androides\") to Ephraim Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia,'' in reference to an automaton that St. Albertus Magnus allegedly created. The term \"android\" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term ''android'' was used in a more modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in his work ''Tomorrow's Eve'' (1886). This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, \"In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls.\" The term made an impact into English pulp science fiction starting from Jack Williamson's ''The Cometeers'' (1936) and the distinction between mechanical robots and fleshy androids was popularized by Edmond Hamilton's Captain Future (1940–1944).\n\nAlthough Karel Čapek's robots in ''R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)'' (1921)—the play that introduced the word ''robot'' to the world—were organic artificial humans, the word \"robot\" has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings. The term \"android\" can mean either one of these, while a cyborg (\"cybernetic organism\" or \"bionic man\") would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.\n\nThe term \"droid\", popularized by George Lucas in the original ''Star Wars'' film and now used widely within science fiction, originated as an abridgment of \"android\", but has been used by Lucas and others to mean any robot, including distinctly non-human form machines like R2-D2. The word \"android\" was used in ''Star Trek: The Original Series'' episode \"What Are Little Girls Made Of?\" The abbreviation \"andy\", coined as a pejorative by writer Philip K. Dick in his novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', has seen some further usage, such as within the TV series ''Total Recall 2070''.\n\nAuthors have used the term ''android'' in more diverse ways than ''robot'' or ''cyborg''. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only their appearance, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. In other stories, authors have used the word \"android\" to mean a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation. Other fictional depictions of androids fall somewhere in between.\n\nEric G. Wilson, who defines androids as a \"synthetic human being\", distinguishes between three types of androids, based on their body's composition:\n* the mummy type - where androids are made of \"dead things\" or \"stiff, inanimate, natural material\", such as mummies, puppets, dolls and statues\n* the golem type - androids made from flexible, possibly organic material, including golems and homunculi\n* the automaton type - androids which are a mix of dead and living parts, including automatons and robots\n\nAlthough human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''simulacra'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''automata'' (devices that have independence).\n", "Several projects aiming to create androids that look, and, to a certain degree, speak or act like a human being have been launched or are underway.\n\n===Japan===\nDER 01, a Japanese actroid\n\nJapanese robotics have been leading the field since the 1970s. Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the first android, a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth.\n\nIn 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had 10 fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans.\n\nThe Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University, and Kokoro Co., Ltd. have demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture, Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro Co. developed a new ''DER 2'' android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165 cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The \"air servosystem\" which Kokoro Co. developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice.\n\nThe Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called ''Saya'', which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is ''working'' at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide.\n\nThe Waseda University (Japan) and NTT Docomo's manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot ''WD-2''. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three degrees of freedom. This one has 17 facial points, for a total of 56 degrees of freedom. As for the materials they used, the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material called Septom, with bits of steel wool mixed in for added strength. Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the mask at the desired facial point, driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and a slide screw. Apparently, the researchers can also modify the shape of the mask based on actual human faces. To \"copy\" a face, they need only a 3D scanner to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points. After that, they are then driven into position using a laptop and 56 motor control boards. In addition, the researchers also mention that the shifting robot can even display an individual's hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask.\n\n===Singapore===\nProf Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple’s Siri or Microsoft’s Cortana. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future, or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly.\n\nAssoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics, creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user’s face and expressions displayed on the robot’s face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements.\n\n\n===South Korea===\nEveR-2, the first android that has the ability to sing\n\nKITECH researched and developed EveR-1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial \"musculature\" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs , matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve, plus the letter ''r'' for ''robot''. EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis, at the same time processing lip synchronization and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-CCD cameras with face recognition technology. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression, body coordination, and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face, neck, and lower body; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea, the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020. Several robot cities have been planned for the country: the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won (440 million USD), of which 50 billion is direct government investment. The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers, as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future, setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers, as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa.\n\n===United States===\nWalt Disney and a staff of Imagineers created Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln that debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair.\n\nHanson Robotics, Inc., of Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein, using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called \"Albert Hubo\", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history (see video at). Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author Philip K. Dick (creator of ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', the basis for the film ''Blade Runner''), with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works. In 2005, the PKD android won a first place artificial intelligence award from AAAI.\n", "\n\n\nAndroids are a staple of science fiction. Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series ''I, Robot''. One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots—such as the creation of strong artificial intelligence—are assumed to have been solved. Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them.\n\nThe tension between the nonhuman substance and the human appearance—or even human ambitions—of androids is the dramatic impetus behind most of their fictional depictions. Some android heroes seek, like Pinocchio, to become human, as in the films ''Bicentennial Man'', ''Hollywood'', ''Enthiran'' and ''A.I. Artificial Intelligence'', or Data in ''Star Trek: The Next Generation''. Others, as in the film ''Westworld'', rebel against abuse by careless humans. Android hunter Deckard in ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' and its film adaptation ''Blade Runner'' discovers that his targets are, in some ways, more human than he is. Android stories, therefore, are not essentially stories \"about\" androids; they are stories about the human condition and what it means to be human.\n\nOne aspect of writing about the meaning of humanity is to use discrimination against androids as a mechanism for exploring racism in society, as in ''Blade Runner''. Perhaps the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel ''Into the Slave Nebula'', where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human. More recently, the androids Bishop and Annalee Call in the films ''Aliens'' and ''Alien Resurrection'' are used as vehicles for exploring how humans deal with the presence of an \"Other\".\n\nFemale androids, or \"gynoids\", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical \"perfect woman\". Examples include the Greek myth of ''Pygmalion'' and the female robot Maria in Fritz Lang's ''Metropolis''. Some gynoids, like Pris in ''Blade Runner'', are designed as sex-objects, with the intent of \"pleasing men's violent sexual desires,\" or as submissive, servile companions, such as in ''The Stepford Wives''. Fiction about gynoids has therefore been described as reinforcing \"essentialist ideas of femininity\", although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and misogyny in society.\n\nThe 2015 Japanese film ''Sayonara'', starring Geminoid F, was promoted as \"the first movie to feature an android performing opposite a human actor\".\n\nIn the 2009 film ''Surrogates'', people purchase remote-controlled humanoid robots through which they interact with society.\n", "\n\n", "\n", "* Kerman, Judith B. (1991). ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. .\n* Perkowitz, Sidney (2004). ''Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids''. Joseph Henry Press. .\n* Shelde, Per (1993). ''Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films''. New York: New York University Press. .\n*Ishiguro, Hiroshi. \"Android science.\" Cognitive Science Society. 2005.\n*Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 \"The Artificial Human\"\n*TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, \"Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing\"\n*An-droid, \"Similar to the Android name\"\n* Carpenter, J. (2009). Why send the Terminator to do R2D2s job?: Designing androids as rhetorical phenomena. Proceedings of HCI 2009: Beyond Gray Droids: Domestic Robot Design for the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK. Sept. 1.\n*Telotte, J.P. ''Replications: A Robotic History of the Science Fiction Film.'' University of Illinois Press, 1995.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Projects", "Use in fiction", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n==A==\n*John Adair\n*Giulio Angioni\n*Talal Asad\n*Timothy Asch\n\n==B==\n\n*Florence Babb\n* Nigel Barley\n*Fredrik Barth\n*Vasily Bartold\n*Keith H. Basso\n*Daisy Bates\n*Gregory Bateson\n*Ruth Behar\n*Ruth Benedict\n*Lee Berger\n*Brent Berlin\n*Catherine Helen Webb Berndt\n*Theodore C. Bestor\n*Lewis Binford\n*Wilhelm Bleek\n*Anton Blok\n*Franz Boas\n*Tom Boellstorff\n*Paul Bohannan\n*Dmitri Bondarenko\n*Pere Bosch-Gimpera\n*Pierre Bourdieu\n*Paul Broca\n*Sir Peter Buck\n\n\n==C==\n\n*Julio Caro Baroja\n*Edmund Carpenter\n*Napoleon Chagnon\n*Pierre Clastres\n*Phil Collins\n*Carleton S. Coon\n*Frank Hamilton Cushing\n\n\n==D==\n\n*Regna Darnell\n*Raymond Dart\n*Emma Lou Davis\n*Ernesto de Martino\n*Ella Cara Deloria\n*Raymond J. DeMallie\n*Stanley Diamond\n*Mary Douglas\n*Cora Du Bois\n*Eugene Dubois\n*Ann Dunham\n*Katherine Dunham\n*Émile Durkheim\n\n\n==E==\n*Verrier Elwin\n*Arturo Escobar\n*E. E. Evans-Pritchard\n\n==F==\n\n*James Ferguson\n*Raymond Firth\n*Raymond D. Fogelson\n*Meyer Fortes\n*Dian Fossey\n*James Frazer\n\n\n==G==\n\n*Clifford Geertz\n*Alfred Gell\n*Ernest Gellner\n*Max Gluckman\n*Maurice Godelier\n*Jane Goodall\n*David Graeber\n*Hilma Granqvist\n*J. Patrick Gray\n*Marcel Griaule\n*Jacob Grimm\n*Wilhelm Grimm\n\n\n==H==\n\n*Michael Harkin\n*Michael Harner\n*John P. Harrington\n*Marvin Harris\n*Kirsten Hastrup (born 1948), Danish anthropologist\n*Jacquetta Hawkes\n*Arthur Maurice Hocart\n*Ian Hodder\n*E. Adamson Hoebel\n*Earnest Hooton\n*Robin W.G. Horton\n*Aleš Hrdlička\n*Eva Verbitsky Hunt (1934–1980), Argentine anthropologist\n*Dell Hymes\n\n\n==I==\n*Miyako Inoue (linguistic anthropologist)\n\n==J==\n*John M. Janzen\n*William Jones (philologist)\n*F. Landa Jocano\n\n==K==\n\n*Sergei Kan\n*Jomo Kenyatta\n*David Kertzer\n*Anatoly Khazanov\n*Richard G. Klein\n*Eduardo Kohn\n*Dorinne K. Kondo\n*Andrey Korotayev\n*Conrad Kottak\n*Charles H. Kraft\n*Grover Krantz\n*Alfred L. Kroeber\n*Theodora Kroeber\n*Lars Krutak\n*Adam Kuper\n\n\n==L==\n\n*William Labov\n*George Lakoff\n*Harold E. Lambert\n*Louise Lamphere\n*Edmund Leach\n*Eleanor Leacock\n*Murray Leaf\n*Louis Leakey\n*Mary Leakey\n*Richard Leakey\n*Richard Borshay Lee\n*Charles Miller Leslie\n*Claude Lévi-Strauss\n*C. Scott Littleton\n*Oscar Lewis\n*Robert Lowie\n*Nancy Lurie\n\n", "\n* Alan Macfarlane\n* Saba Mahmood\n* Bronisław Malinowski\n* George Marcus\n* Fran Mascia-Lees\n* John Alden Mason\n* Marcel Mauss\n* Phillip McArthur\n* Margaret Mead\n* Mervyn Meggitt\n* Josef Mengele\n* Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay — Asia-Pacific (Maclay Coast), Papua New-Guinea; Australia\n* Emily Martin\n* Sidney Mintz\n* Ashley Montagu\n* James Mooney\n* Henrietta L. Moore\n* John H. Moore\n* Lewis H. Morgan\n* Desmond Morris\n* George Murdock\n\n", "\n* Laura Nader\n* Jeremy Narby\n* Raoul Naroll\n* Erland Nordenskiöld\n\n", "\n* Gananath Obeyesekere\n* Marvin Opler\n* Morris Opler\n* Sherry Ortner\n* Keith F. Otterbein\n\n", "\n* Bruce Parry (television show host)\n* Elsie Clews Parsons\n* Bronislav Pilsudski\n* Hortense Powdermaker\n* A.H.J. Prins\n* Harald E.L. Prins\n\n", "* James Quesada\n\n==R==\n\n*Paul Rabinow\n*Wilhelm Radloff\n*Roy Rappaport\n*Hans Ras\n*Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown\n*Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff\n*Kathy Reichs\n*Audrey Richards\n*W. H. R. Rivers\n*Paul Rivet\n*Joel Robbins\n*Eric Ross\n*Gayle Rubin\n*Robert A. Rubinstein\n\n==S==\n\n*Marshall Sahlins\n*Noel B. Salazar\n*Roger Sandall\n*Edward Sapir\n*Nancy Scheper-Hughes\n*Wilhelm Schmidt\n*Tobias Schneebaum\n*Thayer Scudder\n*Elman Service\n*Afanasy Shchapov\n*Sydel Silverman\n*Cathy Small\n*Jacques Soustelle\n*Melford Spiro\n*James Spradley\n*Julian Steward\n*Herbert Spencer\n*Marilyn Strathern\n*William Sturtevant\n*Niara Sudarkasa\n\n\n==T==\n\n*Michael Taussig\n*Edward Burnett Tylor\n*Colin Turnbull\n*Victor Turner\n*Bruce Trigger\n\n\n==U==\n\n==V==\n*Karl Verner\n*L. P. Vidyarthi\n*Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf\n*Vishwajit Pandya\n\n==W==\n\n*Anthony F. C. Wallace\n*Alyise Waterston\n* Camilla Wedgwood\n*Hank Wesselman\n*Douglas R. White\n*Leslie White\n*Tim White\n*Benjamin Whorf\n*Unni Wikan\n*Clark Wissler\n*Eric Wolf\n*Sol Worth\n\n\n==Y==\n*Nur Yalman\n*Kim Yeshi\n\n==Z==\n*R. Tom Zuidema\n", "*Mary Albright (Jane Curtin) in the sitcom ''3rd Rock from the Sun''\n*Temperance \"Bones\" Brennan (Emily Deschanel) in the television series ''Bones''\n*Temperance Brennan in the novel series ''Temperance Brennan'' by Kathy Reichs\n*Chakotay (Robert Beltran) in the television series ''Star Trek: Voyager''\n*Daniel Jackson (Michael Shanks, James Spader) in the television series and film ''Stargate SG-1''\n*Charlotte Lewis (Rebecca Mader) in the television series ''Lost''\n", "* List of female anthropologists\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " M ", " N ", " O ", " P ", " Q ", "Fictional anthropologists", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n'''Actinopterygii''' , or the '''ray-finned fishes''', constitute a class or subclass of the bony fishes.\n\nThe ray-finned fishes are so called because their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines (\"rays\"), as opposed to the fleshy, lobed fins that characterize the class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). These actinopterygian fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the link or connection between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles).\n\nNumerically, actinopterygians are the dominant class of vertebrates, comprising nearly 99% of the over 30,000 species of fish. They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments from the deep sea to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from ''Paedocypris'', at , to the massive ocean sunfish, at , and the long-bodied oarfish, at .\n", "\nA – dorsal fin: B – fin rays: C – lateral line: D – kidney: E – swim bladder: F – Weberian apparatus: G – inner ear: H – brain: I – nostrils: L – eye: M – gills: N – heart O – stomach: P – gall bladder: Q – spleen: R – internal sex organs (ovaries or testes): S – ventral fins: T – spine: U – anal fin: V – tail (caudal fin). Possible other parts not shown: barbels, adipose fin, external genitalia (gonopodium)\n\nRay-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown in the diagram at the left.\n\n\n\n\n Fin arrangements\n\n Ray-finned fish are varied in size, shape and the arrangement and number of their ray-fins. ''See fish fin''.\n\nFile:Bluefin-big.jpg|Tuna are streamlined for straight line speed with a deeply forked tail\nFile:Xiphias gladius1.jpg|The swordfish is even faster and more streamlined than the tuna\nFile:Salmo salar GLERL 1.jpg|Salmon generate enough thrust with their powerful tail fin to jump obstacles during river migrations\nFile:Atlantic cod.jpg|Cod have three dorsal and two anal fins, which give them great maneuverability\nFile:Bluecat5A.jpg|Catfish\nFile:Ancylopsetta dilecta 2.jpg|Flatfish have developed partially symmetric dorsal and pelvic fins\nFile:Sturgeon2.jpg|Sturgeon\nFile:Diaphus metopoclampus.jpg|Lanternfish\nFile:Gonostoma elongatum.jpg|Elongated bristlemouth\nFile:Anoplogaster cornuta 2.jpg|Fangtooth are indifferent swimmer who try to ambush their prey\nFile:Melanocetus johnsonii.jpg|The first spine of the dorsal fin of anglerfish is modified like a fishing rod with a lure\nFile:Beryx decadactylus.jpg|Alfonsino\nFile:King of herrings.png|King of herrings\nFile:Drawing of Lepidopus caudatus from The Royal Natural History (1896).jpg|Cutlassfish\nFile:Conger conger Gervais.jpg|European conger are ray-finned fish\nFile:Sea Horse 1 PSF S-820006.png| So are sea horses\nFile:Mirror dory.png|Mirror dory\nFile:Lion Fish.JPG|The venomous lion fish\nFile:Tiger fish in tank.JPG|Tiger fish\n\n\n", "Three-spined stickleback males (red belly) build nests and compete to attract females to lay eggs in them. Males then defend and fan the eggs. Painting by Alexander Francis Lydon, 1879\nIn nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. This may be advantageous as females become less prolific as they age while male fecundity increases with age. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny.\nMost families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality \"preadapts\" a species for evolving male parental care.\n\nThere are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred.\n", "right\n\n\nThe earliest known fossil actinopterygiian is ''Andreolepis hedei'', dating back 420 million years (Late Silurian). Remains have been found in Russia, Sweden, and Estonia.\n\n\n", "Actinopterygians are divided into the subclasses Chondrostei and Neopterygii. The Neopterygii, in turn, are divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified widely, and as a result, 96% of all known fish species are teleosts. The cladogram shows the major groups of actinopterygians and their relationship to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.\n\n\n\nThe polypterids (bichirs and ropefish) are the sister lineage of all other actinopterygians, The Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) are the sister lineage of Neopterygii, and Holostei (bowfin and gars) are the sister lineage of teleosts. The Elopomorpha (eels and tarpons) appears to be the most basic teleosts.\n\n\n\n Chondrostei\n 140pxAtlantic sturgeon\n Chondrostei ''(cartilage bone)'' are primarily cartilaginous fish showing some ossification. There are 52 species divided among two orders, the Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes) and the Polypteriformes (reedfishes and bichirs). It is thought that the chondrosteans evolved from bony fish but lost the bony hardening of their cartilaginous skeletons, resulting in a lightening of the frame. Elderly chondrosteans show beginnings of ossification of the skeleton, suggesting that this process is delayed rather than lost in these fish. This group has at times been classified with the sharks: the similarities are obvious, as not only do the chondrosteans mostly lack bone, but the structure of the jaw is more akin to that of sharks than other bony fish, and both lack scales (excluding the Polypteriforms). Additional shared features include spiracles and, in sturgeons, a heterocercal tail (the vertebrae extend into the larger lobe of the caudal fin). However the fossil record suggests that these fish have more in common with the Teleostei than their external appearance might suggest. Chondrostei is paraphyletic meaning that this subclass does not contain all the descendants of their common ancestor; reclassification of the Chondrostei is therefore not out of the question.\n\n Neopterygii\n 140pxAtlantic salmon\n Neopterygii ''(new fins)'' appeared somewhere in the Late Permian, before the time of the dinosaurs. There are only few changes during their evolution from the earlier actinopterygians. They are a very successful group of fishes, because they can move more rapidly than their ancestors. Their scales and skeletons began to lighten during their evolution, and their jaws became more powerful and efficient. While electroreception and the ampullae of Lorenzini is present in all other groups of fish, with the exception of hagfish, Neopterygii has lost this sense, though it later re-evolved within Gymnotiformes and catfishes, who possess nonhomologous teleost ampullae.\n\n\nSkeleton of the angler fish, ''Lophius piscatorius''. The first spine of the dorsal fin of the anglerfish is modified so it functions like a fishing rod with a lure\nSkeleton of another ray-finned fish, the lingcod\n''Hypsospondylus'' fossil\n\nThe listing below follows Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes with notes when this differs from Nelson, ITIS and FishBase and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016.\n\n* Order †?Asarotiformes Schaeffer 1968\n* Order †?Discordichthyiformes Minikh 1998\n* Order †?Paphosisciformes\n* Order †?Scanilepiformes Selezneya 1985\n* Order †Cheirolepidiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977\n* Order †Paramblypteriformes Heyler 1969\n* Order †Rhadinichthyiformes\n* Order †Palaeonisciformes Hay 1902\n* Order †Tarrasiiformes sensu Lund & Poplin 2002\n* Order †Ptycholepiformes Andrews et al. 1967\n* Order †Redfieldiiformes Berg 1940\n* Order †Haplolepidiformes Westoll 1944\n* Order †Aeduelliformes Heyler 1969\n* Order †Platysomiformes\n* Order †Dorypteriformes Cope 1871\n* Order †Eurynotiformes Sallan & Coates 2013\n* '''Subclass Cladistii''' Pander 1860\n** Order †Guildayichthyiformes Lund 2000\n** Order Polypteriformes (bichirs and reedfishes) \n* '''Subclass Actinopteri''' Cope 1972 s.s.\n** Order †Elonichthyiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977\n** Order †Phanerorhynchiformes\n** Order †Saurichthyiformes\n** '''Infraclass Chondrostei'''\n*** Order †Birgeriiformes\n*** Order †Chondrosteiformes\n*** Order Acipenseriformes (sturgeons and paddlefishes)\n** '''Infraclass Neopterygii''' Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012\n*** Order †Pholidopleuriformes Berg 1937\n*** Order †Peltopleuriformes Lehman 1966\n*** Order †Perleidiformes Berg 1937\n*** Order †Luganoiiformes Lehman 1958\n*** Order †Pycnodontiformes Berg 1937\n*** Clade '''Holostei'''\n**** '''Division Halecomorpha''' Cope 1872 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998\n***** Order †Parasemionotiformes Lehman 1966\n***** Order †Ionoscopiformes Grande & Bemis 1998\n***** Order Amiiformes (bowfins)\n**** '''Division Ginglymodi''' Cope 1871\n***** Order †Dapediiformes\n***** Order †Semionotiformes Arambourg & Bertin 1958\n***** Order Lepisosteiformes (gars)\n*** Clade '''Teleosteomorpha''' Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013\n**** '''Division Aspidorhynchei'''\n***** Order †Aspidorhynchiformes Bleeker 1859\n***** Order †Pachycormiformes Berg 1937\n**** '''Division Teleostei''' Müller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013\n***** Order †?Araripichthyiformes\n***** Order †?Ligulelliiformes Taverne 2011\n***** Order †?Tselfatiiformes Nelson 1994\n***** Order †Pholidophoriformes\n***** Order †Dorsetichthyiformes\n***** Order †Leptolepidiformes\n***** Order †Crossognathiformes Taverne 1989\n***** Order †Ichthyodectiformes Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969\n***** '''Teleocephala''' de Pinna 1996 s.s.\n****** '''Megacohort Elopocephalai''' Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 (Elopomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966)\n******* Order Elopiformes Gosline 1960 (ladyfishes and tarpon)\n******* Order Albuliformes Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Forey et al. 1996 (bonefishes)\n******* Order Notacanthiformes Goodrich 1909 (halosaurs and spiny eels)\n******* Order Anguilliformes Jarocki 1822 sensu Goodrich 1909 (true eels)\n****** '''Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai''' sensu Arratia 1999\n******* '''Supercohort Osteoglossocephala''' sensu Arratia 1999 (Osteoglossomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966)\n******** Order †Lycopteriformes\n******** Order Hiodontiformes (mooneye and goldeye)\n******** Order Osteoglossiformes (bony-tongued fishes)\n******* '''Supercohort Clupeocephala''' Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010\n******** '''Cohort Otomorpha''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Otocephala; Ostarioclupeomorpha)\n********* '''Subcohort Clupei''' Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Clupeomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966)\n********** Order †Ellimmichthyiformes Grande 1982\n********** Order Clupeiformes Bleeker 1859 (herrings and anchovies)\n********* '''Subcohort Alepocephali'''\n********** Order Alepocephaliformes\n********* '''Subcohort Ostariophysi''' Sagemehl 1885\n********** '''Section Anotophysa''' (Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885\n*********** Order †Sorbininardiformes Taverne 1999\n*********** Order Gonorynchiformes Regan 1909 (milkfishes)\n********** '''Section Otophysa''' Garstang 1931\n*********** Order Cypriniformes (barbs, carp, danios, goldfishes, loaches, minnows, rasboras)\n*********** Order Characiformes (characins, pencilfishes, hatchetfishes, piranhas, tetras, dourado / golden (genus ''Salminus'') and pacu)\n*********** Order Gymnotiformes (electric eels and knifefishes)\n*********** Order Siluriformes (catfishes)\n******** '''Cohort Euteleosteomorpha''' (Euteleostei Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996)\n********* '''Subcohort Lepidogalaxii'''\n********** Lepidogalaxiiformes Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (salamanderfish)\n********* '''Subcohort Protacanthopterygii''' Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996\n********** Order Argentiniformes (barreleyes and slickheads) (formerly in Osmeriformes)\n********** Order Galaxiiformes\n********** Order Salmoniformes (salmon and trout)\n********** Order Esociformes (pike)\n********* '''Subcohort Stomiati'''\n********** Order Osmeriformes (smelts)\n********** Order Stomiatiformes (bristlemouths and marine hatchetfishes)\n********* '''Subcohort Neoteleostei''' Nelson 1969\n********** '''Infracohort Ateleopodia'''\n*********** Order Ateleopodiformes (jellynose fish)\n********** '''Infracohort Eurypterygia''' Rosen 1973\n*********** '''Section Aulopa''' Cyclosquamata\n************ Order Aulopiformes Rosen 1973 (Bombay duck and lancetfishes)\n*********** '''Section Ctenosquamata''' Rosen 1973\n************ '''Subsection Myctophata''' Scopelomorpha\n************* Order Myctophiformes Regan 1911 (lanternfishes)\n************ '''Subsection Acanthomorphata''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n************* '''Division Lampridacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii\n************** Order Lampriformes Regan 1909 (oarfish, opah and ribbonfishes)\n************* '''Division Paracanthomorphacea''' sensu Grande et al. 2013 (Paracanthopterygii Greenwood 1937)\n************** Order Percopsiformes Berg 1937 (cavefishes and trout-perches)\n************** Order †Sphenocephaliformes Rosen & Patterson 1969\n************** Order Zeiformes Regan 1909 (dories)\n************** Order Stylephoriformes Miya et al. 2007 \n************** Order Gadiformes Goodrich 1909 (cods)\n************* '''Division Polymixiacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii)\n************** Order †Pattersonichthyiformes Gaudant 1976\n************** Order †Ctenothrissiformes Berg 1937\n************** Order Polymixiiformes Lowe 1838 (beardfishes)\n************* '''Division Euacanthomorphacea''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993; Acanthopterygii Gouan 1770 sensu)\n************** '''Subdivision Berycimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n*************** Order Beryciformes (fangtooths and pineconefishes) (incl. Stephanoberyciformes; Cetomimiformes)\n************** '''Subdivision Holocentrimorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 \n*************** Order Holocentriformes (Soldierfishes)\n************** '''Subdivision Percomorphaceae''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Percomorpha sensu Miya et al. 2003; Acanthopteri)\n*************** '''Series Ophidiimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n**************** Order Ophidiiformes (pearlfishes)\n*************** '''Series Batrachoidimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n**************** Order Batrachoidiformes (toadfishes)\n*************** '''Series Gobiomopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n**************** Order Kurtiformes(Nurseryfishes and cardinalfishes)\n**************** Order Gobiiformes(Sleepers and gobies)\n*************** '''Series Scombrimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n**************** Order Syngnathiformes (seahorses ,pipefishes,sea moths, cornetfishes and flying gurnards)\n**************** Order Scombriformes (Tunas and (mackerels)\n*************** '''Series Carangimopharia''' Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013\n**************** '''Sub Series Anabantaria'''\n***************** Order Synbranchiformes (swamp eels)\n***************** Order Anabantiformes (Labyrinthici) (gouramies, snakeheads, )\n**************** '''Sub Series Carangaria'''\n***************** Carangaria incertae sedis\n***************** Order Istiophoriformes (Marlins, swordfishes, billfishes)\n***************** Order Carangiformes (Jack mackerels, pompanos)\n***************** Order Pleuronectiformes (flatfishes)\n**************** '''Sub Series Ovalentaria''' sensu Smith & Near 2012 (Stiassnyiformes sensu Li et al. 2009)\n***************** Ovalentaria incertae sedis\n***************** Order Cichliformes (Cichlids, Convict blenny, leaf fishes)\n***************** Order Atheriniformes (silversides and rainbowfishes)\n***************** Order Cyprinodontiformes (livebearers, killifishes)\n***************** Order Beloniformes (flyingfishes and ricefishes) \n***************** Order Mugiliformes (mullets)\n***************** Order Blenniiformes (Blennies)\n***************** Order Gobiesociformes(Clingfishes)\n*************** '''Series Eupercaria''' (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013)\n**************** Eupercaria incertae sedis\n**************** Order Gerreiformes (Mojarras) \n**************** Order Uranoscopiformes (Paratrachinoidei sensu Li et al. 2009) (Stargazers, sandperches)\n**************** Order Labriformes (Wrasses and Parrotfishes)\n**************** Order Moroniformes (temperate sea basses)\n**************** Order Ephippiformes (Sicklefishes, Spadefishes)\n**************** Order Chaetodontiformes (butterflyfishes, ponyfishes)\n**************** Order Acanthuriformes Jordan 1923 (Louvars, Moorish Idols, surgeonfishes)\n**************** Order Lutjaniformes (Snappers, grunts)\n**************** Order Lobotiformes (Tiger perches, Atlantic tripletail)\n**************** Order Spariformes Bleeker 1876 sensu Akazaki 1962 (sea breams, porgy)\n**************** Order Scatophagiformes Bleeker 1876 (Scats)\n**************** Order Priacanthiformes (Bigeyes, Bandfishes)\n**************** Order Caproiformes (Boarfishes)\n**************** Order Lophiiformes (anglerfishes)\n**************** Order Tetraodontiformes (filefishes and pufferfish)\n**************** Order Pempheriformes (Sweepers)\n**************** Order Centrarchiformes Bleeker 1859(Sunfishes and mandarin fishes)\n**************** Order Perciformes Bleeker 1859 (incl. Gasterosteiformes; Scorpaeniformes)\n\n\n\n\nImage:Acipenser oxyrinchus Montreal Biodome.JPG|''Acipenser oxyrinchus'' (Acipenseriformes)\nImage:Bonefish Albula vulpes.jpg|''Albula vulpes'' (Albuliformes)\nImage:Amia calva 4.jpg|''Amia calva'' (Amiiformes)\nImage:Gymnothorax rueppelliae Réunion.JPG|''Gymnothorax rueppelliae'' (Anguilliformes)\nImage:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.ART.157 - Ateleopus japonicus Bleeker - Kawahara Keiga - 1823 - 1829 - Siebold Collection - pencil drawing - water colour.jpeg|''Ateleopus japonicus'' (Ateleopodiformes)\nImage:Atherina boyeri Cres.JPG|''Atherina boyeri'' (Atheriniformes)\nImage:Synodus variegatus.jpg|''Synodus variegatus'' (Aulopiformes)\nImage:Opsanus beta 1.jpg|''Opsanus beta'' (Batrachoidiformes)\nImage:Tylosurus crocodilus crocodilus Réunion.jpg|''Tylosurus crocodilus'' (Beloniformes)\nImage:Sargocentron spiniferum Réunion.JPG|''Sargocentron spiniferum'' (Holocentriformes)\nImage:Barbourisia rufa Samoa.jpg|''Barbourisia rufa'' (Cetomimiformes)\nImage:Pygocentrus nattereri Palais de la Porte Dorée.jpg|''Pygocentrus nattereri'' (Characiformes)\nImage:Alosa fallax.jpg|''Alosa fallax'' (Clupeiformes)\nImage:Carassius wild golden fish 2013 G1.jpg|''Carassius gibelio'' (Cypriniformes)\nImage:Nothobranchius rachovii male 450px.jpg|''Nothobranchius rachovii'' (Cyprinodontiformes)\nImage:Megalops atlanticus.jpg|''Megalops atlanticus'' (Elopiformes)\nImage:Esox lucius ZOO 1.jpg|''Esox lucius'' (Esociformes)\nImage:Trisopterus luscus 01.JPG|''Trisopterus luscus'' (Gadiformes)\nImage:Stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus 2.jpg|''Gasterosteus aculeatus'' (Gasterosteiformes)\nImage:Diplecogaster bimaculata (dorsal).jpg|''Diplecogaster bimaculata'' (Gobiesociformes)\nImage:Chanos chanos by OpenCage.jpg|''Chanos chanos'' (Gonorynchiformes)\nImage:Electrophorus electricus.jpg|''Electrophorus electricus'' (Gymnotiformes)\nImage:Regalecus glesne juvenile.png|''Regalecus glesne'' (Lampridiformes)\nImage:Kaimanfische (Lepisosteus).jpg|''Lepisosteus platyrhincus'' (Lepisosteiformes)\nImage:Sladenia shaefersi2.jpg|''Sladenia shaefersi'' (Lophiiformes)\nImage:Mugil cephalus Minorca.jpg|''Mugil cephalus'' (Mugiliformes)\nImage:Messina Straits Myctophum punctatum.jpg|''Myctophum punctatum'' (Myctophiformes)\nImage:Expl0794 (9737642720).jpg|''Aldrovandia sp.'' (Notacanthiformes)\nImage:Spectrunculus grandis.jpg|''Spectrunculus grandis'' (Ophidiiformes)\nImage:Wakasagi Adult (70mm).tif|''Hypomesus nipponensis'' (Osmeriformes)\nImage:Honglongyu3.jpg|''Scleropages formosus'' (Osteoglossiformes)\nImage:Pomo.jpg|''Pomacanthus imperator'' (Spariformes)\nImage:Aphredoderus sayanus 4.JPG|''Aphredoderus sayanus'' (Percopsiformes)\nImage:Bothus lunatus-StCroix.jpg|''Bothus lunatus'' (Pleuronectiformes)\nImage:Fish4396 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|''Polymixia lowei'' (Polymixiiformes)\nImage:Polypterus weeksii 3.jpg|''Polypterus weeksii'' (Polypteriformes)\nImage:Eurypharynx.jpg|''Eurypharynx pelecanoides'' (Saccopharyngiformes)\nImage:Oncorhynchus mykiss, Dullstroom.jpg|''Oncorhynchus mykiss'' (Salmoniformes)\nImage:Pterois volitans Manado-e edit.jpg|''Pterois volitans'' (Scorpaeniformes)\nImage:Silurus glanis 01.jpg|''Silurus glanis'' (Siluriformes)\nImage:Scopelogadus mizolepis mizolepis.png|''Scopelogadus mizolepis'' (Stephanoberyciformes)\nImage:Chauliodus (Samoa).jpg|''Chauliodus sp.'' (Stomiiformes)\nImage:Ildaal.jpg|''Mastacembelus erythrotaenia'' (Synbranchiformes)\nImage:Fetzenfisch.jpg|''Phycodurus eques'' (Syngnathiformes)\nImage:Gelbsaum Drueckerfisch 0001.jpg|''Pseudobalistes flavimarginatus'' (Tetraodontiformes)\nImage:Zeus.faber 2.jpg|''Zeus faber'' (Zeiformes)\n\n\n== References ==\n\n", "\n\n* \n* ''Actinopterygii'' at UntamedScience.com\n* Jonna, R. (2004) Actinopterygii ''Animal Diversity Web''. Updated 29 August 2006. Accessed 2 February 2013.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Characteristics ", "Reproduction", " Fossil record ", " Classification ", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Albert Einstein''' (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist. Einstein developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics (alongside quantum mechanics). Einstein's work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known by the general public for his mass–energy equivalence formula (which has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\"). He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\", a pivotal step in the evolution of quantum theory.\n\nNear the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his special theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern (1902–1909), Switzerland. However, he realized that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields and—with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916—he published a paper on general relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe.\n\nBetween 1895 and 1914, he lived in Switzerland (except for one year in Prague, 1911–12), where he received his academic diploma from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in 1900. He later taught there at the same institute as a professor of theoretical physics between 1912 and 1914 before he left for Berlin. In 1901, after being stateless for more than five years, Einstein acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life. In 1905, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich. The same year, his ''annus mirabilis'' (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.\n\nHe was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and—being Jewish—did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of World War II, he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt alerting him to the potential development of \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\" and recommending that the U.S. begin similar research. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.\n\nEinstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word \"Einstein\" synonymous with \"genius\".\n", "\n=== Early life and education ===\n\nEinstein at the age of 3 in 1882\nAlbert Einstein in 1893 (age 14)\nEinstein's matriculation certificate at the age of 17, showing his final grades from the Argovian cantonal school (Aargauische Kantonsschule, on a scale of 1–6, with 6 being the highest possible mark)\n\nAlbert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, and Pauline Koch. In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded ''Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie'', a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.\n\nThe Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the German Empire seven years later.\n\nIn 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the direct current (DC) standard to the more efficient alternating current (AC) standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan and a few months later to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning. At the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title \"On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field\".\n\nIn 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic in Zürich (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the Polytechnic, he attended the Argovian cantonal school (gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895–96 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son Paul.) In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to avoid military service. In September 1896, he passed the Swiss Matura with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on a scale of 1–6. At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Zürich Polytechnic. Marie Winteler, who was a year older moved to Olsberg, Switzerland, for a teaching post.\n\nEinstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900, Einstein was awarded the Zürich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade in the mathematics component, theory of functions. There have been claims that Marić collaborated with Einstein on his 1905 papers, known as the ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers, but historians of physics who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.\n\n=== Marriages and children ===\nAlbert Einstein in 1904 (age 25)\nThe discovery and publication in 1987 of an early correspondence between Einstein and Marić revealed that they had had a daughter, called \"Lieserl\" in their letters, born in early 1902 in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. Einstein probably never saw his daughter. The contents of his letter to Marić in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of scarlet fever in infancy.\n\nEinstein with his wife Elsa, 1921\nEinstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zürich in July 1910. In April 1914 they moved to Berlin. After a few months his wife returned to Zürich with their sons, after learning that Einstein's chief romantic attraction was his first and second cousin Elsa. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. Eduard, whom his father called \"Tete\" (for ''petit''), had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death.\n\nIn letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love, Marie Winteler, about his marriage and his still-strong feelings for Marie. In 1910 he wrote to her that \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be\" while his wife was pregnant with their second child. Einstein spoke about a \"misguided love\" and a \"missed life\" regarding his love for Marie.\n\nEinstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having had a personal relationship with her since 1912. She was a first cousin maternally and a second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems; she died in December 1936.\n\n===Friends===\nAmong Einstein's well-known friends were Michele Besso, Paul Ehrenfest, Marcel Grossmann, János Plesch, Maurice Solovine, and Stephen Wise.\n\n=== Patent office ===\nOlympia Academy founders: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein.\n\nAfter graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901, but was not conscripted for medical reasons. With the help of Marcel Grossmann's father, he secured a job in Bern at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner – level III. \n\nEinstein evaluated patent applications for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he \"fully mastered machine technology\". \n\nMuch of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.\n\nWith a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named \"The Olympia Academy\", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.\n\n==== First scientific papers ====\nEinstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics\nIn 1900, Einstein's paper \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\" (\"Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena\") was published in the journal ''Annalen der Physik''. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as ''pro-forma'' advisor. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zürich, with his dissertation \"''A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions''\".\n\nIn that same year, which has been called Einstein's ''annus mirabilis'' (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.\n\n=== Academic career ===\nBy 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, after giving a lecture on electrodynamics and the relativity principle at the University of Zürich, Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909.\n\nEinstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague in April 1911, accepting Austrian citizenship in the Austro-Hungarian Empire to do so. During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was professor of theoretical physics at the ETH Zurich, where he taught analytical mechanics and thermodynamics. He also studied continuum mechanics, the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend Marcel Grossmann.\n\nOn 3 July 1913, he was voted for membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which was soon to be established. (Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at the Humboldt University of Berlin.) He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he accepted to move to the German Empire the next year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had developed a romantic affair. He joined the academy and thus the Berlin University on 1 April 1914. As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its Director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).\n\nBased on calculations Einstein made in 1911, about his new theory of general relativity, light from another star should be bent by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper ''The Times'' printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\".\n\nIn 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". While the general theory of relativity was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat the cited work as an ''explanation'' but merely as a ''discovery of the law'', as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the Planck spectrum by S. N. Bose. Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.\n\n=== 1921–1922: Travels abroad ===\nAlbert Einstein at a session of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (League of Nations) of which he was a member from 1922 to 1932.Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor John Francis Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King's College London. \n\nHe also published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.,\" in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville, who published his own impressions in ''Democracy in America'' (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life . . . The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\"\n\nIn 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited Singapore, Ceylon and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace, where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art.\n\nBecause of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was held by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist.\n\nOn his return voyage, he visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world.\n\nEinstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met Santiago Ramón y Cajal and also received a diploma from King Alfonso XIII naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.\n\n=== 1930–1931: Travel to the U.S. ===\nIn December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the California Institute of Technology. After the national attention he received during his first trip to the U.S., he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all.\n\nAfter arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of the ''New York Times'', and a performance of ''Carmen'' at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration.\n\nEinstein (left) and Charlie Chaplin at the Hollywood premiere of ''City Lights'', January 1931\nEinstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate, Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism,\" where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good.\n\nThis aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament,\" from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\".\n\nChaplin's film, ''City Lights'', was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin, and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis.\"\n\n=== 1933: Emigration to the U.S. ===\nCartoon of Einstein, who has shed his \"Pacifism\" wings, standing next to a pillar labeled \"World Peace\". He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled \"Preparedness\" (by Charles R. Macauley, c. 1933).\nIn February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.\n\nWhile at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned to Belgium by ship in March, and during the trip they learned that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.\n\n==== Refugee status ====\nIn April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed.\n\nA month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\" One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend Max Born, who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\" After moving to the U.S., he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment,\" and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence.\"\n\n\nEinstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933.\n\nLocker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Frederick Lindemann to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and put the Allies' technology ahead of theirs.\n\nEinstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\".\n\nLocker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the U.K. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study, in the U.S., to become a resident scholar.\n\n==== Resident scholar at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study ====\nPortrait taken in 1935 in Princeton\nIn October 1933 Einstein returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their Jewish quota which lasted until the late 1940s.\n\nEinstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.\n\nEinstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.\n\n==== World War II and the Manhattan Project ====\n\nIn 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\" To make certain the U.S. was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the U.S. pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research.\n\nThe letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate the Manhattan Project. The U.S. became the only country to successfully develop nuclear weapons during World War II and also remains the only country to have used them in combat, against Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945, respectively, towards the end of the war.\n\nFor Einstein, \"war was a disease ... and he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\"\n\n==== U.S. citizenship ====\nU.S. citizenship certificate from judge Phillip Forman\nEinstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study (in Princeton, New Jersey), he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education.\n\n=== Personal life ===\n\n==== Supporter of civil rights ====\nEinstein was a passionate, committed antiracist and joined National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease,\" seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case.\n\nEinstein in 1947\nIn 1946 Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. (Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall.) Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\" A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student.\n\n==== Assisting Zionist causes ====\nEinstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925, and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs.\n\nAmong those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important.\n\nChaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post. The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\". Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was \"deeply moved\", and \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it.\n\n==== Love of music ====\n\nEinstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age, and later wrote: \"If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music.\"\n\nHis mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was 5, although he did not enjoy it at that age.\n\nWhen he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon \"Einstein fell in love\" with Mozart's music and studied music more willingly. He taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\", he said, deciding that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty.\" At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven's violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'.\" What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\"\n\nMusic took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the Köchel catalogue of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by Alfred Einstein, who may have been a distant relation.\n\nIn 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet. Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\".\n\n==== Political and religious views ====\n\nAlbert Einstein with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921\n\nEinstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"Why Socialism?\". Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic global government that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long.\n\nEinstein spoke of his religious outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. Einstein stated that he believed in the pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza. He did not believe in a personal God who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified however that, \"I am not an atheist\", preferring to call himself an agnostic, or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\". When asked if he believed in an afterlife, Einstein replied, \"No. And one life is enough for me.\"\n\n=== Death ===\nOn 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.\n\nEinstein refused surgery, saying: \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\" He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.\n\nDuring the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.\n\nIn a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965, at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\"\n", "Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word \"Einstein\" synonymous with \"genius\". In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.\n\n=== 1905 – ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers ===\n\nThe ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc2 that Einstein published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:\n\n\n\n Title (translated) !!Area of focus !! Received !! Published !! Significance\n\n ''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light'' \n Photoelectric effect \n 18 March \n 9 June \n Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta). This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.\n\n ''On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat'' \n Brownian motion \n 11 May \n 18 July \n Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.\n\n ''On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies'' \n Special relativity \n 30 June \n 26 September \n Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer. Discredited the concept of a \"luminiferous ether\".\n\n ''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?'' \n Matter–energy equivalence \n 27 September \n 21 November \n Equivalence of matter and energy, (and by implication, the ability of gravity to \"bend\" light), the existence of \"rest energy\", and the basis of nuclear energy.\n\n\n=== Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics ===\n\n\nEinstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to ''Annalen der Physik'' was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.\n\n=== General principles ===\nHe articulated the principle of relativity. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence, general covariance and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number.\n\n=== Theory of relativity and ''E'' = ''mc''² ===\n\nEinstein's \"''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''\" (\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity.\n\nConsequences of this include the time–space frame of a moving body appearing to slow down and contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous.\n\nIn his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced ''E'' = ''mc''2 from his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.\n\n=== Photons and energy quanta ===\nThe photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.\n\nIn a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''quanta''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.\n\nEinstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of photons with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.\n\n=== Quantized atomic vibrations ===\n\nIn 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.\n\n=== Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables ===\n\nThroughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.\n\nEinstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics.\n\n=== Wave–particle duality ===\nEinstein during his visit to the United States\n\nAlthough the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''Privatdozent'' at the University of Bern. In \"''Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''\" (\"The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation\"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept (although the name ''photon'' was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.\n\n=== Theory of critical opalescence ===\n\nEinstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.\n\n=== Zero-point energy ===\n\nIn a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.\n\n=== General relativity and the equivalence principle ===\n\n\nEddington's photograph of a solar eclipse\nGeneral relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.\n\nAs Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational red shift and deflection of light.\n\nIn 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity can for the first time be tested experimentally.\n\n====Gravitational waves====\nIn 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed.\n\nThe first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at LIGO published the first observation of gravitational waves, on Earth, exactly one hundred years after the prediction.\n\n=== Hole argument and Entwurf theory ===\n\nWhile developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.\n\nIn June 1913, the Entwurf (\"draft\") theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915.\n\n=== Physical Cosmology ===\n\n\nIn 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. \n\nFollowing the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\".\n\nIn many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\". The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated.\n\nIn late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's ''sic'' facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\"\n\nIt thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.\n\n=== Modern quantum theory ===\n\nNewspaper headline on 4 May 1935\nEinstein was displeased with quantum theory and quantum mechanics (a theory he had helped create), despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating that God \"is not playing at dice.\" Einstein continued to maintain his disbelief in the theory, and attempted unsuccessfully to disprove it until he died at the age of 76. \n\nIn 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.\nThis article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.\n\nEinstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.\n\n=== Bose–Einstein statistics ===\n\nIn 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''Zeitschrift für Physik''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.\n\n=== Energy momentum pseudotensor ===\n\nGeneral relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.\n\nEinstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.\n\nThe use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.\n\n=== Unified field theory ===\n\nFollowing his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his \"unified field theory\" in a ''Scientific American'' article titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\". Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.\nIn his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.\n\n=== Wormholes ===\n\nIn 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.\n\nIf one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.\n\n=== Einstein–Cartan theory ===\n\nEinstein at his office, University of Berlin, 1920In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.\n\n=== Equations of motion ===\n\nThe theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.\n\nSince the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.\n\nThis was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.\n\n=== Other investigations ===\n\nEinstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research.\n\n=== Collaboration with other scientists ===\nThe 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.\nIn addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.\n\n==== Einstein–de Haas experiment ====\n\nEinstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.\n\n==== Schrödinger gas model ====\nEinstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.\n\nThis formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.\n\n==== Einstein refrigerator ====\n\nIn 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company Electrolux.\n\n=== Bohr versus Einstein ===\n\nEinstein and Niels Bohr, 1925 The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics.\n\n=== Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox ===\n\nIn 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.\n\nHe then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.\n\nThis principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which had been promulgated in 1964.\n", "While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Einstein had expressed his interest in the plumbing profession and was made an honorary member of the Plumbers and Steamfitters Union. Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.\n\nCorbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.\n", "\nIn the period before World War II, ''The New Yorker'' published a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\"\n\nEinstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''Time'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\".\n", "\nEinstein received numerous awards and honors and in 1922 he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.\n", ": ''The following publications by Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.''\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . First of a series of papers on this topic.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . The ''chasing a light beam'' thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.\n* Collected Papers: . Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page\n\n", "\n* Albert Einstein House in Princeton\n* \n* Einstein notation\n* ''Einstein Theory of Relativity, The'' (educational film)\n* ''Genius'', a television series depicting Einstein's life\n* Heinrich Burkhardt\n* Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein Museum)\n* History of gravitational theory\n* Introduction to special relativity\n* List of coupled cousins\n* List of German inventors and discoverers\n* Jewish Nobel laureates\n* List of peace activists\n* Nature timeline\n* Political views of Albert Einstein\n* Relativity priority dispute\n* Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein\n* Sticky bead argument\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* , or \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Einstein's Personal Correspondence: Religion, Politics, The Holocaust, and Philosophy Shapell Manuscript Foundation\n* Federal Bureau of Investigation file on Albert Einstein\n* Einstein and his love of music, Physics World\n* Albert Einstein on NobelPrize.org\n* Albert Einstein, videos on History.com\n* – free study course that explores the changing roles of physics and physicists during the 20th century\n* Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents) ( MSNBC, 19 March 2012)\n* Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship on the World Digital Library\n* Albert Einstein Collection at Brandeis University\n* The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein \"Digital Einstein\" at Princeton University\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Biography ", " Scientific career ", " Non-scientific legacy ", " In popular culture ", " Awards and honors ", " Publications ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nArabic calligraphy\n'''Allah''' (; , ) is the Arabic word for God in Abrahamic religions. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from ''al-ilāh'', which means \"the god\", and is related to ''El'' and ''Elohim'', the Hebrew words for God.\n\nThe word ''Allah'' has been used by Arabic people of different religions since pre-Islamic times. More specifically, it has been used as a term for God by Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) and Arab Christians. It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by Bábists, Bahá'ís, Indonesian and Maltese Christians, and Mizrahi Jews. Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies.\n", " The Arabic components that build up the word \"Allah\": \n\nThe etymology of the word ''Allāh'' has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists. Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it as either formed \"spontaneously\" (''murtajal'') or as the definite form of ''lāh'' (from the verbal root ''lyh'' with the meaning of \"lofty\" or \"hidden\"). Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew, but most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article ''al-'' \"the\" and '''' \"deity, god\" to '''' meaning \"the deity\", or \"the God\". The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory, and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism.\n\nCognates of the name \"Allāh\" exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew and Aramaic. The corresponding Aramaic form is ''Elah'' (), but its emphatic state is ''Elaha'' (). It is written as (''ʼĔlāhā'') in Biblical Aramaic and (''ʼAlâhâ'') in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church, both meaning simply \"God\". Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural (but functional singular) form ''Elohim'' (), but more rarely it also uses the singular form ''Eloah'' ().\n", "===Pre-Islamic Arabians===\n\nRegional variants of the word ''Allah'' occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon. The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion. According to one hypothesis, which goes back to Julius Wellhausen, Allah (the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal (the supreme deity of Quraysh) over the other gods. However, there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities. According to that hypothesis, the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca, about a century before the time of Muhammad. Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, but we know nothing precise about this use. Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed. Muhammad's father's name was meaning \"the slave of Allāh\".\n\n===Christianity===\nThe Aramaic word for \"God\" in the language of Assyrian Christians is ''ʼĔlāhā'', or ''Alaha''. Arabic-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word \"Allah\" to mean \"God\". The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for \"God\" than \"Allah\". (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta, whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic, uses ''Alla'' for \"God\".) Arab Christians, for example, use the terms '''' () for God the Father, '''' () for God the Son, and '''' () for God the Holy Spirit. (See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God.)\n\nArab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim '''', and also created their own Trinitized '''' as early as the 8th century. The Muslim '''' reads: \"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\" The Trinitized '''' reads: \"In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, One God.\" The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words \"One God\" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims.\n\nAccording to Marshall Hodgson, it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba, a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator.\n\nSome archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre-Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el-Jimal in Northern Jordan, which contained references to Allah as the proper name of God, and some of the graves contained names such as \"Abd Allah\" which means \"the servant/slave of Allah\".\n\nThe name Allah can be found countless times in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia, as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms.\n\nA Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad was martyred in Najran in 523, as he had worn a ring that said \"Allah is my lord\".\n\nIn an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to Allah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic, which called him \"Allah\" and \"Alaha\", and the inscription starts with the statement \"By the Help of Allah\".\n\nIn pre-Islamic Gospels, the name used for God was \"Allah\", as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia.\n\nPre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry \"''Ya La Ibad Allah''\" (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle.\n\n\"Allah\" was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia.\n\n===Islam===\n\n\nMedallion showing \"Allah Jalla Jalaluhu\" in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.\nAllah script outside Eski Cami (The Old Mosque) in Edirne, Turkey.\nIn Islam, ''Allah'' is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and creator of the universe and is equivalent to God in other Abrahamic religions.\n\nAccording to Islamic belief, Allah is the most common word to represent God, and humble submission to his will, divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith. \"He is the only God, creator of the universe, and the judge of humankind.\" \"He is unique ('''') and inherently one (''''), all-merciful and omnipotent.\" The Qur'an declares \"the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures.\"\n\nIn Islamic tradition, there are 99 Names of God ('''' lit. meaning: 'the best names' or 'the most beautiful names'), each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are \"the Merciful\" (''al-Raḥmān'') and \"the Compassionate\" ('''').\n\nMost Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase '''' (meaning 'if God wills') after references to future events. Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of '''' (meaning 'in the name of God').\n\nThere are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims, including \"Subḥān Allāh\" (Holiness be to God), \"al-ḥamdu lillāh\" (Praise be to God), \"\" (There is no deity but God) and \"Allāhu akbar\" (God is greater) as a devotional exercise of remembering God (dhikr). In a Sufi practice known as ''dhikr Allah'' (lit. remembrance of God), the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name ''Allah'' or other divine names while controlling his or her breath.\n\nSome scholars have suggested that Muḥammad used the term ''Allah'' in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God, a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful. According to Böwering, in contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and jinn. Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God.\n\nAccording to Francis Edwards Peters, \"The Qur’ān insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (). The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham\". Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh, and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites.\n", "===English and other European languages===\nThe history of the name ''Allāh'' in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century; for example, Thomas Carlyle (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muḥammad (1934), Tor Andræ always used the term ''Allah'', though he allows that this \"conception of God\" seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies.\n\nLanguages which may not commonly use the term ''Allah'' to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, the word ''ojalá'' in the Spanish language and ''oxalá'' in the Portuguese language exist today, borrowed from Arabic (Arabic: إن شاء الله). This phrase literally means 'if God wills' (in the sense of \"I hope so\"). The German poet Mahlmann used the form \"Allah\" as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey.\n\nSome Muslims leave the name \"Allāh\" untranslated in English. The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept.\n\n===Malaysian and Indonesian language===\nA.C. Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 recorded \"Allah\" as the translation of the Dutch word \"Godt\".\n\n\nChristians in Malaysia and Indonesia use ''Allah'' to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages (both of which are standardized forms of the Malay language.) Mainstream Bible translations in the language use ''Allah'' as the translation of Hebrew Elohim (translated in English Bibles as \"God\"). This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century. The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin-edition) recorded \"Allah\" as the translation of the Dutch word \"Godt\". Ruyl also translated Matthew in 1612 to Malay language (first Bible translation to non-European language, only a year after King James Version was published), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated Mark which was published in 1638.\n\nThe government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term ''Allah'' in any other but Muslim contexts, but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law, ruling that it was unconstitutional. While ''Allah'' had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries, the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of ''Allah'' by the Roman Catholic newspaper ''The Herald''. The government appealed the court ruling, and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the appeal was heard. In October 2013, the court ruled in favor of the government's ban. In early 2014, the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian state of Sabah and Sarawak. The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab (Bibles) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years. Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia.\n\nAs a reaction to some media criticism, the Malaysian government has introduced a \"10-point solution\" to avoid confusion and misleading information. The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20-point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah.\n\n\n===In other scripts and languages===\n'''' in other languages that use Arabic script is spelled in the same way. This includes Urdu, Persian/Dari, Uyghur among others.\n* Assamese, ''Allah''\n* \n* Chinese (Mandarin): ''Zhēnzhǔ'' (semantic translation as \"the true lord\"), ''Ānlā'', ''Ālā''; or ''Húdà'' (''Khoda'', from Farsi: \"God\")\n* Czech, \n* ''Allách''\n*Filipino: Alā or ''Allah''\n* ''Allah''\n* ''Allāh''\n* ''Aḷḷāh''\n* ''Arā'', ''Arrā'', ''Arrāfu''\n* \n* \n* ''Alla''\n* , also archaic '''' or ''''\n* Russian, Ukrainian, ''Allakh''\n* Serbian, Belarusian, ''Alah''\n* Spanish, \n* ''Alla''\n* ''Anláw''\n* Punjabi (Gurmukhi): ਅੱਲਾਹ ''Allāh'', archaic ਅਲਹੁ ''Alahu'' (in Sikh scriptures)\n* Turkish: Allah\n* Vietnamese: ''Thánh A-la''\n", "The word ''Allah'' written in different writing systems.\nThe word '''' is always written without an to spell the '''' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using '''' to spell ''''. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic '''' is added on top of the '''' to indicate the pronunciation.\n\nOne exception may be in the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription, where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone-standing ''h'' with a lengthened start, or may be a non-standard conjoined '''':-\n* : This reading would be '''' spelled phonetically with '''' for the ''''.\n* : This reading would be '''' = 'the god' (an older form, without contraction), by older spelling practice without '''' for ''''.\n\nMany Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah.\n\n===Unicode===\n\nUnicode has a codepoint reserved for '''', = U+FDF2, in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block, which exists solely for \"compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly\"; this is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word '''' should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature.\n\nThe calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Symbols range, at codepoint U+262B (☫).\n", "* Abdullah (name)\n* Ahura Mazda\n* Names of God\n* Jehovah\n* YHWH\n", "\n", "* The Unicode Consortium, ''Unicode Standard 5.0'', Addison-Wesley, 2006, , About the Unicode Standard Version 5.0 Book\n", "\n\n\n* Names of Allah with Meaning on Website, Flash, and Mobile Phone Software\n* Concept of God (Allah) in Islam\n* The Concept of Allāh According to the Qur'an by Abdul Mannan Omar\n* Allah, the Unique Name of God\n\n; Typography\n* Arabic Fonts and Mac OS X\n* Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Usage", "As a loanword", "Typography", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n'''''Algorithms''''' is a peer-reviewed open access mathematics journal concerning design, analysis, and experiments on algorithms. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2008 by founding editor-in-chief is Kazuo Iwama. Its current editor-in-chief is Henning Fernau.\n", "The journal is abstracted and indexed in Chemical Abstracts Service, Compendex, DBLP Computer Science Bibliography, Inspec, MathSciNet, Scopus, and Zentralblatt MATH.\n", "*''ACM Transactions on Algorithms''\n*''Algorithmica''\n", "\n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Abstracting and indexing ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\nPerseid meteor shower.\n'''Amateur astronomy''' is a hobby whose participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions to the science of astronomy, such as by monitoring variable stars, double stars or occultations of stars by the Moon or asteroids, or by discovering transient objects, such as comets, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies.\nAmateur astronomers do not use the field of astronomy as their primary source of income or support, and usually have no professional degree in astrophysics or advanced academic training in the subject. Most amateurs are beginners or hobbyists, while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and may often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Many astronomers have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework; however, since the beginning of the twentieth century, professional astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from amateur astronomy and associated activities.\n\nAmateur astronomers typically view the sky at night, when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible, but others observe during the daytime by viewing sunspots or solar eclipses. Some just look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes or binoculars, but more dedicated amateurs often use portable telescopes or telescopes situated in their private or club observatories. Amateurs can also join as members of amateur astronomical societies, which can advise, educate or guide them towards ways of finding and observing celestial objects; or even promoting the science of astronomy among the general public.\n", "\nAn image of the Cat's Paw Nebula created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope.\nCollectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including, digital cameras, DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality CCD cameras.\n\nMost amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from space by Karl Jansky. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example.\n", "\n\nPlaces like Paranal Observatory offer crystal clear skies for observing astronomical objects with or without instruments.\n\nAmateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the naked eye, using binoculars, and using a variety of optical telescopes of varying power and quality, as well as additional sophisticated equipment, such as cameras, to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the spectrum. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build (or commission the building of) their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy.\n\nAlthough specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider field of view, which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky.\n\nAmateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple planispheres through to detailed charts of very specific areas of the night sky. A range of astronomy software is available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena.\n\nAmateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings. Although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences.\n\nThe Internet is an essential tool of amateur astronomers.", "\nWhile a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are variations of a few specific techniques.\n\n=== Star hopping ===\n\n'''Star hopping''' is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps (or memory) to locate known landmark stars, and \"hopping\" between them, often with the aid of a finderscope. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars.\n\nMore advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include telescope mounts with ''setting circles'', which assist with pointing telescopes to positions in the sky that are known to contain objects of interest, and ''GOTO telescopes'', which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been calibrated).\n\n=== Setting circles ===\n\n'''Setting circles''' are angular measurement scales that can be placed on the two main rotation axes of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles, any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an \"analog setting circle\" (ASC). By knowing the coordinates of an object (usually given in equatorial coordinates), the telescope user can use the setting circle to align (i.e., point) the telescope in the appropriate direction before looking through its eyepiece. A computerized setting circle is called a \"digital setting circle\" (DSC). Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates, they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes, digital setting circle computers (commercial names include Argo Navis, Sky Commander, and NGC Max) contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions.\n\nTo find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer, one does not need to look up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource, and then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather, the object is chosen from the electronic database, which causes distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values reach zero, indicating that the telescope is properly aligned. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus \"zeroed out\", the object should be in the eyepiece. Many DSCs, like go-to systems, can also work in conjunction with laptop sky programs.\n\nComputerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the ''epoch'' year, which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the \"epoch of date\" to the exact instant of observation.\n\n===GoTo telescopes===\n\n'''GOTO telescopes''' have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on research. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars in order to provide accurate tracking and positioning. However, several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session.\n\n===Remote-controlled telescopes===\nWith the development of fast Internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras \"Remote Telescope\" astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a great distance away in a dark location. The observer can image through the telescope using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the Bareket observatory, and there are telescope farms in New Mexico, Australia and Atacama in Chile.\n\n=== Imaging techniques ===\n\n\nAmateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including film, DSLR, LRGB, and CCD astrophotography. Because CCD imagers are linear, image processing may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution, which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution.\nVideo of the night sky taken with DSLR cameras in Japan.\n", "Scientific research is most often not the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers, unlike professional astronomers. Work of scientific merit is possible, however, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific annually gives Amateur Achievement Awards for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs.\n\nThe majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the American Association of Variable Star Observers, exist to help coordinate these contributions.\n\nAmateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars and supernovae, helping to track asteroids, and observing occultations to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the Moon as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment, but still cheap in comparison to professional setups, amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects, which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g., Kreutz Sungrazers) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet.\n\nIn the past and present, amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new comets. Recently however, funding of projects such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research and Near Earth Asteroid Tracking projects has meant that ''most'' comets are now discovered by automated systems, long before it is possible for amateurs to see them.\n", "\nThere are a large number of amateur astronomical societies around the world, that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy. Members range from active observers with their own equipment to \"armchair astronomers\" who are simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals and activities, which may depend on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size, and membership. For example, a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and star parties, whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by light pollution and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead. Major national or international societies generally publish their own journal or newsletter, and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a scientific conference or convention. They may also have sections devoted to particular topics, such as observing the Moon or amateur telescope making.\n", "\n* George Alcock, discovered several comets and novae.\n* Thomas Bopp, shared the discovery of Comet Hale-Bopp in 1995 with unemployed PhD physicist Alan Hale.\n* Robert Burnham, Jr. (1931–1993), author of the ''Celestial Handbook''.\n* Andrew Ainslie Common (1841–1903), built his own very large reflecting telescopes and demonstrated that photography could record astronomical features invisible to the human eye.\n* Robert E. Cox (1917–1989) who conducted the \"Gleanings for ATMs\" column in ''Sky & Telescope'' magazine for 21 years.\n* John Dobson (1915–2014), whose name is associated with the Dobsonian telescope, a simplified design for Newtonian reflecting telescopes.\n* Robert Owen Evans is a minister of the Uniting Church in Australia and an amateur astronomer who holds the all-time record for visual discoveries of supernovae.\n* Clinton B. Ford (1913–1992), who specialized in the observation of variable stars.\n* John Ellard Gore (1845–1910), who specialized in the observation of variable stars.\n* Edward Halbach (1909-2011), who specialized in the observation of variable stars.\n* Will Hay, the famous comedian and actor, who discovered a white spot on Saturn.\n* Walter Scott Houston (1912–1993) who wrote the \"Deep-Sky Wonders\" column in ''Sky & Telescope'' magazine for almost 50 years.\n* Albert G. Ingalls (1888–1958), editor of ''Amateur Telescope Making, Vols. 1–3'' and \"The Amateur Scientist\". He and Russell Porter are generally credited with having initiated the amateur telescope making movement in the US.\n* David H. Levy discovered or co-discovered 22 comets including Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, the most for any individual.\n* Terry Lovejoy discovered five comets in the 21st century and developed modifications to DSLR cameras for astrophotography.\n* Sir Patrick Moore (1923–2012), presenter of the BBC's long-running ''The Sky at Night'' and author of many books on astronomy.\n* Leslie Peltier (1900–1980), a prolific discoverer of comets and well-known observer of variable stars.\n* John M. Pierce (1886–1958) was one of the founders of the Springfield Telescope Makers. In the 1930s he published a series of 14 articles on telescope making in Hugo Gernsback's \"Everyday Science and Mechanics\" called \"Hobbygraphs\". He is considered one of \"the big three behind the amateur telescope making movement in America\".\n* Russell W. Porter (1871–1949) founded Stellafane and has been referred to as the \"founder\" or one of the \"founders\" of amateur telescope making. Albert G. Ingalls is sometime given credit as co-founder of this movement.\n* Isaac Roberts (1829–1904), early experimenter in astronomical photography.\n* Grote Reber (1911–2002), pioneer of radio astronomy constructing the first purpose built radio telescope and conducted the first sky survey in the radio frequency.\n* Peter Jalowiczor (born in 1966) discovered four exoplanets.\n", "* Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific\n* Chambliss Amateur Achievement Award\n", "\n* Astronomical object\n*List of astronomical societies\n* Observation\n* Observational astronomy\n* Sidewalk astronomy\n* Skygazing\n* Star party\n* Clear Sky Chart Weather forecasts designed for amateur astronomers.\n* Caldwell catalogue A list of astronomical objects for observation by amateur astronomers compiled by Sir Patrick Caldwell-Moore.\n* Messier catalogue A set of astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1771, which is still used by many amateurs as an observing list.\n* List of telescope parts and construction\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n\n* Amateur Astronomy Magazine\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Objectives ", " Common tools ", " Common techniques ", " Scientific research ", " Societies ", "Notable amateur astronomers", " Prizes recognizing amateur astronomers ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\nUeshiba Mitsuteru at the 55th All Japan Aikido Demonstration held at the Nippon Budokan (May 2017)\n\n is a modern Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy, and religious beliefs. Aikido is often translated as \"the way of unifying (with) life energy\" or as \"the way of harmonious spirit\". \n\nUeshiba's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attacker from injury.\n\nAikido's techniques include: irimi (entering), turning movements (that redirect the opponent's attack momentum), various types of throws and joint locks).\n\nAikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the Ōmoto-kyō religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term ''aiki-jūjutsu''.\n\nUeshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker.\n", "ki\" in its old character form \n\nThe word \"aikido\" is formed of three kanji:\n*  – ''ai'' – joining, unifying, combining, fitting\n*  – ''ki'' – spirit, energy, mood, morale\n*  – ''dō'' – way, path\n\nThe term ''aiki'' does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of budō. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word.\n is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine, unite, join together, meet', examples being (combined/united), (composition), (unite/combine/join together), (union/alliance/association), (combine/unify), and (mutual agreement). There is an idea of reciprocity, (to get to know one another), (talk/discussion/negotiation), and (meet by appointment).\n\n is often used to describe a feeling, as in ('I feel X', as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning), and (feeling/sensation); it is used to mean energy or force, as in (electricity) and (magnetism); it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things, as in (spirit/trait/temperament).\n\nThe term is also found in martial arts such as judo and kendo, and in various non-martial arts, such as Japanese calligraphy (), flower arranging () and tea ceremony ().\n\nTherefore, from a purely literal interpretation, aikido is the \"Way of combining forces\", in that the term ''aiki'' refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique.\n", "Ueshiba in Tokyo in 1939\nAikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba ( , 14 December 1883 – 26 April 1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as (''Great Teacher''). The term ''aikido'' was coined in the twentieth century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the ''aiki'' that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.\n\n===Initial development===\nTakeda Sōkaku\nUeshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sōkaku, the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō in Tokyo in 1901, Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with Kiyoichi Takagi ( , 1894–1972) in Tanabe in 1911.\n\nThe art of Daitō-ryū is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (), short staff (), and perhaps the . However, aikido derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship ().\n\nUeshiba moved to Hokkaidō in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915. His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the Daitō-ryū. At that time Ueshiba was referring to his martial art as '''\"Aiki Budō\"'''. It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name \"aikido\", but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society () was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.\n\n===Religious influences===\nOnisaburo Deguchi\nAfter Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (a neo-Shinto movement) in Ayabe. One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. This was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker.\n\nIn addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.\n\n===International dissemination===\nAikido was first brought to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France where he introduced aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952, who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953. Later that year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for a full year, where he set up several dojo. This trip was followed by several further visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by Hiroshi Tada; and Germany in 1965 by Katsuaki Asai. Designated \"Official Delegate for Europe and Africa\" by Morihei Ueshiba, Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961. Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dojo throughout the world.\n\n===Proliferation of independent organizations===\n\n\n\nThe largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation, which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has many styles, mostly formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students.\n\nThe earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido, begun by Minoru Mochizuki in 1931, Yoshinkan Aikido, founded by Gozo Shioda in 1955, and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido.\n\nAfter Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the Aikikai Hombu Dojo's chief instructor Koichi Tohei, in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of ''ki'' development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido, and the organization that governs it, the Ki Society (''Ki no Kenkyūkai'').\n\nA final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in Iwama, Ibaraki and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito. It is unofficially referred to as the \"Iwama style\", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups. One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent Shinshin Aikishuren Kai in 2004 around Saito's son Hitohiro Saito.\n\nToday, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and have an international breadth.\n", "This was the kanji for ''ki'' until 1946, when it was changed to .\n\nThe study of ''ki'' is an important component of aikido, and its study defies categorization as either \"physical\" or \"mental\" training, as it encompasses both. The ''kanji'' for ''ki'' normally is written as . It was written as until the writing reforms after World War II, and this older form still is seen on occasion.\n\nThe character for ''ki'' is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as , or . ''Ki'' has many meanings, including \"ambience\", \"mind\", \"mood\", and \"intention\", however, in traditional martial arts it is often used to refer to \"life energy\". Gōzō Shioda's Yoshinkan Aikido, considered one of the \"hard styles\", largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to ''ki'' lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point. In later years, Ueshiba's application of ''ki'' in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This was his Takemusu Aiki and many of his later students teach about ''ki'' from this perspective. Koichi Tohei's Ki Society centers almost exclusively around the study of the empirical (albeit subjective) experience of ''ki'' with students ranked separately in aikido techniques and ''ki'' development.\n", "In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, beginners learn how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and pins. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons.\n\n===Fitness===\nUkemi () is very important for safe practice\nPhysical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled relaxation, correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders, flexibility, and endurance, with less emphasis on strength training. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner.\n\nIn aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to yoga or pilates. For example, many dojos begin each class with , which may include stretching and ukemi (break falls).\n\n===Roles of ''uke'' and ''tori''===\nAikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (''kata'') rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (''uke'') to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the ''tori'', or ''shite'' (depending on aikido style), also referred to as ''nage'' (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique.\n\nBoth halves of the technique, that of ''uke'' and that of ''tori'', are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. ''Tori'' learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while ''uke'' learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which ''tori'' places them. This \"receiving\" of the technique is called ''ukemi''. ''Uke'' continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while ''tori'' uses position and timing to keep ''uke'' off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, ''uke'' will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw ''tori''.\n\n refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good ''ukemi'' involves attention to the technique, the partner and the immediate environment—it is an active rather than a passive receiving of aikido. The fall itself is part of aikido, and is a way for the practitioner to receive, safely, what would otherwise be a devastating strike or throw.\n\n===Initial attacks===\nAikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, sincere attacks (a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique.\n\nMany of the of aikido resemble cuts from a sword or other grasped object, which indicate its origins in techniques intended for armed combat. Other techniques, which explicitly appear to be punches (''tsuki''), are practiced as thrusts with a knife or sword. Kicks are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include:\n* a vertical knifehand strike to the head. In training, this is usually directed at the forehead or the crown for safety, but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the maxillary sinus.\n* a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck.\n* a punch to the torso. Specific targets include the chest, abdomen, and solar plexus. Same as , and .\n* a punch to the face. Same as .\n\nBeginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and lines of force of a hold than a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a weapon; a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker who is grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs:\n* one hand grabs one wrist.\n* both hands grab one wrist. Same as \n* both hands grab both wrists. Same as .\n* a shoulder grab. \"Both-shoulders-grab\" is . It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as .\n* grabbing the (clothing of the) chest. Same as .\n\n===Basic techniques===\n\nDiagram of ''ikkyō'', or \"first technique\". ''Yonkyō'' has a similar mechanism of action, although the upper hand grips the forearm rather than the elbow.\nThe following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles, so what follows are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order.\n* a control using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which leverages ''uke'' to the ground. This grip applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist.\n* a pronating wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an adductive wristlock or Z-lock in ''ura'' version.)\n* a rotational wristlock that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder.\n* a shoulder control similar to ''ikkyō'', but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone.\n* visually similar to ''ikkyō'', but with an inverted grip of the wrist, medial rotation of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in knife and other weapon take-aways.\n* the hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint.\n* a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum.\n* a loosely used term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques, although they generally do not use joint locks like other techniques.\n* throws in which ''tori'' moves through the space occupied by ''uke''. The classic form superficially resembles a \"clothesline\" technique.\n* beginning with ''ryōte-dori''; moving forward, ''tori'' sweeps one hand low (\"earth\") and the other high (\"heaven\"), which unbalances ''uke'' so that he or she easily topples over.\n* aikido's version of the hip throw. ''Tori'' drops their hips lower than those of ''uke'', then flips ''uke'' over the resultant fulcrum.\n* or a throw that locks the arms against each other (the kanji for \"10\" is a cross-shape: 十).\n* ''Tori'' sweeps the arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw.\n\n===Implementations===\nDiagram showing two versions of the ''ikkyō'' technique: one moving forward (the ''omote'' version) and one moving backward (the ''ura'' version). See text for more details.\n\nAikido is more of a defensive martial art. It makes use of body movement (''tai sabaki'') to blend with ''uke''. For example, an \"entering\" (''irimi'') technique consists of movements inward towards ''uke'', while a technique uses a pivoting motion.\nAdditionally, an technique takes place in front of ''uke'', whereas an technique takes place to their side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of ''uke'', and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of ''uke'', usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (''seiza''). Techniques where both ''uke'' and ''tori'' are standing are called ''tachi-waza'', techniques where both start off in ''seiza'' are called ''suwari-waza'', and techniques performed with ''uke'' standing and ''tori'' sitting are called ''hanmi handachi'' ().\n\nThus, from fewer than twenty basic techniques, there are thousands of possible implementations. For instance, ''ikkyō'' can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an ''ura'' type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an ''omote-waza'' version). Specific aikido ''kata'' are typically referred to with the formula \"attack-technique(-modifier)\". For instance, ''katate-dori ikkyō'' refers to any ''ikkyō'' technique executed when ''uke'' is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as ''katate-dori ikkyō omote'', referring to any forward-moving ''ikkyō'' technique from that grab.\n\n''Atemi'' () are strikes (or feints) employed during an aikido technique. Some view ''atemi'' as attacks against \"vital points\" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, Gōzō Shioda described using ''atemi'' in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider ''atemi'', especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques. A strike, whether or not it is blocked, can startle the target and break their concentration. The target may become unbalanced in attempting to avoid the blow, for example by jerking the head back, which may allow for an easier throw.\nMany sayings about ''atemi'' are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.\n\n===Weapons===\nDisarming an attacker using a technique.\nWeapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (''jō''), wooden sword (''bokken''), and knife (''tantō''). Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques. Both weapon-taking and weapon-retention are taught. Some schools, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time with ''bokken'' and ''jō'', practised under the names ''aiki-ken'', and ''aiki-jō'', respectively.\n\nThe founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword and spear movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s).\n\n===Multiple attackers and ''randori''===\n\nOne feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called ''taninzudori'', or ''taninzugake''. Freestyle practice with multiple attackers, called ''randori'' () or ''jiyūwaza'' (), is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher level ranks. ''Randori'' exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in ''randori'' training. For instance, an ''ura'' technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind.\n\nIn Shodokan Aikido, ''randori'' differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo ''randori''.\n\n===Injuries===\nIn applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of ''tori'' to prevent injury to ''uke'' by employing a speed and force of application that is commensurate with their partner's proficiency in ''ukemi''. Injuries (especially those to the joints), when they do occur in aikido, are often the result of ''tori'' misjudging the ability of ''uke'' to receive the throw or pin.\n\nA study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other.\nSoft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido, as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes. Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries, caused by aggressive ''shihōnage'' in a senpai/kōhai hazing context, have been reported.\n\n===Mental training===\nAikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the bold enter-and-blend movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one \"must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face\" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.\n", "Hakama are folded after practice to preserve the pleats.\nAikido practitioners (commonly called ''aikidōka'' outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of \"grades\" (''kyū''), followed by a series of \"degrees\" (''dan''), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and black belts to distinguish ''kyu'' and ''dan'' grades, though some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. Some dojos do not allow students to take the test to obtain a ''dan'' rank unless they are 16 or older.\n\n\n rank !! belt !! color !! type\n\n ''kyū'' \n 65px \n white \n ''mudansha'' / ''yūkyūsha''\n\n ''dan'' \n 65px \n black \n ''yūdansha''\n\n\nThe uniform worn for practicing aikido (''aikidōgi'') is similar to the training uniform (''keikogi'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick (\"judo-style\"), and thin (\"karate-style\") cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow.\n\nMost aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers called a ''hakama'' (used also in kendo and iaido). In many schools, its use is reserved for practitioners with (''dan'') ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a ''hakama'' regardless of rank.\n", "The most common criticism of aikido is that it suffers from a lack of realism in training. The attacks initiated by ''uke'' (and which ''tori'' must defend against) have been criticized as being \"weak\", \"sloppy\", and \"little more than caricatures of an attack\".\nWeak attacks from ''uke'' allow for a conditioned response from ''tori'', and result in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners. To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practising in a competitive format. Such adaptations are debated between styles, with some maintaining that there is no need to adjust their methods because either the criticisms are unjustified, or that they are not training for self-defense or combat effectiveness, but spiritual, fitness or other reasons.\n\nAnother criticism pertains to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by ''tori'', entering (''irimi'') and initiation of techniques by ''tori'', the distinction between ''omote'' (front side) and ''ura'' (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Some Aikido practitioners feel that lack of training in these areas leads to an overall loss of effectiveness.\n\nConversely, some styles of aikido receive criticism for not placing enough importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of Aikido Journal, \"O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts.\" That is, that aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional ''jujutsu'' or ''kenjutsu'' are diverging from what Ueshiba taught. Such critics urge practitioners to embrace the assertion that \"Ueshiba's transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals of the paradigm that he demonstrated.\"\n", "\n\n", "\n\n* AikiWeb Aikido Information site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Etymology and basic philosophy", "History", "Ki", "Training", "Uniforms and ranking", "Criticisms", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\nClockwise from upper left: a self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from ''The Birth of Venus'' by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion.\n\n'''Art''' is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, auditory or performing artifacts (artworks), expressing the author's imaginative or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art.\n\nThe oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including today painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. \n\nArchitecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential—in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example. \n\nMusic, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of art or the arts. Until the 17th century, ''art'' referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. \n\nIn modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts.\n\nArt may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as \"a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science\". \n\nThough the definition of what constitutes art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency and creation.\n\nThe nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics.\n", "\n\nIn the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early pre-historic art to contemporary art; however, some theories restrict the concept of \"artistic works\" to modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of ''art'' is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to \"skill\" or \"craft,\" as associated with words such as \"artisan.\" English words derived from this meaning include ''artifact'', ''artificial'', ''artifice'', ''medical arts'', and ''military arts''. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology.\n20th-century Rwandan bottle. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.\n\nFew modern scholars have been more divided than Plato and Aristotle on the question concerning the importance of art, with Aristotle strongly supporting art in general and Plato generally being opposed to its relative importance. \n\nSeveral dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''Phaedrus ''(265a–c), and yet in the ''''Republic'''' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In ''Ion'', Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the ''Republic''. The dialogue ''Ion'' suggests that Homer's ''Iliad'' functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. \n\nWith regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.\n\nThe second, and more recent, sense of the word ''art'' as an abbreviation for ''creative art'' or ''fine art'' emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or ''finer'' work of art.\n\nWithin this latter sense, the word ''art'' may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (''art'' as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce ''artworks'' (''art'' as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression.\n\nOften, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.\n\nThe nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as \"one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture\". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as ''mimesis'' or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. Benedetto Croce and R.G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and was developed in the early twentieth century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as \"the art world\" has conferred \"the status of candidate for appreciation\". Larry Shiner has described fine art as \"not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.\"\n", "\nVenus of Willendorf, ''circa'' 24,000–22,000 BP\n\nSculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The oldest art objects in the world—a series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years. Etched shells by ''Homo erectus'' from 430,000 and 540,000 years ago were discovered in 2014.\n\nCave painting of a horse from the Lascaux caves, ''circa'' 16,000 BP\n\nMany great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions.\n\nIn Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe.\n\nRenaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.\nThe stylized signature of Sultan Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads ''Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious''.\nGreat Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the finest, most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.\n\nIn the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning terracotta army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming Dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century.\n\nPainting by Song dynasty artist Ma Lin, ''circa'' 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm\n\nThe western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others.\n\nThe history of twentieth-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence.\n\nModernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, \"It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist.\" Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones.\n", "''Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne'' by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas\n\nThe creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form. '''''Art form''''' refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae), such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include visual design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm.\n\nIn general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e., denotations and connotations – while others prefer terms like meaning and significance.\n\nExtreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist's experience of that subject. For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as \"Emperor-God beyond time and space\". Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is \"socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise\".\n\nFinally, the developing theory of post-structuralism studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art.\n\n===Skill and craft===\nAdam. Detail from Michelangelo's fresco in the Sistine Chapel (1511)\nDetail of Leonardo da Vinci's ''Mona Lisa'', showing the painting technique of ''sfumato''\n\n\nArt can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations.\n\nThere is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes.\nA common view is that the epithet \"art\", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled.\n\nA common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's \"Fountain\" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects (\"ready-made\") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's ''My Bed'', or Damien Hirst's ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'' follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating ''hands-on'' works of art.\n", "A Navajo rug made ''circa'' 1880\nMozarabic Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century\nArt has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is \"vague\", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).\n\n===Non-motivated functions ===\nThe non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.\n# ''Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm.'' Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.\"Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry.\" -Aristotle\n# ''Experience of the mysterious.'' Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.\"The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science.\" -Albert Einstein\n# ''Expression of the imagination.'' Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.\"Jupiter's eagle as an example of art is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken.\" -Immanuel Kant\n# ''Ritualistic and symbolic functions.'' In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.\"Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'.\" -Silva Tomaskova\n\n\n===Motivated functions ===\nMotivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply as a form of communication.\n# ''Communication.'' Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.\"Art is a set of artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication.\" -Steve Mithen\n# ''Art as entertainment''. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games.\n# ''The Avante-Garde. Art for political change.'' One of the defining functions of early twentieth-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the ''avante-garde'' arts.\"By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life.\" -André Breton (Surrealism)\n# ''Art as a \"free zone\"'', removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation.\n# ''Art for social inquiry, subversion and/or anarchy.'' While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society.Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).\n# ''Art for social causes.'' Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in Darfur, murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution.\n# ''Art for psychological and healing purposes.'' Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.\n# ''Art for propaganda, or commercialism.'' Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object.\n# ''Art as a fitness indicator.'' It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionary important because it attracted mates.\n\nThe functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.\n", "Versailles: Louis Le Vau opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance ''cour d'honneur'', later copied all over Europe.\n\nSince ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society. \n\nNevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite, though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once coins were widely used these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society. \n\nAnother important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries.\n\nPublic buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside.\n\nSpecial arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established.\n\nMost modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.\n\nPerformance by Joseph Beuys, 1978: ''Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism''\n\nThere have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is \"necessary to present something more than mere objects\" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. \"Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... have endeavored to undermine the art object qua object.\"\n\nIn the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. \"With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.\"\n", "Théodore Géricault's ''Raft of the Medusa'', ''circa'' 1820\n\nArt has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The ''Last Judgment'' by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ.\n\nThe content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault's ''Raft of the Medusa'' (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet's ''Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe'' (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's ''Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)'' (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation.\n\nThe gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso's ''Guernica'' (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's ''Interrogation III'' (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's ''Piss Christ'' (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.\n", "\nBefore Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature.\n\nThe definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.\n\n===Arrival of Modernism===\n''Composition II in Red, Blue, and Yellow'' (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)\nThe arrival of Modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article \"Modernist Painting\" defines modern art as \"the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself\". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting:\n After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as Michael Fried, T. J. Clark, Rosalind Krauss, Linda Nochlin and Griselda Pollock among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century.\n\nPop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond ''high art'' to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography.\n\nDuchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind- everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. ''The Invention of Art: A Cultural History'' is an art history book which examines the construction of the modern system of the arts i.e. Fine Art. Shiner finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity i.e. Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music but also; cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming etc.\n\n===New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\"===\nFollowing Duchamp during the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy''. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist.\n\nIn 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled \"The Intentional Fallacy\", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or \"intended meaning\" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.\n\nIn another essay, \"The Affective Fallacy,\" which served as a kind of sister essay to \"The Intentional Fallacy\" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay \"Literature in the Reader\" (1970).\n\nAs summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay \"The Creation of Art\": \"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms's assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.\" These authors contend that: \"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.\"\n\nGaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: \"Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.\" They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, \"The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.\"\n\n===\"Linguistic turn\" and its debate===\nThe end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the linguistic turn controversy, or the \"innocent eye debate\", and generally referred to as the structuralism-poststructuralism debate in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art. \n\nDecisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled \"The Innocent Eye\" as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is ''not'' a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt. Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book ''Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols'' came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.\n", "\nFountain'' by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of ''The Warriors'' by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen. Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's ''Fountain'', the movies, superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, \"the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life\" are \"so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art\" (Novitz, 1996). According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the ''Daily Mail'' criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing \"For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all\" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that \"the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood.\"\n\nAnti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with Dadaism and attributed to Marcel Duchamp just before World War I, when he was making art from found objects. One of these, ''Fountain'' (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by Situationist International, the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, though it is a form still rejected by the Stuckists, who describe themselves as anti-anti-art.\n\n===Value judgment===\nAboriginal hollow log tombs. National Gallery, Canberra, Australia\n\nSomewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as \"that meal was a work of art\" (the cook is an artist), or \"the art of deception\", (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'' is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, \"good\" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3rd of May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.\n\nThe assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''zeitgeist''. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human.\n", "\n\n\n* Art movement\n* Artist in residence\n* Formal analysis\n* List of artistic media\n* Mathematics and art\n* Street art (or \"independent public art\")\n* Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of art presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.\n\n\n\n", "\n", "* Shiner, Larry. ''The Invention of Art: A Cultural History''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. \n* Arthur Danto, ''The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art.'' 2003\n* Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) ''Art and Thought''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003\n* Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) ''Art History Aesthetics Visual Studies''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. \n* John Whitehead. ''Grasping for the Wind'', 2001\n* Noel Carroll, ''Theories of Art Today'', 2000\n* Evelyn Hatcher, ed. ''Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art'', 1999\n* Catherine de Zegher (ed.). ''Inside the Visible''. MIT Press, 1996\n* Nina Felshin, ed. ''But is it Art?'', 1995\n* Stephen Davies, ''Definitions of Art'', 1991\n* Oscar Wilde, ''Intentions'', 1891.\n* Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, ''Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980'', 2005\n", "* Shiner, Larry. ''The Invention of Art: A Cultural History''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. \n* Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. ''The New Story of Science: mind and the universe'', Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. (this book has significant material on art and science)\n* Richard Wollheim, ''Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics''. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. \n* Carl Jung, ''Man and His Symbols''. London: Pan Books, 1978. \n* Benedetto Croce. ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic'', 2002\n* Władysław Tatarkiewicz, ''A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics'', translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980\n* Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. ''Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes)'' Wadsworth, 2004. (vol 1) and (vol 2)\n* Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. ''Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986\n* Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. ''Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research''. London: Koening Books, 2012. \n* Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson, eds. ''Art and Thought''. London: Blackwell, 2003. \n* Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. ''Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image''. London and NY: I.B.Tauris, 2010. \n* Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. ''Women Artists at the Millennium''. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. \n* Katharine Everett Gilbert and Helmut Kuhn, ''A History of Esthetics''. Edition 2, revised. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1953.\n* E.H. Gombrich, ''The Story of Art''. London: Phaidon Press, 1995. \n", "\n\n\n* ''Art and Play'' from the Dictionary of the History of ideas\n* In-depth directory of art\n* '' Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection'' (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries\n* Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) – online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities\n* RevolutionArt – Art magazines with worldwide exhibitions, callings and competitions\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Creative art and fine art", "History", "Forms, genres, media, and styles", "Purpose ", "Public access", "Controversies", "Theory", "Classification disputes", "See also", "Notes", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n'''Agnostida''' is an order of arthropod which first developed near the end of the Early Cambrian period and thrived during the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from the Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida orders. The last agnostids went extinct in the Late Ordovician.\n", "The Agnostida are divided into two suborders — Agnostina and Eodiscina — that are then subdivided into a number of families. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning that their pygidium is similar in size and shape to their cephalon. Most agnostid species were eyeless.\n\nThe systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a stem group. The challenge to the status has focused on the Agnostina partly because juveniles of one genus have been found with legs greatly different from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are not members of the lamellipedian clade, of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the proximal endite, which defines that group. They are likely the sister taxon to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade Crustaceomorpha. Other researchers have suggested, based on a cladistic analyses of dorsal exoskeletal features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and that the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order Ptychopariida.\n", "Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic or a benthic lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites all suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. In contrast, their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved ostracodan-type lifestyle. Furthermore, the orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill-suited for benthic living. However, recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly manifesting pack-hunting behavior.\n\nThey are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty hyolith conchs, within sponges, worm tubes and under the carapaces of bivalved arthropods, presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food. In the case of the tapering worm tubes ''Selkirkia'', trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter.\n", "\n", "* Order Agnostida by Sam Gon III.\n* The Virtual Fossil Museum – Trilobite Order Agnostida\n* Agnostida fact sheet by Sam Gon III.\n* \"Earth's Early Cannibals Caught in the Act\", by Larry O'Hanlon, news.discovery.com.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Systematics", "Ecology", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Abortion''' is the ending of pregnancy by removing a fetus or embryo before it can survive outside the uterus. An abortion that occurs spontaneously is also known as a miscarriage. An abortion may be caused purposely and is then called an induced abortion, or less frequently, \"induced miscarriage\". The word ''abortion'' is often used to mean only induced abortions. A similar procedure after the fetus could potentially survive outside the womb is known as a \"late termination of pregnancy\".\n\n\nWhen allowed by law, abortion in the developed world is one of the safest procedures in medicine. Modern methods use medication or surgery for abortions. The drug mifepristone in combination with prostaglandin appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the first and second trimester of pregnancy. Birth control, such as the pill or intrauterine devices, can be used immediately following abortion. When performed legally and safely, induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term mental or physical problems. In contrast, unsafe abortions (those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities) cause 47,000 deaths and 5 million hospital admissions each year. The World Health Organization recommends safe and legal abortions be available to all women.\n\n\nAround 56 million abortions are performed each year in the world, with about 45% done unsafely. Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008, before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to family planning and birth control increased. , 40% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason. Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed.\n\n\nHistorically, abortions have been done using herbal medicines, sharp tools, with force, or through other traditional methods. Abortion laws and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world. In some areas abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape, problems with the fetus, poverty, risk to a woman's health, or incest. In many places there is much debate over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion. Those who oppose abortion often maintain that an embryo or fetus is a human with a right to life and may compare abortion to murder. Those who favor the legality of abortion often hold that a woman has a right to make decisions about her own body. \n\n", "\n===Induced===\n\nApproximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide. Over a third are unintended and about a fifth end in induced abortion. Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies. In the United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The manner selected often depends upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses. Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor or a women's personal preference.\n\nReasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman; prevent harm to the woman's physical or mental health; terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of premature morbidity or mortality or be otherwise disabled; or to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy. An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term \"elective\" because \"elective surgery\" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not.\n\n===Spontaneous===\n\nSpontaneous abortion, also known as miscarriage, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is known as a \"premature birth\" or a \"preterm birth\". When a fetus dies in utero after viability, or during delivery, it is usually termed \"stillborn\". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap.\n\nOnly 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the first trimester. The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is aware of the conception, and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester.\n\nThe most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a women's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide.\n", "\n\n===Medical===\n\n\nMedical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the antiprogestogen mifepristone (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s.\n\nThe most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog (misoprostol or gemeprost) up to 9 weeks gestational age, methotrexate in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone. Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone. This regime is effective in the second trimester. Medical abortion regiments involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 63 days' gestation.\n\nIn very early abortions, up to 7 weeks gestation, medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue. Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age. If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure.\n\nEarly medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in Britain, France, Switzerland, and the Nordic countries. In the United States, the percentage of early medical abortions is far lower.\n\nMedical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second-trimester abortions in Canada, most of Europe, China and India, in contrast to the United States where 96% of second-trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation.\n\n===Surgical===\nA vacuum aspiration abortion at eight weeks gestational age (six weeks after fertilization).'''1:''' Amniotic sac'''2:''' Embryo'''3:''' Uterine lining'''4:''' Speculum'''5:''' Vacurette'''6:''' Attached to a suction pump\n\nUp to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. ''Manual vacuum aspiration'' (MVA) consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta, and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while ''electric vacuum aspiration'' (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, in how early in pregnancy they can be used, and in whether cervical dilation is necessary.\n\nMVA, also known as \"mini-suction\" and \"menstrual extraction\", can be used in very early pregnancy, and does not require cervical dilation. Dilation and curettage (D&C), the second most common method of surgical abortion, is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. Curettage refers to cleaning the walls of the uterus with a curette. The World Health Organization recommends this procedure, also called ''sharp curettage,'' only when MVA is unavailable.\n\nFrom the 15th week of gestation until approximately the 26th, other techniques must be used. Dilation and evacuation (D&E) consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can also be induced by intact dilation and extraction (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation. IDX is sometimes called \"partial-birth abortion\", which has been federally banned in the United States.\n\nIn the third trimester of pregnancy, induced abortion may be performed surgically by intact dilation and extraction or by hysterotomy. Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy.\n\nFirst-trimester procedures can generally be performed using local anesthesia, while second-trimester methods may require deep sedation or general anesthesia.\n\n===Labor induction abortion===\n\nIn places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or where preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary. This is sometimes called \"induced miscarriage\". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries.\n\nOnly limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction. Unlike D&E, labor induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor induced abortion is legally risky in the U.S.\n\n===Other methods===\nHistorically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine: tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium. The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as multiple organ failure, and is not recommended by physicians.\n\nAbortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld.\n\nReported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol, and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These methods are rarely seen in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and available. All of these, and any other method to terminate pregnancy may be called \"induced miscarriage\".\n\n", "An abortion flyer in South Africa\n\nThe health risks of abortion depend principally upon whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely. The World Health Organization defines unsafe abortions as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities. Legal abortions performed in the developed world are among the safest procedures in medicine. In the US, the risk of maternal death from abortion is 0.7 per 100,000 procedures, making abortion about 13 times safer for women than childbirth (8.8 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births). The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth through at least 21 weeks' gestation. Outpatient abortion is as safe and effective from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it is from 57 to 63 days. In the United States from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a lower mortality rate than plastic surgery.\n\nVacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a primary care office, abortion clinic, or hospital. Complications are rare and can include uterine perforation, pelvic infection, and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate. Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in the United States. The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office. Preventive antibiotics (such as doxycycline or metronidazole) are typically given before elective abortion, as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection. The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a mid-level practitioner. Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar to those after first-trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen.\n\nThere is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 9 weeks gestation. Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion.\n\nSome purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups,\nbut lack scientific support. For example, the question of a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the World Health Organization, National Cancer Institute, American Cancer Society, Royal College of OBGYN and American Congress of OBGYN) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer.\n\n===Mental health===\n\n\nThere is no relationship between most induced abortions and mental-health problems other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. The American Psychological Association has concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called \"post-abortion syndrome\", which is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States.\n\n===Unsafe abortion===\n\n\nSoviet poster circa 1925, warning against midwives performing abortions. Title translation: \"Abortions performed by either trained or self-taught midwives not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death.\"\n\nWomen seeking to terminate their pregnancies sometimes resort to unsafe methods, particularly when access to legal abortion is restricted. They may attempt to self-abort or rely on another person who does not have proper medical training or access to proper facilities. This has a tendency to lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis, hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs.\n\nUnsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in developing countries. Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries. Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all maternal deaths. The World Health Organization believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s. To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services. However, the Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health, signed in 2012, notes that \"the prohibition of abortion does not affect, in any way, the availability of optimal care to pregnant women\".\n\nA major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is legal and available. For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications, with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%. Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as Romania and Nepal. A 2011 study concluded that in the United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state. The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion. In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally. Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, \"induced miscarriage\", \"menstrual regulation\", \"mini-abortion\", and \"regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation\".\n\nForty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits, while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria. While maternal mortality seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year. Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide, though this varies by region. Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women. The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008. Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon.\n\n===Live birth===\n\nAlthough it is very uncommon, women undergoing surgical abortion after 18 weeks gestation sometimes give birth to a fetus that may survive briefly. Longer term survival is possible after 22 weeks.\n\nIf medical staff observe signs of life, they may be required to provide care: emergency medical care if the child has a good chance of survival and palliative care if not. Induced fetal demise before termination of pregnancy after 20–21 weeks gestation is recommended to avoid this.\n\nDeath following live birth which is caused by abortion is given the ICD-10 underlying cause description code of P96.4; data are identified as either fetus or newborn. Between 1999 and 2013, in the U.S., the CDC recorded 531 such deaths for newborns, approximately 4 per 100,000 abortions.\n", "There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion:\n* Abortion rate – number of abortions per 1000 women between 15 and 44 years of age\n* Abortion percentage – number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies (pregnancies include live births, abortions and miscarriages)\n\nIn many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable. For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error.\n\nThe number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years, with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women, though it was 24 per 1000 women for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women for developing countries. The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries.\n\nOn average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However, restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions which are performed unsafely. The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the Guttmacher Institute, providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide.\n\nThe rate of legal, induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women (Germany and Switzerland) to 30 per 1000 women (Estonia) in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% (Israel, the Netherlands and Switzerland) to 30% (Estonia) in the same group, though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania, whose statistics were deemed incomplete.\n\nThe abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years; this is referred to as ''total abortion rate'' (TAR).\n\n===Gestational age and method===\n\n\nAbortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that 26% of abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks' gestation, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 9.7% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6.2% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4.1% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1.4% at more than 21 weeks. 90.9% of these were classified as having been done by \"curettage\" (suction-aspiration, dilation and curettage, dilation and evacuation), 7.7% by \"medical\" means (mifepristone), 0.4% by \"intrauterine instillation\" (saline or prostaglandin), and 1.0% by \"other\" (including hysterotomy and hysterectomy). According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion.\n\nThe Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for 0.17% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 1.5% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries.\n", "\n===Personal===\nThe reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world.\nAGI meta-study on the reasons women stated for having an abortion. Some of the most common reasons are to postpone childbearing to a more suitable time or to focus energies and resources on existing children. Others include being unable to afford a child either in terms of the direct costs of raising a child or the loss of income while caring for the child, lack of support from the father, inability to afford additional children, desire to provide schooling for existing children, disruption of one's own education, relationship problems with their partner, a perception of being too young to have a child, unemployment, and not being willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest, among others.\n\n===Societal===\nSome abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race, disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward population control (such as China's one-child policy). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sex-selective abortion.\n\nAn American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using condoms and three-quarters of those using the birth-control pill; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that \"most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women\" because minority women \"have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy.\"\n\n===Maternal and fetal health===\nAn additional factor is risk to maternal or fetal health, which was cited as the primary reason for abortion in over a third of cases in some countries and as a significant factor in only a single-digit percentage of abortions in other countries.\n\nIn the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in ''Roe vs Wade'' and ''Doe vs Bolton'': \"ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their \"medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother.\" On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: \"The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment.\"\n\nPublic opinion shifted in America following television personality Sherri Finkbine's discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been exposed to thalidomide, unable to abort in the United States she traveled to Sweden. From 1962-65 there was an outbreak of German measles that left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects. In 1967, the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws. A National Opinion Research Center poll in 1965 showed 73% supported abortion when the mothers life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.\n\n====Cancer====\n\nThe rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for cervical cancer, the most common type which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment \"cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless neoadjuvant chemotherapy is chosen)\". Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection, radiation therapy, or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because lumpectomy is discouraged in favor of modified radical mastectomy unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth.\n\nExposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of teratogenic effects on the fetus, with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40 Gy of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester, especially 8 to 15 weeks of development, can cause intellectual disability or microcephaly, and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in IQ. It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding, depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus.\n\nThe process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. \"Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels, haemorrhage, cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site, while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of non-surgical treatment.\"\n", "\nBas-relief at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, c. 1150, depicting a demon inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a pestle.\"French Periodical Pills.\" An example of a clandestine advertisement published in a January 1845 edition of the ''Boston Daily Times''.\nSince ancient times abortions have been done using herbal medicines, sharp tools, with force, or through other traditional methods. Induced abortion has long history, and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as China under Shennong (c. 2700 BCE), Ancient Egypt with its Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), and the Roman Empire in the time of Juvenal (c. 200 CE). There is evidence to suggest that pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. One of the earliest known artistic representations of abortion is in a bas relief at Angkor Wat (c. 1150). Found in a series of friezes that represent judgment after death in Hindu and Buddhist culture, it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion.\n\nSome medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the Hippocratic Oath forbade Ancient Greek physicians from performing abortions; other scholars disagree with this interpretation, and state the medical texts of Hippocratic Corpus contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the Oath. The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, as did Soranus, although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work ''Gynaecology'', one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health.\n\nAristotle, in his treatise on government ''Politics'' (350 BCE), condemns infanticide as a means of population control. He preferred abortion in such cases, with the restriction \" must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life; for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive.\" In Christianity, Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) was the first Pope to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of pregnancy; the Catholic Church had previously been divided on whether it believed that abortion was murder, and did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century. Islamic tradition has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus, considered by various theologians to be at conception, 40 days after conception, 120 days after conception, or quickening. However, abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the Middle East and North Africa.\n\nIn Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques. Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice (sometimes called ''restellism'') was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in anti-abortion movements. In the US, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer. *\n* Soviet Russia (1919), Iceland (1935) and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion. In 1935 Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed \"hereditarily ill\", while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries.\nA bill passed by the state legislature of New York legalizing abortion was signed by Governor Nelson Rockefeller in April 1970.\n", "\n===Abortion debate===\n \nInduced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related to value systems. Opinions of abortion may be about fetal rights, governmental authority, and women's rights.\n\nIn both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. The World Medical Association Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes that \"circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated\". Abortion debates, especially pertaining to abortion laws, are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions. Anti-abortion groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion, including complete prohibition, most often describe themselves as \"pro-life\" while abortion rights groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as \"pro-choice\". Generally, the former position argues that a human fetus is a human person with a right to live, making abortion morally the same as murder. The latter position argues that a woman has certain reproductive rights, especially the choice whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term.\n\n===Modern abortion law===\n\n\n\n\nCurrent laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or absence of laws controlling abortion.\n\nIn jurisdictions where abortion is legal, certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a safe, legal abortion (an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered feticide). These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus, often using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of legality, or as in the U.S., on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' viability. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development, or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion. Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the consent of the fetus' father before aborting the fetus, that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including \"risks\" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China, which has ended their one-child policy, and now has a two child policy. has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy.\n\nOther jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship. In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as Nicaragua, medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies. Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene. This is also a terminology in traditional medicine. In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies. Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves.\n\n===Sex-selective abortion===\n\n\nSonography and amniocentesis allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to sex-selective abortion, or the termination of a fetus based on sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common.\n\nSex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan, South Korea, India, and China. This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening. In China, a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the one-child policy, which was enacted in 1979.\n\nMany countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the International Conference on Population and Development in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate \"all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference\", conditions which were also condemned by a PACE resolution in 2011. The World Health Organization and UNICEF, along with other United Nations agencies, have found that measures to reduce access to abortion are much less effective at reducing sex-selective abortions than measures to reduce gender inequality.\n\n===Anti-abortion violence===\n\nIn a number of cases, abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence, including murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, stalking, assault, arson, and bombing. Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism. Only a small fraction of those opposed to abortion commit violence.\n\nIn the United States, four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered: David Gunn (1993), John Britton (1994), Barnett Slepian (1998), and George Tiller (2009). Also murdered, in the U.S. and Australia, have been other personnel at abortion clinics, including receptionists and security guards such as James Barrett, Shannon Lowney, Lee Ann Nichols, and Robert Sanderson. Woundings (e.g., Garson Romalis) and attempted murders have also taken place in the United States and Canada. Hundreds of bombings, arsons, acid attacks, invasions, and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred. Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include Eric Robert Rudolph, Scott Roeder, Shelley Shannon, and Paul Jennings Hill, the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider.\n\nLegal protection of access to abortion has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal. These laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction, vandalism, picketing, and other actions, or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment.\n\nFar more common than physical violence is psychological pressure. In 2003, Chris Danze organized pro-life organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a Planned Parenthood facility in Austin. The organizations released the personal information online, of those involved with construction, sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches. Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera.\n", "\n\n\nSpontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep, it may be caused by crowding through doors, or being chased by dogs. In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as brucellosis or ''Campylobacter'', but can often be controlled by vaccination. Eating pine needles can also induce abortions in cows. In horses, a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has lethal white syndrome (congenital intestinal aganglionosis). Foal embryos that are homozygous for the dominant white gene (WW) are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth.\n\nViral infection can cause abortion in dogs. Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in Trap-Neuter-Return programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born.\nFemale rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the Bruce effect.\n\nAbortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of animal husbandry. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals. Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation, although the frequency in the wild has been questioned. Male gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n \n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Types", "Methods", "Safety", "Incidence", "Motivation", "History and religion", "Society and culture", "{{anchor|Other animals}} Other animals", " Notes ", "References", " Bibliography ", "External links" ]

[ "\nIn law, an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers.\n", "\n\nThe Abstract of Title, used in real estate transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all deeds, wills, mortgages, and other documents that affect ownership of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.\n", "\nA clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaksin the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a different system of insuring title of real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary.\n", "In the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step (or non-obviousness in United States patent law) of an invention. Under United States patent law, the abstract may be called \"Abstract of the Disclosure\".\n", "Certain government bureaucracies, such as a ''department of motor vehicles'' will issue an '''abstract''' of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents.\n", "\n", "*Property abstract\n", "* World Book encyclopedia 1988\n", "* , defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT)\n* and (previously ), defining the abstract-related requirements in a European patent application\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Abstract of title", "Clear title", "Patent law", "Administrative process", "Notes", "See also", "References", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''ampere''' (symbol: A), often shortened to \"amp\", is the base unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). It is named after André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of electrodynamics.\n\nSI defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The earlier CGS measurement system had two different definitions of current, one essentially the same as the SI's and the other using electric charge as the base unit, with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then defined as one coulomb of charge per second. In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second. \n\nIn the future, the SI definition may shift back to charge as the base unit, with the coulomb defined in terms of the elementary charge on electrons and protons (one coulomb equals the charge of roughly protons).\n", "Illustration of the definition of the ampere unit\nSI defines ampere as follows:\n\nThe ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length.\n\n\nAmpère's force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere.\n\nThe SI unit of charge, the coulomb, \"is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere\". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second:\n:\nIn general, charge ''Q'' is determined by steady current ''I'' flowing for a time ''t'' as .\n\nConstant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in \"the charging current is 1.2 A\") and the charge accumulated, or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in \"the battery charge is \"). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt (J/s) to the joule.\n", "\nThe ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetre–gram–second system of units. That unit, now known as the abampere, was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the MKSA system would be conveniently sized.\n\nThe \"international ampere\" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is .\n", "The standard ampere is most accurately realized using a watt balance, but is in practice maintained via Ohm's law from the units of electromotive force and resistance, the volt and the ohm, since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the Josephson junction and the quantum Hall effect, respectively.\n\nAt present, techniques to establish the realization of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107, and involve realizations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.\n", "\nRather than a definition in terms of the force between two current-carrying wires, it has been proposed that the ampere should be defined in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges. Since a coulomb is approximately equal to elementary charges (such as those carried by protons, or the negative of those carried by electrons), one ampere is approximately equivalent to elementary charges moving past a boundary in one second. ( is the reciprocal of the value of the elementary charge in coulombs.) The proposed change would define 1 A as being the current in the direction of flow of a particular number of elementary charges per second. In 2005, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) agreed to study the proposed change. The new definition was discussed at the 25th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 2014 but for the time being was not adopted.\n", "\nThe current drawn by typical constant-voltage energy distribution systems is usually dictated by the power (watt) consumed by the system and the operating voltage. For this reason the examples given below are grouped by voltage level.\n\n=== CPUs – 1 V DC ===\n*Current Notebook CPUs (up to 15...45 W at 1 V): up to 15...45 A\n*Current High End CPUs (up to 65...140 W at 1,15 V): up to 55...120 A\n\n=== Portable devices ===\n*Hearing aid (typically 1 mW at 1.4 V): 700 µA\n*USB charging adapter (as power supply - typically 10 W at 5 V): 2 A\n\n=== Internal combustion engine vehicles – 12 V DC ===\nA typical motor vehicle has a 12 V battery. The various accessories that are powered by the battery might include:\n*Instrument panel light (typically 2 W): 166 mA\n*Headlight (each, typically 60 W): 5 A\n*Starter motor (typically 1–2 kW): 80–160 A\n\n=== North American domestic supply – 120 V AC ===\nMost Canada, Mexico and United States domestic power suppliers run at 120 V.\n\nHousehold circuit breakers typically provide a maximum of 15 A or 20 A of current to a given set of outlets.\n*22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35 W): 290 mA\n*Tungsten light bulb (60–100 W): 500–830 mA\n*Toaster, kettle (1.5 kW): 12.5 A\n*Hair dryer (1.8 kW): 15 A\n*USB charging adapter (as load - typically 10 W): 83 mA\n\n=== European & Commonwealth domestic supply – 230–240 V AC ===\nMost European domestic power supplies run at 230 V, and most Commonwealth domestic power supplies run at 240 V. For the same amount of power (in watts), the current drawn by a particular European or Commonwealth appliance (in Europe or a Commonwealth country) will be less than for an equivalent North American appliance. Typical circuit breakers will provide 16 A.\n\nThe current drawn by a number of typical appliances are:\n*22-inch/56-centimeter portable television (35 W): 145–150 mA\n*Tungsten light bulb (60–100 W): 240–450 mA\n*Compact fluorescent lamp (11–30 W): 56–112 mA\n*Toaster, kettle (2 kW): 9 A\n*Immersion heater (4.6 kW): 19–20 A\n", "* Ammeter\n* Ampacity (current-carrying capacity)\n* Electric current\n* Electric shock\n* Hydraulic analogy\n* Magnetic constant\n* Orders of magnitude (current)\n", "\n", "\n", "* The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty\n* NIST ''Definition of ampere and μ0''\n* Tutorial video explaining amperes and current\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Definition", " History ", " Realization ", " Proposed future definition ", " Everyday examples ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n Flow chart of an algorithm (Euclid's algorithm) for calculating the greatest common divisor (g.c.d.) of two numbers ''a'' and ''b'' in locations named A and B. The algorithm proceeds by successive subtractions in two loops: IF the test B ≥ A yields \"yes\" (or true) (more accurately the ''number'' ''b'' in location B is greater than or equal to the ''number'' ''a'' in location A) THEN, the algorithm specifies B ← B − A (meaning the number ''b'' − ''a'' replaces the old ''b''). Similarly, IF A > B, THEN A ← A − B. The process terminates when (the contents of) B is 0, yielding the g.c.d. in A. (Algorithm derived from Scott 2009:13; symbols and drawing style from Tausworthe 1977).\n\nIn mathematics and computer science, an '''algorithm''' ( ) is an unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks.\n\nAn algorithm is an effective method that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty), the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing \"output\" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.\n\nThe concept of ''algorithm'' has existed for centuries; however, a partial formalization of what would become the modern ''algorithm'' began with attempts to solve the Entscheidungsproblem (the \"decision problem\") posed by David Hilbert in 1928. Subsequent formalizations were framed as attempts to define \"effective calculability\" or \"effective method\"; those formalizations included the Gödel–Herbrand–Kleene recursive functions of 1930, 1934 and 1935, Alonzo Church's lambda calculus of 1936, Emil Post's \"Formulation 1\" of 1936, and Alan Turing's Turing machines of 1936–7 and 1939. Giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem.\n", "Etymologically, the word 'algorithm' is a combination of the Latin word ''algorismus'', named after Al-Khwarizmi, a 9th-century Persian mathematician, and the Greek word ''arithmos'', i.e. αριθμός, meaning \"number\". In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391. English adopted the French term, but it wasn't until the late 19th century that \"algorithm\" took on the meaning that it has in modern English.\n\nAnother early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled ''Carmen de Algorismo'' composed by Alexandre de Villedieu. It begins thus:\n\n\nwhich translates as:\n\n\nThe poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new style of Indian dice, or Talibus Indorum, or Hindu numerals.\n", "\nAn informal definition could be \"a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations.\" which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually.\n\nA prototypical example of an algorithm is the Euclidean algorithm to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers; an example (there are others) is described by the flow chart above and as an example in a later section.\n\n offer an informal meaning of the word in the following quotation:\n\nNo human being can write fast enough, or long enough, or small enough† ( †\"smaller and smaller without limit ...you'd be trying to write on molecules, on atoms, on electrons\") to list all members of an enumerably infinite set by writing out their names, one after another, in some notation. But humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets: They can give ''explicit instructions for determining the '''n'''th member of the set'', for arbitrary finite ''n''. Such instructions are to be given quite explicitly, in a form in which ''they could be followed by a computing machine'', or by a ''human who is capable of carrying out only very elementary operations on symbols.''\n\nAn \"enumerably infinite set\" is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers. Thus, Boolos and Jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that \"creates\" output integers from an ''arbitrary'' \"input\" integer or integers that, in theory, can be arbitrarily large. Thus an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as ''y = m + n'' – two arbitrary \"input variables\" ''m'' and ''n'' that produce an output ''y''. But various authors' attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this, something on the order of (for the addition example):\n:Precise instructions (in language understood by \"the computer\") for a fast, efficient, \"good\" process that specifies the \"moves\" of \"the computer\" (machine or human, equipped with the necessary internally contained information and capabilities) to find, decode, and then process arbitrary input integers/symbols ''m'' and ''n'', symbols ''+'' and ''='' ... and \"effectively\" produce, in a \"reasonable\" time, output-integer ''y'' at a specified place and in a specified format.\n\nThe concept of ''algorithm'' is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related with our customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of ''algorithm'' that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term.\n", "\nAlgorithms are essential to the way computers process data. Many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should perform (in a specific order) to carry out a specified task, such as calculating employees' paychecks or printing students' report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Authors who assert this thesis include Minsky (1967), Savage (1987) and Gurevich (2000):\n Minsky: \"But we will also maintain, with Turing . . . that any procedure which could \"naturally\" be called effective, can in fact be realized by a (simple) machine. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments . . . in its favor are hard to refute\".\n\n Gurevich: \"...Turing's informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis: every algorithm can be simulated by a Turing machine ... according to Savage 1987, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine\".\n\nTypically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from an input source, written to an output device and stored for further processing. Stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures.\n\nFor some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable).\n\nBecause an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation is always crucial to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting \"from the top\" and going \"down to the bottom\", an idea that is described more formally by ''flow of control''.\n\nSo far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, \"mechanical\" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation, setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of \"memory\" as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment.\n\nFor some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see functional programming and logic programming.\n\n===Expressing algorithms===\nAlgorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts, programming languages or control tables (processed by interpreters). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous, and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in natural language statements. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but are often used as a way to define or document algorithms.\n\nThere is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given Turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (see more at finite-state machine, state transition table and control table), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see more at state diagram), or as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called \"sets of quadruples\" (see more at Turing machine).\n\nRepresentations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of Turing machine description:\n; 1 High-level description\n: \"...prose to describe an algorithm, ignoring the implementation details. At this level we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head.\"\n; 2 Implementation description\n: \"...prose used to define the way the Turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape. At this level we do not give details of states or transition function.\"\n; 3 Formal description\n: Most detailed, \"lowest level\", gives the Turing machine's \"state table\".\n\nFor an example of the simple algorithm \"Add m+n\" described in all three levels, see Algorithm#Examples.\n", "Logical NAND algorithm implemented electronically in 7400 chip\nMost algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain implementing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device.\n", "Böhm-Jacopini structures: the SEQUENCE (rectangles descending the page), the WHILE-DO and the IF-THEN-ELSE. The three structures are made of the primitive conditional GOTO (IF ''test''=true THEN GOTO step xxx) (a diamond), the unconditional GOTO (rectangle), various assignment operators (rectangle), and HALT (rectangle). Nesting of these structures inside assignment-blocks result in complex diagrams (cf Tausworthe 1977:100,114).\n\nIn computer systems, an algorithm is basically an instance of logic written in software by software developers to be effective for the intended \"target\" computer(s) to produce ''output'' from given (perhaps null) ''input''. An optimal algorithm, even running in old hardware, would produce faster results than a non-optimal (higher time complexity) algorithm for the same purpose, running in more efficient hardware; that is why algorithms, like computer hardware, are considered technology.\n\n''\"Elegant\" (compact) programs, \"good\" (fast) programs '': The notion of \"simplicity and elegance\" appears informally in Knuth and precisely in Chaitin:\n:Knuth: \". . .we want ''good'' algorithms in some loosely defined aesthetic sense. One criterion . . . is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm . . .. Other criteria are adaptability of the algorithm to computers, its simplicity and elegance, etc\"\n\n:Chaitin: \" . . . a program is 'elegant,' by which I mean that it's the smallest possible program for producing the output that it does\"\n\nChaitin prefaces his definition with: \"I'll show you can't prove that a program is 'elegant'\"—such a proof would solve the Halting problem (ibid).\n\n''Algorithm versus function computable by an algorithm'': For a given function multiple algorithms may exist. This is true, even without expanding the available instruction set available to the programmer. Rogers observes that \"It is . . . important to distinguish between the notion of ''algorithm'', i.e. procedure and the notion of ''function computable by algorithm'', i.e. mapping yielded by procedure. The same function may have several different algorithms\".\n\nUnfortunately there may be a tradeoff between goodness (speed) and elegance (compactness)—an elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant. An example that uses Euclid's algorithm appears below.\n\n''Computers (and computors), models of computation'': A computer (or human \"computor\") is a restricted type of machine, a \"discrete deterministic mechanical device\" that blindly follows its instructions. Melzak's and Lambek's primitive models reduced this notion to four elements: (i) discrete, distinguishable ''locations'', (ii) discrete, indistinguishable ''counters'' (iii) an agent, and (iv) a list of instructions that are ''effective'' relative to the capability of the agent.\n\nMinsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's \"abacus\" model in his \"Very Simple Bases for Computability\". Minsky's machine proceeds sequentially through its five (or six, depending on how one counts) instructions, unless either a conditional IF–THEN GOTO or an unconditional GOTO changes program flow out of sequence. Besides HALT, Minsky's machine includes three ''assignment'' (replacement, substitution) operations: ZERO (e.g. the contents of location replaced by 0: L ← 0), SUCCESSOR (e.g. L ← L+1), and DECREMENT (e.g. L ← L − 1). Rarely must a programmer write \"code\" with such a limited instruction set. But Minsky shows (as do Melzak and Lambek) that his machine is Turing complete with only four general ''types'' of instructions: conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment/replacement/substitution, and HALT.\n\n''Simulation of an algorithm: computer (computor) language'': Knuth advises the reader that \"the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it . . . immediately take pen and paper and work through an example\". But what about a simulation or execution of the real thing? The programmer must translate the algorithm into a language that the simulator/computer/computor can ''effectively'' execute. Stone gives an example of this: when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computor must know how to take a square root. If they don't, then the algorithm, to be effective, must provide a set of rules for extracting a square root.\n\nThis means that the programmer must know a \"language\" that is effective relative to the target computing agent (computer/computor).\n\nBut what model should be used for the simulation? Van Emde Boas observes \"even if we base complexity theory on abstract instead of concrete machines, arbitrariness of the choice of a model remains. It is at this point that the notion of ''simulation'' enters\". When speed is being measured, the instruction set matters. For example, the subprogram in Euclid's algorithm to compute the remainder would execute much faster if the programmer had a \"modulus\" instruction available rather than just subtraction (or worse: just Minsky's \"decrement\").\n\n''Structured programming, canonical structures'': Per the Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by a model known to be Turing complete, and per Minsky's demonstrations, Turing completeness requires only four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while \"undisciplined\" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in \"spaghetti code\", a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand \"it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language\". Tausworthe augments the three Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures: SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE. An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction.\n\n''Canonical flowchart symbols'': The graphical aide called a flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program of one). Like program flow of a Minsky machine, a flowchart always starts at the top of a page and proceeds down. Its primary symbols are only four: the directed arrow showing program flow, the rectangle (SEQUENCE, GOTO), the diamond (IF-THEN-ELSE), and the dot (OR-tie). The Böhm–Jacopini canonical structures are made of these primitive shapes. Sub-structures can \"nest\" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. The symbols, and their use to build the canonical structures, are shown in the diagram.\n", "\n\n===Algorithm example===\nquicksort algorithm sorting an array of randomized values. The red bars mark the pivot element; at the start of the animation, the element farthest to the right hand side is chosen as the pivot.\n\nOne of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description English prose, as:\n\n''High-level description:''\n# If there are no numbers in the set then there is no highest number.\n# Assume the first number in the set is the largest number in the set.\n# For each remaining number in the set: if this number is larger than the current largest number, consider this number to be the largest number in the set.\n# When there are no numbers left in the set to iterate over, consider the current largest number to be the largest number of the set.\n\n''(Quasi-)formal description:''\nWritten in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code:\n\n\n Input: A list of numbers ''L''.\n Output: The largest number in the list ''L''.\n\n '''if''' ''L.size'' = 0 '''return''' null\n ''largest'' ← ''L''0\n '''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' ''L'', '''do'''\n '''if''' ''item'' > ''largest'', '''then'''\n ''largest'' ← ''item''\n '''return''' ''largest''\n\n\n===Euclid's algorithm===\n\nThe example-diagram of Euclid's algorithm from T.L. Heath (1908), with more detail added. Euclid does not go beyond a third measuring, and gives no numerical examples. Nicomachus gives the example of 49 and 21: \"I subtract the less from the greater; 28 is left; then again I subtract from this the same 21 (for this is possible); 7 is left; I subtract this from 21, 14 is left; from which I again subtract 7 (for this is possible); 7 is left, but 7 cannot be subtracted from 7.\" Heath comments that, \"The last phrase is curious, but the meaning of it is obvious enough, as also the meaning of the phrase about ending 'at one and the same number'.\"(Heath 1908:300).\n\nEuclid's algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor (GCD) to two numbers appears as Proposition II in Book VII (\"Elementary Number Theory\") of his ''Elements''. Euclid poses the problem thus: \"Given two numbers not prime to one another, to find their greatest common measure\". He defines \"A number to be a multitude composed of units\": a counting number, a positive integer not including zero. To \"measure\" is to place a shorter measuring length ''s'' successively (''q'' times) along longer length ''l'' until the remaining portion ''r'' is less than the shorter length ''s''. In modern words, remainder ''r'' = ''l'' − ''q''×''s'', ''q'' being the quotient, or remainder ''r'' is the \"modulus\", the integer-fractional part left over after the division.\n\nFor Euclid's method to succeed, the starting lengths must satisfy two requirements: (i) the lengths must not be zero, AND (ii) the subtraction must be “proper”; i.e., a test must guarantee that the smaller of the two numbers is subtracted from the larger (alternately, the two can be equal so their subtraction yields zero).\n\nEuclid's original proof adds a third requirement: the two lengths must not be prime to one another. Euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a reductio ad absurdum proof that the two numbers' common measure is in fact the ''greatest''. While Nicomachus' algorithm is the same as Euclid's, when the numbers are prime to one another, it yields the number \"1\" for their common measure. So, to be precise, the following is really Nicomachus' algorithm.\n\nA graphical expression of Euclid's algorithm to find the greatest common divisor for 1599 and 650.\n\n 1599 = 650×2 + 299\n 650 = 299×2 + 52\n 299 = 52×5 + 39\n 52 = 39×1 + 13\n 39 = 13×3 + 0\n\n====Computer language for Euclid's algorithm====\nOnly a few instruction ''types'' are required to execute Euclid's algorithm—some logical tests (conditional GOTO), unconditional GOTO, assignment (replacement), and subtraction.\n* A ''location'' is symbolized by upper case letter(s), e.g. S, A, etc.\n* The varying quantity (number) in a location is written in lower case letter(s) and (usually) associated with the location's name. For example, location L at the start might contain the number ''l'' = 3009.\n\n====An inelegant program for Euclid's algorithm====\n\"Inelegant\" is a translation of Knuth's version of the algorithm with a subtraction-based remainder-loop replacing his use of division (or a \"modulus\" instruction). Derived from Knuth 1973:2–4. Depending on the two numbers \"Inelegant\" may compute the g.c.d. in fewer steps than \"Elegant\".\n\nThe following algorithm is framed as Knuth's four-step version of Euclid's and Nicomachus', but, rather than using division to find the remainder, it uses successive subtractions of the shorter length ''s'' from the remaining length ''r'' until ''r'' is less than ''s''. The high-level description, shown in boldface, is adapted from Knuth 1973:2–4:\n\n'''INPUT''':\n Into two locations L and S put the numbers ''l'' and ''s'' that represent the two lengths:\n INPUT L, S\n Initialize R: make the remaining length ''r'' equal to the starting/initial/input length ''l'':\n R ← L\n\n'''E0: Ensure ''r'' ≥ ''s''.'''\n Ensure the smaller of the two numbers is in S and the larger in R:\n IF R > S THEN\n the contents of L is the larger number so skip over the exchange-steps 4, 5 and 6:\n GOTO step 6\n ELSE\n swap the contents of R and S.\n L ← R (this first step is redundant, but is useful for later discussion).\n R ← S\n S ← L\n\n'''E1: Find remainder''': Until the remaining length ''r'' in R is less than the shorter length ''s'' in S, repeatedly subtract the measuring number ''s'' in S from the remaining length ''r'' in R.\n IF S > R THEN\n done measuring so\n GOTO 10\n ELSE\n measure again,\n R ← R − S\n Remainder-loop:\n GOTO 7.\n\n'''E2: Is the remainder zero?''': EITHER (i) the last measure was exact, the remainder in R is zero, and the program can halt, OR (ii) the algorithm must continue: the last measure left a remainder in R less than measuring number in S.\n IF R = 0 THEN\n done so\n GOTO step 15\n ELSE\n CONTINUE TO step 11,\n\n'''E3: Interchange ''s'' and ''r''''': The nut of Euclid's algorithm. Use remainder ''r'' to measure what was previously smaller number ''s''; L serves as a temporary location.\n L ← R\n R ← S\n S ← L\n Repeat the measuring process:\n GOTO 7\n\n'''OUTPUT''':\n\n Done. S contains the greatest common divisor:\n PRINT S\n\n'''DONE''':\n HALT, END, STOP.\n\n====An elegant program for Euclid's algorithm====\nThe following version of Euclid's algorithm requires only six core instructions to do what thirteen are required to do by \"Inelegant\"; worse, \"Inelegant\" requires more ''types'' of instructions. The flowchart of \"Elegant\" can be found at the top of this article. In the (unstructured) Basic language, the steps are numbered, and the instruction LET = is the assignment instruction symbolized by ←.\n\n 5 REM Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor\n 6 PRINT \"Type two integers greater than 0\"\n 10 INPUT A,B\n 20 IF B=0 THEN GOTO 80\n 30 IF A > B THEN GOTO 60\n 40 LET B=B-A\n 50 GOTO 20\n 60 LET A=A-B\n 70 GOTO 20\n 80 PRINT A\n 90 END\n\nThe following version can be used with Object Oriented languages:\n\n// Euclid's algorithm for greatest common divisor\ninteger euclidAlgorithm (int A, int B){\n A=Math.abs(A);\n B=Math.abs(B);\n while (B!=0){\n if (A>B) A=A-B;\n else B=B-A;\n }\n return A;\n}\n\n''How \"Elegant\" works'': In place of an outer \"Euclid loop\", \"Elegant\" shifts back and forth between two \"co-loops\", an A > B loop that computes A ← A − B, and a B ≤ A loop that computes B ← B − A. This works because, when at last the minuend M is less than or equal to the subtrahend S ( Difference = Minuend − Subtrahend), the minuend can become ''s'' (the new measuring length) and the subtrahend can become the new ''r'' (the length to be measured); in other words the \"sense\" of the subtraction reverses.\n\n===Testing the Euclid algorithms===\nDoes an algorithm do what its author wants it to do? A few test cases usually suffice to confirm core functionality. One source uses 3009 and 884. Knuth suggested 40902, 24140. Another interesting case is the two relatively prime numbers 14157 and 5950.\n\nBut exceptional cases must be identified and tested. Will \"Inelegant\" perform properly when R > S, S > R, R = S? Ditto for \"Elegant\": B > A, A > B, A = B? (Yes to all). What happens when one number is zero, both numbers are zero? (\"Inelegant\" computes forever in all cases; \"Elegant\" computes forever when A = 0.) What happens if ''negative'' numbers are entered? Fractional numbers? If the input numbers, i.e. the domain of the function computed by the algorithm/program, is to include only positive integers including zero, then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm (and the program that instantiates it) is a partial function rather than a total function. A notable failure due to exceptions is the Ariane 5 Flight 501 rocket failure (June 4, 1996).\n\n''Proof of program correctness by use of mathematical induction'': Knuth demonstrates the application of mathematical induction to an \"extended\" version of Euclid's algorithm, and he proposes \"a general method applicable to proving the validity of any algorithm\". Tausworthe proposes that a measure of the complexity of a program be the length of its correctness proof.\n\n===Measuring and improving the Euclid algorithms===\n''Elegance (compactness) versus goodness (speed)'': With only six core instructions, \"Elegant\" is the clear winner, compared to \"Inelegant\" at thirteen instructions. However, \"Inelegant\" is ''faster'' (it arrives at HALT in fewer steps). Algorithm analysis indicates why this is the case: \"Elegant\" does ''two'' conditional tests in every subtraction loop, whereas \"Inelegant\" only does one. As the algorithm (usually) requires many loop-throughs, ''on average'' much time is wasted doing a \"B = 0?\" test that is needed only after the remainder is computed.\n\n''Can the algorithms be improved?'': Once the programmer judges a program \"fit\" and \"effective\"—that is, it computes the function intended by its author—then the question becomes, can it be improved?\n\nThe compactness of \"Inelegant\" can be improved by the elimination of five steps. But Chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm cannot be automated by a generalized algorithm; rather, it can only be done heuristically; i.e., by exhaustive search (examples to be found at Busy beaver), trial and error, cleverness, insight, application of inductive reasoning, etc. Observe that steps 4, 5 and 6 are repeated in steps 11, 12 and 13. Comparison with \"Elegant\" provides a hint that these steps, together with steps 2 and 3, can be eliminated. This reduces the number of core instructions from thirteen to eight, which makes it \"more elegant\" than \"Elegant\", at nine steps.\n\nThe speed of \"Elegant\" can be improved by moving the \"B=0?\" test outside of the two subtraction loops. This change calls for the addition of three instructions (B = 0?, A = 0?, GOTO). Now \"Elegant\" computes the example-numbers faster; whether this is always the case for any given A, B and R, S would require a detailed analysis.\n", "\nIt is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is theoretically required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, the sorting algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the big O notation with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore, it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)'', if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or O(''n'') if it is counted.\n\nDifferent algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or 'effort' than others. For example, a binary search algorithm (with cost O(log n) ) outperforms a sequential search (cost O(n) ) when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays.\n\n===Formal versus empirical===\n\nThe analysis and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science, and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However, ultimately, most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware / software platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code. For the solution of a \"one off\" problem, the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences (unless n is extremely large) but for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign.\n\nEmpirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance. Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization.\n\n=== Execution efficiency ===\n\nTo illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging. In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications. Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power.\n", "There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.\n\n=== By implementation ===\nOne way to classify algorithms is by implementation means.\n\n; Recursion\n: A recursive algorithm is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition (also known as termination condition) matches, which is a method common to functional programming. Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other. For example, towers of Hanoi is well understood using recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.\n; Logical\n: An algorithm may be viewed as controlled logical deduction. This notion may be expressed as: ''Algorithm = logic + control''. The logic component expresses the axioms that may be used in the computation and the control component determines the way in which deduction is applied to the axioms. This is the basis for the logic programming paradigm. In pure logic programming languages the control component is fixed and algorithms are specified by supplying only the logic component. The appeal of this approach is the elegant semantics: a change in the axioms has a well-defined change in the algorithm.\n; Serial, parallel or distributed\n: Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to parallel algorithms or distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time, whereas distributed algorithms utilize multiple machines connected with a network. Parallel or distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together. The resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems.\n; Deterministic or non-deterministic\n: Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas non-deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of heuristics.\n; Exact or approximate\n: While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is closer to the true solution. Approximation can be reached by either using a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. One of the examples of an approximate algorithm is the Knapsack problem. The Knapsack problem is a problem where there is a set of given items. The goal of the problem is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. Total weight that we can carry is no more than some fixed number X. So, we must consider weights of items as well as their value.\n; Quantum algorithm\n: They run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually used for those algorithms which seem inherently quantum, or use some essential feature of quantum computation such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement.\n\n=== By design paradigm ===\nAnother way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories include many different types of algorithms. Some common paradigms are:\n\n; Brute-force or exhaustive search\n: This is the naive method of trying every possible solution to see which is best.\n; Divide and conquer\n: A divide and conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a ''decrease and conquer algorithm'', that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is the binary search algorithm.\n; Search and enumeration\n: Many problems (such as playing chess) can be modeled as problems on graphs. A graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes search algorithms, branch and bound enumeration and backtracking.\n;Randomized algorithm\n: Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They can be very useful in finding approximate solutions for problems where finding exact solutions can be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some of these problems, it is known that the fastest approximations must involve some randomness. Whether randomized algorithms with polynomial time complexity can be the fastest algorithms for some problems is an open question known as the P versus NP problem. There are two large classes of such algorithms:\n# Monte Carlo algorithms return a correct answer with high-probability. E.g. RP is the subclass of these that run in polynomial time.\n# Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. ZPP.\n; Reduction of complexity\n: This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a better known problem for which we have (hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as ''transform and conquer''.\n\n=== Optimization problems ===\n\nFor optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following:\n\n; Linear programming\n: When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound to linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints of the problem can be used directly in producing the optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular simplex algorithm. Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the maximum flow problem for directed graphs. If a problem additionally requires that one or more of the unknowns must be an integer then it is classified in integer programming. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem.\n; Dynamic programming\n: When a problem shows optimal substructures – meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems – and overlapping subproblems, meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called ''dynamic programming'' avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted graph can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and memoization go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and there is no repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity.\n; The greedy method\n: A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm in that it works by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution, which may be given or have been constructed in some way, and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems they can find the optimal solution while for others they stop at local optima, that is, at solutions that cannot be improved by the algorithm but are not optimum. The most popular use of greedy algorithms is for finding the minimal spanning tree where finding the optimal solution is possible with this method. Huffman Tree, Kruskal, Prim, Sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem.\n;The heuristic method\n:In optimization problems, heuristic algorithms can be used to find a solution close to the optimal solution in cases where finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms work by getting closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. Their merit is that they can find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. Such algorithms include local search, tabu search, simulated annealing, and genetic algorithms. Some of them, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as an approximation algorithm.\n\n=== By field of study ===\n\nEvery field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are search algorithms, sorting algorithms, merge algorithms, numerical algorithms, graph algorithms, string algorithms, computational geometric algorithms, combinatorial algorithms, medical algorithms, machine learning, cryptography, data compression algorithms and parsing techniques.\n\nFields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry, but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields.\n\n=== By complexity ===\n\nAlgorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size:\n\n* Constant time: if the time needed by the algorithm is the same, regardless of the input size. E.g. an access to an array element.\n* Linear time: if the time is proportional to the input size. E.g. the traverse of a list.\n* Logarithmic time: if the time is a logarithmic function of the input size. E.g. binary search algorithm.\n* Polynomial time: if the time is a power of the input size. E.g. the bubble sort algorithm has quadratic time complexity.\n* Exponential time: if the time is an exponential function of the input size. E.g. Brute-force search.\n\nSome problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity, while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this, it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them.\n", "The adjective \"continuous\" when applied to the word \"algorithm\" can mean:\n* An algorithm operating on data that represents continuous quantities, even though this data is represented by discrete approximations—such algorithms are studied in numerical analysis; or\n* An algorithm in the form of a differential equation that operates continuously on the data, running on an analog computer.\n", "\n\nAlgorithms, by themselves, are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute \"processes\" (USPTO 2006), and hence algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However, practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The patenting of software is highly controversial, and there are highly criticized patents involving algorithms, especially data compression algorithms, such as Unisys' LZW patent.\n\nAdditionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see export of cryptography).\n\nResearcher, Andrew Tutt, argues that algorithms should be overseen by a specialist regulatory agency, similar to FDA. His academic work emphasizes that the rise of increasingly complex algorithms calls for the need to think about the effects of algorithms today. Due to the nature and complexity of algorithms, it will prove to be difficult to hold algorithms accountable under criminal law. Tutt recognizes that while some algorithms will be beneficial to help meet technological demand, others should not be used or sold if they fail to meet safety requirements. Thus, for Tutt, algorithms will require \"closer forms of federal uniformity, expert judgment, political independence, and pre-market review to prevent the introduction of unacceptably dangerous algorithms into the market\".\n", "The words 'algorithm' and 'algorism' come from the name al-Khwārizmī. Al-Khwārizmī (, c. 780–850) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, whose name means 'the native of Khwarezm', a region that was part of Greater Iran and is now in Uzbekistan. About 825, he wrote a treatise in the Arabic language, which was translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum''. This title means \"Algoritmi on the numbers of the Indians\", where \"Algoritmi\" was the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name. Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe in the late Middle Ages, primarily through his other book, the Algebra. In late medieval Latin, ''algorismus'', English 'algorism', the corruption of his name, simply meant the \"decimal number system\". In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός 'number' (''cf.'' 'arithmetic'), the Latin word was altered to ''algorithmus'', and the corresponding English term 'algorithm' is first attested in the 17th century; the modern sense was introduced in the 19th century.\n", "\n=== Ancient Near East ===\nAlgorithms were used in ancient Greece. Two examples are the Sieve of Eratosthenes, which was described in Introduction to Arithmetic by Nicomachus, and the Euclidean algorithm, which was first described in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC). Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events.\n\n=== Discrete and distinguishable symbols ===\n'''Tally-marks''': To keep track of their flocks, their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying: accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks, or making discrete symbols in clay. Through the Babylonian and Egyptian use of marks and symbols, eventually Roman numerals and the abacus evolved (Dilson, p. 16–41). Tally marks appear prominently in unary numeral system arithmetic used in Turing machine and Post–Turing machine computations.\n\n=== Manipulation of symbols as \"place holders\" for numbers: algebra ===\nThe work of the ancient Greek geometers (Euclidean algorithm), the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, and the Islamic mathematics Al-Khwarizmi (from whose name the terms \"algorism\" and \"algorithm\" are derived), and Western European mathematicians culminated in Leibniz's notion of the calculus ratiocinator (ca 1680):\n\n\n=== Mechanical contrivances with discrete states ===\n''The clock'': Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven clock as \"The key invention of Europe in the Middle Ages\", in particular the verge escapement that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. \"The accurate automatic machine\" led immediately to \"mechanical automata\" beginning in the 13th century and finally to \"computational machines\"—the difference engine and analytical engines of Charles Babbage and Countess Ada Lovelace, mid-19th century. Lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computer – Babbage's analytical engine, the first device considered a real Turing-complete computer instead of just a calculator – and is sometimes called \"history's first programmer\" as a result, though a full implementation of Babbage's second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime.\n\n''Logical machines 1870—Stanley Jevons' \"logical abacus\" and \"logical machine\"'': The technical problem was to reduce Boolean equations when presented in a form similar to what are now known as Karnaugh maps. Jevons (1880) describes first a simple \"abacus\" of \"slips of wood furnished with pins, contrived so that any part or class of the logical combinations can be picked out mechanically . . . More recently however I have reduced the system to a completely mechanical form, and have thus embodied the whole of the indirect process of inference in what may be called a ''Logical Machine''\" His machine came equipped with \"certain moveable wooden rods\" and \"at the foot are 21 keys like those of a piano etc . . .\". With this machine he could analyze a \"syllogism or any other simple logical argument\".\n\nThis machine he displayed in 1870 before the Fellows of the Royal Society. Another logician John Venn, however, in his 1881 ''Symbolic Logic'', turned a jaundiced eye to this effort: \"I have no high estimate myself of the interest or importance of what are sometimes called logical machines ... it does not seem to me that any contrivances at present known or likely to be discovered really deserve the name of logical machines\"; see more at Algorithm characterizations. But not to be outdone he too presented \"a plan somewhat analogous, I apprehend, to Prof. Jevon's ''abacus'' ... And again, corresponding to Prof. Jevons's logical machine, the following contrivance may be described. I prefer to call it merely a logical-diagram machine ... but I suppose that it could do very completely all that can be rationally expected of any logical machine\".\n\n''Jacquard loom, Hollerith punch cards, telegraphy and telephony—the electromechanical relay'': Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the Jacquard loom (1801), precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards, 1887), and \"telephone switching technologies\" were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers. By the mid-19th century the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world, its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as \"dots and dashes\" a common sound. By the late 19th century the ticker tape (ca 1870s) was in use, as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the teleprinter (ca. 1910) with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape.\n\n''Telephone-switching networks'' of electromechanical relays (invented 1835) was behind the work of George Stibitz (1937), the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories, he observed the \"burdensome' use of mechanical calculators with gears. \"He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device\".\n\nDavis (2000) observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay (with its two \"binary states\" ''open'' and ''closed''):\n: It was only with the development, beginning in the 1930s, of electromechanical calculators using electrical relays, that machines were built having the scope Babbage had envisioned.\"\n\n=== Mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid-20th century ===\n''Symbols and rules'': In rapid succession the mathematics of George Boole (1847, 1854), Gottlob Frege (1879), and Giuseppe Peano (1888–1889) reduced arithmetic to a sequence of symbols manipulated by rules. Peano's ''The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method'' (1888) was \"the first attempt at an axiomatization of mathematics in a symbolic language\".\n\nBut Heijenoort gives Frege (1879) this kudos: Frege's is \"perhaps the most important single work ever written in logic. ... in which we see a \" 'formula language', that is a ''lingua characterica'', a language written with special symbols, \"for pure thought\", that is, free from rhetorical embellishments ... constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according to definite rules\". The work of Frege was further simplified and amplified by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell in their Principia Mathematica (1910–1913).\n\n''The paradoxes'': At the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature, in particular the Burali-Forti paradox (1897), the Russell paradox (1902–03), and the Richard Paradox. The resultant considerations led to Kurt Gödel's paper (1931)—he specifically cites the paradox of the liar—that completely reduces rules of recursion to numbers.\n\n''Effective calculability'': In an effort to solve the Entscheidungsproblem defined precisely by Hilbert in 1928, mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an \"effective method\" or \"effective calculation\" or \"effective calculability\" (i.e., a calculation that would succeed). In rapid succession the following appeared: Alonzo Church, Stephen Kleene and J.B. Rosser's λ-calculus a finely honed definition of \"general recursion\" from the work of Gödel acting on suggestions of Jacques Herbrand (cf. Gödel's Princeton lectures of 1934) and subsequent simplifications by Kleene. Church's proof that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable, Emil Post's definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yes-no decision about the next instruction. Alan Turing's proof of that the Entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his \"a- automatic- machine\"—in effect almost identical to Post's \"formulation\", J. Barkley Rosser's definition of \"effective method\" in terms of \"a machine\". S. C. Kleene's proposal of a precursor to \"Church thesis\" that he called \"Thesis I\", and a few years later Kleene's renaming his Thesis \"Church's Thesis\" and proposing \"Turing's Thesis\".\n\n=== Emil Post (1936) and Alan Turing (1936–37, 1939) ===\nHere is a remarkable coincidence of two men not knowing each other but describing a process of men-as-computers working on computations—and they yield virtually identical definitions.\n\nEmil Post (1936) described the actions of a \"computer\" (human being) as follows:\n:\"...two concepts are involved: that of a ''symbol space'' in which the work leading from problem to answer is to be carried out, and a fixed unalterable ''set of directions''.\n\nHis symbol space would be\n:\"a two way infinite sequence of spaces or boxes... The problem solver or worker is to move and work in this symbol space, being capable of being in, and operating in but one box at a time.... a box is to admit of but two possible conditions, i.e., being empty or unmarked, and having a single mark in it, say a vertical stroke.\n\n:\"One box is to be singled out and called the starting point. ...a specific problem is to be given in symbolic form by a finite number of boxes i.e., INPUT being marked with a stroke. Likewise the answer i.e., OUTPUT is to be given in symbolic form by such a configuration of marked boxes....\n\n:\"A set of directions applicable to a general problem sets up a deterministic process when applied to each specific problem. This process terminates only when it comes to the direction of type (C ) i.e., STOP\". See more at Post–Turing machine\nAlan Turing's statue at Bletchley Park\nAlan Turing's work preceded that of Stibitz (1937); it is unknown whether Stibitz knew of the work of Turing. Turing's biographer believed that Turing's use of a typewriter-like model derived from a youthful interest: \"Alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy; Mrs. Turing had a typewriter; and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter 'mechanical'\". Given the prevalence of Morse code and telegraphy, ticker tape machines, and teletypewriters we might conjecture that all were influences.\n\nTuring—his model of computation is now called a Turing machine—begins, as did Post, with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and \"states of mind\". But he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers.\n\n:\"Computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper. We may suppose this paper is divided into squares like a child's arithmetic book...I assume then that the computation is carried out on one-dimensional paper, i.e., on a tape divided into squares. I shall also suppose that the number of symbols which may be printed is finite...\n\n:\"The behaviour of the computer at any moment is determined by the symbols which he is observing, and his \"state of mind\" at that moment. We may suppose that there is a bound B to the number of symbols or squares which the computer can observe at one moment. If he wishes to observe more, he must use successive observations. We will also suppose that the number of states of mind which need be taken into account is finite...\n\n:\"Let us imagine that the operations performed by the computer to be split up into 'simple operations' which are so elementary that it is not easy to imagine them further divided.\"\n\nTuring's reduction yields the following:\n:\"The simple operations must therefore include:\n::\"(a) Changes of the symbol on one of the observed squares\n::\"(b) Changes of one of the squares observed to another square within L squares of one of the previously observed squares.\n\"It may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind. The most general single operation must therefore be taken to be one of the following:\n::\"(A) A possible change (a) of symbol together with a possible change of state of mind.\n::\"(B) A possible change (b) of observed squares, together with a possible change of state of mind\"\n\n:\"We may now construct a machine to do the work of this computer.\"\n\nA few years later, Turing expanded his analysis (thesis, definition) with this forceful expression of it:\n:\"A function is said to be \"effectively calculable\" if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process. Though it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea, it is nevertheless desirable to have some more definite, mathematical expressible definition . . . he discusses the history of the definition pretty much as presented above with respect to Gödel, Herbrand, Kleene, Church, Turing and Post . . . We may take this statement literally, understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine. It is possible to give a mathematical description, in a certain normal form, of the structures of these machines. The development of these ideas leads to the author's definition of a computable function, and to an identification of computability † with effective calculability . . . .\n::\"† We shall use the expression \"computable function\" to mean a function calculable by a machine, and we let \"effectively calculable\" refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions\".\n\n=== J. B. Rosser (1939) and S. C. Kleene (1943) ===\n''J. Barkley Rosser'' defined an 'effective mathematical method' in the following manner (italicization added):\n:\"'Effective method' is used here in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely determined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps. With this special meaning, three different precise definitions have been given to date. his footnote #5; see discussion immediately below. The simplest of these to state (due to Post and Turing) says essentially that ''an effective method of solving certain sets of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer''. All three definitions are equivalent, so it doesn't matter which one is used. Moreover, the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one.\" (Rosser 1939:225–6)\n\nRosser's footnote No. 5 references the work of (1) Church and Kleene and their definition of λ-definability, in particular Church's use of it in his ''An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory'' (1936); (2) Herbrand and Gödel and their use of recursion in particular Gödel's use in his famous paper ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I'' (1931); and (3) Post (1936) and Turing (1936–37) in their mechanism-models of computation.\n\n''Stephen C. Kleene'' defined as his now-famous \"Thesis I\" known as the Church–Turing thesis. But he did this in the following context (boldface in original):\n:\"12. ''Algorithmic theories''... In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is to describe a procedure, performable for each set of values of the independent variables, which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, \"yes\" or \"no,\" to the question, \"is the predicate value true?\"\" (Kleene 1943:273)\n\n=== History after 1950 ===\nA number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of \"algorithm\", and activity is on-going because of issues surrounding, in particular, foundations of mathematics (especially the Church–Turing thesis) and philosophy of mind (especially arguments about artificial intelligence). For more, see Algorithm characterizations.\n", "\n* Heuristic\n* Abstract machine\n* Algorithm engineering\n* Algorithm characterizations\n* Algorithmic composition\n* Algorithmic synthesis\n* Algorithmic trading\n* Garbage in, garbage out\n* ''Introduction to Algorithms''\n* List of algorithm general topics\n* List of important publications in theoretical computer science – Algorithms\n* Numerical Mathematics Consortium\n* Theory of computation\n** Computability theory\n** Computational complexity theory\n\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), ''Computer Structures: Readings and Examples'', McGraw–Hill Book Company, New York. .\n\n* Includes an excellent bibliography of 56 references.\n* : cf. Chapter 3 ''Turing machines'' where they discuss \"certain enumerable sets not effectively (mechanically) enumerable\".\n* \n* Campagnolo, M.L., Moore, C., and Costa, J.F. (2000) An analog characterization of the subrecursive functions. In ''Proc. of the 4th Conference on Real Numbers and Computers'', Odense University, pp. 91–109\n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 89ff. The first expression of \"Church's Thesis\". See in particular page 100 (''The Undecidable'') where he defines the notion of \"effective calculability\" in terms of \"an algorithm\", and he uses the word \"terminates\", etc.\n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes.\n* \n* Davis gives commentary before each article. Papers of Gödel, Alonzo Church, Turing, Rosser, Kleene, and Emil Post are included; those cited in the article are listed here by author's name.\n* Davis offers concise biographies of Leibniz, Boole, Frege, Cantor, Hilbert, Gödel and Turing with von Neumann as the show-stealing villain. Very brief bios of Joseph-Marie Jacquard, Babbage, Ada Lovelace, Claude Shannon, Howard Aiken, etc.\n* \n* \n* \n* Yuri Gurevich, ''Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms'', ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Vol 1, no 1 (July 2000), pages 77–111. Includes bibliography of 33 sources.\n\n* Presented to the American Mathematical Society, September 1935. Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 237ff. Kleene's definition of \"general recursion\" (known now as mu-recursion) was used by Church in his 1935 paper ''An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory'' that proved the \"decision problem\" to be \"undecidable\" (i.e., a negative result).\n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 255ff. Kleene refined his definition of \"general recursion\" and proceeded in his chapter \"12. Algorithmic theories\" to posit \"Thesis I\" (p. 274); he would later repeat this thesis (in Kleene 1952:300) and name it \"Church's Thesis\"(Kleene 1952:317) (i.e., the Church thesis).\n* Excellent—accessible, readable—reference source for mathematical \"foundations\".\n* \n* \n* Kosovsky, N. K. ''Elements of Mathematical Logic and its Application to the theory of Subrecursive Algorithms'', LSU Publ., Leningrad, 1981\n* \n* A. A. Markov (1954) ''Theory of algorithms''. Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 i.e., Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington Description 444 p. 28 cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42. Original title: Teoriya algerifmov. QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60-51085.\n* Minsky expands his \"...idea of an algorithm—an effective procedure...\" in chapter 5.1 ''Computability, Effective Procedures and Algorithms. Infinite machines.''\n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 289ff. Post defines a simple algorithmic-like process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from box to box and eventually halting, as he follows a list of simple instructions. This is cited by Kleene as one source of his \"Thesis I\", the so-called Church–Turing thesis.\n* \n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 223ff. Herein is Rosser's famous definition of \"effective method\": \"...a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps... a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer\" (p. 225–226, ''The Undecidable'')\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Cf. in particular the first chapter titled: ''Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs''. His succinct informal definition: \"...any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an ''algorithm''\" (p. 4).\n* \n* . Corrections, ibid, vol. 43(1937) pp. 544–546. Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 116ff. Turing's famous paper completed as a Master's dissertation while at King's College Cambridge UK.\n* Reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 155ff. Turing's paper that defined \"the oracle\" was his PhD thesis while at Princeton USA.\n\n* United States Patent and Trademark Office (2006), ''2106.02 **>Mathematical Algorithms: 2100 Patentability'', Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (MPEP). Latest revision August 2006\n", "* , pbk.\n* , (pbk.)\n* , 3rd edition 1976?, (pbk.)\n* , . Cf. Chapter \"The Spirit of Truth\" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof.\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* Knuth, Donald E. (2000). '' Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms''. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.\n* Knuth, Donald E. (2010). '' Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms''. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.\n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures—National Institute of Standards and Technology\n* Algorithms and Data Structures by Dr Nikolai Bezroukov\n; Algorithm repositories\n* The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository—State University of New York at Stony Brook\n* Netlib Repository—University of Tennessee and Oak Ridge National Laboratory\n* Collected Algorithms of the ACM—Association for Computing Machinery\n* The Stanford GraphBase—Stanford University\n* Combinatorica—University of Iowa and State University of New York at Stony Brook\n* Library of Efficient Datastructures and Algorithms (LEDA)—previously from Max-Planck-Institut für Informatik\n; Lecture notes\n* Algorithms Course Materials. Jeff Erickson. University of Illinois.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Historical background", "Informal definition", "Formalization", "Implementation", "Computer algorithms", "Examples", "Algorithmic analysis", " Classification ", " Continuous algorithms ", " Legal issues ", " Etymology ", " History: Development of the notion of \"algorithm\" ", " See also ", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "Secondary references", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\nThe '''anthophytes''' were thought to be a clade comprising plants bearing flower-like structures. The group contained the angiosperms - the extant flowering plants, such as roses and grasses - as well as the Gnetales and the extinct Bennettitales.\n\nDetailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic, with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and the angiosperms having evolved in parallel. This makes it easier to reconcile molecular clock data that suggests that the angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms around .\n\nSome more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of fossils (glossopterids, ''Pentoxylon'', Bennettitales, and ''Caytonia''), but not the Gnetales.\n\n\n", "\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "References" ]

[ "\nAn '''atlas''' is a collection of maps.\n\n'''Atlas''' may also refer to:\n\n\n", "* Atlas (appliance company), a Belarusian company\n* Atlas Consortium, a group of technology companies\n* Atlas Copco, Swedish company founded in 1873\n* Atlas Corporation, an investment company\n* Atlas Economic Research Foundation\n* Atlas Elektronik, a German naval/marine electronics and systems business\n* Atlas Group, a Pakistani business group\n* Atlas Mara Co-Nvest Limited, a financial holding company that owns banks in Africa\n* Atlas Press (tool company)\n* Atlas Solutions, a subsidiary of Facebook for digital online advertising, formerly owned by Microsoft\n* Atlas Telecom, a worldwide communications company\n* Atlas Van Lines, a moving company\n* Atlas-Imperial, an American diesel engine manufacturer\n* Dresser Atlas, a provider of oilfield and factory automation services\n* STN Atlas, a German defence company\n* Tele Atlas, a Dutch mapping company\n* Western Atlas, an oilfield services company\n", "* Atlas (computer), an early supercomputer, built in the 1960s\n* Atlas (robot), a humanoid robot developed by Boston Dynamics and DARPA\n* ATLAS Transformation Language, programming language\n* Atlas.ti, a qualitative analysis program\n* Texture atlas\n* Abbreviated Test Language for All Systems, a MILSPEC language for avionics equipment testing\n* Automatically Tuned Linear Algebra Software\n* UNIVAC 1101, an early American computer, built in the 1950s\n* ASP.NET AJAX (formerly \"Atlas\"), a set of ASP.NET extensions\n* Atlas, a computer used at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2006\n", "===Fictional characters===\n* Erik Josten, a.k.a. Atlas, a Marvel Comics supervillain\n* Atlas, an ''Astro Boy'' character\n* Atlas, a ''BioShock'' character\n* Atlas, a ''Portal 2'' character\n* Atlas, a ''PS238'' character\n* Atlas (''Teen Titans''), ''Teen Titans'' character\n* Atlas, an antagonist in ''Mega Man ZX Advent''\n\n===Literature and publishing===\n* Atlas (DC Comics)\n* ''Atlas'' (Drawn and Quarterly), a comic book series by Dylan Horrocks\n* ''Atlas'' (magazine)\n* ''The Atlas'', a newspaper published in England from 1826 to 1869\n* ''The Atlas'' (novel), by William T. Vollmann\n* Atlas Comics (1950s), a publisher\n* Atlas/Seaboard Comics, a 1970s line of comics\n* Atlas Press, a UK publisher\n* ''Agents of Atlas'', a Marvel Comics mini-series\n* ''Atlas'', a photography book by Gerhard Richter\n* Atlas folio, a book size\n* ''Atlas Shrugged'', a novel by Ayn Rand\n\n===Music===\n* Atlas (band), a New Zealand rock band\n* ''Atlas'' (Real Estate album)\n* ''Atlas'' (Kinky album)\n* ''Atlas'' (Parkway Drive album)\n** \"Atlas\", a song from the album\n* ''Atlas'' (RÜFÜS album)\n* \"Atlas\" (Battles song), 2007 song by Battles on the album ''Mirrored''\n* \"Atlas\" (Coldplay song), 2013 song by Coldplay from ''The Hunger Games: Catching Fire'' soundtrack\n* ''Atlas'' (opera), 1991 opera by Meredith Monk\n**''Atlas: An Opera in Three Parts'', 1993 recording of Monk's opera\n* \"Atlas\", a song by Man Overboard from ''Man Overboard''\n* ''Atlas'' (The Score album)\n\n===Sport===\n* Club Atlas, a Mexican professional football club\n* Club Atlético Atlas, an Argentine amateur football club\n* Atlas Delmenhorst, a German association football club\n*Tony Atlas, wrestler\n*Charles Atlas, wrestler\n\n===Other entertainment===\n* ''Atlas'' (film)\n* Atlas Media Corp., a non-fiction entertainment company\n* RTV Atlas, a broadcaster in Montenegro\n* Advanced Technology Leisure Application Simulator, a hydraulic motion simulator used in theme parks\n* Atlas, a BattleMech in the ''BattleTech'' universe\n* Atlas Entertainment, a film production company\n* ''The Atlas'' (video game), a multiplatform strategy video game\n", "* Atlas, California\n* Atlas, Illinois\n* Atlas, Texas\n* Atlas, West Virginia\n* Atlas, Wisconsin\n* Atlas District, an area in Washington, D.C.\n* Atlas Mountains, a set of mountain ranges in northwestern Africa\n* Atlas Township, Michigan\n* Atlas Peak AVA, a California wine region\n", "* Atlas (mythology), a deity who held up the celestial sphere\n* Atlas of Mauretania, a king skilled in astronomy\n* Atlas, a son of Poseidon\n", "===With the given name Atlas===\n* Atlas DaBone, American wrestler and football player\n\n===With the surname Atlas===\n* Charles Atlas (1892–1972), Italian-American bodybuilder\n* David Atlas (born 1924), American meteorologist who pioneered weather radar\n* James Atlas (born 1949), American writer, editor and publisher\n* Meir Atlas (1848–1926), Lithuanian rabbi\n* Natacha Atlas (born 1964), Belgian singer\n* Nava Atlas, American book artist and author\n* Teddy Atlas (born 1956), American boxing trainer and commentator\n* Tony Atlas (born 1954), American wrestler and bodybuilder\n", "* ATLAS experiment, a particle detector for the Large Hadron Collider at CERN\n* Argonne Tandem Linear Accelerator System, a linear accelerator at the Argonne National Laboratory\n* Atomic-terrace low-angle shadowing, a nanofabrication technique\n", "* A book about flora and/or fauna of a region, such as atlases of the flora and fauna of Britain and Ireland\n* Atlas bear\n* Atlas beetle\n* Atlas cedar\n* Atlas pied flycatcher, a bird\n* Atlas moth\n* Atlas turtle\n", "* Atlas (crater)\n* Atlas (moon), a moon of Saturn\n* Atlas (rocket family)\n* Atlas (star)\n* Advanced Technology Large-Aperture Space Telescope (ATLAST)\n* Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS)\n", "===Automotive===\n* Atlas (1951 automobile), a French mini-car\n* Atlas (light trucks), a Greek motor vehicle manufacturer\n* Atlas (Pittsburgh automobile), produced 1906–1907\n* Atlas (Springfield automobile), produced 1907–1913\n* Atlas Motor Buggy, an American highwheeler produced in 1909\n* GM Atlas engine\n* Nissan Atlas, a Japanese light truck\n* Honda Atlas Cars Pakistan, a Pakistani car manufacturer\n* Volkswagen Atlas, a sport utility vehicle \n* Atlas, a British van by the Standard Motor Company produced 1958–1962\n* Atlas Drop Forge Company, a parts subsidiary of REO Motor Car Company\n\n===Aviation===\n* Atlas Air, an American cargo airline\n* Atlas Aircraft, a 1940s aircraft manufacturer\n* Atlas Aircraft Corporation, a South African military aircraft manufacturer\n* Atlas Aviation, an aircraft maintenance firm\n* Atlas Blue, a Moroccan low-cost airline\n* Airbus A400M Atlas, a military aircraft produced 2007–present\n* Armstrong Whitworth Atlas, a British military aeroplane produced 1927–1933\n* Birdman Atlas, an ultralight aircraft\n* La Mouette Atlas, a French hang glider design\n* Atlasjet, a Turkish airline\n* HMLAT-303, U.S. Marine Corps helicopter training squadron\n* AeroVelo Atlas, a human-powered helicopter\n\n===Ships and boats===\n* , the name of several U.S. Navy ships\n* , the name of several Royal Navy ships\n* ST ''Atlas'', a Swedish tugboat\n* Atlas Werke, a German shipbuilder\n\n===Trains===\n* Atlas Car and Manufacturing Company, a locomotive manufacturer\n* Atlas Model Railroad\n* Atlas, an 1863–1885 South Devon Railway Dido class locomotive\n* Atlas, a 1927–1962 LMS Royal Scot Class locomotive\n", "* Atlas (anatomy), part of the spine\n* Atlas (architecture)\n* ''Atlas'' (statue), iconic statue by Lee Lawrie in Rockefeller Center\n* ATLAS (simulation) (Army Tactical Level Advanced Simulation), a Thai military system\n* Atlas (topology), a set of charts\n* ATLAS of Finite Groups, a group theory book\n* Atlas languages, Berber languages spoken in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco\n* ATLAS Network, a network of European special police units\n* Atlas personality, a term used in psychology to describe the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities\n* Atlas Uranium Mill\n* Atlas (storm), which hit the Midwestern United States in October 2013, named by The Weather Channel\n* Agrupación de Trabajadores Latinoamericanos Sindicalistas\n* Brain atlas, a neuroanatomical map of the brain of a human or other animal\n", "* \n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Businesses", "Computing", "Entertainment", "Geography", "Mythology", "People", "Physics", "Plants and animals", " Space and astronomy ", "Transport", "Other uses", "See also" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Mouthwash''', '''mouth rinse''', '''oral rinse''' or '''mouth bath''', is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swilled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be gargled, where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth.\n\nUsually mouthwashes are antiseptic solutions intended to reduce the microbial load in the oral cavity, although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory or anti-fungal action. Additionally, some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and keep the mouth moist in xerostomia (dry mouth). Cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste.\n", "Common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 20 ml (2/3 fl oz) of mouthwash. The wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out. Most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash. In some brands, the expectorate is stained, so that one can see the bacteria and debris.\n Mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste. Similarly, the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing. Patients were told to \"spit don't rinse\" after toothbrushing as part of a National Health Service campaign in the UK.\n\nGargling is where the head is tilted back, allowing the mouthwash to sit in the back of the mouth while exhaling, causing the liquid to bubble. Gargling is practiced in Japan for perceived prevention of viral infection. One commonly used way is with infusions or tea. In some cultures, gargling is usually done in private, typically in a bathroom at a sink so the liquid can be rinsed away.\n", "thumb\nThe most common use of mouthwash is commercial antiseptics, which are used at home as part of an oral hygiene routine. Examples of commercial mouthwashes companies include Cēpacol, Colgate, Corsodyl, Dentyl pH, Listerine, Odol, Oral-B, Sarakan, Scope, Tantum verde, and Biotene. Mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat a variety of oral conditions. Variations are common, and mouthwash has no standard formulation so its use and recommendation involves concerns about patient safety. Some manufacturers of mouthwash state that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque that causes cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing. The American Dental Association asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases, in addition to regular dental check-ups, although they approve many mouthwashes.\nFor many patients, however, the mechanical methods could be tedious and time-consuming and additionally some local conditions may render them especially difficult. Chemotherapeutic agents, including mouthrinses, could have a key role as adjuncts to daily home care, preventing and controlling supragingival plaque, gingivitis and oral malodor.\n\nMinor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very common, such as taste disturbance, tooth staining, sensation of a dry mouth, etc. Alcohol-containing mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse since it dries out the mouth. Soreness, ulceration and redness may sometimes occur (e.g. aphthous stomatitis, allergic contact stomatitis) if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients such as preservatives, coloring, flavors and fragrances. Such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water, using a different mouthwash (e.g. salt water), or foregoing mouthwash entirely.\n\nPrescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as tooth extraction or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy. They are also prescribed for aphthous ulcers, other oral ulcers, and other mouth pain. Magic mouthwashes are prescription mouthwashes compounded in a pharmacy from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor. Despite a lack of evidence that prescription mouthwashes are more effective in decreasing the pain of oral lesions, many patients and prescribers continue to use them. There has been only one controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of magic mouthwash; it shows no difference in efficacy among the most common formulation and commercial mouthwashes such as chlorhexidine or a saline/baking soda solution. Current guidelines suggest that saline solution is just as effective as magic mouthwash in pain relief or shortening of healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies.\n\n==History== \nListerine advertisement, 1932.\nSwedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906.\nThe first known references to mouth rinsing is in Ayurveda and Chinese medicine, about 2700 BC, for treatment of gingivitis. Later, in the Greek and Roman periods, mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes, and Hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt, alum, and vinegar. The Jewish Talmud, dating back about 1,800 years, suggests a cure for gum ailments containing \"dough water\" and olive oil.\n\nBefore Europeans came to the Americas, Native North American and Mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes, often made from plants such as ''Coptis trifolia''. Indeed, Aztec dentistry was more advanced than European dentistry of the age. Peoples of the Americas used salt water mouthwashes for sore throats, and other mouthwashes for problems such as teething and mouth ulcers.\n\nAnton van Leeuwenhoek, the famous 17th century microscopist, discovered living organisms (living, because they were mobile) in deposits on the teeth (what we now call dental plaque). He also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in Delft. He experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water. Next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque. He concluded—correctly—that the mouthwash either did not reach, or was not present long enough, to kill the plaque organisms.\nIn 1892, German Richard Seifert invented mouthwash product Odol, which was produced by company founder Karl August Lingner (1861–1916) in Dresden.\n\nThat remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when Harald Loe (at the time a professor at the Royal Dental College in Aarhus, Denmark) demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could prevent the build-up of dental plaque. The reason for chlorhexidine effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours.\n\nSince then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the build-up in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis, in addition to fighting bad breath. Many of these solutions aim to control the Volatile Sulfur Compound (VSC)-creating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste. For example, the number of mouthwash variants in the United States of America has grown from 15 (1970) to 66 (1998) to 113 (2012).\n", "Research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay, with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless. Focused attention on cavity-causing bacteria such as ''Streptococcus mutans'' has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing. While current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing, future treatments could provide a viable long term solution.\n\n", "\n\n\n===Alcohol===\nAn example of a commercial mouthwash brand which is alcohol-free\nAlcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol, eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque. Sometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide \"bite\". Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes. In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.\n\nIt is hypothesized that alcohol mouthwashes acts as a carcinogen (cancer-inducing). Generally, there is no scientific consensus about this. One review stated:\n\n\n\nThe same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five times for users of alcohol-containing mouthwash who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase for those who do). In addition, the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children. The review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions from other researchers. Yinka Ebo of Cancer Research UK disputed the findings, concluding that \"there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer\". Studies conducted in 1985, 1995, 2003, and 2012 did not support an association between alcohol-containing mouth rinses and oral cancer. Andrew Penman, chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales, called for further research on the matter. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said \"the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse\". Many newer brands of mouthwash are alcohol free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption.\n\n=== Antibiotics ===\n\n=== Benzalkonium chloride ===\n\n\n===Benzydamine/Difflam (analgesics)===\nIn painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis, analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. benzydamine mouthwash, or \"Difflam\") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.\n\n=== Benzoic acid ===\nActs as a buffer\n\n=== Betadine ===\n\n===Betamethasone===\nBetamethasone is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis.\n\n=== Calcium ===\n\n\n===Cetylpyridinium chloride (antiseptic, antimalador)===\nCetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis. Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration.\n\n===Chlorhexidine digluconate and Hexetidine (antiseptic) ===\nChlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 0.12-0.2% solution as a mouthwash. It has significant anti-plaque action, but also some anti-fungal action. It is especially effective against Gram-negative rods. It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat periodontal disease, although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures. It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis however. Rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of dry socket, a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons, treatment of denture-related stomatitis, and many other uses.\n\nChlorhexidine has good ''substantivity'' (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia, desquamation and irritation of oral mucosa, salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis.\n\nHexetidine also has anti-plaque, analgesic, astringent and anti-malodor properties but is considered as an inferior alternative to Chlorhexidine.\n\n===Diphenhydramine ===\nantihistamine\n\n=== Domiphen bromide ===\n\n\n===Edible oils===\nIn traditional Ayurvedic medicine, the use of oil mouthwashes is called \"Kavala\" (\"oil swishing\") or \"Gandusha\", and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the complimentary and alternative medicine industry as \"oil pulling\". Its promoters claim it works by \"pulling out\" \"toxins\", which are known as ama in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing inflammation. Ayurvedic literature suggests oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as headaches, migraines, diabetes mellitus, asthma, and acne, as well as whitening teeth.\n\nOil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load, otherwise the health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. There is a report of lipid pneumonia caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling.\n\nThe mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out. Sesame oil, coconut oil and ghee are traditionally used, but newer oils such as sunflower oil are also used.\n\n===Essential oils and phenols===\nphenolic compounds include essential oil constituents that have some antibacterial properties, like phenol, thymol, eugenol, eucalyptol or menthol. \nEssential oils are oils which have been extracted from plants. Mouthwashes based on essential oils could be more effective than traditional mouthcare - for anti-gingival treatments.\n\n They have been found effective in reducing halitosis, and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes.\n\n===Fluoride (anticavity)===\nAnti-cavity mouth rinses use fluoride to protect against tooth decay. Most people using fluoridated toothpastes do not require fluoride-containing mouth rinses, rather fluoride mouthwashes are sometimes used in individuals who are at high risk of dental decay, due to dental caries or people with xerostomia.\n\n===Flavoring agents and Xylitol ===\nFlavoring agents include sweeteners such as sorbitol, sucralose, sodium saccharin, and xylitol, which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity.\n\nXylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor and have been used as substitute for Alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with Alcohol.\n\n=== Glucocorticoids (anti-inflammatory) ===\n\n===Hydrogen peroxide===\nHydrogen peroxide can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%). It kills anaerobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. It is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis. Side effects with prolonged use might occur, including hypertrophy of the lingual papillae.\n\n===Lactoperoxidase (Saliva substitute)===\nEnzymes and proteins such as Lactoperoxidase, Lysozyme, Lactoferrin have been used in mouthrinses (e.g. Biotene) to reduce oral bacteria and hence the acid produced by bacteria.\n\n=== Lidocaine/xylocaine ===\nlocal anesthetic\n\n=== Maalox ===\nAntacid\n\n=== Methyl salicylate ===\nMultiple functions - Anti-septic, Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, Flavoring and Fragrance Methylsalicylates have some anti-plaque action but less substantivity than chlorhexidine. They do not stain teeth.\n\n=== Nystatin ===\n\nantifungal for oral candidiasis\n\n=== Persica or alum===\n\n\n\n===Providone/iodine===\nA 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a Povidone-iodine solution (although with less effectiveness) was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. A later study found that the same procedure did not prevent influenza-like illnesses. Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect.\n\n===Sanguinarine===\nSanguinarine-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor. It is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such as ''Sanguinaria canadensis'' (Bloodroot), ''Argemone mexicana'' (Mexican Prickly Poppy) and others. However, its use is strongly associated with development of leukoplakia (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus. This type of leukoplakia has been termed \"sanguinaria-associated keratosis\" and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia, the potential for malignant transformation is unknown. Ironically, elements within the complimentary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer.\n\n=== Sodium benzoate or methylparaben (preservatives) ===\n\n===Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)===\nSodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a salt water mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth.\n\n===Sodium chloride (salt)===\n\nSalt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5–1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow (hyperemia) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g., hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face (see cutaneous sinus of dental origin). Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat.\n\nHot salt water mouth baths (or hot salt water mouth washes, sometimes abbreviated to \"HSWMW\") are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider salt water mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. In dental extractions, hot salt water mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. The term ''mouth bath'' implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around, which could dislodge a blood clot. Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouth wash can be used more vigorously. These mouthwashes tend to be advised about 6 times per day, especially after meals to remove food from the socket.\n\n===Sodium lauryl sulfate (foaming agent) ===\nSodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is user as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS, since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse. However, many of the popular mouthwashes also contain SLS as an ingredient (e.g., Listerine Total Care).\n\n=== Sucralfate ===\n\ncoating agent\n\n=== Tetracycline (antibiotic)===\nTetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria. Erythromycin is similar.\n\n===Tranexamic acid===\n4.8% tranexamic acid solution is sometimes used as an antifibrinolytic mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with coagulopathies (clotting disorders) or who are taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as warfarin).\n\n===Triclosan===\nTriclosan is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes. When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with copolymer or zinc citrate. Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth. The safety of triclosan has been questioned.\n\n=== Water ===\n\n=== Zinc ===\nAstringents like zinc chloride provide a pleasant-tasting sensation and shrink tissues. Zinc when used in combination with other anti-septic agents can limit the build-up of tartar\n", "\n", "* Article on Bad-Breath Prevention Products – from MSNBC\n* Mayo Clinic Q&A on Magic Mouthwash for chemotherapy sores\n* Gargle at the Centre for Cancer Education, University of Newcastle upon Tyne\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Use", "{{anchor|Magic mouthwash}} Benefits and side effects ", "Research", " Ingredients ", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alexander III of Macedon''' (20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as '''Alexander the Great''' (, ''Aléxandros ho Mégas'' ), was a king (''basileus'') of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through Asia and northeast Africa, and he created one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.\n\nDuring his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16. After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.\n\nHe endeavored to reach the \"ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea\" and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.\n\nAlexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in history.\n\n\n", "\n===Lineage and childhood===\nBust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era, British Museum\n''Aristotle Tutoring Alexander'', by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris\n\nAlexander was born on the sixth day of the ancient Greek month of Hekatombaion, which probably corresponds to 20July 356 BC, although the exact date is disputed, in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his principal wife for some time, likely because she gave birth to Alexander.\nAlexander the Great, Thessaloniki, Greece\n\nSeveral legends surround Alexander's birth and childhood. According to the ancient Greek biographer Plutarch, on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to Philip, Olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunder bolt that caused a flame to spread \"far and wide\" before dying away. Sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wife's womb with a seal engraved with a lion's image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious Olympias promulgated the story of Alexander's divine parentage, variously claiming that she had told Alexander, or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious.\n\nOn the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and that his horses had won at the Olympic Games. It was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. Such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception.\n\nIn his early years, Alexander was raised by a nurse, Lanike, sister of Alexander's future general Cleitus the Black. Later in his childhood, Alexander was tutored by the strict Leonidas, a relative of his mother, and by Lysimachus of Acarnania. Alexander was raised in the manner of noble Macedonian youths, learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.\n\nWhen Alexander was ten years old, a trader from Thessaly brought Philip a horse, which he offered to sell for thirteen talents. The horse refused to be mounted, and Philip ordered it away. Alexander however, detecting the horse's fear of its own shadow, asked to tame the horse, which he eventually managed. Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: \"My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you\", and bought the horse for him. Alexander named it Bucephalas, meaning \"ox-head\". Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala.\n\n===Adolescence and education===\nWhen Alexander was 13, Philip began to search for a tutor, and considered such academics as Isocrates and Speusippus, the latter offering to resign to take up the post. In the end, Philip chose Aristotle and provided the Temple of the Nymphs at Mieza as a classroom. In return for teaching Alexander, Philip agreed to rebuild Aristotle's hometown of Stageira, which Philip had razed, and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the ex-citizens who were slaves, or pardoning those who were in exile.\n\nMieza was like a boarding school for Alexander and the children of Macedonian nobles, such as Ptolemy, Hephaistion, and Cassander. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the 'Companions'. Aristotle taught Alexander and his companions about medicine, philosophy, morals, religion, logic, and art. Under Aristotle's tutelage, Alexander developed a passion for the works of Homer, and in particular the ''Iliad''; Aristotle gave him an annotated copy, which Alexander later carried on his campaigns.\n", "\n===Regency and ascent of Macedon===\n\n\nPhilip II of Macedon, Alexander's father\n\nAt age 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. Philip waged war against Byzantion, leaving Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. During Philip's absence, the Thracian Maedi revolted against Macedonia. Alexander responded quickly, driving them from their territory. He colonized it with Greeks, and founded a city named Alexandropolis.\n\nUpon Philip's return, he dispatched Alexander with a small force to subdue revolts in southern Thrace. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander is reported to have saved his father's life. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. Still occupied in Thrace, he ordered Alexander to muster an army for a campaign in southern Greece. Concerned that other Greek states might intervene, Alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack Illyria instead. During this turmoil, the Illyrians invaded Macedonia, only to be repelled by Alexander.\n\nPhilip and his army joined his son in 338 BC, and they marched south through Thermopylae, taking it after stubborn resistance from its Theban garrison. They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. Both Athens and Philip sent embassies to win Thebes' favour, but Athens won the contest. Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. Philip then returned to Elatea, sending a final offer of peace to Athens and Thebes, who both rejected it.\n\nStatue of Alexander in Istanbul Archaeology Museum\nAs Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. During the ensuing Battle of Chaeronea, Philip commanded the right wing and Alexander the left, accompanied by a group of Philip's trusted generals. According to the ancient sources, the two sides fought bitterly for some time. Philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat, counting on the untested Athenian hoplites to follow, thus breaking their line. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. With the Athenians lost, the Thebans were surrounded. Left to fight alone, they were defeated.\n\nAfter the victory at Chaeronea, Philip and Alexander marched unopposed into the Peloponnese, welcomed by all cities; however, when they reached Sparta, they were refused, but did not resort to war. At Corinth, Philip established a \"Hellenic Alliance\" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. Philip was then named ''Hegemon'' (often translated as \"Supreme Commander\") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire.\n\n===Exile and return===\nWhen Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice, the niece of his general Attalus. The marriage made Alexander's position as heir less secure, since any son of Cleopatra Eurydice would be a fully Macedonian heir, while Alexander was only half-Macedonian. During the wedding banquet, a drunken Attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir.\n\n\n\nAlexander fled Macedon with his mother, dropping her off with her brother, King Alexander I of Epirus in Dodona, capital of the Molossians. He continued to Illyria, where he sought refuge with the Illyrian king and was treated as a guest, despite having defeated them in battle a few years before. However, it appears Philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son. Accordingly, Alexander returned to Macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend, Demaratus, who mediated between the two parties.\n\nIn the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. Olympias and several of Alexander's friends suggested this showed Philip intended to make Arrhidaeus his heir. Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. When Philip heard of this, he stopped the negotiations and scolded Alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a Carian, explaining that he wanted a better bride for him. Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains.\n", "\n===Accession===\n\nThe Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC.\nIn summer 336 BC, while at Aegae attending the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to Olympias's brother, Alexander I of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards, Pausanias. As Pausanias tried to escape, he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers, including two of Alexander's companions, Perdiccas and Leonnatus. Alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20.\n\n===Consolidation of power===\nAlexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. Olympias had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Philip, burned alive. When Alexander learned about this, he was furious. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus, who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle.\n\nAttalus was at that time corresponding with Demosthenes, regarding the possibility of defecting to Athens. Attalus also had severely insulted Alexander, and following Cleopatra's murder, Alexander may have considered him too dangerous to leave alive. Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias.\n\nNews of Philip's death roused many states into revolt, including Thebes, Athens, Thessaly, and the Thracian tribes north of Macedon. When news of the revolts reached Alexander, he responded quickly. Though advised to use diplomacy, Alexander mustered 3,000 Macedonian cavalry and rode south towards Thessaly. He found the Thessalian army occupying the pass between Mount Olympus and Mount Ossa, and ordered his men to ride over Mount Ossa. When the Thessalians awoke the next day, they found Alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered, adding their cavalry to Alexander's force. He then continued south towards the Peloponnese.\n\nAlexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. Athens sued for peace and Alexander pardoned the rebels. The famous encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic occurred during Alexander's stay in Corinth. When Alexander asked Diogenes what he could do for him, the philosopher disdainfully asked Alexander to stand a little to the side, as he was blocking the sunlight. This reply apparently delighted Alexander, who is reported to have said \"But verily, if I were not Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes.\" At Corinth, Alexander took the title of ''Hegemon'' (\"leader\") and, like Philip, was appointed commander for the coming war against Persia. He also received news of a Thracian uprising.\n\n===Balkan campaign===\n\nThe emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (''anastole''); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.\nBefore crossing to Asia, Alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders. In the spring of 335 BC, he advanced to suppress several revolts. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the \"Independent Thracians\"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. The Macedonians marched into the country of the Triballi, and defeated their army near the Lyginus river (a tributary of the Danube). Alexander then marched for three days to the Danube, encountering the Getae tribe on the opposite shore. Crossing the river at night, he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish.\n\nNews then reached Alexander that Cleitus, King of Illyria, and King Glaukias of the Taulanti were in open revolt against his authority. Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. With these victories, he secured his northern frontier.\n\nWhile Alexander campaigned north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander immediately headed south. While the other cities again hesitated, Thebes decided to fight. The Theban resistance was ineffective, and Alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other Boeotian cities. The end of Thebes cowed Athens, leaving all of Greece temporarily at peace. Alexander then set out on his Asian campaign, leaving Antipater as regent.\n", "\n\n===Asia Minor===\n\nMap of Alexander's empire and his route\n\nAlexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334 BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000, drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. This also showed Alexander's eagerness to fight, in contrast to his father's preference for diplomacy.\n\nAfter an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis; he then proceeded along the Ionian coast, granting autonomy and democracy to the cities. Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Alexander left the government of Caria to a member of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Ada, who adopted Alexander.\n\nFrom Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos, Alexander humbled but did not storm the Pisidian city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander \"undid\" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future \"king of Asia\". According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.\n\n===The Levant and Syria===\nDetail of Alexander Mosaic, showing Battle of Issus, from the House of the Faun, Pompeii\n\n\nIn spring 333 BC, Alexander crossed the Taurus into Cilicia. After a long pause due to illness, he marched on towards Syria. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius' significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his mother Sisygambis, and a fabulous treasure. He offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost, and a ransom of 10,000 talents for his family. Alexander replied that since he was now king of Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.\n\nAlexander proceeded to take possession of Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. In the following year, 332 BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. The men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery.\n\n===Egypt===\n\nName of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 330 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum\n\nWhen Alexander destroyed Tyre, most of the towns on the route to Egypt quickly capitulated. However, Alexander met with resistance at Gaza. The stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill, requiring a siege. When \"his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible… this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt\". After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had received a serious shoulder wound. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery.\n\nAlexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 BC, where he was regarded as a liberator. He was pronounced son of the deity Amun at the Oracle of Siwa Oasis in the Libyan desert. Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon as his true father, and after his death, currency depicted him adorned with rams horn as a symbol of his divinity. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death.\n\n===Assyria and Babylonia===\n\nLeaving Egypt in 331 BC, Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (now northern Iraq) and again defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius once more fled the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela. Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), while Alexander captured Babylon.\n\n===Persia===\nSite of the Persian Gate; the road was built in the 1990s\n\n\nFrom Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. He sent the bulk of his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis via the Persian Royal Road. Alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.\n\nOn entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. Alexander stayed in Persepolis for five months. During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes. Years later upon revisiting the city he had burnt, Alexander regretted the burning of Persepolis. Plutarch recounts an anecdote in which Alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of Xerxes as if it were a live person:\n\n\n\n===Fall of the Empire and the East===\nSilver coin of Alexander wearing the lion scalp of Herakles, British Museum\n\nAlexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. The Persian king no longer controlled his own destiny, and was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus had his men fatally stab the Great King and then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V, before retreating into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. Alexander buried Darius' remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius.\n\nAlexander viewed Bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him. This campaign, initially against Bessus, turned into a grand tour of central Asia. Alexander founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern Kandahar in Afghanistan, and Alexandria Eschate (\"The Furthest\") in modern Tajikistan. The campaign took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria (West Afghanistan), Drangiana, Arachosia (South and Central Afghanistan), Bactria (North and Central Afghanistan), and Scythia.\n\nSpitamenes, who held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana, in 329 BC betrayed Bessus to Ptolemy, one of Alexander's trusted companions, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own men, who then sued for peace.\n\n===Problems and plots===\n Cleitus'', by André Castaigne (1898–1899)\n\nDuring this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''proskynesis'', either a symbolic kissing of the hand, or prostration on the ground, that Persians showed to their social superiors. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen, and he eventually abandoned it.\n\nA plot against his life was revealed, and one of his officers, Philotas, was executed for failing to alert Alexander. The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle.\n\nLater, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His official historian, Callisthenes of Olynthus, was implicated in the plot, and in the ''Anabasis of Alexander'', Arrian states that Callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment, and likely died soon after. It remains unclear if Callisthenes was actually involved in the plot, for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis.\n\n===Macedon in Alexander's absence===\nWhen Alexander set out for Asia, he left his general Antipater, an experienced military and political leader and part of Philip II's \"Old Guard\", in charge of Macedon. Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331 BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. There was also considerable friction between Antipater and Olympias, and each complained to Alexander about the other.\n\nIn general, Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander's campaign in Asia. Alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire. However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's manpower, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC).\n", "\n\n===Forays into the Indian subcontinent===\n ''The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes'' by André Castaigne (1898–1899)\n\nAfter the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian) to cement relations with his new satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. Omphis (Indian name Ambhi), the ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum), complied, but the chieftains of some hill clans, including the Aspasioi and Assakenoi sections of the Kambojas (known in Indian texts also as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas), refused to submit. Ambhi hastened to relieve Alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents, placing himself and all his forces at his disposal. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of \"Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold\". Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund (Fox 1973), supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.\n\nOn the subsequent advance of the Macedonian king, Taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5,000 men and took part in the battle of the Hydaspes River. After that victory he was sent by Alexander in pursuit of Porus, to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms, but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy. Subsequently, however, the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of Alexander; and Taxiles, after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the Hydaspes, was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the Indus. A considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of Philip, son of Machatas; and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of Alexander himself (323 BC), as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at Triparadisus, 321 BC.\n\nIn the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos.\n\nThe fort of Massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting, in which Alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle. According to Curtius, \"Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble.\" A similar slaughter followed at Ora. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. Alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hill-fort after four bloody days.\n Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent\n\nAfter Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an epic battle against King Porus, who ruled a region lying between the Hydaspes and the Acesines (Chenab), in what is now the Punjab, in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC. Alexander was impressed by Porus' bravery, and made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus' territory land that he did not previously own, towards the south-east, up to the Hyphasis (Beas). Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the Hydaspes river, naming one Bucephala, in honour of his horse, who died around this time. The other was Nicaea (Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern-day Mong, Punjab.\n\n===Revolt of the army===\nEast of Porus' kingdom, near the Ganges River, were the Nanda Empire of Magadha and further east the Gangaridai Empire (of the modern-day Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent). Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, Alexander's army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (Beas), refusing to march farther east. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.\n\n\nAlexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return; the men, he said, \"longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland\". Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus. Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern-day Multan) and other Indian tribes and Alexander sustained an injury during the siege.\n\nAlexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with general Craterus, and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus, while he led the rest back to Persia through the more difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert and Makran. Alexander reached Susa in 324 BC, but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.\n", "Alexander, left, and Hephaestion, right\n\nDiscovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedon, led by Craterus. His troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of Opis. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.\n\n''Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great'', by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)\n\nAfter three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. The Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet for several thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Meanwhile, upon his return to Persia, Alexander learned that guards of the tomb of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae had desecrated it, and swiftly executed them. Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'', which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. During his visit to Pasargadae Alexander ordered his architect Aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of Cyrus' tomb.\n\nAfterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. There, his closest friend and possible lover, Hephaestion, died of illness or poisoning. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning. Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as he died shortly thereafter.\n", "\nA Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London)\n19th century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession based on the description of Diodorus\nOn either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon, at age 32. There are two different versions of Alexander's death and details of the death differ slightly in each. Plutarch's account is that roughly 14  days before his death, Alexander entertained admiral Nearchus, and spent the night and next day drinking with Medius of Larissa. He developed a fever, which worsened until he was unable to speak. The common soldiers, anxious about his health, were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them. In the second account, Diodorus recounts that Alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of Heracles, followed by 11 days of weakness; he did not develop a fever and died after some agony. Arrian also mentioned this as an alternative, but Plutarch specifically denied this claim.\n\nGiven the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination, foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication, while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness. The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater, recently removed as Macedonian viceroy, and at odds with Olympias, as the head of the alleged plot. Perhaps taking his summons to Babylon as a death sentence, and having seen the fate of Parmenion and Philotas, Antipater purportedly arranged for Alexander to be poisoned by his son Iollas, who was Alexander's wine-pourer. There was even a suggestion that Aristotle may have participated.\n\nThe strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death; such long-acting poisons were probably not available. However, in a 2003 BBC documentary investigating the death of Alexander, Leo Schep from the New Zealand National Poisons Centre proposed that the plant white hellebore (''Veratrum album''), which was known in antiquity, may have been used to poison Alexander. In a 2014 manuscript in the journal Clinical Toxicology, Schep suggested Alexander's wine was spiked with ''Veratrum album'', and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the ''Alexander Romance''. ''Veratrum album'' poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if Alexander was poisoned, ''Veratrum album'' offers the most plausible cause. Another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river Styx (modern-day Mavroneri in Arcadia, Greece) that contained calicheamicin, a dangerous compound produced by bacteria.\n\nSeveral natural causes (diseases) have been suggested, including malaria and typhoid fever. A 1998 article in the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis. Another recent analysis suggested pyogenic (infectious) spondylitis or meningitis. Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis and West Nile virus. Natural-cause theories also tend to emphasize that Alexander's health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds. The anguish that Alexander felt after Hephaestion's death may also have contributed to his declining health.\n\n===After death===\n\nDetail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus\n\nAlexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. According to Aelian, a seer called Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest \"would be happy and unvanquishable forever\". Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.\n\nWhile Alexander's funeral cortege was on its way to Macedon, Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it remained until at least late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros, one of Ptolemy's final successors, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage. The recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis, dating from the time of Alexander the Great has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of Alexander's funeral cortege.\n\nPompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. Caligula was said to have taken Alexander's breastplate from the tomb for his own use. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. His son and successor, Caracalla, a great admirer, visited the tomb during his own reign. After this, details on the fate of the tomb are hazy.\n\nThe so-called \"Alexander Sarcophagus\", discovered near Sidon and now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, is so named not because it was thought to have contained Alexander's remains, but because its bas-reliefs depict Alexander and his companions fighting the Persians and hunting. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus' death.\n\n===Division of the empire===\n\nKingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red).\n\nAlexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane being born after Alexander's death. According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was \"tôi kratistôi\"—\"to the strongest\".\n\nArrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him.\n\nPerdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV, he and Philip III were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only.\n\nDissension and rivalry soon afflicted the Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 BC, Macedonian unity collapsed, and 40 years of war between \"The Successors\" (''Diadochi'') ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four stable power blocks: Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid Anatolia, and Antigonid Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.\n\n===Will===\nCommemorative coin by Agathocles of Bactria (190–180 BC) for Alexander the Great\nDiodorus stated that Alexander had given detailed written instructions to Craterus some time before his death. Craterus started to carry out Alexander's commands, but the successors chose not to further implement them, on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant. Nevertheless, Perdiccas read Alexander's will to his troops.\n\nAlexander's will called for military expansion into the southern and western Mediterranean, monumental constructions, and the intermixing of Eastern and Western populations. It included:\n* Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, “to match the greatest of the pyramids of Egypt”\n* Erection of great temples in Delos, Delphi, Dodona, Dium, Amphipolis, and a monumental temple to Athena at Troy\n* Conquest of Arabia and the entire Mediterranean Basin\n* Circumnavigation of Africa\n* Development of cities and the “transplant of populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties.”\n", "\n===Generalship===\nThe Battle of the Granicus, 334 BC\nThe Battle of Issus, 333 BC\nAlexander earned the epithet \"the Great\" due to his unparalleled success as a military commander. He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and maneuverability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. He overcame this by being personally involved in battle, in the manner of a Macedonian king.\n\nIn his first battle in Asia, at Granicus, Alexander used only a small part of his forces, perhaps 13,000 infantry with 5,000 cavalry, against a much larger Persian force of 40,000. Alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings, so that his line matched the length of the Persian cavalry line, about . By contrast, the Persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry. This ensured that Alexander would not be outflanked, while his phalanx, armed with long pikes, had a considerable advantage over the Persian's scimitars and javelins. Macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the Persians.\n\nAt Issus in 333 BC, his first confrontation with Darius, he used the same deployment, and again the central phalanx pushed through. Alexander personally led the charge in the center, routing the opposing army. At the decisive encounter with Darius at Gaugamela, Darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes. Alexander arranged a double phalanx, with the center advancing at an angle, parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming. The advance was successful and broke Darius' center, causing the latter to flee once again.\n\nWhen faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. Thus, in Bactria and Sogdiana, Alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements, while massing his cavalry at the center. In India, confronted by Porus' elephant corps, the Macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants' handlers.\n\n===Physical appearance===\nRoman copy of a herma by Lysippos, Louvre Museum. Plutarch reports that sculptures by Lysippos were the most faithful.\nGreek biographer Plutarch (c. 45–120 AD) describes Alexander's appearance as:\n\n\nGreek historian Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' c. 86–160) described Alexander as:\n\nThe semi-legendary ''Alexander Romance'' also suggests that Alexander suffered from heterochromia iridum: that one eye was dark and the other light.\n\nBritish historian Peter Green provided a description of Alexander's appearance, based on his review of statues and some ancient documents:\n\n\nAncient authors recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos had often used the contrapposto sculptural scheme to portray Alexander and other characters such as Apoxyomenos, Hermes and Eros. Lysippos' sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.\n\n===Personality===\nSome of Alexander's strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents. His mother had huge ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. Olympias' influence instilled a sense of destiny in him, and Plutarch tells us that his ambition \"kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years\". However, his father Philip was Alexander's most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds. Alexander's relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father, illustrated by his reckless behaviour in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him \"no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world\", he also downplayed his father's achievements to his companions.\nAlexander (left), wearing a ''kausia'' and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic, Pella Museum\n\nAccording to Plutarch, among Alexander's traits were a violent temper and rash, impulsive nature, which undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions. Although Alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father, he was open to reasoned debate. He had a calmer side—perceptive, logical, and calculating. He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and was an avid reader. This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great self-restraint in \"pleasures of the body\", in contrast with his lack of self-control with alcohol.\n\nAlexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. However, he had little interest in sports or the Olympic games (unlike his father), seeking only the Homeric ideals of honour (''timê'') and glory (''kudos''). He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and retain the Empire after his death – only Alexander had the ability to do so.\n\nDuring his final years, and especially after the death of Hephaestion, Alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia. His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. His delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world, in as much as he is by various sources described as having ''boundless ambition'', an epithet, the meaning of which has descended into an historical cliché.\n\nHe appears to have believed himself a deity, or at least sought to deify himself. Olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus, a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa. He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. Alexander adopted elements of Persian dress and customs at court, notably ''proskynesis'', a practice of which Macedonians disapproved, and were loath to perform. This behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine. Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together.\n\nA mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC. The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.\n\n===Personal relationships===\n\nAlexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria, out of love; and the Persian princesses Stateira II and Parysatis II, the former a daughter of Darius III and latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon by Roxana and, possibly, Heracles of Macedon from his mistress Barsine. He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon.\n\nAlexander also had a close relationship with his friend, general, and bodyguard Hephaestion, the son of a Macedonian noble. Hephaestion's death devastated Alexander. This event may have contributed to Alexander's failing health and detached mental state during his final months.\n\nAlexander's sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy. No ancient sources stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships, or that Alexander's relationship with Hephaestion was sexual. Aelian, however, writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where \"Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter riddling that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles.\" Noting that the word ''eromenos'' (ancient Greek for beloved) does not necessarily bear sexual meaning, Alexander may have been bisexual, which in his time was not controversial.\n\nGreen argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that Alexander had much carnal interest in women; he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life. However, he was relatively young when he died, and Ogden suggests that Alexander's matrimonial record is more impressive than his father's at the same age. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions. Alexander accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly, showing great self-control in \"pleasures of the body\". Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by Roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her. Green suggested that, in the context of the period, Alexander formed quite strong friendships with women, including Ada of Caria, who adopted him, and even Darius' mother Sisygambis, who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of Alexander's death.\n", "{|class=\"wikitable sortable plainrowheaders\" width=\"100%\" style=\"font-size:90%; margin:1em auto 1em auto\"\nDate\nWar\nAction\nOpponent/s\nType\nCountry\nRank\nOutcome\nRecord\n\n338-08-02 2 August 338 BC\nRise of Macedon\nChaeronea Battle of Chaeronea\n.Thebans, Athenians\nBattle\nGreece\nPrince\nVictory\n⁂\n1–0\n\n335 335 BC\nBalkan Campaign\nMount Haemus Battle of Mount Haemus\n.Getae, Thracians\nBattle\npresent-day Bulgaria\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n2–0\n\n335-12 December 335 BC\nBalkan Campaign\nPelium Siege of Pelium\n.Illyrians\nSiege\nGreece\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n3–0\n\n335-12 December 335 BC\nBalkan Campaign\nPelium Battle of Thebes\n.Thebans\nBattle\nGreece\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n4–0\n\n334-05 May 334 BC\nPersian Campaign\nGranicus Battle of the Granicus\n.Achaemenid Empire\nBattle\npresent-day Turkey\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n5–0\n\n334 334 BC\nPersian Campaign\nMiletus Siege of Miletus\n.Achaemenid Empire, Milesians\nSiege\npresent-day Turkey\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n6–0\n\n334 334 BC\nPersian Campaign\nHalicarnassus Siege of Halicarnassus\n.Achaemenid Empire\nSiege\npresent-day Turkey\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n7–0\n\n333-11-05 5 November 333 BC\nPersian Campaign\nIssus Battle of Issus\n.Achaemenid Empire\nBattle\npresent-day Turkey\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n8–0\n\n332 January–July 332 BC\nPersian Campaign\nTyre Siege of Tyre\n.Achaemenid Empire, Tyrians\nSiege\npresent-day Lebanon\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n9–0\n\n332-10 October 332 BC\nPersian Campaign\nTyre Siege of Gaza\n.Achaemenid Empire\nSiege\npresent-day Palestine\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n10–0\n\n331-10-01 1 October 331 BC\nPersian Campaign\nGaugamela Battle of Gaugamela\n.Achaemenid Empire\nBattle\npresent-day Iraq\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n11–0\n\n331-12 December 331 BC\nPersian Campaign\nUxian Defile Battle of the Uxian Defile\n.Uxians\nBattle\npresent-day Iran\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n12–0\n\n330-01-20 20 January 330 BC\nPersian Campaign\nPersian Gate Battle of the Persian Gate\n.Achaemenid Empire\nBattle\npresent-day Iran\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n13–0\n\n329 329 BC\nPersian Campaign\nCyropolis Siege of Cyropolis\n.Sogdians\nSiege\npresent-day Turkmenistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n14–0\n\n329-10 October 329 BC\nPersian Campaign\nJaxartes Battle of Jaxartes\n.Scythians\nBattle\npresent-day Uzbekistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n15–0\n\n327 327 BC\nPersian Campaign\nSogdian Rock Siege of the Sogdian Rock\n.Sogdians\nSiege\npresent-day Uzbekistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n16–0\n\n327 May 327 – March 326 BC\nIndian Campaign\nCophen Cophen Campaign\n.Aspasians\nExpedition\npresent-day Afghanistan and Pakistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n17–0\n\n326-04 April 326 BC\nIndian Campaign\nAornos Siege of Aornos\n.Aśvaka\nSiege\npresent-day Pakistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n18–0\n\n326-05 May 326 BC\nIndian Campaign\nHydaspes Battle of the Hydaspes\n.Paurava\nBattle\npresent-day Pakistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n19–0\n\n325 November 326 – February 325 BC\nIndian Campaign\nAornos Siege of Multan\n.Malli\nSiege\npresent-day Pakistan\nKing\nVictory\n⁂\n20–0\n\n", "The Hellenistic world view after Alexander: ancient world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), incorporating information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors.\n\nAlexander's legacy extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean.\n\n===Hellenistic kingdoms===\n\nAlexander's most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian rule to huge new swathes of Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander's empire covered some , and was the largest state of its time. Many of these areas remained in Macedonian hands or under Greek influence for the next 200–300 years. The successor states that emerged were, at least initially, dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic period.\n\nPlan of Alexandria c. 30 BC\nThe eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. However, the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful Indian dynasties in history, the Maurya Empire. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as \"Sandrokottos\"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire.\n\n===Founding of cities===\nOver the course of his conquests, Alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris. The first, and greatest, was Alexandria in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities. The cities' locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. At first, the cities must have been inhospitable, little more than defensive garrisons. Following Alexander's death, many Greeks who had settled there tried to return to Greece. However, a century or so after Alexander's death, many of the Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek and local peoples.\n\n===Hellenization===\n\nAlexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.\n\n''Hellenization'' was coined by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the former Persian empire after Alexander's conquest. That this export took place is undoubted, and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia (south of modern Baghdad). Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture. This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. However, his successors explicitly rejected such policies. Nevertheless, Hellenization occurred throughout the region, accompanied by a distinct and opposite 'Orientalization' of the successor states.\n\nThe core of the Hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially Athenian. The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander's army directly led to the emergence of the largely Attic-based \"koine\", or \"common\" Greek dialect. Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world, becoming the lingua franca of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern Greek. Furthermore, town planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.\n\nBuddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st–2nd century AD, Gandhara, ancient India. Tokyo National Museum.\nSome of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – 10 CE) in modern Afghanistan and India. There on the newly formed Silk Road Greek culture apparently hybridized with Indian, and especially Buddhist culture. The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism heavily influenced the development of Buddhism and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka, and the Mediterranean (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the Buddha appeared at this time, perhaps modeled on Greek statues of Apollo in the Greco-Buddhist style. Several Buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient Greek religion: the concept of Boddhisatvas is reminiscent of Greek divine heroes, and some Mahayana ceremonial practices (burning incense, gifts of flowers, and food placed on altars) are similar to those practiced by the ancient Greeks; however, similar practices were also observed amongst the native Indic culture. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. For example, Greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century BC were found in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai Khanoum in modern-day Afghanistan, while the Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the long-standing Indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain (Mount Meru) like the petals of a flower. The Yavanajataka (lit. Greek astronomical treatise) and Paulisa Siddhanta texts depict the influence of Greek astronomical ideas on Indian astronomy.\n\nFollowing the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was far-ranging. In the area of architecture, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far as Patna, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC. The Corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of Gandhara, especially through Indo-Corinthian capitals.\n\n===Influence on Rome===\nThis medallion was produced in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.\nAlexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans, especially generals, who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements. Polybius began his ''Histories'' by reminding Romans of Alexander's achievements, and thereafter Roman leaders saw him as a role model. Pompey the Great adopted the epithet \"Magnus\" and even Alexander's anastole-type haircut, and searched the conquered lands of the east for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which he then wore as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar dedicated a Lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced Alexander's head with his own, while Octavian visited Alexander's tomb in Alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to Alexander's profile. The emperor Trajan also admired Alexander, as did Nero and Caracalla. The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewelry, or embroidered into their clothes.\n\nThe Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (reigned c. 200–180 BC), wearing an elephant scalp, took over Alexander's legacy in the east by again invading India, and establishing the Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BC–10 AD).\nThe History of Alexander's Battles''\nOn the other hand, some Roman writers, particularly Republican figures, used Alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values. Alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as ''amicita'' (friendship) and ''clementia'' (clemency), but also ''iracundia'' (anger) and ''cupiditas gloriae'' (over-desire for glory).\n\n===Legend===\n\nLegendary accounts surround the life of Alexander the Great, many deriving from his own lifetime, probably encouraged by Alexander himself. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Writing shortly after Alexander's death, another participant, Onesicritus, invented a tryst between Alexander and Thalestris, queen of the mythical Amazons. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King Lysimachus reportedly quipped, \"I wonder where I was at the time.\"\n\nIn the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''Alexander Romance'', later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, containing many dubious stories, and was translated into numerous languages.\n\n===In ancient and modern culture===\n\nAlexander the Great depicted in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript\nAlexander the Great depicted in a 15th-century Persian miniature painting\n\nAlexander the Great's accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. The ''Alexander Romance'', in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek.\n\nAlexander features prominently in modern Greek folklore, more so than any other ancient figure. The colloquial form of his name in modern Greek (\"O Megalexandros\") is a household name, and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the Karagiozis shadow play. One well-known fable among Greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ship's prow during a storm and ask the captain \"Is King Alexander alive?\" The correct answer is \"He is alive and well and rules the world!\" causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard.\n\nIn pre-Islamic Middle Persian (Zoroastrian) literature, Alexander is referred to by the epithet ''gujastak'', meaning \"accursed\", and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism. In Sunni Islamic Persia, under the influence of the ''Alexander Romance'' (in ''Iskandarnamah''), a more positive portrayal of Alexander emerges. Firdausi's ''Shahnameh'' (\"The Book of Kings\") includes Alexander in a line of legitimate Persian shahs, a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the Fountain of Youth. Later Persian writers associate him with philosophy, portraying him at a symposium with figures such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, in search of immortality.\nThe figure of Dhul-Qarnayn (literally \"the Two-Horned One\") mentioned in the Quran is believed by some scholars to represent Alexander, due to parallels with the ''Alexander Romance''. In this tradition, he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of Gog and Magog. He then travelled the known world in search of the Water of Life and Immortality, eventually becoming a prophet.\n\nThe Syriac version of the ''Alexander Romance'' portrays him as an ideal Christian world conqueror who prayed to \"the one true God\". In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. His defeat of Darius was depicted as Egypt's salvation, \"proving\" Egypt was still ruled by an Egyptian.\n\nAccording to Josephus, Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel when he entered Jerusalem, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. This is cited as a reason for sparing Jerusalem.\n\nIn Hindi and Urdu, the name \"Sikandar\", derived from Persian, denotes a rising young talent. In medieval Europe he was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes who encapsulated all the ideal qualities of chivalry.\n\nIrish playwright Aubrey Thomas de Vere wrote ''Alexander the Great, a Dramatic Poem''.\nStatue of Alexander the Great in Thessaloniki, Greece\n", "\nApart from a few inscriptions and fragments, texts written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander were all lost. Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes; Alexander's generals Ptolemy and Nearchus; Aristobulus, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus, Alexander's chief helmsman. Their works are lost, but later works based on these original sources have survived. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Of these, Arrian is generally considered the most reliable, given that he used Ptolemy and Aristobulus as his sources, closely followed by Diodorus.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n* Alexander the Great in the Qur'an\n* Ancient Macedonian army\n* Bucephalus\n* Chronology of European exploration of Asia\n* Diogenes and Alexander\n* Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great\n* List of people known as The Great\n* ''The Mahabharata Quest: The Alexander Secret''\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n===Primary sources===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* .\n\n===Secondary sources===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* .\n* Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4, Part 5, Part 6.\n* \n* .\n* .\n* .\n* In Our Time: Alexander the Great BBC discussion with Paul Cartledge, Diana Spencer and Rachel Mairs hosted by Melvyn Bragg, first broadcast 1 October 2015.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Philip's heir", "King of Macedon", "Conquest of the Persian Empire", "Indian campaign", "Last years in Persia", "Death and succession", "Character", "Battle record", "Legacy", "Historiography", "Ancestry", "See also", "Annotations", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n'''Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski''' (; July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American independent scholar who developed a field called general semantics, which he viewed as both distinct from, and more encompassing than, the field of semantics. He argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed, and thus no one can have direct access to reality, given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brain's responses to reality. His best known dictum is \"The map is not the territory\".\n", "Alfred Korzybski's family coat-of-arms (see Abdank coat of arms).\nKorzybski was born in Warsaw, Poland which at that time was part of the Russian Empire. He was part of an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the Polish language at home and the Russian language in schools; and having a French governess and a German governess, he became fluent in these four languages as a child.\n\nKorzybski was educated at the Warsaw University of Technology in engineering. During the First World War Korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the Russian Army. After being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries, he moved to North America in 1916 (first to Canada, then the United States) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to Russia. He also lectured to Polish-American audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. After the War, he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a naturalized citizen in 1940. He met Mira Edgerly, a painter of portraits on ivory, shortly after the Armistice, and married her in January 1919. Their marriage lasted until his death.\n\nHis first book, ''Manhood of Humanity'', was published in 1921. In the book, he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a \"time-binding\" class of life (humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and abstractions through time which are accreted in cultures).\n", "Korzybski's work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named general semantics (GS). This should not be confused with semantics. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are described in the publication ''Science and Sanity'', published in 1933. In 1938 Korzybski founded the Institute of General Semantics in Chicago. The post-World War II housing shortage in Chicago cost him the Institute's building lease, so in 1946, he moved the Institute to Lakeville, Connecticut, U.S., where he directed it until his death in 1950.\n\nKorzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the structure of their languages. Humans cannot experience the world directly, but only through their \"abstractions\" (nonverbal impressions or \"gleanings\" derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). These sometimes mislead us about what is the case. Our understanding sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually happening.\n\nHe sought to train our awareness of abstracting, using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, \"consciousness of abstracting\". His system included the promotion of attitudes such as \"I don't know; let's see,\" in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science. Another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience he termed, \"silence on the objective levels\".\n", "Many devotees and critics of Korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form \"is\" of the more general verb \"to be.\" His system, however, is based primarily on such terminology as the different \"orders of abstraction,\" and formulations such as \"consciousness of abstracting.\" It is often said that Korzybski ''opposed'' the use of the verb \"to be.\" This is a profound exaggeration (see \"criticisms\" below).\n\nHe thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb \"to be\", called the \"is of identity\" and the \"is of predication\", were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as, \"Elizabeth is a fool\" (said of a person named \"Elizabeth\" who has done something that we regard as foolish). In Korzybski's system, one's assessment of Elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than Elizabeth herself. Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be aware continually that \"Elizabeth\" is ''not'' what we ''call'' her. We find Elizabeth not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain (the two, he said, amount to different orders of abstraction). This was expressed by Korzybski's most famous premise, \"the map is not the territory\". Note that this premise uses the phrase \"is not\", a form of \"to be\"; this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon \"to be\" as such. In fact, he said explicitly that there were no structural problems with the verb \"to be\" when used as an auxiliary verb or when used to state existence or location. It was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb \"to be,\" as long as one was aware of their structural limitations.\n", "One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. \"Nice biscuit, don't you think,\" said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words \"Dog Cookies.\" The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to vomit, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. \"You see,\" Korzybski remarked, \"I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter.\"\n\nWilliam Burroughs went to a Korzybski workshop in the Autumn of 1939. He was 25 years old, and paid $40. His fellow students—there were 38 in all—included young Samuel I. Hayakawa (later to become a Republican member of the U.S. Senate), Ralph Moriarty deBit (later to become the spiritual teacher Vitvan) and Wendell Johnson (founder of the Monster Study).\n", "Korzybski was well received in numerous disciplines, as evidenced by the positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s.\n\nAs reported in the third edition of ''Science and Sanity'', in World War II the US Army used Korzybski's system to treat battle fatigue in Europe, under the supervision of Dr. Douglas M. Kelley, who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of recuperating the Jewish prisoners at Nuremberg.\n\nSome of the General Semantics tradition was continued by Samuel I. Hayakawa.\n", "\n* Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture\n* Concept and object\n* E-Prime\n* Institute of General Semantics\n* List of Poles\n* Robert Pula\n* Structural differential\n\n", "\n", "* Kodish, Bruce. 2011. ''Korzybski: A Biography''. Pasadena, CA: Extensional Publishing. softcover, 978-09700664-28 hardcover.\n* Kodish, Bruce and Susan Presby Kodish. 2011. ''Drive Yourself Sane: Using the Uncommon Sense of General Semantics, Third Edition''. Pasadena, CA: Extensional Publishing. \n* Alfred Korzybski, ''Manhood of Humanity'', foreword by Edward Kasner, notes by M. Kendig, Institute of General Semantics, 1950, hardcover, 2nd edition, 391 pages, . ( Copy of the first edition.)\n* ''Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics'', Alfred Korzybski, Preface by Robert P. Pula, Institute of General Semantics, 1994, hardcover, 5th edition, . ( Full text online.)\n* Alfred Korzybski, ''Collected Writings 1920-1950'', Institute of General Semantics, 1990, hardcover, \n* Montagu, M. F. A. (1953). Time-binding and the concept of culture. ''The Scientific Monthly'', Vol. 77, No. 3 (Sep., 1953), pp. 148–155.\n* Murray, E. (1950). In memoriam: Alfred H. Korzybski. ''Sociometry'', Vol. 13, No. 1 (Feb., 1950), pp. 76–77.\n", "\n* \n* \n* Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy Website\n* Australian General Semantics Society\n* Institute of General Semantics\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Early life and career", "General semantics", "\"To be\"", "Anecdotes", " Influence ", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Asparagales''' ('''asparagoid lilies''') is an order of plants in modern classification systems such as the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Web. The order takes its name from the type family Asparagaceae and is placed in the monocots amongst the lilioid monocots. The order has only recently been recognized in classification systems. It was first put forward by Huber in 1977 and later taken up in the Dahlgren system of 1985 and then the APG in 1998, 2003 and 2009. Before this, many of its families were assigned to the old order Liliales, a very large order containing almost all monocots with colourful tepals and lacking starch in their endosperm. DNA sequence analysis indicated that many of the taxa previously included in Liliales should actually be redistributed over three orders, Liliales, Asparagales and Dioscoreales. The boundaries of the Asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years; future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability. In the APG circumscription, Asparagales is the largest order of monocots with 14 families, 1,122 genera, and about 36,000 species.\n\nThe order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of molecular phylogenetics, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse. Most species of Asparagales are herbaceous perennials, although some are climbers and some are tree-like. The order also contains many geophytes (bulbs, corms and various kinds of tuber). According to telomere sequence, at least two evolutionary switch-points happened within the order. Basal sequence is formed by TTTAGGG like in majority of higher plants. Basal motif was changed to vertebrate-like TTAGGG and finally the most divergent motif CTCGGTTATGGG appears in ''Allium''. One of the defining characteristics (synapomorphies) of the order is the presence of phytomelanin, a black pigment present in the seed coat, creating a dark crust. Phytomelanin is found in most families of the Asparagales (although not in Orchidaceae, thought to be a sister to the rest of the group).\n\nThe leaves of almost all species form a tight rosette, either at the base of the plant or at the end of the stem, but occasionally along the stem. The flowers are not particularly distinctive, being 'lily type', with six tepals and up to six stamina.\n\nThe order is thought to have first diverged from other related monocots some 120–130 million years ago (early in the Cretaceous period), although given the difficulty in classifying the families involved, estimates are likely to be uncertain.\n\nFrom an economic point of view, the order Asparagales is second in importance within the monocots to the order Poales (which includes grasses and cereals). Species are used as food and flavourings (e.g. onion, garlic, leek, asparagus, vanilla), as cut flowers (e.g. freesia, gladiolus, iris, orchids), and as garden ornamentals (e.g. day lilies, lily of the valley, ''Agapanthus'').\n\n\n", " Seeds of ''Hippeastrum'' with dark phytomelan-containing coat\nhabit created by secondary thickening in ''Nolina recurvata''\n\nThus although most species in the order are herbaceous, some no more than 15 cm high, there are a number of climbers (''e.g.'', some species of ''Asparagus''), as well as several genera forming trees (e.g. ''Agave'', ''Cordyline'', ''Yucca'', ''Dracaena'', ''Aloe'' ), which can exceed 10 m in height. Succulent genera occur in several families (e.g. ''Aloe'').\n\nAlmost all species have a tight cluster of leaves (a rosette), either at the base of the plant or at the end of a more-or-less woody stem as with ''Yucca''. In some cases the leaves are produced along the stem. The flowers are in the main not particularly distinctive, being of a general 'lily type', with six tepals, either free or fused from the base and up to six stamina. They are frequently clustered at the end of the plant stem.\n\nThe Asparagales are generally distinguished from the Liliales by the lack of markings on the tepals, the presence of septal nectaries in the ovaries, rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments, and the presence of secondary growth. They are generally geophytes, but with linear leaves, and a lack of fine reticular venation.\n\nThe seeds characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated (in most species bearing fleshy fruit), or if present, have a layer of black carbonaceous phytomelanin in species with dry fruits (nuts). The inner part of the seed coat is generally collapsed, in contrast to Liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis, lack phytomelanin, and usually display a cellular inner layer.\n\nThe orders which have been separated from the old Liliales are difficult to characterize. No single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order Asparagales.\n* The flowers of Asparagales are of a general type among the lilioid monocots. Compared to Liliales, they usually have plain tepals without markings in the form of dots. If nectaries are present, they are in the septa of the ovaries rather than at the base of the tepals or stamens.\n* Those species which have relatively large dry seeds have a dark, crust-like (crustose) outer layer containing the pigment phytomelan. However, some species with hairy seeds (e.g. ''Eriospermum'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), berries (e.g. ''Maianthemum'', family Asparagaceae ''s.l.''), or highly reduced seeds (e.g. orchids) lack this dark pigment in their seed coats. Phytomelan is not unique to Asparagales (i.e. it is not a synapomorphy) but it is common within the order and rare outside it. The inner portion of the seed coat is usually completely collapsed. In contrast, the morphologically similar seeds of Liliales have no phytomelan, and usually retain a cellular structure in the inner portion of the seed coat.\n* Most monocots are unable to thicken their stems once they have formed, since they lack the cylindrical meristem present in other angiosperm groups. Asparagales have a method of secondary thickening which is otherwise only found in''Dioscorea'' (in the order Disoscoreales). In a process called 'anomalous secondary growth', they are able to create new vascular bundles around which thickening growth occurs. ''Agave'', ''Yucca'', ''Aloe'', ''Dracaena'', ''Nolina'' and ''Cordyline'' can become massive trees, albeit not of the height of the tallest dicots, and with less branching. Other genera in the order, such as ''Lomandra'' and ''Aphyllanthes'', have the same type of secondary growth but confined to their underground stems.\n* Microsporogenesis (part of pollen formation) distinguishes some members of Asparagales from Liliales. Microsporogenesis involves a cell dividing twice (meiotically) to form four daughter cells. There are two kinds of microsporogenesis: successive and simultaneous (although intermediates exist). In successive microsporogenesis, walls are laid down separating the daughter cells after each division. In simultaneous microsporogenesis, there is no wall formation until all four cell nuclei are present. Liliales all have successive microsporogenesis, which is thought to be the primitive condition in monocots. It seems that when the Asparagales first diverged they developed simultaneous microsporogenesis, which the 'lower' Asparagale families retain. However, the 'core' Asparagales (see #Phylogeny section) have reverted to successive microsporogenesis.\n* The Asparagales appear to be unified by a mutation affecting their telomeres (a region of repetitive DNA at the end of a chromosome). The typical '''Arabidopsis''-type' sequence of bases has been fully or partially replaced by other sequences, with the 'human-type' predominating.\n* Other apomorphic characters of the order according to Stevens are: the presence of chelidonic acid, anthers longer than wide, tapetal cells bi- to tetra-nuclear, tegmen not persistent, endosperm helobial, and loss of mitochondrial gene ''sdh3''.\n", "\nAs circumscribed within the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system Asparagales is the largest order within the monocotyledons, with 14 families, 1,122 genera and about 25,000–42,000 species, thus accounting for about 50% of all monocots and 10–15% of the flowering plants (angiosperms). The attribution of botanical authority for the name Asparagales belongs to Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link (1767 – 1851) who coined the word 'Asparaginae' in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included ''Asparagus'' although Adanson and Jussieau had also done so earlier (see History). Earlier circumscriptions of Asparagales attributed the name to Bromhead (1838), who had been the first to use the term 'Asparagales'.\n\n=== History ===\n\n==== Pre-Darwinian ====\nThe type genus, ''Asparagus'', from which the name of the order is derived, was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, with ten species. He placed ''Asparagus'' within the ''Hexandria Monogynia'' (six stamens, one carpel) in his sexual classification in the ''Species Plantarum''. The majority of taxa now considered to constitute Asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family, Liliaceae. The Liliaceae family was first described by Michel Adanson in 1763, and in his taxonomic scheme he created eight sections within it, including the Asparagi with ''Asparagus'' and three other genera. The system of organising genera into families is generally credited to Antoine Laurent de Jussieu who formally described both the Liliaceae and the type family of Asparagales, the Asparagaceae, as Lilia and Asparagi, respectively, in 1789. Jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy (phylogeny), placing ''Asparagus'' and related genera within a division of Monocotyledons, a class (III) of ''Stamina Perigynia'' and 'order' Asparagi, divided into three subfamilies. The use of the term ''Ordo'' (order) at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family, rather than Order. In creating his scheme he used a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. While De Jussieu's ''Stamina Perigynia'' also included a number of 'orders' that would eventually form families within the Asparagales such as the Asphodeli (Xanthorrhoeaceae), Narcissi (Amaryllidaceae) and Irides (Iridaceae), the remainder are now allocated to other orders. Jussieu's Asparagi soon came to be referred to as ''Asparagacées'' in the French literature (Latin: Asparagaceae). Meanwhile, the 'Narcissi' had been renamed as the 'Amaryllidées' (Amaryllideae) in 1805, by Jean Henri Jaume Saint-Hilaire, using ''Amaryllis'' as the type species rather than ''Narcissus'', and thus has the authority attribution for Amaryllidaceae. In 1810 Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as Amaryllideae and in 1813 de Candolle described Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families.\n\nThe literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the English language with Samuel Frederick Gray's ''A natural arrangement of British plants'' (1821). Gray used a combination of Linnaeus' sexual classification and Jussieu's natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens, a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid, but did not use formal names for these higher ranks. Within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed. He treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families, such as Amaryllideae, Liliaceae, Asphodeleae and Asparageae.\n\nAmaryllidaceae: Narcisseae - ''Pancratium maritimum'' Linn. John Lindley, Vegetable Kingdom 1846\nThe circumscription of Asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of John Lindley (1846), the other important British taxonomist of the early nineteenth century. In his first taxonomic work, ''An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany'' (1830) he partly followed Jussieu by describing a subclass he called Endogenae, or Monocotyledonous Plants (preserving de Candolle's ''Endogenæ phanerogamæ'') divided into two tribes, the Petaloidea and Glumaceae. He divided the former, often referred to as petaloid monocots, into 32 orders, including the Liliaceae (defined narrowly), but also most of the families considered to make up the Asparagales today, including the Amaryllideae.\n\nBy 1846, in his final scheme Lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots, introducing both an intermediate ranking (Alliances) and tribes within orders (''i.e.'' families). Lindley placed the Liliaceae within the Liliales, but saw it as a paraphyletic (\"catch-all\") family, being all Liliales not included in the other orders, but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better. The order Liliales was very large and had become a used to include almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm (the lilioid monocots). The Liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups. This kept the Liliaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae (Narcissales). Of these Liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes (with 133 genera) and Amaryllidaceae into four tribes (with 68 genera), yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each other's contemporary orders (Liliales and Asparagales respectively). The Liliaceae would be reduced to a small 'core' represented by the Tulipae tribe, while large groups such Scilleae and Asparagae would become part of Asparagales either as part of the Amaryllidaceae or as separate families. While of the Amaryllidaceae, the Agaveae would be part of Asparagaceae but the Alstroemeriae would become a family within the Liliales.\n\nThe number of known genera (and species) continued to grow and by the time of the next major British classification, that of Bentham and Hooker in 1883 (published in Latin) several of Lindley's other families had been absorbed into the Liliaceae. They used the term 'series' to indicate suprafamilial rank, with seven series of monocotyledons (including Glumaceae), but did not use Lindley's terms for these. However they did place the Liliaceous and Amaryllidaceous genera into separate series. The Liliaceae were placed in series Coronariae, while the Amaryllideae were placed in series Epigynae. The Liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes (including Tulipeae, Scilleae and Asparageae), and the Amaryllideae of five (including Agaveae and Alstroemerieae). An important addition to the treatment of the Liliaceae was the recognition of the Allieae as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the Asparagales as the Allioideae subfamily of the Amaryllidaceae.\n\n==== Post-Darwinian ====\nThe appearance of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification, incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata. The Darwinian approach led to the concept of phylogeny (tree-like structure) in assembling classification systems, starting with Eichler. Eichler, having established a hierarchical system in which the flowering plants (angiosperms) were divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons, further divided into former into seven orders. Within the Liliiflorae were seven families, including Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. Liliaceae included ''Allium'' and ''Ornithogalum'' (modern Allioideae) and ''Asparagus''.\n\nEngler, in his system developed Eichler's ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including ''Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien'' (Engler and Prantl 1888) and ''Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien'' (1892–1924). In his treatment of Liliiflorae the Liliineae were a suborder which included both Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae families. The Liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the Amaryllidaceae four. In this rearrangement of Liliaceae, with fewer subdivisions, the core Liliales were represented as subfamily Lilioideae (with Tulipae and Scilleae as tribes), the Asparagae were represented as Asparagoideae and the Allioideae was preserved, representing the alliaceous genera. Allieae, Agapantheae and Gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily. In the Amaryllidacea, there was little change from Bentham and Hooker. A similar approach was adopted by Wettstein.\n\n==== Twentieth century ====\nLongitudinal section of ''Narcissus poeticus'', R Wettstein ''Handbuch der Systematischen Botanik'' 1901–1924In the twentieth century the Wettstein system (1901–1935) placed many of the taxa in an order called 'Liliiflorae'. Next Johannes Paulus Lotsy (1911) proposed dividing the Liliiflorae into a number of smaller families including Asparagaceae. Then Herbert Huber (1969, 1977), following Lotsy's example, proposed that the Liliiflorae be split into four groups including the 'Asparagoid' Liliiflorae.\nThe widely used Cronquist system (1968–1988) used the very broadly defined order Liliales.\n\nThese various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families, made little impact till that of Dahlgren (1985) incorporating new information including synapomorphy. Dahlgren developed Huber's ideas further and popularised them, with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units. They created a new order, calling it Asparagales. This was one of five orders within the superorder Liliiflorae. Where Cronquist saw one family, Dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders (predominantly Liliales and Asparagales).\nOver the 1980s, in the context of a more general review of the classification of angiosperms, the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny. By the end of that decade, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, the British Museum of Natural History and the Edinburgh Botanical Gardens formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their herbaria. That committee finally recommended that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad Liliaceae, largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families.\n\n=== Phylogenetics ===\nThe order Asparagales as currently circumscribed has only recently been recognized in classification systems, through the advent of phylogenetics. The 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory, enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants. The establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as Cronquist and Thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data. This complicated discussion about plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring. ''rbc''L gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the Liliales in 1995. from four morphological orders ''sensu'' Dahlgren. The largest clade representing the Liliaceae, all previously included in Liliales, but including both the Calochortaceae and Liliaceae ''sensu'' Tamura. This redefined family, that became referred to as core Liliales, but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (1998).\n\n===Phylogeny and APG system===\nThe 2009 revision of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system, APG III, places the order in the clade monocots.\n\nFrom the Dahlgren system of 1985 onwards, studies based mainly on morphology had identified the Asparagales as a distinct group, but had also included groups now located in Liliales, Pandanales and Zingiberales. Research in the 21st century has supported the monophyly of Asparagales, based on morphology, 18S rDNA, and other DNA sequences, although some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that Asparagales may be paraphyletic, with Orchidaceae separated from the rest. Within the monocots, Asparagales is the sister group of the commelinid clade.\n\nThis cladogram shows the placement of Asparagales within the orders of Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal (monocots) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence. The lilioid monocot orders are bracketed, namely Petrosaviales, Dioscoreales, Pandanales, Liliales and Asparagales. These constitute a paraphyletic assemblage, that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants (in this case commelinids as the sister group to Asparagales); to form a clade, all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included. While Acorales and Alismatales have been collectively referred to as \"alismatid monocots\" (basal or early branching monocots), the remaining clades (lilioid and commelinid monocots) have been referred to as the \"core monocots\". The relationship between the orders (with the exception of the two sister orders) is pectinate, that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids. Numbers indicate crown group (most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest) divergence times in mya (million years ago).\n\n\n\n\n\n=== Subdivision ===\nA phylogenetic tree for the Asparagales, including those families that were reduced to subfamilies, is shown below. Of these, the two largest families are Amaryllidaceae and Asparagaceae.\n\n\n\nThe tree shown above can be divided into a basal paraphyletic group, the 'lower Asparagales (asparagoids)', from Orchidaceae to Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'', and a well-supported monophyletic group of 'core Asparagales' (higher asparagoids), comprising the two largest families, Amaryllidaceae ''sensu lato'' and Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''.\n\nTwo differences between these two groups (although with exceptions) are: the mode of microsporogenesis and the position of the ovary. The 'lower Asparagales' typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop only after both meiotic divisions), which appears to be an apomorphy within the monocots, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to successive microsporogenesis (i.e. cell walls develop after each division). The 'lower Asparagales' typically have an inferior ovary, whereas the 'core Asparagales' have reverted to a superior ovary. A 2002 morphological study by Rudall treated possessing an inferior ovary as a synapomorphy of the Asparagales, stating that reversions to a superior ovary in the 'core Asparagales' could be associated with the presence of nectaries below the ovaries. However, Stevens notes that superior ovaries are distributed among the 'lower Asparagales' in such a way that it is not clear where to place the evolution of different ovary morphologies. The position of the ovary seems a much more flexible character (here and in other angiosperms) than previously thought.\n\n==== Changes to family structure in APG III ====\nThe APG III system when it was published in 2009, greatly expanded the families Xanthorrhoeaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Asparagaceae. Thirteen of the families of the earlier APG II system were thereby reduced to subfamilies within these three families. The APG II families (left) and their equivalent APG III subfamilies (right) are as follows:\n\n\n\n\n;Xanthorrhoeaceae\n* Hemerocallidaceae=Hemerocallidoideae\n* Xanthorrhoeaceae=Xanthorrhoeoideae\n* Asphodelaceae=Asphodeloideae\n\n;Amaryllidaceae\n* Agapanthaceae=Agapanthoideae\n* Alliaceae =Allioideae\n* Amaryllidaceae=Amaryllidoideae\n\n;Asparagaceae\n* Aphyllanthaceae = Aphyllanthoideae\n* Laxmanniaceae = Lomandroideae\n* Asparagaceae = Asparagoideae\n* Ruscaceae = Nolinoideae\n* Agavaceae = Agavoideae\n* Themidaceae = Brodiaeoideae\n* Hyacinthaceae = Scilloideae\n\n\n==== Structure of Asparagales ====\n\n=====Orchid clade=====\nOrchidaceae is the largest family of all angiosperms and hence by far the largest in the order. The Dahlgren system recognized three families of orchids, but DNA sequence analysis later showed that these families are polyphyletic and so should be combined. Several studies suggest (with high bootstrap support) that Orchidaceae is the sister of the rest of the Asparagales. Other studies have placed the orchids differently in the phylogenetic tree, generally among the Boryaceae-Hypoxidaceae clade. The position of Orchidaceae shown above seems the best current hypothesis, but cannot be taken as confirmed.\n\nOrchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries, two characters that are typical of the 'lower Asparagales'. However, their nectaries are rarely in the septa of the ovaries, and most orchids have dust-like seeds, atypical of the rest of the order. (Some members of Vanilloideae and Cypripedioideae have crustose seeds, probably associated with dispersal by birds and mammals that are attracted by fermenting fleshy fruit releasing fragrant compounds, e.g. vanilla.)\n\nIn terms of the number of species, Orchidaceae diversification is remarkable. However, although the other Asparagales may be less rich in species, they are more variable morphologically, including tree-like forms.\n\n=====Boryaceae to Hypoxidaceae=====\nThe four families excluding Boryaceae form a well-supported clade in studies based on DNA sequence analysis. All four contain relatively few species, and it has been suggested that they be combined into one family under the name Hypoxidaceae ''sensu lato''. The relationship between Boryaceae (which includes only two genera, ''Borya'' and ''Alania''), and other Asparagales has remained unclear for a long time. The Boryaceae are mycorrhizal, but not in the same way as orchids. Morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between Boryaceae and Blandfordiaceae. There is relatively low support for the position of Boryaceae in the tree shown above.\n\n=====Ixioliriaceae to Xeronemataceae=====\nThe relationship shown between Ixioliriaceae and Tecophilaeaceae is still unclear. Some studies have supported a clade of these two families, others have not. The position of Doryanthaceae has also varied, with support for the position shown above, but also support for other positions.\n\nThe clade from Iridaceae upwards appears to have stronger support. All have some genetic characteristics in common, having lost Arabidopsis-type telomeres. Iridaceae is distinctive among the Asparagales in the unique structure of the inflorescence (a ripidium), the combination of an inferior ovary and three stamens, and the common occurrence of unifacial leaves whereas bifacial leaves are the norm in other Asparagales.\n\nMembers of the clade from Iridaceae upwards have infra-locular septal nectaries, which Rudall interpreted as a driver towards secondarily superior ovaries.\n\n=====Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'' + 'core Asparagales'=====\nThe next node in the tree (Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'' + the 'core Asparagales') has strong support. 'Anomalous' secondary thickening occurs among this clade, e.g. in ''Xanthorrhoea'' (family Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'') and ''Dracaena'' (family Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''), with species reaching tree-like proportions.\n\nThe 'core Asparagales', comprising Amaryllidaceae ''sensu lato'' and Asparagaceae ''sensu lato'', are a strongly supported clade, as are clades for each of the families. Relationships within these broadly defined families appear less clear, particularly within the Asparagaceae ''sensu lato''. Stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize, and that significantly different divisions have been used in the past, so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is justified. Thus the relationships among subfamilies shown above, based on APWeb , is somewhat uncertain.\n\n===Evolution===\nSeveral studies have attempted to date the evolution of the Asparagales, based on phylogenetic evidence. Earlier studies generally give younger dates than more recent studies, which have been preferred in the table below.\n\n\n+\n Approx. date inMillions of Years Ago !! Event\n\n 133-120 \n Origin of Asparagales, i.e. first divergence from other monocots\n\n 93 \n Split between Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu lato'' and the 'core group' Asparagales\n\n 91–89 \n Origin of Alliodeae and Asparagoideae\n\n 47 \n Divergence of Agavoideae and Nolinoideae\n\n\nA 2009 study suggests that the Asparagales have the highest diversification rate in the monocots, about the same as the order Poales, although in both orders the rate is little over half that of the eudicot order Lamiales, the clade with the highest rate.\n\n=== Comparison of family structures ===\n \n\nThe taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by Kubitzki. Up-to-date information on the Asparagales can be found on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.\n\nThe APG III system's family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the Kew-hosted ''World Checklist of Selected Plant Families''. With this circumscription, the order consists of 14 families (Dahlgren had 31) with approximately 1120 genera and 26000 species.\n\nOrder Asparagales Link\n* Family Amaryllidaceae J.St.-Hil. (including Agapanthaceae F.Voigt, Alliaceae Borkh.)\n* Family Asparagaceae Juss. (including Agavaceae Dumort. , Aphyllanthaceae Burnett, Hesperocallidaceae Traub, Hyacinthaceae Batsch ex Borkh., Laxmanniaceae Bubani, Ruscaceae M.Roem. and Themidaceae Salisb.)\n* Family Asteliaceae Dumort.\n* Family Blandfordiaceae R. Dahlgren & Clifford\n* Family Boryaceae M.W. Chase, Rudall & Conran\n* Family Doryanthaceae R. Dahlgren & Clifford\n* Family Hypoxidaceae R.Br.\n* Family Iridaceae Juss.\n* Family Ixioliriaceae Nakai\n* Family Lanariaceae R. Dahlgren & A.E.van Wyk\n* Family Orchidaceae Juss.\n* Family Tecophilaeaceae Leyb.\n* Family Xanthorrhoeaceae Dumort. (including Asphodelaceae Juss. and Hemerocallidaceae R.Br.)\n* Family Xeronemataceae M.W. Chase, Rudall & M.F.Fay\n\nThe earlier 2003 version, APG II, allowed 'bracketed' families, i.e. families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in them. These are the families given under \"including\" in the list above. APG III does not allow bracketed families, requiring the use of the more comprehensive family; otherwise the circumscription of the Asparagales is unchanged. A separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 APG III system provided subfamilies to accommodate the families which were discontinued. The first APG system of 1998 contained some extra families, included in square brackets in the list above.\n\nTwo older systems which use the order Asparagales are the Dahlgren system and the Kubitzki system. The families included in the circumscriptions of the order in these two systems are shown in the first and second columns of the table below. The equivalent family in the modern APG III system (see below) is shown in the third column. Note that although these systems may use the same name for a family, the genera which it includes may be different, so the equivalence between systems is only approximate in some cases.\n\n\n+ Families included in Asparagales in three systems which use this order\n Dahlgren system !! Kubitzki system !! APG III system\n\n – \n Agapanthaceae \n Amaryllidaceae: Agapanthoideae\n\n Agavaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Alliaceae \n Amaryllidaceae: Allioideae\n\n Amaryllidaceae \n Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllidoideae\n\n – \n Anemarrhenaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Anthericaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Aphyllanthaceae \n Asparagaceae: Aphyllanthoideae\n\n Asparagaceae \n Asparagaceae: Asparagoideae\n\n Asphodelaceae \n Xanthorrhoeaceae: Asphodeloideae\n\n Asteliaceae \n Asteliaceae\n\n – \n Behniaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Blandfordiaceae \n Blandfordiaceae\n\n – \n Boryaceae \n Boryaceae\n\n Calectasiaceae \n —\n Not in Asparagales (family Dasypogonaceae, unplaced as to order, clade commelinids)\n\n Convallariaceae \n Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae\n\n Cyanastraceae \n – \n Tecophilaeaceae\n\n Dasypogonaceae \n – \n Not in Asparagales (family Dasypogonaceae, unplaced as to order, clade commelinids)\n\n Doryanthaceae \n Doryanthaceae\n\n Dracaenaceae \n Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae\n\n Eriospermaceae \n Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae\n\n Hemerocallidaceae \n Xanthorrhoeaceae: Hemerocallidoideae\n\n Herreriaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Hostaceae \n Asparagaceae: Agavoideae\n\n Hyacinthaceae \n Asparagaceae: Scilloideae\n\n Hypoxidaceae \n Hypoxidaceae\n\n – \n Iridaceae \n Iridaceae\n\n Ixioliriaceae \n Ixioliriaceae\n\n – \n Johnsoniaceae \n Xanthorrhoeaceae: Hemerocallidoideae\n\n Lanariaceae \n Lanariaceae\n\n Luzuriagaceae \n – \n Not in Asparagales (family Alstroemeriaceae, order Liliales)\n\n – \n Lomandraceae \n Asparagaceae: Lomandroideae\n\n Nolinaceae \n Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae\n\n – \n Orchidaceae \n Orchidaceae\n\n Philesiaceae \n – \n Not in Asparagales (family Philesiaceae, order Liliales)\n\n Phormiaceae \n – \n Xanthorrhoeaceae: Hemerocallidoideae\n\n Ruscaceae \n Asparagaceae: Nolinoideae\n\n Tecophilaeaceae \n Tecophilaeaceae\n\n – \n Themidaceae \n Asparagaceae: Brodiaeoideae\n\n Xanthorrhoeaceae \n Xanthorrhoeaceae: Xanthorrhoeoideae\n\n", "The Asparagales include many important crop plants and ornamental plants. Crops include Allium, Asparagus and Vanilla, while ornamentals include irises, hyacinths and orchids.\n", "* Taxonomy of Liliaceae\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n=== Books ===\n* Contents\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* * \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n=== Chapters ===\n* , In .\n* , in \n* , in \n* , in \n* \n* \n\n=== Articles ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n=== APG ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n=== Historical sources ===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* 1st ed. 1901–1908; 2nd ed. 1910–1911; 3rd ed. 1923–1924; 4th ed. 1933–1935\n* \n\n=== Websites ===\n* \n* \n* \n* : Families included in the checklist\n* \n* \n\n=== Reference materials ===\n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n* Biodiversity Heritage Library\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Description", "Taxonomy", " Uses ", " See also ", " Notes ", "References", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\nSnake lily (''Dracunculus vulgaris'') of Araceae family in Crete, Greece.\n''Ottelia alismoides'' from family Hydrocharitaceae in Hyderabad, India.\n\nThe '''Alismatales''' ('''alismatids''') are an order of flowering plants including about 4500 species. Plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic. Some grow in fresh water, some in marine habitats.\n", "The Alismatales comprise herbaceous flowering plants of aquatic and marshy habitats, and the only monocots known to have green embryos other than the Amaryllidaceae. They also include the only marine angiosperms. The flowers are usually arranged in inflorescences, and the mature seeds lack endosperm.\n\nBoth marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and float to the surface where they become pollinated. In others, pollination occurs underwater, where pollen may form elongated strands, increasing chance of success. Most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase, and flowers are either floating or emergent. Vegetation may be totally submersed, have floating leaves, or protrude from the water. Collectively, they are commonly known as \"water plantain\".\n", "The Alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families, with a cosmopolitan distribution. Phylogenetically, they are basal monocots, diverging early in evolution relative to the lilioid and commelinid monocot lineages. Together with the Acorales, the Alismatales are referred to informally as the alismatid monocots.\n\n===Early systems===\nThe Cronquist system (1981) places the Alismatales in subclass Alismatidae, class Liliopsida = monocotyledons and includes only three families as shown:\n* Alismataceae\n* Butomaceae\n* Limnocharitaceae\nCronquist's subclass Alismatidae conformed fairly closely to the order Alismatales as defined by APG, minus the Araceae.\n\nThe Dahlgren system places the Alismatales in the superorder Alismatanae in the subclass Liliidae = monocotyledons in the class Magnoliopsida = angiosperms with the following families included:\n* Alismataceae\n* Aponogetonaceae\n* Butomaceae\n* Hydrocharitaceae\n* Limnocharitaceae\n\nIn Tahktajan's classification (1997), the order Alismatales contains only the Alismataceae and Limnocharitaceae, making it equivalent to the Alismataceae as revised in APG-III. Other families included in the Alismatates as currently defined are here distributed among 10 additional orders, all of which are assigned, with the following exception, to the Subclass Alismatidae. Araceae in Tahktajan 1997 is assigned to the Arales and placed in the Subclass Aridae; Tofieldiaceae to the Melanthiales and placed in the Liliidae.\n\n===Angiosperm Phylogeny Group===\nThe Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system (APG) of 1998 and APG II (2003) assigned the Alismatales to the monocots, which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families listed below. The biggest departure from earlier systems (see below) is the inclusion of family Araceae. By its inclusion, the order has grown enormously in number of species. The family Araceae alone accounts for about a hundred genera, totaling over two thousand species. The rest of the families together contain only about five hundred species, many of which are in very small families.\n\nThe APG III system (2009) differs only in that the Limnocharitaceae are combined with the Alismataceae; it was also suggested that the genus ''Maundia'' (of the Juncaginaceae) could be separated into a monogeneric family, the Maundiaceae, but the authors noted that more study was necessary before the Maundiaceae could be recognized.\n\n* order Alismatales ''sensu'' APG III\n*: family Alismataceae (''including'' Limnocharitaceae)\n*: family Aponogetonaceae\n*: family Araceae\n*: family Butomaceae \n*: family Cymodoceaceae\n*: family Hydrocharitaceae\n*: family Juncaginaceae\n*: family Posidoniaceae\n*: family Potamogetonaceae\n*: family Ruppiaceae\n*: family Scheuchzeriaceae\n*: family Tofieldiaceae\n*: family Zosteraceae\n\nIn APG IV (2016), it was decided that evidence was sufficient to elevate ''Maundia'' to family level as the monogeneric Maundiaceae. The authors considered including a number of the smaller orders within the Juncaginaceae, but an online survey of botanists and other users found little support for this \"lumping\" approach. Consequently, the family structure for APG IV is:\n\n*: family Alismataceae (''including'' Limnocharitaceae)\n*: family Aponogetonaceae\n*: family Araceae\n*: family Butomaceae \n*: family Cymodoceaceae\n*: family Hydrocharitaceae\n*: family Juncaginaceae\n*: family Maundiaceae\n*: family Posidoniaceae\n*: family Potamogetonaceae\n*: family Ruppiaceae\n*: family Scheuchzeriaceae\n*: family Tofieldiaceae\n*: family Zosteraceae\n\n=== Phylogeny ===\nCladogram showing the orders of monocots (Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) based on molecular phylogenetic evidence:\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n* B. C. J. du Mortier 1829. Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay\n* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue, 2002. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts .\n* \n* \n* \n* , in \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Description", "Taxonomy", " References ", " Further reading ", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\nThe '''Apiales''' are an order of flowering plants. The families are those recognized in the APG III system. This is typical of the newer classifications, though there is some slight variation and in particular, the Torriceliaceae may be divided.\n\nUnder this definition, well-known members include carrots, celery, parsley, and ''Hedera helix'' (English ivy).\n\nThe order Apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed by the APG III system. Within the asterids, Apiales belongs to an unranked group called the campanulids, and within the campanulids, it belongs to a clade known in phylogenetic nomenclature as Apiidae. In 2010, a subclade of Apiidae named Dipsapiidae was defined to consist of the three orders: Apiales, Paracryphiales, and Dipsacales.\n", "Under the Cronquist system, only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the Rosales, and many of the other forms within the family Cornaceae. ''Pennantia'' was in the family Icacinaceae. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Apiaceae and Araliaceae families were placed in the order Ariales, in the superorder Araliiflorae (also called Aralianae).\n\nThe present understanding of the Apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of DNA sequences by phylogenetic methods. The circumscriptions of some of the families have changed. In 2009, one of the subfamilies of Araliaceae was shown to be polyphyletic.\n", "The largest and obviously closely related families of Apiales are Araliaceae, Myodocarpaceae and\nApiaceae, which resemble each other in the structure of their gynoecia. In this respect however, the Pittosporaceae is notably distinct from them.\n\nTypical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones, determined by the extent of fusion of the carpels. In most plants the synascidiate (i.e. \"united bottle-shaped\") and symplicate zones are fertile and bear the ovules. Each of the first three families possess mainly bi- or multilocular ovaries in a gynoecium with a long synascidiate, but very short symplicate zone, where the ovules are inserted at their transition, the so-called cross-zone (or \"Querzone\").\n\nIn gynoecia of the Pittosporaceae, the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone, and the ovules are arranged along the first. Members of the latter family consequently have unilocular ovaries with a single cavity between adjacent carpels.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Taxonomy", "Gynoecia", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Asterales''' is an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants that includes the large family Asteraceae (or Compositae) known for composite flowers made of florets, and ten families related to the Asteraceae.\n\nThe order is a cosmopolite (plants found throughout most of the world including desert and frigid zones), and includes mostly herbaceous species, although a small number of trees (such as the giant Lobelia and the giant Senecio) and shrubs are also present.\n\nAsterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common ancestor. Asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels. Synapomorphies (a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development) include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin, a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch; and unique stamen morphology. The stamens are usually found around the style, either aggregated densely or fused into a tube, probably an adaptation in association with the plunger (brush; or secondary) pollination that is common among the families of the order, wherein pollen is collected and stored on the length of the pistil.\n", "The name and order Asterales is botanically venerable, dating back to at least 1926 in the Hutchinson system of plant taxonomy when it contained only five families, of which only two are retained in the APG III classification. Under the Cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants, Asteraceae was the only family in the group, but newer systems (such as APG II and APG III) have expanded it to 11. In the classification system of Dahlgren the Asterales were in the superorder Asteriflorae (also called Asteranae). \n\nThe order '''Asterales''' currently includes 11 families, the largest of which are the Asteraceae, with about 25,000 species, and the Campanulaceae (\"bellflowers\"), with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitan, with many of their species found in the Northern Hemisphere, and the smaller families are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes South America.\n\nOnly the Asteraceae have composite flower heads; the other families do not, but share other characteristics such as storage of inulin that define the 11 families as more closely related to each other than to other plant families or orders such as the rosids.\n\nThe phylogenetic tree according to APG III for the Campanulid clade is as below.\n\n\n", "The core Asterales are Stylidiaceae (six genera), APA clade (Alseuosmiaceae, Phellinaceae and Argophyllaceae, together 7 genera), MGCA clade (Menyanthaceae, Goodeniaceae, Calyceraceae, in total twenty genera), and Asteraceae (about sixteen hundred genera). Other Asterales are Rousseaceae (four genera), Campanulaceae (eighty four genera) and Pentaphragmataceae (one genus).\n\nAll Asterales families are represented in the Southern Hemisphere; however, Asteraceae and Campanulaceae are cosmopolitan and Menyanthaceae nearly so.\n", "Although most extant species of Asteraceae are herbaceous, the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant, a tree or shrub, perhaps adapted to dry conditions, radiating from South America. Less can be said about the Asterales themselves with certainty, although since several families in Asterales contain trees, the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub.\n\nBecause all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere, it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them. Asterales are angiosperms, flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago. The Asterales order probably originated in the Cretaceous (145 – 66 Mya) on the supercontinent Gondwana which broke up from 184 – 80 Mya, forming the area that is now Australia, South America, Africa, India and Antarctica.\n\nAsterales contain about 14% of eudicot diversity. From an analysis of relationships and diversities within the Asterales and with their superorders, estimates of the age of the beginning of the Asterales have been made, which range from 116 Mya to 82Mya. However few fossils have been found, of the Menyanthaceae-Asteraceae clade in the Oligocene, about 29 Mya.\n\nFossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An Oligocene (34 – 23 Mya) pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and Miocene (23 – 5.3 Mya) are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively.\n", "The Asterales, by dint of being a super-set of the family Asteraceae, include some species grown for food, including the sunflower (''Helianthus annuus''), lettuce (''Lactuca sativa'') and chicory (''Cichorium''). Many are also used as spices and traditional medicines.\n\nAsterales are common plants and have many known uses. For example, pyrethrum (derived from Old World members of the genus ''Chrysanthemum'') is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact. Wormwood, derived from a genus that includes the sagebrush, is used as a source of flavoring for absinthe, a bitter classical liquor of European origin.\n\nDespite the large number of species in order Asterales, they do not compare in economic benefit for mankind to the Poales or to the Fabaceae. The Asteraceae include many invasive plant species in North America.\n", "\n\n\n* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 476–486 (Asterales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. .\n* J. Lindley (1833). ''Nixus Plantarum'', 20. Londini.\n* Smissen, R. D. (December 2002). Asterales (Sunflower). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: DOI | ELS site)\n* \"Asterales (plant Order) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia.\" Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 19 Jan. 2012. .\n*\"Asterales - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary.\" Dictionary and Thesaurus - Merriam-Webster Online. Web. 19 Jan. 2012. .\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Taxonomy ", "Biogeography", "Evolution", "Economic importance", "References" ]

[ "\n\n253 Mathilde, a C-type asteroid measuring about across, covered in craters half that size. Photograph taken in 1997 by the ''NEAR Shoemaker'' probe.\n\n'''Asteroids''' are minor planets, especially those of the inner Solar System. The larger ones have also been called '''planetoids'''. These terms have historically been applied to any astronomical object orbiting the Sun that did not show the disc of a planet and was not observed to have the characteristics of an active comet. As minor planets in the outer Solar System were discovered and found to have volatile-based surfaces that resemble those of comets, they were often distinguished from asteroids of the asteroid belt. In this article, the term \"asteroid\" refers to the minor planets of the inner Solar System including those co-orbital with Jupiter.\n\nThere are millions of asteroids, many thought to be the shattered remnants of planetesimals, bodies within the young Sun's solar nebula that never grew large enough to become planets. The large majority of known asteroids orbit in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, or are co-orbital with Jupiter (the Jupiter trojans). However, other orbital families exist with significant populations, including the near-Earth objects. Individual asteroids are classified by their characteristic spectra, with the majority falling into three main groups: C-type, M-type, and S-type. These were named after and are generally identified with carbon-rich, metallic, and silicate (stony) compositions, respectively. The size of asteroids varies greatly, some reaching as much as across.\n\nAsteroids are differentiated from comets and meteoroids. In the case of comets, the difference is one of composition: while asteroids are mainly composed of mineral and rock, comets are composed of dust and ice. In addition, asteroids formed closer to the sun, preventing the development of the aforementioned cometary ice. The difference between asteroids and meteoroids is mainly one of size: meteoroids have a diameter of less than one meter, whereas asteroids have a diameter of greater than one meter. Finally, meteoroids can be composed of either cometary or asteroidal materials.\n\nOnly one asteroid, 4 Vesta, which has a relatively reflective surface, is normally visible to the naked eye, and this only in very dark skies when it is favorably positioned. Rarely, small asteroids passing close to Earth may be visible to the naked eye for a short time. As of March 2016, the Minor Planet Center had data on more than 1.3 million objects in the inner and outer Solar System, of which 750,000 had enough information to be given numbered designations.\n\nThe United Nations declared June 30 as International Asteroid Day to educate the public about asteroids. The date of International Asteroid Day commemorates the anniversary of the Tunguska asteroid impact over Siberia, Russian Federation, on 30 June 1908.\n", "243 Ida and its moon Dactyl. Dactyl is the first satellite of an asteroid to be discovered.\n\nThe first asteroid to be discovered, Ceres, was found in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, and was originally considered to be a new planet. This was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies, which, with the equipment of the time, appeared to be points of light, like stars, showing little or no planetary disc, though readily distinguishable from stars due to their apparent motions. This prompted the astronomer Sir William Herschel to propose the term \"asteroid\", coined in Greek as ἀστεροειδής, or ''asteroeidēs'', meaning 'star-like, star-shaped', and derived from the Ancient Greek ''astēr'' 'star, planet'. In the early second half of the nineteenth century, the terms \"asteroid\" and \"planet\" (not always qualified as \"minor\") were still used interchangeably. \n\n=== Historical methods ===\nAsteroid discovery methods have dramatically improved over the past two centuries.\n\nIn the last years of the 18th century, Baron Franz Xaver von Zach organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the missing planet predicted at about 2.8 AU from the Sun by the Titius-Bode law, partly because of the discovery, by Sir William Herschel in 1781, of the planet Uranus at the distance predicted by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the zodiacal band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernible by observers.\nCeres and Vesta) from Mars – viewed by ''Curiosity'' (20 April 2014).\nThe first object, Ceres, was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in 1801 by Giuseppe Piazzi, director of the observatory of Palermo in Sicily. He discovered a new star-like object in Taurus and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. Later that year, Carl Friedrich Gauss used these observations to calculate the orbit of this unknown object, which was found to be between the planets Mars and Jupiter. Piazzi named it after Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture.\n\nThree other asteroids (2 Pallas, 3 Juno, and 4 Vesta) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in 1807. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches.\n\nHowever, Karl Ludwig Hencke persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in 1830. Fifteen years later, he found 5 Astraea, the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found 6 Hebe less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were J. R. Hind, Annibale de Gasparis, Robert Luther, H. M. S. Goldschmidt, Jean Chacornac, James Ferguson, Norman Robert Pogson, E. W. Tempel, J. C. Watson, C. H. F. Peters, A. Borrelly, J. Palisa, the Henry brothers and Auguste Charlois.\n\nIn 1891, Max Wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with earlier visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with 323 Brucia, whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, calling them \"vermin of the skies\", a phrase variously attributed to Eduard Suess and Edmund Weiss. Even a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named.\n\n=== Manual methods of the 1900s and modern reporting ===\nUntil 1998, asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was photographed by a wide-field telescope, or astrograph. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two films or plates of the same region were viewed under a stereoscope. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would seem to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations.\n\nThese first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an apparition, which gets a provisional designation, made up of the year of discovery, a letter representing the half-month of discovery, and finally a letter and a number indicating the discovery's sequential number (example: ).\n\nThe last step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to the Minor Planet Center, where computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together earlier apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object receives a catalogue number and the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and granted the honor of naming the object subject to the approval of the International Astronomical Union.\n\n=== Computerized methods ===\n2004 FH is the center dot being followed by the sequence; the object that flashes by during the clip is an artificial satellite.\n\nThere is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross Earth's, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth ''(see Earth-crosser asteroids)''. The three most important groups of near-Earth asteroids are the Apollos, Amors, and Atens. Various asteroid deflection strategies have been proposed, as early as the 1960s.\n\nThe near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros had been discovered as long ago as 1898, and the 1930s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: 1221 Amor, 1862 Apollo, 2101 Adonis, and finally 69230 Hermes, which approached within 0.005 AU of Earth in 1937. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact.\n\nTwo events in later decades increased the alarm: the increasing acceptance of the Alvarez hypothesis that an impact event resulted in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction, and the 1994 observation of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashing into Jupiter. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to 10 metres across.\n\nAll these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient surveys that consist of charge-coupled device (CCD) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. As of spring 2011, it was estimated that 89% to 96% of near-Earth asteroids one kilometer or larger in diameter had been discovered. A list of teams using such systems includes:\n* Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR)\n* Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)\n* Spacewatch\n* Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search (LONEOS)\n* Catalina Sky Survey (CSS)\n* Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Object Survey (CINEOS)\n* Japanese Spaceguard Association\n* Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey (ADAS)\n* Pan-STARRS\n\nThe LINEAR system alone has discovered 138,393 asteroids, as of 20 September 2013. Among all the surveys, 4711 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered including over 600 more than in diameter.\n\n== Terminology == \nEuler diagram showing the types of bodies in the Solar System. (see Small Solar System body)\n\nTraditionally, small bodies orbiting the Sun were classified as comets, asteroids, or meteoroids, with anything smaller than 10 meters across being called a meteoroid (such as in Beech and Steel's 1995 paper). The term \"asteroid\", from the Greek word for \"star-like\", never had a formal definition, with the broader term minor planet being preferred by the International Astronomical Union.\n\nHowever, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 meters in size, Rubin and Grossman in a 2010 paper revised the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 meter in size in order to maintain the distinction between asteroids and meteoroids. The smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude ''H'') are with ''H'' = 33.2 and with ''H'' = 32.1 both with an estimated size of about 1 meter.\n\nIn 2006, the term \"small Solar System body\" was also introduced to cover both most minor planets and comets. Other languages prefer \"planetoid\" (Greek for \"planet-like\"), and this term is occasionally used in English especially for larger minor planets such as the dwarf planets as well as an alternative for asteroids since they are not star-like. The word \"planetesimal\" has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to the small building blocks of the planets that existed when the Solar System was forming. The term \"planetule\" was coined by the geologist William Daniel Conybeare to describe minor planets, but is not in common use. The three largest objects in the asteroid belt, Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta, grew to the stage of protoplanets. Ceres is a dwarf planet, the only one in the inner Solar System.\n\nWhen found, asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets, and there was no unified term for the two until \"small Solar System body\" was coined in 2006. The main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of near surface ices by solar radiation. A few objects have ended up being dual-listed because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity. Conversely, some (perhaps all) comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroid-like. A further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids; most \"asteroids\" with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets.\n\nFor almost two centuries, from the discovery of Ceres in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur, Chiron, in 1977, all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of Jupiter, though a few such as Hidalgo ventured far beyond Jupiter for part of their orbit. When astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than Jupiter, now called centaurs, they numbered them among the traditional asteroids, though there was debate over whether they should be considered asteroids or as a new type of object. Then, when the first trans-Neptunian object (other than Pluto), , was discovered in 1992, and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up, new terms were invented to sidestep the issue: Kuiper-belt object, trans-Neptunian object, scattered-disc object, and so on. These inhabit the cold outer reaches of the Solar System where ices remain solid and comet-like bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity; if centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects were to venture close to the Sun, their volatile ices would sublimate, and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids.\n\nThe innermost of these are the Kuiper-belt objects, called \"objects\" partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets. They are thought to be predominantly comet-like in composition, though some may be more akin to asteroids. Furthermore, most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets, and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional comet nuclei. (The much more distant Oort cloud is hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets.) Other recent observations, such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the ''Stardust'' probe, are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids, suggesting \"a continuum between asteroids and comets\" rather than a sharp dividing line.\n\nThe minor planets beyond Jupiter's orbit are sometimes also called \"asteroids\", especially in popular presentations.\nHowever, it is becoming increasingly common for the term \"asteroid\" to be restricted to minor planets of the inner Solar System. Therefore, this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids: objects of the asteroid belt, Jupiter trojans, and near-Earth objects.\n\nWhen the IAU introduced the class small Solar System bodies in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets, they created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planets—those that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity. According to the IAU, \"the term 'minor planet' may still be used, but generally the term 'Small Solar System Body' will be preferred.\" Currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt, Ceres, at about across, has been placed in the dwarf planet category.\n", "Artist’s impression shows how an asteroid is torn apart by the strong gravity of a white dwarf.\nIt is thought that planetesimals in the asteroid belt evolved much like the rest of the solar nebula until Jupiter neared its current mass, at which point excitation from orbital resonances with Jupiter ejected over 99% of planetesimals in the belt. Simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately in diameter accreted during that early era, whereas smaller bodies are fragments from collisions between asteroids during or after the Jovian disruption. Ceres and Vesta grew large enough to melt and differentiate, with heavy metallic elements sinking to the core, leaving rocky minerals in the crust.\n\nIn the Nice model, many Kuiper-belt objects are captured in the outer asteroid belt, at distances greater than 2.6 AU. Most were later ejected by Jupiter, but those that remained may be the D-type asteroids, and possibly include Ceres.\n", "\nThe asteroid belt (white) and Jupiter's trojan asteroids (green)\nVarious dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner Solar System. Their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the Solar System and by the Yarkovsky effect. Significant populations include:\n\n=== Asteroid belt ===\n\nThe majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, generally in relatively low-eccentricity (i.e. not very elongated) orbits. This belt is now estimated to contain between 1.1 and 1.9 million asteroids larger than in diameter, and millions of smaller ones. These asteroids may be remnants of the protoplanetary disk, and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the Solar System was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by Jupiter.\n\n=== Trojans ===\n\n\nTrojans are populations that share an orbit with a larger planet or moon, but do not collide with it because they orbit in one of the two Lagrangian points of stability, L4 and L5, which lie 60° ahead of and behind the larger body.\n\nThe most significant population of trojans are the Jupiter trojans. Although fewer Jupiter trojans have been discovered as of 2010, it is thought that they are as numerous as the asteroids in the asteroid belt.\n\nA couple of trojans have also been found orbiting with Mars.\n\n=== Near-Earth asteroids ===\n\n\nNear-Earth asteroids, or NEAs, are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that of Earth. Asteroids that actually cross Earth's orbital path are known as ''Earth-crossers''. , 14,464 near-Earth asteroids are known and the number over one kilometre in diameter is estimated to be 900–1,000.\n\n\n", "\n=== Size distribution ===\n\n\n\nAsteroids vary greatly in size, from almost for the largest down to rocks just 1 meter across. The three largest are very much like miniature planets: they are roughly spherical, have at least partly differentiated interiors, and are thought to be surviving protoplanets. The vast majority, however, are much smaller and are irregularly shaped; they are thought to be either surviving planetesimals or fragments of larger bodies.\n\nThe dwarf planet Ceres is by far the largest asteroid, with a diameter of . The next largest are 4 Vesta and 2 Pallas, both with diameters of just over . Vesta is the only main-belt asteroid that can, on occasion, be visible to the naked eye. On some rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid; see 99942 Apophis.\n\nThe mass of all the objects of the asteroid belt, lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, is estimated to be about 2.8–, or about 4% of the mass of the Moon. Of this, Ceres comprises , a third of the total. Adding in the next three most massive objects, Vesta (9%), Pallas (7%), and Hygiea (3%), brings this figure up to 51%; whereas the three after that, 511 Davida (1.2%), 704 Interamnia (1.0%), and 52 Europa (0.9%), only add another 3% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease.\n\nThe number of asteroids decreases markedly with size. Although this generally follows a power law, there are 'bumps' at and , where more asteroids than expected from a logarithmic distribution are found.\nThe asteroids of the Solar System, categorized by size and number\n\n+Approximate number of asteroids (N) larger than a certain diameter (D)\n\nD\n100 m \n 300 m \n 500 m \n 1 km \n 3 km \n 5 km \n 10 km \n 30 km \n 50 km \n 100 km \n 200 km \n 300 km \n 500 km \n 900 km\n\nN\n ~ \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 600 \n 200 \n 30 \n 5 \n 3 \n 1\n\n\n\n====Largest asteroids====\n\nlargest asteroids known, compared to the remaining mass of the asteroid belt.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\nAlthough their location in the asteroid belt excludes them from planet status, the three largest objects, Ceres, Vesta, and Pallas, are intact protoplanets that share many characteristics common to planets, and are atypical compared to the majority of \"potato\"-shaped asteroids.\n\nCeres is the only asteroid with a fully ellipsoidal shape and hence the only one that is a dwarf planet. It has a much higher absolute magnitude than the other asteroids, of around 3.32, and may possess a surface layer of ice. Like the planets, Ceres is differentiated: it has a crust, a mantle and a core. No meteorites from Ceres have been found on Earth.\n\nVesta, too, has a differentiated interior, though it formed inside the Solar System's frost line, and so is devoid of water; its composition is mainly of basaltic rock such as olivine. Aside from the large crater at its southern pole, Rheasilvia, Vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape. Vesta is the parent body of the Vestian family and other V-type asteroids, and is the source of the HED meteorites, which constitute 5% of all meteorites on Earth.\n\nPallas is unusual in that, like Uranus, it rotates on its side, with its axis of rotation tilted at high angles to its orbital plane. Its composition is similar to that of Ceres: high in carbon and silicon, and perhaps partially differentiated. Pallas is the parent body of the Palladian family of asteroids.\n\nThe fourth-most-massive asteroid, Hygiea, is the largest carbonaceous asteroid and, unlike the other largest asteroids, lies relatively close to the plane of the ecliptic. It is the largest member and presumed parent body of the Hygiean family of asteroids. Between them, the four largest asteroids constitute half the mass of the asteroid belt.\n\n\n\n Attributes of largest asteroids\n\nName\nOrbitalradius (AU)\nOrbital period(years)\nInclination to ecliptic\nOrbitaleccentricity\n Diameter(km)\n Diameter(% of Moon)\n Mass( kg)\n Mass(% of Ceres)\n Densityg/cm3\n Rotationperiod(hr)\n Axial tilt\n Surfacetemperature\n\n Vesta\n 2.36\n 3.63\n 7.1°\n 0.089\n 573×557×446(mean 525)\n 15%\n 260\n 28%\n 3.44 ± 0.12\n 5.34\n 29°\n 85–270 K\n\n Ceres\n 2.77\n 4.60\n 10.6°\n 0.079\n 975×975×909(mean 952)\n 28%\n 940\n 100%\n 2.12 ± 0.04\n 9.07\n ≈ 3°\n 167 K\n\n Pallas\n 2.77\n 4.62\n 34.8°\n 0.231\n 580×555×500(mean 545)\n 16%\n 210\n 22%\n 2.71 ± 0.11\n 7.81\n ≈ 80°\n 164 K\n\n Hygiea\n 3.14\n 5.56\n 3.8°\n 0.117\n 530×407×370(mean 430)\n 12%\n 87\n 9%\n 2.76 ± 1.2\n 27.6\n ≈ 60°\n 164 K\n\n\n=== Rotation ===\nMeasurements of the rotation rates of large asteroids in the asteroid belt show that there is an upper limit. No asteroid with a diameter larger than 100 meters has a rotation period smaller than 2.2 hours. For asteroids rotating faster than approximately this rate, the inertial force at the surface is greater than the gravitational force, so any loose surface material would be flung out. However, a solid object should be able to rotate much more rapidly. This suggests that most asteroids with a diameter over 100 meters are rubble piles formed through accumulation of debris after collisions between asteroids.\n\n=== Composition ===\nCratered terrain on 4 Vesta\n\nThe physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood. Ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle, where Vesta is thought to have a nickel-iron core, olivine mantle, and basaltic crust. 10 Hygiea, however, which appears to have a uniformly primitive composition of carbonaceous chondrite, is thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid. Most of the smaller asteroids are thought to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity, though the largest are probably solid. Some asteroids have moons or are co-orbiting binaries: Rubble piles, moons, binaries, and scattered asteroid families are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid.\n\nAsteroids contain traces of amino acids and other organic compounds, and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early Earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life, or may have even brought life itself to Earth ''(also see panspermia)''. In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may have been formed on asteroids and comets in outer space.\nAsteroid collision – building planets (artist concept).\nComposition is calculated from three primary sources: albedo, surface spectrum, and density. The last can only be determined accurately by observing the orbits of moons the asteroid might have. So far, every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile, a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume. The investigated asteroids are as large as 280 km in diameter, and include 121 Hermione (268×186×183 km), and 87 Sylvia (384×262×232 km). Only half a dozen asteroids are larger than 87 Sylvia, though none of them have moons; however, some smaller asteroids are thought to be more massive, suggesting they may not have been disrupted, and indeed 511 Davida, the same size as Sylvia to within measurement error, is estimated to be two and a half times as massive, though this is highly uncertain. The fact that such large asteroids as Sylvia can be rubble piles, presumably due to disruptive impacts, has important consequences for the formation of the Solar System: Computer simulations of collisions involving solid bodies show them destroying each other as often as merging, but colliding rubble piles are more likely to merge. This means that the cores of the planets could have formed relatively quickly.\n\nOn 7 October 2009, the presence of water ice was confirmed on the surface of 24 Themis using NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility. The surface of the asteroid appears completely covered in ice. As this ice layer is sublimated, it may be getting replenished by a reservoir of ice under the surface. Organic compounds were also detected on the surface. Scientists hypothesize that some of the first water brought to Earth was delivered by asteroid impacts after the collision that produced the Moon. The presence of ice on 24 Themis supports this theory.\n\nIn October 2013, water was detected on an extrasolar body for the first time, on an asteroid orbiting the white dwarf GD 61. On 22 January 2014, European Space Agency (ESA) scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory. The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to \"sprout jets and plumes\". According to one of the scientists, \"The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids.\" In May 2016, significant asteroid data arising from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and NEOWISE missions have been questioned, but the criticism has yet to undergo peer review.\n\n=== Surface features ===\nMost asteroids outside the \"big four\" (Ceres, Pallas, Vesta, and Hygiea) are likely to be broadly similar in appearance, if irregular in shape. 50-km (31-mi) 253 Mathilde is a rubble pile saturated with craters with diameters the size of the asteroid's radius, and Earth-based observations of 300-km (186-mi) 511 Davida, one of the largest asteroids after the big four, reveal a similarly angular profile, suggesting it is also saturated with radius-size craters. Medium-sized asteroids such as Mathilde and 243 Ida that have been observed up close also reveal a deep regolith covering the surface. Of the big four, Pallas and Hygiea are practically unknown. Vesta has compression fractures encircling a radius-size crater at its south pole but is otherwise a spheroid. Ceres seems quite different in the glimpses Hubble has provided, with surface features that are unlikely to be due to simple craters and impact basins, but details will be expanded with the ''Dawn'' spacecraft, which entered Ceres orbit on 6 March 2015.\n\n=== Color ===\nAsteroids become darker and redder with age due to space weathering. However evidence suggests most of the color change occurs rapidly, in the first hundred thousands years, limiting the usefulness of spectral measurement for determining the age of asteroids.\n", "Asteroids are commonly classified according to two criteria: the characteristics of their orbits, and features of their reflectance spectrum.\n\n=== Orbital classification ===\n\nMany asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Apart from the broadest divisions, it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past. Families are more common and easier to identify within the main asteroid belt, but several small families have been reported among the Jupiter trojans. Main belt families were first recognized by Kiyotsugu Hirayama in 1918 and are often called Hirayama families in his honor.\n\nAbout 30–35% of the bodies in the asteroid belt belong to dynamical families each thought to have a common origin in a past collision between asteroids. A family has also been associated with the plutoid dwarf planet .\n\n==== Quasi-satellites and horseshoe objects ====\nSome asteroids have unusual horseshoe orbits that are co-orbital with Earth or some other planet. Examples are 3753 Cruithne and . The first instance of this type of orbital arrangement was discovered between Saturn's moons Epimetheus and Janus.\n\nSometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become quasi-satellites for a few decades or a few hundred years, before returning to their earlier status. Both Earth and Venus are known to have quasi-satellites.\n\nSuch objects, if associated with Earth or Venus or even hypothetically Mercury, are a special class of Aten asteroids. However, such objects could be associated with outer planets as well.\n\n=== Spectral classification ===\n\nThis picture of 433 Eros shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end. Features as small as across can be seen.\n\nIn 1975, an asteroid taxonomic system based on color, albedo, and spectral shape was developed by Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. The original classification system had three categories: C-types for dark carbonaceous objects (75% of known asteroids), S-types for stony (silicaceous) objects (17% of known asteroids) and U for those that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded to include many other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied.\n\nThe two most widely used taxonomies now used are the Tholen classification and SMASS classification. The former was proposed in 1984 by David J. Tholen, and was based on data collected from an eight-color asteroid survey performed in the 1980s. This resulted in 14 asteroid categories. In 2002, the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey resulted in a modified version of the Tholen taxonomy with 24 different types. Both systems have three broad categories of C, S, and X asteroids, where X consists of mostly metallic asteroids, such as the M-type. There are also several smaller classes.\n\nThe proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals.\n\n==== Problems ====\nOriginally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition. However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and a variety of classifications are in use. This has led to significant confusion. Although asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials.\n", "\n2013 EC, shown here in radar images, has a provisional designation\nA newly discovered asteroid is given a provisional designation (such as ) consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the half-month of discovery and the sequence within that half-month. Once an asteroid's orbit has been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. 433 Eros). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number (e.g. (433) Eros), but dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text. In addition, names can be proposed by the asteroid's discoverer, within guidelines established by the International Astronomical Union.\n\n=== Symbols ===\n\nThe first asteroids to be discovered were assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate the planets. By 1855 there were two dozen asteroid symbols, which often occurred in multiple variants.\n\n\n\n Asteroid \n Symbol \n Year\n\n 1 Ceres \n ⚳ Old planetary symbol of Ceres Variant symbol of Ceres Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres \n Ceres' scythe, reversed to double as the letter ''C'' \n 1801\n\n 2 Pallas \n ⚴ Old symbol of Pallas Variant symbol of Pallas\n Athena's (Pallas') spear \n 1801\n\n 3 Juno \n ⚵ Old symbol of Juno Other symbol of Juno x20px\n A star mounted on a scepter, for Juno, the Queen of Heaven \n 1804\n\n 4 Vesta \n ⚶ Modern astrological symbol of Vesta Old symbol of Vesta Old planetary symbol of Vesta x20px\n The altar and sacred fire of Vesta \n 1807\n\n 5 Astraea \n x20px x20px\n A scale, or an inverted anchor, symbols of justice \n 1845\n\n 6 Hebe \n x20px\n Hebe's cup \n 1847\n\n 7 Iris \n x20px\n A rainbow (''iris'') and a star \n 1847\n\n 8 Flora \n x20px\n A flower (''flora''), specifically the Rose of England \n 1847\n\n 9 Metis \n x20px\n The eye of wisdom and a star \n 1848\n\n 10 Hygiea \n x20px x20px \n Hygiea's serpent and a star, or the Rod of Asclepius \n 1849\n\n 11 Parthenope \n x20px x20px\n A harp, or a fish and a star; symbols of the sirens \n 1850\n\n 12 Victoria \n x20px\n The laurels of victory and a star \n 1850\n\n 13 Egeria \n Astronomical symbol of 13 Egeria \n A shield, symbol of Egeria's protection, and a star \n 1850\n\n 14 Irene \n x30px \nA dove carrying an olive branch (symbol of ''irene'' 'peace') with a star on its head, or an olive branch, a flag of truce, and a star \n 1851\n\n 15 Eunomia \n x20px\n A heart, symbol of good order (''eunomia''), and a star \n 1851\n\n 16 Psyche \n x20px \n A butterfly's wing, symbol of the soul (''psyche''), and a star \n 1852\n\n 17 Thetis \n x20px \n A dolphin, symbol of Thetis, and a star \n 1852\n\n 18 Melpomene \n x20px \n The dagger of Melpomene, and a star \n 1852\n\n 19 Fortuna \n x20px \n The wheel of fortune and a star \n 1852\n\n 26 Proserpina \n x20px \n Proserpina's pomegranate \n 1853\n\n 28 Bellona \n x20px\n Bellona's whip and lance \n 1854\n\n 29 Amphitrite \n x20px \n The shell of Amphitrite and a star \n 1854\n\n 35 Leukothea \n x20px\n A lighthouse beacon, symbol of Leucothea \n 1855\n\n 37 Fides \n x20px\n The cross of faith (''fides'') \n 1855\n\n\nIn 1851, after the fifteenth asteroid (Eunomia) had been discovered, Johann Franz Encke made a major change in the upcoming 1854 edition of the ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'' (BAJ, ''Berlin Astronomical Yearbook''). He introduced a disk (circle), a traditional symbol for a star, as the generic symbol for an asteroid. The circle was then numbered in order of discovery to indicate a specific asteroid (although he assigned ① to the fifth, Astraea, while continuing to designate the first four only with their existing iconic symbols). The numbered-circle convention was quickly adopted by astronomers, and the next asteroid to be discovered (16 Psyche, in 1852) was the first to be designated in that way at the time of its discovery. However, Psyche was given an iconic symbol as well, as were a few other asteroids discovered over the next few years (see chart above). 20 Massalia was the first asteroid that was not assigned an iconic symbol, and no iconic symbols were created after the 1855 discovery of 37 Fides. That year Astraea's number was increased to ⑤, but the first four asteroids, Ceres to Vesta, were not listed by their numbers until the 1867 edition. The circle was soon abbreviated to a pair of parentheses, which were easier to typeset and sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades, leading to the modern convention.\n", "\n\n951 Gaspra is the first asteroid to be imaged in close-up (enhanced color).\n\nDawn spacecraft\n\nSeveral views of 433 Eros in natural colour\n\nUntil the age of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The best modern ground-based telescopes and the Earth-orbiting Hubble Space Telescope can resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids, but even these mostly remain little more than fuzzy blobs. Limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves (their variation in brightness as they rotate) and their spectral properties, and asteroid sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occulations (when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star). Radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters, especially for near-Earth asteroids. In terms of delta-v and propellant requirements, NEOs are more easily accessible than the Moon.\n\nThe first close-up photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in 1971, when the ''Mariner 9'' probe imaged Phobos and Deimos, the two small moons of Mars, which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did later images from the Voyager probes of the small moons of the gas giants.\n\nThe first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed in 1993 by 243 Ida and its moon Dactyl, all of which were imaged by the ''Galileo'' probe en route to Jupiter.\n\nThe first dedicated asteroid probe was ''NEAR Shoemaker'', which photographed 253 Mathilde in 1997, before entering into orbit around 433 Eros, finally landing on its surface in 2001.\n\nOther asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include 9969 Braille (by ''Deep Space 1'' in 1999), and 5535 Annefrank (by ''Stardust'' in 2002).\n\nIn September 2005, the Japanese ''Hayabusa'' probe started studying 25143 Itokawa in detail and was plagued with difficulties, but returned samples of its surface to Earth on 13 June 2010.\n\nThe European ''Rosetta'' probe (launched in 2004) flew by 2867 Šteins in 2008 and 21 Lutetia, the third-largest asteroid visited to date, in 2010.\n\nIn September 2007, NASA launched the ''Dawn'' spacecraft, which orbited 4 Vesta from July 2011 to September 2012, and has been orbiting the dwarf planet 1 Ceres since 2015. 4 Vesta is the second-largest asteroid visited to date.\n\nOn 13 December 2012, China's lunar orbiter ''Chang'e 2'' flew within of the asteroid 4179 Toutatis on an extended mission.\n\n=== Planned and future missions ===\nThe Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched the ''Hayabusa 2'' probe in December 2014, and plans to return samples from 162173 Ryugu in December 2020.\n\nIn May 2011, NASA selected the OSIRIS-REx sample return mission to asteroid 101955 Bennu; it launched on September 8, 2016.\n\nIn early 2013, NASA announced the planning stages of a mission to capture a near-Earth asteroid and move it into lunar orbit where it could possibly be visited by astronauts and later impacted into the Moon. On 19 June 2014, NASA reported that asteroid 2011 MD was a prime candidate for capture by a robotic mission, perhaps in the early 2020s.\n\nIt has been suggested that asteroids might be used as a source of materials that may be rare or exhausted on Earth (asteroid mining), or materials for constructing space habitats ''(see Colonization of the asteroids)''. Materials that are heavy and expensive to launch from Earth may someday be mined from asteroids and used for space manufacturing and construction.\n\nIn the U.S. Discovery program the ''Psyche'' spacecraft proposal to 16 Psyche and ''Lucy'' spacecraft to Jupiter trojans made it to the semifinalist stage of mission selection.\n", "\n\nAsteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places human beings might colonize, resources for extracting minerals, hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points, and as a threat to life on Earth or other inhabited planets, dwarf planets and natural satellites by potential impact.\n", "\n\n* Asteroid Day\n* Asteroid impact avoidance\n* Atira asteroids, (Interior-Earth objects, asteroids with orbits fully within that of Earth).\n* BOOTES (Burst Observer and OpticalTransient Exploring System)\n* Category:Asteroids\n* Category:Asteroid groups and families\n* Category:Binary asteroids\n* Centaur (minor planet)\n* Constellation program\n* Dwarf planet\n* Impact event\n* List of asteroid close approaches to Earth\n* List of minor planets named after people\n* List of minor planets named after places\n* List of minor planets\n* List of notable asteroids\n* List of impact craters on Earth\n* List of unconfirmed impact craters on Earth\n* Lost asteroid\n* Marco Polo (spacecraft)\n* Meanings of minor planet names\n* Mesoplanet\n* Minor planet\n* Near-Earth object\n* NEOShield\n* Near Earth Object Surveillance Satellite NEOsStat Canada's New Satellite\n* Pioneer 10 space probe\n* Rosetta probe\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII) (Minor Planet Center)\n* Asteroid articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries\n* IAU Committee on Small Body Nomenclature\n* JPL Asteroid Watch Site\n* NASA Asteroid and Comet Watch Site\n* Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)\n* Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site\n* NEO MAP (Armagh Observatory)\n* Spaceguard Centre\n* TECA Table of next close approaches to the Earth\n* When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Discovery ", " Formation ", " Distribution within the Solar System ", " Characteristics ", " Classification ", " Naming ", " Exploration ", " Fiction ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n\n\n\nAn '''allocution''', or '''allocutus''', is a formal statement made to the court by the defendant who has been found guilty prior to being sentenced. It is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using common law.\n", "An allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient. In plea bargains, an allocution may be required of the defendant. The defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence.\n\nIn principle, that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.\n\nThe term \"allocution\" is used generally only in jurisdictions in the United States, but there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries. In many other jurisdictions, it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on his client's behalf, and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak.\n\nThe right of victims to speak at sentencing is also sometimes referred to as allocution.\n", "In Australia, the term ''allocutus'' is used by the Clerk of Arraigns or another formal associate of the Court. It is generally phrased as, \"Prisoner at the Bar, you have been found Guilty by a jury of your peers of the offense of XYZ. Do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this Court should not now be passed upon you?\" The defense counsel will then make a ''plea in mitigation'' (also called ''submissions on penalty'') in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendant's previous good character and good works, if any.\n\nThe right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute. If a judge or magistrate refused to hear such a plea or obviously did not properly consider it, the sentence could be overturned on appeal.\n", "In most of the United States, defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed. Some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right. In its absence, a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned, resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing. In the federal system, Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 32(i)(4) provides that the court must \"address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence.\"\n\nThe Federal Public Defender recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in .\n", "* Confession (law)\n", "\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Concept ", "Australia", "United States", " See also ", "References" ]

[ "\nVasil Levski's affidavit, 16 June 1872, Bucharest, Romania\n\nAn '''affidavit''' ( ) is a written sworn statement of fact voluntarily made by an ''affiant'' or ''deponent'' under an oath or affirmation administered by a person authorized to do so by law. Such statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiant's signature by a taker of oaths, such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths. The name is Medieval Latin for ''he/she has declared upon oath''. An affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing, or in other words, it contains a verification, meaning it is under oath or penalty of perjury, and this serves as evidence to its veracity and is required for court proceedings.\nIt is done with the help of court, with a stamp paper.\nAffidavits may be written in the first or third person, depending on who drafted the document. If in the first person, the document's component parts are typically as follows:\n* A ''commencement'' which identifies the \"affiant of truth\", generally stating that everything in it is true, under penalty of perjury, fine, or imprisonment\n* An ''attestation'' clause, usually a jurat, at the end certifying the affiant made oath and the date\n* Signatures of the author and witness\n\nIf an affidavit is notarized or authenticated, it will also include a caption with a venue and title in reference to judicial proceedings. In some cases, an introductory clause, called a ''preamble'', is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority.\n", "On 2 March 2016, the High Court of Australia held that the ACT Uniform Evidence Legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight.\n", "In Indian law, although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein, the Courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit. Affidavit is treated as \"evidence\" within the meaning of Section 3 of the Evidence Act. However, it was held by the Supreme Court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the Court so orders for sufficient reasons, namely, the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for cross-examination (Khandesh Spg & Wvg Mills CO. Ltd. Vs Rashtriya Girni Kamgar Sangh, citation 1960 AIR571, 1960 SCR(2) 841). Therefore, an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the Court.\n", "Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although \"make oath\" is sometimes omitted. A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not sign the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format \"sworn (declared) before me, name of commissioner for oaths/solicitor, a commissioner for oaths (solicitor), on the date at location in the county/city of county/city, and I know the deponent (declarant)\", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths.\n", "In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual (especially if the affiant is not available for cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear, may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness's recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant's opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party-opponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule.\n\nAffidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories. Requests for admissions under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 36, however, are not required to be sworn.\n\nSome types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit. \n\nThe acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court (for swearing the affidavit) is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille, are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues.\n", "* Declaration (law)\n* Deposition (law)\n* Fishman Affidavit, a well-known example of an affidavit\n* Performativity\n* Statutory declaration\n* Sworn declaration\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Australia", "India", "Ireland", "United States", "See also", "References" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Aquarius''' is a constellation of the zodiac, situated between Capricornus and Pisces. Its name is Latin for \"water-carrier\" or \"cup-carrier\", and its symbol is 20px (Unicode ♒), a representation of water. Aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac (the Sun's apparent path). It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It is found in a region often called the Sea due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as Cetus the whale, Pisces the fish, and Eridanus the river.\n\nAt apparent magnitude 2.9, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in the constellation.\n", "Aquarius is identified as \"The Great One\" in the Babylonian star catalogues and represents the god Ea himself, who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase. The Babylonian star-figure appears on entitlement stones and cylinder seals from the second millennium. It contained the winter solstice in the Early Bronze Age. In Old Babylonian astronomy, Ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the Sun's path, the \"Way of Ea\", corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice. Aquarius was also associated with the destructive floods that the Babylonians regularly experienced, and thus was negatively connoted. In Ancient Egypt astronomy, Aquarius was associated with the annual flood of the Nile; the banks were said to flood when Aquarius put his jar into the river, beginning spring.\n\nIn the Greek tradition, the constellation came to be represented simply as a single vase from which a stream poured down to Piscis Austrinus. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise ''kumbha'' \"water-pitcher\".\n\nIn Greek mythology, Aquarius is sometimes associated with Deucalion, the son of Prometheus who built a ship with his wife Pyrrha to survive an imminent flood. They sailed for nine days before washing ashore on Mount Parnassus. Aquarius is also sometimes identified with beautiful Ganymede, a youth in Greek mythology and the son of Trojan king Tros, who was taken to Mount Olympus by Zeus to act as cup-carrier to the gods. Neighboring Aquila represents the eagle, under Zeus' command, that snatched the young boy; some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact Zeus transformed. An alternative version of the tale recounts Ganymede's kidnapping by the goddess of the dawn, Eos, motivated by her affection for young men; Zeus then stole him from Eos and employed him as cup-bearer. Yet another figure associated with the water bearer is Cecrops I, a king of Athens who sacrificed water instead of wine to the gods.\n\n===Depictions===\nA representation of Aquarius printed in 1825 as part of ''Urania's Mirror'' (including a now-obsolete constellation, Ballon Aerostatique south of it)\nIn the first century, Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' established the common Western depiction of Aquarius. His water jar, an asterism itself, consists of Gamma, Pi, Eta, and Zeta Aquarii; it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with Fomalhaut, now assigned solely to Piscis Austrinus. The water bearer's head is represented by 5th magnitude 25 Aquarii while his left shoulder is Beta Aquarii; his right shoulder and forearm are represented by Alpha and Gamma Aquarii respectively.\n\n===In Eastern astronomy===\nIn Chinese astronomy, the stream of water flowing from the Water Jar was depicted as the \"Army of Yu-Lin\" (''Yu-lin-kiun'' or ''Yulinjun''). The name \"Yu-lin\" means \"feathers and forests\", referring to the numerous light-footed soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by these faint stars. The constellation's stars were the most numerous of any Chinese constellation, numbering 45, the majority of which were located in modern Aquarius. The celestial army was protected by the wall ''Leibizhen'', which counted Iota, Lambda, Phi, and Sigma Aquarii among its 12 stars. 88, 89, and 98 Aquarii represent ''Fou-youe'', the axes used as weapons and for hostage executions. Also in Aquarius is ''Loui-pi-tchin'', the ramparts that stretch from 29 and 27 Piscium and 33 and 30 Aquarii through Phi, Lambda, Sigma, and Iota Aquarii to Delta, Gamma, Kappa, and Epsilon Capricorni.\n\nNear the border with Cetus, the axe ''Fuyue'' was represented by three stars; its position is disputed and may have instead been located in Sculptor. ''Tienliecheng'' also has a disputed position; the 13-star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed Nu and Xi Aquarii but may instead have been located south in Piscis Austrinus. The Water Jar asterism was seen to the ancient Chinese as the tomb, ''Fenmu''. Nearby, the emperors' mausoleum ''Xiuliang'' stood, demarcated by Kappa Aquarii and three other collinear stars. ''Ku'' (\"crying\") and ''Qi'' (\"weeping\"), each composed of two stars, were located in the same region.\n\nThree of the Chinese lunar mansions shared their name with constellations. ''Nu'', also the name for the 10th lunar mansion, was a handmaiden represented by Epsilon, Mu, 3, and 4 Aquarii. The 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation ''Xu'' (\"emptiness\"), formed by Beta Aquarii and Alpha Equulei; it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals. ''Wei'', the rooftop and 12th lunar mansion, was a V-shaped constellation formed by Alpha Aquarii, Theta Pegasi, and Epsilon Pegasi; it shared its name with two other Chinese constellations, in modern-day Scorpius and Aries.\n", "The constellation Aquarius as it can be seen by the naked eye\n\n\n\n===Stars===\nDespite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size, Aquarius has no particularly bright stars, its four brightest stars being less than magnitude 2. However, recent research has shown that there are several stars lying within its borders that possess planetary systems.\n\nThe two brightest stars, Alpha and Beta Aquarii, are luminous yellow supergiants, of spectral types G0Ib and G2Ib respectively, that were once hot blue-white B-class main sequence stars 5 to 9 times as massive as the Sun. The two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane of the Milky Way. Just shading Alpha, Beta Aquarii is the brightest star in Aquarius with an apparent magnitude of 2.91. It also has the proper name of Sadalsuud. Having cooled and swollen to around 50 times the Sun's diameter, it is around 2200 times as luminous as the Sun. It is around 6.4 times as massive as the Sun and around 56 million years old. Sadalsuud is 540 ± 20 light-years from Earth. Alpha Aquarii, also known as Sadalmelik, has an apparent magnitude of 2.94. It is 520 ± 20 light-years distant from Earth, and is around 6.5 times as massive as the Sun and 3000 times as luminous. It is 53 million years old.\n\nGamma Aquarii, also called Sadachbia, is a white main sequence star of spectral type star of spectral type A0V that is between 158 and 315 million years old and is around two and a half times the Sun's mass, and double its radius. Of magnitude 3.85, it is 164 ± 9 light years away. It has a luminosity of . The name Sadachbia comes from the Arabic for \"lucky stars of the tents\", ''sa'd al-akhbiya''.\n\nδ Aquarii, also known as Scheat or Skat, is a blue-white A2 spectral type star of magnitude 3.27 and luminosity of .\n\nε Aquarii, also known as Albali, is a blue-white A1 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 3.77, an absolute magnitude of 1.2, and a luminosity of .\n\nζ Aquarii is an F2 spectral type double star; both stars are white. Overall, it appears to be of magnitude 3.6 and luminosity of . The primary has a magnitude of 4.53 and the secondary a magnitude of 4.31, but both have an absolute magnitude of 0.6. Its orbital period is 760 years; the two components are currently moving farther apart.\n\nθ Aquarii, sometimes called Ancha, is a G8 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.16 and an absolute magnitude of 1.4.\n\nλ Aquarii, also called Hudoor or Ekchusis, is an M2 spectral type star of magnitude 3.74 and luminosity of .\n\nξ Aquarii, also called Bunda, is an A7 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.69 and an absolute magnitude of 2.4.\n\nπ Aquarii, also called Seat, is a B0 spectral type star with an apparent magnitude of 4.66 and an absolute magnitude of -4.1.\n\n===Planetary systems===\nTwelve exoplanet systems have been found in Aquarius as of 2013. Gliese 876, one of the nearest stars to Earth at a distance of 15 light-years, was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system. It is orbited by four planets, including one terrestrial planet 6.6 times the mass of Earth. The planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days. 91 Aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet, 91 Aquarii b. The planet's mass is 2.9 times the mass of Jupiter, and its orbital period is 182 days. Gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known long-period Jupiter-like planet, Gliese 849 b. The planet's mass is 0.99 times that of Jupiter and its orbital period is 1,852 days.\n\nThere are also less-prominent systems in Aquarius. WASP-6, a type G8 star of magnitude 12.4, is host to one exoplanet, WASP-6 b. The star is 307 parsecs from Earth and has a mass of 0.888 solar masses and a radius of 0.87 solar radii. WASP-6 b was discovered in 2008 by the transit method. It orbits its parent star every 3.36 days at a distance of 0.042 astronomical units (AU). It is 0.503 Jupiter masses but has a proportionally larger radius of 1.224 Jupiter radii. HD 206610, a K0 star located 194 parsecs from Earth, is host to one planet, HD 206610 b. The host star is larger than the Sun; more massive at 1.56 solar masses and larger at 6.1 solar radii. The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass of 2.2 Jupiter masses. It orbits every 610 days at a distance of 1.68 AU. Much closer to its sun is WASP-47 b, which orbits every 4.15 days only 0.052 AU from its sun, yellow dwarf (G9V) WASP-47. WASP-47 is close in size to the Sun, having a radius of 1.15 solar radii and a mass even closer at 1.08 solar masses. WASP-47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method, like WASP-6 b. It is slightly larger than Jupiter with a mass of 1.14 Jupiter masses and a radius of 1.15 Jupiter masses.\n\nThere are several more single-planet systems in Aquarius. HD 210277, a magnitude 6.63 yellow star located 21.29 parsecs from Earth, is host to one known planet: HD 210277 b. The 1.23 Jupiter mass planet orbits at nearly the same distance as Earth orbits the Sun - 1.1 AU, though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days. HD 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in Aquarius, detected by the radial velocity method in 1998. The star it orbits resembles the Sun beyond their similar spectral class; it has a radius of 1.1 solar radii and a mass of 1.09 solar masses. HD 212771 b, a larger planet at 2.3 Jupiter masses, orbits host star HD 212771 at a distance of 1.22 AU. The star itself, barely below the threshold of naked-eye visibility at magnitude 7.6, is a G8IV (yellow subgiant) star located 131 parsecs from Earth. Though it has a similar mass to the Sun - 1.15 solar masses - it is significantly less dense with its radius of 5 solar radii. Its lone planet was discovered in 2010 by the radial velocity method, like several other exoplanets in the constellation.\n\nAs of 2013, there were only two known multiple-planet systems within the bounds of Aquarius: the Gliese 876 and HD 215152 systems. The former is quite prominent; the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away at 21.5 parsecs. The HD 215152 system consists of the planets HD 215152 b and HD 215152 c orbiting their K0-type, magnitude 8.13 sun. Both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, the two tiny planets orbit very close to their host star. HD 215152 c is the larger at 0.0097 Jupiter masses (still significantly larger than the Earth, which weighs in at 0.00315 Jupiter masses); its smaller sibling is barely smaller at 0.0087 Jupiter masses. The error in the mass measurements (0.0032 and respectively) is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant. HD 215152 c also orbits further from the star than HD 215152 b, 0.0852 AU compared to 0.0652.\n\nOn 23 February 2017, NASA announced that ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 in Aquarius has seven Earth-like rocky planets. Of these, three are in the system's habitable zone, and may contain water. The discovery of the TRAPPIST-1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward finding life beyond Earth.\n\n===Deep sky objects===\nThe green bean galaxy J2240 lies in the constellation of Aquarius\n\nBecause of its position away from the galactic plane, the majority of deep-sky objects in Aquarius are galaxies, globular clusters, and planetary nebulae. Aquarius contains three deep sky objects that are in the Messier catalog: the globular clusters Messier 2, Messier 72, and the open cluster Messier 73. Two well-known planetary nebulae are also located in Aquarius: the Saturn Nebula (NGC 7009), to the southeast of μ Aquarii; and the famous Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), southwest of δ Aquarii.\n\nM2, also catalogued as NGC 7089, is a rich globular cluster located approximately 37,000 light-years from Earth. At magnitude 6.5, it is viewable in small-aperture instruments, but a 100 mm aperture telescope is needed to resolve any stars. M72, also catalogued as NGC 6981, is a small 9th magnitude globular cluster located approximately 56,000 light-years from Earth. M73, also catalogued as NGC 6994, is an open cluster with highly disputed status.\n\nAquarius is also home to several planetary nebulae. NGC 7009, also known as the Saturn Nebula, is an 8th magnitude planetary nebula located 3,000 light-years from Earth. It was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer Lord Rosse for its resemblance to the planet Saturn in a telescope; it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble Saturn's rings. It appears blue-green in a telescope and has a central star of magnitude 11.3. Compared to the Helix Nebula, another planetary nebula in Aquarius, it is quite small. NGC 7293, also known as the Helix Nebula, is the closest planetary nebula to Earth at a distance of 650 light-years. It covers 0.25 square degrees, making it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from Earth. However, because it is so large, it is only viewable as a very faint object, though it has a fairly high integrated magnitude of 6.0.\n\nOne of the visible galaxies in Aquarius is NGC 7727, of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe supernovae. A spiral galaxy (type S), it has an integrated magnitude of 10.7 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds. NGC 7252 is a tangle of stars resulting from the collision of two large galaxies and is known as the Atoms-for-Peace galaxy because of its resemblance to a cartoon atom.\n\n===Meteor showers===\nThere are three major meteor showers with radiants in Aquarius: the Eta Aquariids, the Delta Aquariids, and the Iota Aquariids.\n\nThe Eta Aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from Aquarius. It peaks between 5 and 6 May with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour. Originally discovered by Chinese astronomers in 401, Eta Aquariids can be seen coming from the Water Jar beginning on April 21 and as late as May 12. The parent body of the shower is Halley's Comet, a periodic comet. Fireballs are common shortly after the peak, approximately between May 9 and May 11. The normal meteors appear to have yellow trails.\n\nThe Delta Aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 July and second on 6 August. The first radiant is located in the south of the constellation, while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of Pisces asterism. The southern radiant's peak rate is about 20 meteors per hour, while the northern radiant's peak rate is about 10 meteors per hour.\n\nThe Iota Aquariids is a fairly weak meteor shower that peaks on 6 August, with a rate of approximately 8 meteors per hour.\n", "\n\n, the Sun appears in the constellation Aquarius from 16 February to 11 March. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Aquarius from 20 January to 19 February, and in sidereal astrology, from 15 February to 14 March.\n\nAquarius is also associated with the Age of Aquarius, a concept popular in 1960s counterculture. Despite this prominence, the Age of Aquarius will not dawn until the year 2597, as an astrological age does not begin until the Sun is in a particular constellation on the vernal equinox.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* * \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n", "\n* The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius\n* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (over 300 medieval and early modern images of Aquarius)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History and mythology", "Features", "Astrology", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n is a Japanese term for hand-drawn or computer animation. The word is the abbreviated pronunciation of \"animation\" in Japanese, where this term references all animation. Outside Japan, ''anime'' is used to refer specifically to animation from Japan or as a Japanese-disseminated animation style often characterized by colorful graphics, vibrant characters and fantastical themes. Arguably, the culturally abstract approach to the word's meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product. Some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of orientalism.\n\nThe earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917, and Japanese anime production has since continued to increase steadily. The characteristic anime art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of Osamu Tezuka and spread internationally in the late twentieth century, developing a large domestic and international audience. Anime is distributed theatrically, by way of television broadcasts, directly to home media, and over the Internet. It is classified into numerous genres targeting diverse broad and niche audiences.\n\nAnime is a diverse art form with distinctive production methods and techniques that have been adapted over time in response to emergent technologies. It consists of an ideal story-telling mechanism, combining graphic art, characterization, cinematography, and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques. The production of anime focuses less on the animation of movement and more on the realism of settings as well as the use of camera effects, including panning, zooming, and angle shots. Being hand-drawn, anime is separated from reality by a crucial gap of fiction that provides an ideal path for escapism that audiences can immerse themselves into with relative ease. Diverse art styles are used and character proportions and features can be quite varied, including characteristically large emotive or realistically sized eyes.\n\nThe anime industry consists of over 430 production studios, including major names like Studio Ghibli, Gainax, and Toei Animation. Despite comprising only a fraction of Japan's domestic film market, anime makes up a majority of Japanese DVD sales. It has also seen international success after the rise of English-dubbed programming. This rise in international popularity has resulted in non-Japanese productions using the anime art style, but these works are usually described as anime-influenced animation rather than anime proper.\n", "Anime is an art form, specifically animation, that includes all genres found in cinema, but it can be mistakenly classified as a genre. In Japanese, the term ''anime'' refers to all forms of animation from around the world. In English, ''anime'' () is more restrictively used to denote a \"Japanese-style animated film or television entertainment\" or as \"a style of animation created in Japan\".\n\nThe etymology of the word ''anime'' is disputed. The English term \"animation\" is written in Japanese ''katakana'' as (''animēshon'', pronounced ) and is (''anime'') in its shortened form. Some sources claim that ''anime'' derives from the French term for animation ''dessin animé'', but others believe this to be a myth derived from the French popularity of the medium in the late 1970s and 1980s. In English, ''anime''—when used as a common noun—normally functions as a mass noun. (For example: \"Do you watch anime?\" or \"How much anime have you collected?\") Prior to the widespread use of ''anime'', the term ''Japanimation'' was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid-1980s, the term ''anime'' began to supplant ''Japanimation''. In general, the latter term now only appears in period works where it is used to distinguish and identify Japanese animation.\n\nThe word ''anime'' has also been criticised, e.g. in 1987, when Hayao Miyazaki stated that he despised the truncated word ''anime'' because to him it represented the desolation of the Japanese animation industry. He equated the desolation with animators lacking motivation and with mass-produced, overly expressionistic products relying upon a fixed iconography of facial expressions and protracted and exaggerated action scenes but lacking depth and sophistication in that they do not attempt to convey emotion or thought.\n", "The first format of anime was theatrical viewing which originally began with commercial productions in 1917. Originally the animated flips were crude and required played musical components before adding sound and vocal components to the production. On July 14, 1958, Nippon Television aired ''Mogura no Abanchūru'' (\"Mole's Adventure\"), both the first televised and first color anime to debut. It wasn't until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since. Works released in a direct to video format are called \"original video animation\" (OVA) or \"original animation video\" (OAV); and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior to home media release. The emergence of the Internet has led some animators to distribute works online in a format called \"original net anime\" (ONA).\n\nThe home distribution of anime releases were popularized in the 1980s with the VHS and LaserDisc formats. The VHS NTSC video format used in both Japan and the United States is credited as aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s. The Laser Disc and VHS formats were transcended by the DVD format which offered the unique advantages; including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc. The DVD format also has its drawbacks in the its usage of region coding; adopted by the industry to solve licensing, piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated on the DVD player. The Video CD (VCD) format was popular in Hong Kong and Taiwan, but became only a minor format in the United States that was closely associated with bootleg copies.\n", "\nA cel from ''Namakura Gatana'', the earliest surviving Japanese animated short made for cinemas, produced in 1917\n\nJapanese animation began in the early 20th century, when Japanese filmmakers experimented with the animation techniques also pioneered in France, Germany, the United States and Russia. A claim for the earliest Japanese animation is ''Katsudō Shashin'', an undated and private work by an unknown creator. In 1917, the first professional and publicly displayed works began to appear. Animators such as Ōten Shimokawa and Seitarou Kitayama produced numerous works, with the oldest surviving film being Kouchi's ''Namakura Gatana'', a two-minute clip of a samurai trying to test a new sword on his target only to suffer defeat. The 1923 Great Kantō earthquake resulted in widespread destruction to Japan's infrastructure and the destruction of Shimokawa's warehouse, destroying most of these early works.\n\nBy the 1930s animation was well established in Japan as an alternative format to the live-action industry. It suffered competition from foreign producers and many animators, Noburō Ōfuji and Yasuji Murata, who still worked in cheaper cutout animation rather than cel animation. Other creators, Kenzō Masaoka and Mitsuyo Seo, nonetheless made great strides in animation technique; they benefited from the patronage of the government, which employed animators to produce educational shorts and propaganda. The first talkie anime was ''Chikara to Onna no Yo no Naka'', produced by Masaoka in 1933. By 1940, numerous anime artists' organizations had risen, including the Shin Mangaha Shudan and Shin Nippon Mangaka. The first feature-length animated film was ''Momotaro's Divine Sea Warriors'' directed by Seo in 1944 with sponsorship by the Imperial Japanese Navy.\n\nA frame from ''Momotaro's Divine Sea Warriors'' (1944), the first feature-length anime film\n\nThe success of The Walt Disney Company's 1937 feature film ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' profoundly influenced many Japanese animators. In the 1960s, manga artist and animator Osamu Tezuka adapted and simplified many Disney animation techniques to reduce costs and to limit the number of frames in productions. He intended this as a temporary measure to allow him to produce material on a tight schedule with inexperienced animation staff. ''Three Tales'', aired in 1960, was the first anime shown on television. The first anime television series was ''Otogi Manga Calendar'', aired from 1961 to 1964.\n\nThe 1970s saw a surge of growth in the popularity of ''manga'', Japanese comic books and graphic novels, many of which were later animated. The work of Osamu Tezuka drew particular attention: he has been called a \"legend\" and the \"god of manga\". His work—and that of other pioneers in the field—inspired characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today. The giant robot genre (known as \"mecha\" outside Japan), for instance, took shape under Tezuka, developed into the Super Robot genre under Go Nagai and others, and was revolutionized at the end of the decade by Yoshiyuki Tomino who developed the Real Robot genre. Robot anime like the ''Gundam'' and ''The Super Dimension Fortress Macross'' series became instant classics in the 1980s, and the robot genre of anime is still one of the most common in Japan and worldwide today. In the 1980s, anime became more accepted in the mainstream in Japan (although less than manga), and experienced a boom in production. Following a few successful adaptations of anime in overseas markets in the 1980s, anime gained increased acceptance in those markets in the 1990s and even more at the turn of the 21st century. In 2002, ''Spirited Away'', a Studio Ghibli production directed by Hayao Miyazaki won the Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival and in 2003 at the 75th Academy Awards it won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. \n", "Anime are often classified by target demographic, including ''kodomo'' (children's), ''shōjo'' (girls'), ''shōnen'' (boys') and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience. Shoujo and shounen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of both sexes in an attempt to gain crossover appeal. Adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences typically find unappealing, as well as adult themes and situations. A subset of adult anime works feature pornographic elements and are labeled \"R18\" in Japan, but internationally these works are grouped together under the term ''hentai'' (Japanese for \"pervert\"). By contrast, a variety of anime subgenres across demographic groups incorporate ''ecchi'', sexual themes or undertones without depictions of sexual intercourse, as typified in the comedic or harem genres; due to its popularity among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts, incorporation of ecchi elements in anime is considered a form of fan service.\n\nAnime's genre classification is different from other types of animation and does not lend itself to simple identity. Gilles Poitras compared the labeling ''Gundam 0080'' and its complex depiction of war as a \"giant robot\" anime akin to simply labeling ''War and Peace'' a \"war novel\". Science fiction is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like Tezuka's ''Astro Boy'' and Yokoyama's ''Tetsujin 28-go''. A major subgenre of science fiction is mecha, with the ''Gundam'' metaseries being iconic. The diverse fantasy genre includes works based on Asian and Western traditions and folklore; examples include the Japanese feudal fairytale ''InuYasha'', and the depiction of Scandinavian goddesses who move to Japan to maintain a computer called Yggdrasil in ''Ah! My Goddess''. Genre crossing in anime is also prevalent, such as the blend of fantasy and comedy in ''Dragon Half'', and the incorporation of slapstick humor in the crime anime ''Castle of Cagliostro''. Other subgenres found in anime include magical girl, harem, sports, martial arts, literary adaptations, medievalism, and war.\n\nGenres have emerged that explore homosexual romances. While originally pornographic in terminology, ''yaoi'' (male homosexuality) and ''yuri'' (female homosexuality) are broad terms used internationally to describe any focus on the themes or development of romantic homosexual relationships. Prior to 2000, homosexual characters were typically used for comedic effect, but some works portrayed these characters seriously or sympathetically.\n", "Anime artists employ many distinct visual styles\n\nAnime differs greatly from other forms of animation by its diverse art styles, methods of animation, its production, and its process. Visually, anime is a diverse art form that contains a wide variety of art styles, differing from one creator, artist, and studio. While no one art style predominates anime as a whole, they do share some similar attributes in terms of animation technique and character design.\n\n=== Animation technique ===\nAnime follows the typical production of animation, including storyboarding, voice acting, character design, and cel production (''Shirobako'', itself a series, highlights many of the aspects involved in anime production). Since the 1990s, animators have increasingly used computer animation to improve the efficiency of the production process. Artists like Noburō Ōfuji pioneered the earliest anime works, which were experimental and consisted of images drawn on blackboards, stop motion animation of paper cutouts, and silhouette animation. Cel animation grew in popularity until it came to dominate the medium. In the 21st century, the use of other animation techniques is mostly limited to independent short films, including the stop motion puppet animation work produced by Tadahito Mochinaga, Kihachirō Kawamoto and Tomoyasu Murata. Computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s, with works such as ''Ghost in the Shell'' and ''Princess Mononoke'' mixing cel animation with computer-generated images. Fuji Film, a major cel production company, announced it would stop cel production, producing an industry panic to procure cel imports and hastening the switch to digital processes.\n\nPrior to the digital era, anime was produced with traditional animation methods using a pose to pose approach. The majority of mainstream anime uses fewer expressive key frames and more in-between animation.\n\nJapanese animation studios were pioneers of many limited animation techniques, and have given anime a distinct set of conventions. Unlike Disney animation, where the emphasis is on the movement, anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of time spent on movement. Such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but also as artistic devices. Anime scenes place emphasis on achieving three-dimensional views, and backgrounds are instrumental in creating the atmosphere of the work. The backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on real locations, as exemplified in ''Howl's Moving Castle'' and ''The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya''. Oppliger stated that anime is one of the rare mediums where putting together an all-star cast usually comes out looking \"tremendously impressive\".\n\nThe cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from the stage plays found in American animation. Anime is cinematically shot as if by camera, including panning, zooming, distance and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to produce in reality. In anime, the animation is produced before the voice acting, contrary to American animation which does the voice acting first; this can cause lip sync errors in the Japanese version.\n\n=== Characters ===\nBody proportions of human anime characters tend to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body in reality. The height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of proportion. Head heights can vary, but most anime characters are about seven to eight heads tall. Anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions to produce super deformed characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head; many super deformed characters are two to four heads tall. Some anime works like ''Crayon Shin-chan'' completely disregard these proportions, such that they resemble Western cartoons.\n\nA common anime character design convention is exaggerated eye size. The animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced back to Osamu Tezuka, who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters as Betty Boop, who was drawn with disproportionately large eyes. Tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history, whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes. The artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth. Generally, a mixture of a light shade, the tone color, and a dark shade is used. Cultural anthropologist Matt Thorn argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive such stylized eyes as inherently more or less foreign. However, not all anime have large eyes. For example, the works of Hayao Miyazaki are known for having realistically proportioned eyes, as well as realistic hair colors on their characters.\n\nAnime and manga artists often draw from a defined set of facial expressions to depict particular emotions\n\nHair in anime is often unnaturally lively and colorful or uniquely styled. The movement of hair in anime is exaggerated and \"hair action\" is used to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect. Poitras traces hairstyle color to cover illustrations on manga, where eye-catching artwork and colorful tones are attractive for children's manga. Despite being produced for a domestic market, anime features characters whose race or nationality is not always defined, and this is often a deliberate decision, such as in the ''Pokémon'' animated series.\n\nAnime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods and thoughts. These techniques are often different in form than their counterparts in Western animation, and they include a fixed iconography that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods. For example, a male character may develop a nosebleed when aroused. A variety of visual symbols are employed, including sweat drops to depict nervousness, visible blushing for embarrassment, or glowing eyes for an intense glare.\n\n=== Music ===\nThe opening and credits sequences of most anime television episodes are accompanied by Japanese pop or rock songs, often by reputed bands. They may be written with the series in mind, but are also aimed at the general music market, and therefore often allude only vaguely or not at all to the themes or plot of the series. Pop and rock songs are also sometimes used as incidental music (\"insert songs\") in an episode, often to highlight particularly important scenes.\n", "\nAkihabara district of Tokyo is the center of ''otaku'' subculture in Japan.\nThe animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including Toei Animation, Gainax, Madhouse, Gonzo, Sunrise, Bones, TMS Entertainment, Nippon Animation, P.A.Works, Studio Pierrot and Studio Ghibli. Many of the studios are organized into a trade association, The Association of Japanese Animations. There is also a labor union for workers in the industry, the Japanese Animation Creators Association. Studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects, as done with Studio Ghibli's ''Spirited Away''. An anime episode can cost between US$100,000 and US$300,000 to produce. In 2001, animation accounted for 7% of the Japanese film market, above the 4.6% market share for live-action works. The popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the DVD market, contributing nearly 70% of total sales. According to a 2016 article on Nikkei Asian Review, Japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies \"over the past few years\", compared with under from overseas. There has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in Japan, caused by late night anime with adults as the target demographic. This type of anime is less popular outside Japan, being considered \"more of a niche product\". ''Spirited Away'' (2001) is the all-time highest-grossing film in Japan. It was also the highest-grossing anime film worldwide until it was overtaken by Makoto Shinkai's 2016 film ''Your Name''. Anime films represent a large part of the highest-grossing Japanese films yearly in Japan, with 6 out of the top 10 in 2014, in 2015 and also in 2016.\n\nAnime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released. While anime has been licensed by its Japanese owners for use outside Japan since at least the 1960s, the practice became well-established in the United States in the late 1970s to early 1980s, when such TV series as ''Gatchaman'' and ''Captain Harlock'' were licensed from their Japanese parent companies for distribution in the US market. The trend towards American distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as ''Voltron'' and the 'creation' of new series such as ''Robotech'' through use of source material from several original series.\n\nIn the early 1990s, several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less children-oriented material. Some, such as A.D. Vision, and Central Park Media and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market. Others, such as AnimEigo, achieved limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before completing their American operations.\n\nLicenses are expensive, often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie. The prices vary widely; for example, ''Jinki: Extend'' cost only $91,000 to license while ''Kurau Phantom Memory'' cost $960,000. Simulcast Internet streaming rights can be less expensive, with prices around $1,000-$2,000 an episode, but can also be more expensive, with some series costing more than per episode.\n\nThe anime market for the United States was worth approximately $2.74 billion in 2009. Dubbed animation began airing in the United States in 2000 on networks like The WB and Cartoon Network's Adult Swim. In 2005, this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on Cartoon Network. As a part of localization, some editing of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the non-Japanese culture. The cost of English localization averages US $10,000 per episode.\n\nThe industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for fansubs, the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films. Fansubs, which were originally distributed on VHS bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s, have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s. Since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues, fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed. They also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in English, although fansubs typically continue to circulate through file sharing networks. Even so, the laid back regulations of the Japanese animation industry tends to overlook these issues, allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing the popularity until there is a demand for official high quality releases for animation companies. This has led to an increase in global popularity with Japanese animations, reaching $40 million in sales in 2004.\n\nLegal international availability of anime on the Internet has changed in recent years, with simulcasts of series available on websites like Crunchyroll.\n\n=== Awards ===\nThe anime industry has several annual awards which honor the year's best works. Major annual awards in Japan include the Ōfuji Noburō Award, the Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film, the Animation Kobe Awards, the Japan Media Arts Festival animation awards, the Tokyo Anime Award and the Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year. In the United States, anime films compete in the ICv2.com Anime Awards There were also the American Anime Awards, which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry, and were held only once in 2006. Anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime, like the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature or the Golden Bear.\n", "Anime has become commercially profitable in Western countries, as demonstrated by early commercially successful Western adaptations of anime, such as ''Astro Boy'' and ''Speed Racer''. Early American adaptions in the 1960s made Japan expand into the continental European market, first with productions aimed at European and Japanese children, such as ''Heidi'', ''Vicky the Vicking'' and ''Barbapapa'', which aired in various countries. Particularly Italy, Spain and France grew an interest into Japan's output, due to its cheap selling price and productive output. In fact, Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. These mass imports influenced anime popularity in South American, Arabic and German markets.\n\nThe beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The growth of the Internet provided Western audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. This is especially the case with net services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll. As a direct result, various interests surrounding Japan has increased.\n\n=== Fan response ===\nA fanmade anime picture\nAnime clubs gave rise to anime conventions in the 1990s with the \"anime boom\", a period marked by increased popularity of anime. These conventions are dedicated to anime and manga and include elements like cosplay contests and industry talk panels. Cosplay, a portmanteau for \"costume play\", is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions. Japanese culture and words have entered English usage through the popularity of the medium, including ''otaku'', a derogatory Japanese term commonly used in English to denote a fan of anime and manga. Another word that has arisen describing fans in the United States is ''wapanese'' meaning White individuals who desire to be Japanese, or later known as ''weeaboo'' for individuals who demonstrate a strong interest in Japanese anime subculture, which is a term that originated from abusive content posted on the popular bulletin board website 4chan.org. Anime enthusiasts have produced fan fiction and fan art, including computer wallpaper and anime music videos.\n\n=== Anime style ===\nOne of the key points that made anime different from popular Western animation is the emotional content. Once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation being just for children is put aside, the audience can realize that many emotions such as suffering, death, pain, struggle, and joy can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime as much as other types of media. However, as anime itself became increasingly popular, anime styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions. ''South Park''s \"Chinpokomon\" and \"Good Times with Weapons\" episodes, Adult Swim's ''Perfect Hair Forever'', and Nickelodeon's ''Kappa Mikey'' are examples of satirical depictions of Japanese culture and anime. Some works have sparked debate for blurring the lines between satire and serious \"anime style\" productions, such as the American anime style production ''Avatar: The Last Airbender''. These anime styled works have become defined as anime-influenced animation, in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of non-Japanese origin. Some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration and like the French production team for ''Ōban Star-Racers'' moved to Tokyo to collaborate with a Japanese production team. When anime is defined as a \"style\" rather than as a national product it leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries. A U.A.E.-Filipino produced TV series called ''Torkaizer'' is dubbed as the \"Middle East's First Anime Show\", and is currently in production, which is currently looking for funding. The web-based series ''RWBY'' is produced using an anime art style and has been declared to be anime. In addition, the series will be released in Japan, under the label of \"anime\" per the Japanese definition of the term and referenced as an \"American-made anime\". Netflix declared the company's intention to produce anime. In doing so, the company is offering a more accessible channel for distribution to Western markets. Defining anime as style has been contentious amongst fans, with John Oppliger stating, \"The insistence on referring to original American art as Japanese \"anime\" or \"manga\" robs the work of its cultural identity.\"\n", "\n\n* Animation director\n* Chinese animation\n* Korean animation\n* List of anime\n* Mechademia\n* Voice acting in Japan\n", "\n=== Notes ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", " Definition and usage ", " Format ", " History ", " Genres ", " Attributes ", " Industry ", " Globalization ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]

[ "\n'''Asterism''' may refer to:\n\n* Asterism (astronomy), a pattern of stars\n* Asterism (gemology), an optical phenomenon in gemstones\n* Asterism (typography), a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages\n", "* \n* \n* Aster (disambiguation)\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "See also" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' (13 August 1899 – 29 April 1980) was an English film director and producer, referred to as the \"Master of Suspense\". He pioneered many elements of the suspense and psychological thriller genres. He had a successful career in British cinema with both silent films and early talkies and became renowned as Britain's leading filmmaker. Hitchcock moved to Hollywood in 1939 and became a U.S. citizen in 1955.\n\nHitchcock became a highly visible public figure through interviews, film trailers, cameo appearances in his own films, and the ten years in which he hosted the television programme ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' (1955–1965). He also fashioned for himself a recognisable directorial style, and the term Hitchcockian is now often used to refer to his style of filmmaking. Hitchcock's stylistic trademarks include the use of camera movement that mimics a person's gaze, forcing viewers to engage in a form of voyeurism. In addition, he framed shots to maximise anxiety, fear, or empathy, and used innovative forms of film editing. His work often features fugitives on the run alongside \"icy blonde\" female characters.\n\nHe directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as one of the most influential directors in cinematic history. His first thriller, ''The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog'' (1927), helped shape the thriller genre in film. His 1929 film, ''Blackmail'', is often cited as the first British sound feature film, while ''Rear Window'' (1954), ''Vertigo'' (1958), ''North by Northwest'' (1959) and ''Psycho'' (1960) are regularly ranked among the greatest films of all time.\n", "===Early life: 1899-1930===\n====Born in Great Britain====\n''Hitchcock The Director'' mosaic at Leytonstone tube station. A series of mosaics of Hitchcock's life and works are located in the tube station which were commissioned by the London Borough of Waltham Forest\nHitchcock was born on 13 August 1899 in Leytonstone, at the time part of Essex (now part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest). He was the second son and the youngest of three children of William Hitchcock (1862–1914), a greengrocer and poulterer, and Emma Jane Hitchcock (née Whelan; 1863–1942). He was named after his father's brother. Hitchcock was raised as a Roman Catholic, and sent to Salesian College, Battersea, and the Jesuit grammar school St Ignatius' College in Stamford Hill, London. His parents were both of half-English and half-Irish ancestry. He often described a lonely and sheltered childhood that was worsened by his obesity. Around age five, Hitchcock recalled that to punish him for behaving badly, his father sent him to the local police station with a note asking the officer to lock him away for five minutes. This incident implanted a lifelong fear of policemen in Hitchcock, and such harsh treatment and wrongful accusations are frequent themes in his films.\n\nSources vary on Hitchcock's performance in school. Gene Adair reports that by \"most accounts, Alfred was only an average, or slightly above-average, student\", although McGilligan writes that Hitchcock \"certainly\" excelled academically. When Hitchcock was 15, his father died. In that same year, he left St. Ignatius to study at the London County Council School of Engineering and Navigation in Poplar, London. After leaving, he became a draftsman and advertising designer with an electrical cable company called Henley's.\n\nDuring the First World War, Hitchcock was called up to serve in the British Army; he was ultimately excused from military service with a 'C3' classification due to his size, height or an unnamed medical condition, but was nonetheless \"able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home\". Hitchcock joined a cadet regiment of the Royal Engineers in 1917. His military stint was limited, and he mainly engaged in theoretical briefings, weekend drills, and exercises. Hitchcock would march around London's Hyde Park and was required to wear military puttees, though he never mastered the proper wrapping of them.\n\nWhile working at Henley's, Hitchcock began to dabble in creative writing. The company's in-house publication ''The Henley Telegraph'' was founded in 1919, and he often submitted short articles, eventually becoming one of its most prolific contributors. His first piece, \"Gas\" (1919), published in the first issue, tells of a young woman who imagines that she is being assaulted one night in London—only for the twist to reveal that it was all just a hallucination in the dentist's chair induced by the anesthetic.\n\nHitchcock's second piece was \"The Woman's Part\" (1919), which involves the conflicted emotions that a husband feels as he watches his actress wife perform onstage. \"Sordid\" (1920) surrounds an attempt to buy a sword from an antiques dealer, with another twist ending. The short story \"And There Was No Rainbow\" (1920) is Hitchcock's first brush with possibly censurable material. A young man goes out looking for a brothel, only to stumble into the house of his best friend's girl. \"What's Who?\" (1920) at first glance seems to be a precursor to Abbott and Costello's \"Who's on First?\" routine, as it is a short dialogue piece resembling antic dialogue from a music hall skit. It captures the confusion that occurs when a group of actors decide to put together a sketch in which they will impersonate themselves. In the story’s forty sentences, confusion regarding the questions “Who’s me?” and \"Who’s you?” rise to comic emotional heights. \"The History of Pea Eating\" (1920) is a satirical disquisition on the various attempts that people have made over the centuries to eat peas successfully. His final piece, \"Fedora\" (1921), is his shortest and most enigmatic contribution. It also gives a strikingly accurate description of his future wife Alma Reville, whom he had not yet met.\n\n====British silent films====\nHitchcock was a film fan from his teenage years, and in 1919 began his film career at the age of twenty, working as a title card designer for the London branch of the American firm Famous Players-Lasky, the production arm of Paramount Pictures, at Islington Studios. After Famous Players-Lasky pulled out of London in 1922, Hitchcock stayed as part of the studio staff. He was hired by a new firm run by Michael Balcon and others after being noticed at work on the short film ''Always Tell Your Wife'' in early 1923. In time Balcon's company took the name Gainsborough Pictures.\n\nHis rise from title designer to film director took five years. During this period, he became an unusual combination of screenwriter, art director, and assistant director on a series of five films for Balcon and director Graham Cutts: ''Woman to Woman'' (1923), ''The White Shadow'' (1924), ''The Passionate Adventure'' (1924), ''The Blackguard'' (1925), and ''The Prude's Fall'' (1925).\n\nHitchcock's 1925 collaboration with Cutts, ''The Blackguard'' (German: ''Die Prinzessin und der Geiger'', 1925), was produced at the Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam, where Hitchcock observed part of the making of F. W. Murnau's film ''The Last Laugh'' (1924). He was impressed with Murnau's work and later used many techniques for the set design in his own productions. In a book-length interview with François Truffaut, Hitchcock also said that he was influenced by Fritz Lang's film ''Destiny'' (1921). He was likewise influenced by other foreign filmmakers whose work he absorbed as one of the earliest members of the \"seminal\" London Film Society, formed in 1925.\n\nNumber 13'' in London\nHitchcock's first few films faced a string of bad luck. His first directing project came in 1922 with the aptly titled ''Number 13'', filmed in London. The production was cancelled because of financial problems; the few scenes that had been finished at that point have been lost. Michael Balcon gave Hitchcock another opportunity for a directing credit with ''The Pleasure Garden'' (1925), a co-production of Gainsborough and the German firm Emelka, which he made at the Geiselgasteig studio near Munich in the summer of 1925. The film was a commercial flop. Next, Hitchcock directed a drama called ''The Mountain Eagle'' (1926), possibly released under the title ''Fear o' God,'' in the United States. This film is lost.\n\nHitchcock's luck changed with his first thriller, ''The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog'' (1927), a suspense film about the hunt for a Jack the Ripper type of serial killer in London. Released in January 1927, it was a major commercial and critical success in the United Kingdom. As with many of his earlier works, this film was influenced by Expressionist techniques Hitchcock had witnessed first-hand in Germany. Some commentators regard this piece as the first truly \"Hitchcockian\" film, incorporating such themes as the \"wrong man\".\n\nFollowing the success of ''The Lodger'', Hitchcock hired a publicist to help strengthen his growing reputation. On 2 December 1926, Hitchcock married his assistant director, Alma Reville, at the Brompton Oratory in South Kensington, London. Alma was to become Hitchcock's closest collaborator, but her contributions to his films (some of which were credited on screen) Hitchcock would discuss only in private, as she was keen to avoid public attention. In 1928, Hitchcock and Alma purchased a house named 'Winter's Grace', situated on Stroud Lane, Shamley Green, in Surrey. The building was originally a Tudor farmhouse dating from the 16th century. The Hitchcocks lived most weekdays at 153 Cromwell Road in London, whilst spending their weekends in Shamley Green entertaining guests. Their only child, daughter Patricia, was born on 7 July of the same year.\n\n====Early sound films====\nHitchcock began work on his tenth film, ''Blackmail'' (1929), when its production company British International Pictures (BIP) decided to convert its Elstree facility to sound, and to utilise that new technology in ''Blackmail''. It was an early \"talkie\", often cited by film historians as a landmark film, and is often considered to be the first British talkie feature film.\n\n''Blackmail'' began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences, with the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the British Museum. It also features one of his longest cameo appearances, which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground. In the PBS series ''The Men Who Made The Movies'', Hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film, stressing the word \"knife\" in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder. During this period, Hitchcock directed segments for a BIP musical film revue ''Elstree Calling'' (1930) and directed a short film featuring two ''Film Weekly'' scholarship winners entitled ''An Elastic Affair'' (1930).\n\nIn 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont British. His first film for the company ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1934) was a success and his second ''The 39 Steps'' (1935) is often considered one of the best films from his early period, with the British Film Institute ranking it the fourth best British film of the 20th century. The film was acclaimed in the UK, and it made Hitchcock a star in the US, and established the quintessential English \"Hitchcock blonde\" Madeleine Carroll as the template for his succession of ice cold and elegant leading ladies. This film was one of the first to exploit a \"MacGuffin\", a rather peripheral driver of the narrative. In ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of design plans. In 1966, Hitchcock explained to French director François Truffaut:There are two men sitting in a train going to Scotland and one man says to the other, \"Excuse me, sir, but what is that strange parcel you have on the luggage rack above you?\", \"Oh\", says the other, \"that's a Macguffin.\", \"Well\", says the first man, \"what's a Macguffin?\", The other answers, \"It's an apparatus for trapping lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"But\", says the first man, \"there are no lions in the Scottish Highlands.\", \"Well\", says the other, \"then that's no Macguffin.\"\n\nHitchcock's next major success was ''The Lady Vanishes'' (1938), a fast-paced film about the search for kindly old Englishwoman Miss Froy (Dame May Whitty) who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Bandrika. ''The Guardian'' called the film \"one of the greatest train movies from the genre's golden era\", and a contender for the \"title of best comedy thriller ever made\". The BFI ranked it the 35th best British film of the 20th century. The film saw Hitchcock receive the 1939 New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Director, the only time he received an award for his direction.\n\nHitchcock was lauded in Britain, where he was dubbed \"Alfred the Great\" by ''Picturegoer'' magazine. Additionally, his reputation was beginning to soar overseas by the end of the 1930s, with a ''New York Times'' feature writer stating: \"Three unique and valuable institutions the British have that we in America have not. Magna Carta, the Tower Bridge and Alfred Hitchcock, the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world.\" ''Variety'' magazine referred to him as, \"probably the best native director in England.\"\n\n===Early Hollywood years: 1931-1945===\n====Hollywood and the Selznick contract====\nHitchcock with Chandran Rutnam (centre) and Sri Lankan film maker Anton Wickremasinghe at the Academy Awards in Los Angeles, 1970s.\nDavid O. Selznick signed Hitchcock to a seven-year contract beginning in March 1939, and set to end in 1946, which brought the Hitchcocks to Hollywood. The suspense and the gallows humour that had become Hitchcock's trademark in his films continued to appear in his American productions. The working arrangements with Selznick were less than ideal. Selznick suffered from constant financial problems, and Hitchcock was often displeased with Selznick's creative control over his films. In a later interview, Hitchcock commented, \"Selznick was the Big Producer. ... Producer was king, The most flattering thing Mr. Selznick ever said about me—and it shows you the amount of control—he said I was the 'only director' he'd 'trust with a film'.\"\n\nSelznick lent Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself. Selznick made only a few films each year, as did fellow independent producer Samuel Goldwyn, so he did not always have projects for Hitchcock to direct. Goldwyn had also negotiated with Hitchcock on a possible contract, only to be outbid by Selznick. Hitchcock was quickly impressed with the superior resources of the American studios compared with the financial limits that he had often faced in Britain.\n\nThe Selznick picture ''Rebecca'' (1940) was Hitchcock's first American film, set in a Hollywood version of England's Cornwall and based on a novel by English novelist Daphne du Maurier. The film stars Laurence Olivier and Joan Fontaine. The story concerns a naïve (and unnamed) young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat. She goes to live in his huge English country house, and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife Rebecca, who died under mysterious circumstances. The film won Best Picture at the 13th Academy Awards. The statuette was given to Selznick, as the film's producer. Hitchcock was nominated for the Best Director award, his first of five such nominations, but did not win.\n\nThere were additional problems between Selznick and Hitchcock, with Selznick known to impose restrictive rules on Hitchcock. At the same time, Selznick complained about Hitchcock's \"goddamn jigsaw cutting\", which meant that the producer did not have nearly the leeway to create his own film as he liked, but had to follow Hitchcock's vision of the finished product.\n\nHitchcock's second American film was the thriller ''Foreign Correspondent'' (1940) with its plot set in Europe, based on Vincent Sheean's ''Personal History'' and produced by Walter Wanger. It was nominated for Best Picture that year. Hitchcock, along with many other British subjects, felt uneasy living and working in Hollywood while their country was at war; his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the British war effort. The movie was filmed in the first year of the Second World War and was inspired by the rapidly changing events in Europe, as fictionally covered by an American newspaper reporter (portrayed by Joel McCrea). The film mixed footage of European scenes with scenes filmed on a Hollywood backlot. It avoided direct references to Nazism, Nazi Germany, and Germans to comply with Hollywood's Production Code censorship at the time.\n\n====Early war years====\nCary Grant and Ingrid Bergman in ''Notorious'' (1946)\nHitchcock's films were diverse during the 1940s, ranging from the romantic comedy ''Mr. & Mrs. Smith'' (1941), to the courtroom drama ''The Paradine Case'' (1947), to the bleak film noir ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943). In September 1940 the Hitchcocks bought the Cornwall Ranch near Scotts Valley in the Santa Cruz Mountains. The ranch became the holiday home of the Hitchcocks. Their primary residence was an English-style home in Bel Air which was purchased in 1942. ''Suspicion'' (1941) marks Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. It is set in England, and Hitchcock used the north coast of Santa Cruz, California for the English coastline sequence. This film is the first of four projects on which Cary Grant worked with Hitchcock, and it is one of the rare occasions that Grant was cast in a sinister role. Joan Fontaine won Best Actress Oscar for her performance. Grant plays a penniless dishonest con-artist whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young English wife (Fontaine). In one scene Hitchcock uses a lightbulb to illuminate what might be a fatal glass of milk that Grant is bringing to his wife. The character that Grant plays in the film is a killer in the book upon which the film was based, ''Before the Fact'' by Francis Iles, but Hitchcock and the studio felt that, among other issues, Grant's image would be tarnished by that. So Hitchcock settled for an ambiguous finale, although, as he stated to François Truffaut, a murder would have suited him better.\n\n''Saboteur'' (1942) is the first of two films that Hitchcock made for Universal during the decade. Hitchcock was forced to use Universal contract player Robert Cummings and Priscilla Lane (a freelancer who signed a one-picture deal with Universal), both known for their work in comedies and light dramas. Breaking with Hollywood conventions of the time, Hitchcock did extensive location filming, especially in New York City, and depicted a confrontation between a suspected saboteur (Cummings) and a real saboteur (Norman Lloyd) atop the Statue of Liberty. That year, he also directed ''Have You Heard?'', a photographic dramatisation of the dangers of rumours during wartime, for ''Life'' magazine.\n\nHitchcock also wrote a mystery story for ''Look'' magazine in 1943, \"The Murder of Monty Woolley\". This was a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to inspect the pictures for clues to the murderer's identity; Hitchcock cast the performers as themselves, such as Woolley, Doris Merrick and make-up man Guy Pearce. The article was reprinted in ''Games'' Magazine in November/December 1980. In 2012, Hitchcock featured in the BBC Radio 4 series ''The New Elizabethans'' to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. A panel of 7 academics, journalists and historians named Hitchcock among the group of people in the UK \"whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character\".\n\n''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943) was Hitchcock's personal favourite of all his films and the second of the early Universal films. It is about young Charlotte \"Charlie\" Newton (Teresa Wright), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Oakley (Joseph Cotten) of being a serial murderer. Hitchcock again filmed extensively on location, this time in the Northern California city of Santa Rosa during the summer of 1942. Working at 20th Century Fox, Hitchcock adapted a script of John Steinbeck's, which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a German U-boat attack in the film ''Lifeboat'' (1944). The action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank. The locale posed problems for Hitchcock's traditional cameo appearance. That was solved by having Hitchcock's image appear in a newspaper that William Bendix is reading in the boat, showing the director in a before-and-after advertisement for \"Reduco-Obesity Slayer\". While at Fox, Hitchcock seriously considered directing the film version of A. J. Cronin's novel about a Catholic priest in China, ''The Keys of the Kingdom'', but the plans for this fell through. John M. Stahl ended up directing the 1944 film, which was produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and starred Gregory Peck.\n\n====Wartime non-fiction films====\nHitchcock returned to the UK for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944. While there he made two short films in French for the British Ministry of Information: ''Bon Voyage'' and ''Aventure Malgache''. The two British propaganda films made for the Free French were the only films that Hitchcock made in the French language, and they \"feature typical Hitchcockian touches\". On his motivation for making the films, Hitchcock stated: \"I felt the need to make a little contribution to the war effort, and I was both overweight and over-age for military service. I knew that if I did nothing, I'd regret it for the rest of my life.\" From late June to late July 1945, Hitchcock served as \"treatment advisor\" on a Holocaust documentary which used footage provided by the Allied Forces. It was produced by Sidney Bernstein of the British Ministry of Information, and was assembled in London. Bernstein brought his future 1948–49 production partner Hitchcock on board as a consultant for the film editing process for the British Ministry of Information and the American Office of War Information.\n\nThe film-makers were commissioned to provide irrefutable evidence of the Nazis' crimes, and the film recorded the liberation of Nazi concentration camps. The film was originally intended to be broadcast to the Germans following World War II, but the British government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to the already-shocked post-War population. Instead, it was transferred in 1952 from the British War Office film vaults to London's Imperial War Museum and remained unreleased until 1985, when an edited version was first broadcast in May 1985 as an episode of the PBS network series ''Frontline'' under the title which the Imperial War Museum had given it: ''Memory of the Camps''. The full-length version of the film ''German Concentration Camps Factual Survey'' was completed in 2014, and was restored by film scholars at the Imperial War Museum.\n\n===Post-war Hollywood years: 1945-1953===\n====Later Selznick films====\nHitchcock worked for Selznick again when he directed ''Spellbound'' (1945), which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by Salvador Dalí. Gregory Peck plays amnesiac Dr. Anthony Edwardes under the treatment of analyst Dr. Peterson (Ingrid Bergman), who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past. The dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned, having been edited by Selznick to make it \"play\" more effectively. Two point-of-view shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and out-sized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-coloured red on some copies of the black-and-white film. The original musical score by Miklós Rózsa makes use of the electronic theremin, and some of it was later adapted by the composer into Rozsa's Piano Concerto Op. 31 (1967) for piano and orchestra.\n\nNotorious'' (1946)\n''Notorious'' (1946) followed ''Spellbound''. Hitchcock gave a book-length interview to François Truffaut, in which he said that Selznick had sold the director, the two stars (Grant and Bergman), and the screenplay (by Ben Hecht) to RKO Radio Pictures as a \"package\" for $500,000 due to cost overruns on Selznick's ''Duel in the Sun'' (1946). ''Notorious'' stars Hitchcock regulars Bergman and Grant, and features a plot about Nazis, uranium and South America. His prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to Hitchcock's being briefly under FBI surveillance. McGilligan writes that Hitchcock consulted Robert Millikan of the California Institute of Technology about the development of an atomic bomb. Selznick complained the notion was \"science fiction\", only to be confronted by the news stories of the detonation of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945.\n\n====Sidney Bernstein and Transatlantic Pictures====\nHitchcock formed an independent production company with his friend Sidney Bernstein called Transatlantic Pictures, through which he made two films, his first in colour and making use of long takes. With ''Rope'' (1948), Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''Lifeboat'' (1944). The film appears to have been shot in a single take, but it was actually shot in 10 takes ranging from 4-½ to 10 minutes each, a 10-minute length of film being the maximum that a camera's film magazine could hold at the time. Some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place. It features James Stewart in the leading role, and was the first of four films that Stewart made with Hitchcock. It was inspired by the Leopold and Loeb case of the 1920s. ''Under Capricorn'' (1949), set in 19th century Australia, also uses the short-lived technique of long takes, but to a more limited extent. He again used Technicolor in this production, then returned to black-and-white films for several years. Transatlantic Pictures became inactive after these two unsuccessful films, however, Hitchcock continued to participate in the production and ownership his own films for the rest of his life.\n\nHitchcock in the 1970s\nHitchcock filmed ''Stage Fright'' (1950) at studios in Elstree, England where he had worked during his British International Pictures contract many years before. He matched one of Warner Bros.' most popular stars, Jane Wyman, with the expatriate German actress Marlene Dietrich and used several prominent British actors, including Michael Wilding, Richard Todd and Alastair Sim. This was Hitchcock's first proper production for Warner Bros., which had distributed ''Rope'' and ''Under Capricorn'', because Transatlantic Pictures was experiencing financial difficulties.\n\nHis film ''Strangers on a Train'' (1951) was based on the novel by Patricia Highsmith. In it, Hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films. He approached Dashiell Hammett to write the dialogue, but Raymond Chandler took over, then left over disagreements with the director. In the film, two men casually meet, one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder; he suggests that two people, each wishing to do away with someone, should each perform the other's murder. Farley Granger's role was as the innocent victim of the scheme, while Robert Walker, previously known for \"boy-next-door\" roles, played the villain. ''I Confess'' (1953) was set in Quebec with Montgomery Clift as a Catholic priest.\n\n===The canonical Hitchcock films: 1954-1960===\n====Early peak years: ''Rear Window'' and ''Vertigo''====\n''I Confess'' was followed by three popular colour films starring Grace Kelly. ''Dial M for Murder'' (1954) was adapted from the stage play by Frederick Knott. Ray Milland plays the scheming villain, an ex-tennis pro who tries to murder his unfaithful wife (Kelly) for her money. She kills the hired assassin in self-defence, so Milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like a premeditated murder by his wife. Her lover Mark Halliday (Robert Cummings) and Police Inspector Hubbard (John Williams) work urgently to save her from execution. With ''Dial M,'' Hitchcock experimented with 3D cinematography, with the film now being available in the 3D format on Blu-ray.\nJames Stewart and Grace Kelly in ''Rear Window'' (1954)\n\nHitchcock moved to Paramount Pictures and filmed ''Rear Window'' (1954), starring James Stewart and Kelly again, as well as Thelma Ritter and Raymond Burr. Stewart's character is a photographer (based on Robert Capa) who must temporarily use a wheelchair. Out of boredom, he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard, and then becomes convinced that one of them (Raymond Burr) has murdered his wife. Stewart tries to convince both his policeman buddy (Wendell Corey) and his glamorous model-girlfriend (Kelly, whom screenwriter John Michael Hayes based on his own wife), and eventually he succeeds. As with ''Lifeboat'' and ''Rope'', the principal characters are depicted in confined or cramped quarters, in this case to Stewart's small studio apartment overlooking a large courtyard. Hitchcock uses close-ups of Stewart's face to show his character's reactions to all that he sees, \"from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching Kelly and Burr in the villain's apartment\".\n\nFrom 1955 to 1965, Hitchcock was the host of the television series titled ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His irony-tinged voice and signature droll delivery, gallows humour, iconic image and mannerisms became instantly recognisable and were often the subject of parody. The title-sequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of Hitchcock's profile (he drew it himself; it is composed of only nine strokes), which his real silhouette then filled. His introductions before the stories in his programme always included some sort of wry humour, such as the description of a recent multi-person execution hampered by having only one electric chair, while two are now shown with a sign \"Two chairs—no waiting!\". He directed 18 episodes of the TV series himself, which aired from 1955 to 1965 in two versions. It became ''The Alfred Hitchcock Hour'' in 1962.\n\nThe series theme tune was ''Funeral March of a Marionette'', by the French composer Charles Gounod (1818–1893), the composer of the 1859 opera, ''Faust''. The composer Bernard Herrmann suggested the music be used. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra included the piece on one of their extended play 45-rpm discs for RCA Victor during the 1950s. In the 1980s, a new version of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions in a colourised form. Hitchcock also appears as a character in the popular juvenile detective book series, ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators''. The long-running detective series was created by Robert Arthur, who wrote the first several books, although other authors took over after he left the series. The Three Investigators—Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw—were amateur detectives, slightly younger than the Hardy Boys. In the introduction to each book, \"Alfred Hitchcock\" introduces the mystery, and he sometimes refers a case to the boys to solve. At the end of each book, the boys report to Hitchcock, and sometimes give him a memento of their case.\n\nIn 1955, Hitchcock became a United States citizen. His third Grace Kelly film ''To Catch a Thief'' (1955) is set in the French Riviera, and pairs her with Cary Grant. He plays retired thief John Robie, who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the Riviera. A thrill-seeking American heiress played by Kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him. \"Despite the obvious age disparity between Grant and Kelly and a lightweight plot, the witty script (loaded with double entendres) and the good-natured acting proved a commercial success.\" It was Hitchcock's last film with Kelly. She married Prince Rainier of Monaco in 1956, and ended her film career. Hitchcock then remade his own 1934 film ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' in 1956. This time, the film starred James Stewart and Doris Day, who sang the theme song \"Que Sera, Sera\", which won the Oscar for Best Original Song and became a big hit for her. They play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination. As in the 1934 film, the climax takes place at the Royal Albert Hall, London.\n\nJames Stewart and Kim Novak in ''Vertigo'' (1958). In a 2012 BFI ''Sight & Sound'' critics' poll, ''Vertigo'' was ranked the greatest film ever made.\nAt the height of Hitchcock's success in 1956, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short-story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included ''Alfred Hitchcock's Anthology'', ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents: Stories to be Read with the Door Locked'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's A Hangman's Dozen'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Stories Not For the Nervous'' and ''Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful''. Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories. Some notable writers whose works were used in the collection include Shirley Jackson (''Strangers in Town'', ''The Lottery''), T. H. White (''The Once and Future King''), Robert Bloch, H. G. Wells (''The War of the Worlds''), Robert Louis Stevenson, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Mark Twain and the creator of ''The Three Investigators'', Robert Arthur. In a similar manner, Hitchcock's name was licensed for a digest-sized monthly, ''Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine'', which has been published since 1956.\n\n''The Wrong Man'' (1957), Hitchcock's final film for Warner Bros., is a low-key black-and-white production based on a real-life case of mistaken identity reported in ''Life'' magazine in 1953. This was the only film of Hitchcock to star Henry Fonda, playing a Stork Club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief, who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife (Vera Miles) emotionally collapses under the strain. Hitchcock told Truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes. ''Vertigo'' (1958) again starred James Stewart, this time with Kim Novak and Barbara Bel Geddes. Stewart plays \"Scottie\", a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia, who develops an obsession with a woman that he is shadowing (Novak). Scottie's obsession leads to tragedy, and this time Hitchcock does not opt for a happy ending. Some critics, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that ''Vertigo'' represents the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the ''Pygmalion''-like obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman that he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography. Hitchcock, and ''Vertigo'', were later paid homage-to in the 1977 Mel Brooks film ''High Anxiety''.\n\n''Vertigo'' contains a camera technique developed by Irmin Roberts that has been copied many times by filmmakers commonly referred to as a dolly zoom. It was premiered in the San Sebastián International Film Festival, where Hitchcock won a Silver Seashell. ''Vertigo'' is considered a classic today, but it met with some negative reviews and poor box office receipts upon its release, and was the last collaboration between Stewart and Hitchcock. Its critical reputation grew. In the 2002 ''Sight & Sound'' polls, it ranked just behind ''Citizen Kane'' (1941); ten years later, in the same magazine, it was voted by critics as the best film ever made. By this time, Hitchcock had filmed in many areas of the U.S.\n\n====Later peak years: ''North by Northwest'' and ''Psycho''====\nCary Grant in ''North by Northwest'' (1959)\nHitchcock followed ''Vertigo'' with three more successful films, which are also recognised as among his best films: ''North by Northwest'' (1959), ''Psycho'' (1960) and ''The Birds'' (1963). In ''North by Northwest'', Cary Grant portrays Roger Thornhill, a Madison Avenue advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent. He is hotly pursued across the United States by enemy agents, apparently one of them being Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint), who is in reality working undercover. During its opening two-week run at Radio City Music Hall, the film grossed $404,056, setting a record in that theater's non-holiday gross. At that time, ''Time'' magazine called the film \"smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining.\" A. H. Weiler of ''The New York Times'' made it a \"Critic's Pick\" and said it was the \"year's most scenic, intriguing and merriest chase\"; Weiler complimented the two leads: Cary Grant, a veteran member of the Hitchcock acting varsity, was never more at home than in this role of the advertising-man-on-the-lam. He handles the grimaces, the surprised look, the quick smile ... and all the derring-do with professional aplomb and grace. In casting Eva Marie Saint as his romantic vis-à-vis, Mr. Hitchcock has plumbed some talents not shown by the actress heretofore. Although she is seemingly a hard, designing type, she also emerges both the sweet heroine and a glamorous charmer.\n\n''Psycho'' mosaic in the Hitchcock Gallery at Leytonstone tube station\n''Psycho'' is among Hitchcock's most widely seen films. Produced on a constrained budget of $800,000, it was shot in black-and-white on a spare set using crew members from his television show ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents''. The unprecedented violence of the shower scene, the early death of the heroine and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the defining hallmarks of a new horror film genre and have been copied by many authors of subsequent films. The public loved the film, with lines stretching outside of cinemas as people had to wait for the next showing. It broke box-office records in the United Kingdom, France, South America, the United States and Canada and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period. It was the most profitable film of Hitchcock's career; Hitchcock personally earned well in excess of $15 million. He subsequently swapped his rights to ''Psycho'' and his TV anthology for 150,000 shares of MCA, making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc. and his own boss at Universal, in theory at least, but that did not stop them from interfering with him. Following the first film directed by Hitchcock, ''Psycho'' has since become an American horror franchise consisting of six films loosely based on the ''Psycho'' novels by Robert Bloch, namely ''Psycho'', ''Psycho II'', ''Psycho III'', ''Bates Motel'', ''Psycho IV: The Beginning'', the scene-by-scene colour 1998 remake of the original film, and additional merchandise spanning various media.\n\n===After 1961 to death: 1961-1980===\n====After 1961====\n''The Birds'' (1963), inspired by a short story by English author Daphne du Maurier and by a news story about a mysterious infestation of birds in Capitola, California, was Hitchcock's 49th film, and the location scenes were filmed in Bodega Bay, California. Newcomer Tippi Hedren co-starred with Rod Taylor and Suzanne Pleshette. The scenes of the birds attacking included hundreds of shots mixing live and animated sequences. The cause of the birds' attack is left unanswered. Hitchcock cast Hedren again opposite Sean Connery in ''Marnie'' (1964), a romantic drama and psychological thriller. Decades later, Hedren called Hitchcock a misogynist and said that Hitchcock effectively ended her career by keeping her to an exclusive contract for two years when she rebuffed his sexual advances. However, Hedren appeared in two TV shows during the two years after ''Marnie''. In 2012, Hedren described Hitchcock as a \"sad character\"; a man of \"unusual genius\", yet \"evil, and deviant, almost to the point of dangerous, because of the effect that he could have on people that were totally unsuspecting\". In response, a ''Daily Telegraph'' article quoted several actresses who had worked with Hitchcock, including Eva Marie Saint, Doris Day and Kim Novak, none of whom shared Hedren's opinion about him. Novak, who worked on Hitchcock's ''Vertigo'', told the ''Telegraph'' \"I never saw him make a pass at anybody or act strange to anybody.\"\n\n''Psycho'' and ''The Birds'' had unconventional soundtracks: the screeching strings played in the murder scene in ''Psycho'' were unusually dissonant, and ''The Birds'' dispensed with any conventional score, instead using a new technique of electronically produced sound effects. Bernard Herrmann composed the former and was a consultant on the latter, also acting as composer for ''Marnie''.\n\nFailing health reduced Hitchcock's output during the last two decades of his life. Biographer Stephen Rebello claimed Universal \"forced\" two movies on him, ''Torn Curtain'' (1966) and ''Topaz'' (1969). Both were spy thrillers set with Cold War-related themes. The first, ''Torn Curtain'' (1966), with Paul Newman and Julie Andrews, precipitated the bitter end of the twelve-year collaboration between Hitchcock and composer Bernard Herrmann. Herrmann was sacked when Hitchcock was unsatisfied with his score, and replaced with British composer John Addison. ''Topaz'' (1969), based on a Leon Uris novel, is partly set in Cuba. Both received mixed reviews from critics.\n\nHitchcock returned to Britain to make his penultimate film ''Frenzy'' (1972). After two espionage films, the plot marks a return to the murder thriller genre, and is based upon the novel ''Goodbye Piccadilly, Farewell Leicester Square''. The plot centres on a serial killer in contemporary London. The basic story recycles his early film ''The Lodger''. Richard Blaney (Jon Finch), a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger, becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the \"Necktie Murders\", which are actually committed by his friend Bob Rusk (Barry Foster). This time, Hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds, rather than opposites, as in ''Strangers on a Train''. Only one of them, however, has crossed the line to murder. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had previously been taboo, in one of his films. He also shows rare sympathy for the policeman on the case and his comic domestic life.\nHitchcock at work on location in San Francisco for ''Family Plot''\nBiographers have noted that Hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship, often managing to fool Joseph Breen, the longtime head of Hollywood's Production Code. Many times Hitchcock slipped in subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid-1960s. Yet Patrick McGilligan wrote that Breen and others often realised that Hitchcock was inserting such things and were actually amused as well as alarmed by Hitchcock's \"inescapable inferences\". Beginning with ''Torn Curtain'', Hitchcock was finally able to blatantly include plot elements previously forbidden in American films.\n\n''Family Plot'' (1976) was Hitchcock's last film. It relates the escapades of \"Madam\" Blanche Tyler, played by Barbara Harris, a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover Bruce Dern, making a living from her phony powers. William Devane, Karen Black, Katherine Helmond, and Cathleen Nesbitt co-starred. It is the only Hitchcock film scored by John Williams. While ''Family Plot'' was based on the Victor Canning novel ''The Rainbird Pattern'', the novel's tone is more sinister and dark than what Hitchcock wanted for the film. Screenwriter Ernest Lehman originally wrote the film with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter, more comical tone by Hitchcock.\n\n====Last project and death====\nNear the end of his life, Hitchcock had worked on the script for a projected spy thriller, ''The Short Night'', collaborating with James Costigan, Ernest Lehman and David Freeman. Despite some preliminary work, the screenplay was never filmed. This was caused primarily by Hitchcock's seriously declining health and his concerns for his wife, Alma, who had suffered a stroke. The screenplay was eventually published in Freeman's 1999 book ''The Last Days of Alfred Hitchcock''.\n\nHitchcock died aged 80 in his Bel Air home of renal failure on 29 April 1980. While biographer Spoto wrote that Hitchcock \"rejected suggestions that he allow a priest ... to come for a visit, or celebrate a quiet, informal ritual at the house for his comfort\", Jesuit priest Mark Henninger wrote that he and fellow priest Tom Sullivan celebrated Mass at the filmmaker's home; Sullivan heard Hitchcock's confession. He was survived by his wife and their daughter. Lew Wasserman, board chairman and chief executive officer of MCA Inc. and previously Hitchcock’s longtime agent, stated:\nI am deeply saddened by the death of my close friend and colleague, Sir Alfred Hitchcock, whose death today at his home deprives us all of a great artist and an even greater human being. Almost every tribute paid to Sir Alfred in the past by film critics and historians has emphasised his continuing influence in the world of film. It is that continuing influence, embodied in the magnificent series of films he has given the world, during the last half-century, that will preserve his great spirit, his humour and his wit, not only for us but for succeeding generations of film-goers.\n\nHitchcock's funeral Mass was held at Good Shepherd Catholic Church in Beverly Hills on 30 April 1980, after which his body was cremated and his remains were scattered over the Pacific Ocean on 10 May 1980.\n", "Alfred Hitchcock's interview, around 1966\n\n===Psychology of characters===\nHitchcock's films sometimes feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In ''North by Northwest'' (1959), Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him. In ''The Birds'' (1963), the Rod Taylor character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself from a clinging mother (Jessica Tandy). The killer in ''Frenzy'' (1972) has a loathing of women but idolises his mother. The villain Bruno in ''Strangers on a Train'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by Marion Lorne). Sebastian (Claude Rains) in ''Notorious'' has a clearly conflictual relationship with his mother, who is (correctly) suspicious of his new bride Alicia Huberman (Ingrid Bergman). Norman Bates has troubles with his mother in ''Psycho''.\n\nHitchcock heroines tend to be blondes. The famous victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''The 39 Steps'', Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, Madeleine Carroll, is put in handcuffs. In ''Marnie'' (1964), the title character (played by Tippi Hedren) is a thief. In ''To Catch a Thief'' (1955), Francie (Grace Kelly) offers to help a man she believes is a burglar. In ''Rear Window'', Lisa (Grace Kelly again) risks her life by breaking into Lars Thorwald's apartment. The best-known example is in ''Psycho'' where Janet Leigh's unfortunate character steals $40,000 and is murdered by a reclusive psychopath. Hitchcock's last blonde heroine was Barbara Harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in ''Family Plot'' (1976), his final film. In the same film, the diamond smuggler played by Karen Black could also fit that role, as she wears a long blonde wig in various scenes and becomes increasingly uncomfortable about her line of work. The English 'Hitchcock blonde' was based on his preference for the heroines to have an \"indirect\" sex appeal of English women, ladylike in public, but whores in the bedroom, with Hitchcock stating to Truffaut:\n\n===Signature appearances in his films===\n\nHitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films. For example, he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train (''Strangers on a Train''), walking dogs out of a pet shop (''The Birds''), fixing a neighbour's clock (''Rear Window''), as a shadow (''Family Plot''), sitting at a table in a photograph (''Dial M for Murder''), and missing a bus (''North by Northwest'').\n\n===Themes, plot devices and motifs===\n\nHitchcock returned several times to cinematic devices such as suspense, the audience as voyeur, and his well-known \"MacGuffin,\" a plot device that is essential to the characters on the screen, but is irrelevant to the audience. Thus, the MacGuffin was always hazily described (in ''North By Northwest'', Leo G. Carroll describes James Mason as an \"importer-exporter.\") A central theme of Hitchcock's films was murder and the psychology behind it. His work often features the theme of fugitives on the run alongside \"icy blonde\" female characters.\n\n===Inspiration for themes===\nIn a 1963 interview with Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci, Hitchcock was asked how in spite of appearing to be a pleasant, innocuous man, he seemed to enjoy making films involving suspense and terrifying crime. He responded:\n", "===Writing===\nHitchcock once commented, \"The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.\" In an interview with Roger Ebert in 1969, Hitchcock elaborated further:\n\n\nIn ''Writing with Hitchcock'', a book-length study of Hitchcock's working method with his writers, author Steven DeRosa noted that, \"Although he rarely did any actual 'writing', especially on his Hollywood productions, Hitchcock supervised and guided his writers through every draft, insisting on a strict attention to detail and a preference for telling the story through visual rather than verbal means. While this exasperated some writers, others admitted the director inspired them to do their very best work. Hitchcock often emphasised that he took no screen credit for the writing of his films. However, over time the work of many of his writers has been attributed solely to Hitchcock's creative genius, a misconception he rarely went out of his way to correct. Notwithstanding his technical brilliance as a director, Hitchcock relied on his writers a great deal.\"\n\n===Storyboards and production===\nAccording to the majority of commentators, Hitchcock's films were extensively storyboarded to the finest detail. He was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder, since he did not need to, though in publicity photos he was shown doing so. He also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision. If a studio asked him to change a film, he would claim that it was already shot in a single way, and that there were no alternate takes to consider. However, this view of Hitchcock as a director who relied more on pre-production than on the actual production itself has been challenged by the book ''Hitchcock at Work'', written by Bill Krohn, the American correspondent of ''Cahiers du cinéma''. Krohn, after investigating several script revisions, notes to other production personnel written by or to Hitchcock alongside inspection of storyboards, and other production material, has observed that Hitchcock's work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned. He noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to Hitchcock, often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films, was to a great degree perpetuated by Hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios. A great example would be the celebrated crop-spraying sequence of ''North by Northwest'' which was not storyboarded at all. After the scene was filmed, the publicity department asked Hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and Hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail.\n\nEven when storyboards were made, scenes that were shot differed from them significantly. Krohn's extensive analysis of the production of Hitchcock classics like ''Notorious'' reveals that Hitchcock was flexible enough to change a film's conception during its production. Another example Krohn notes is the American remake of ''The Man Who Knew Too Much,'' whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule, something that, as Krohn notes, was not an uncommon occurrence on many of Hitchcock's films, including ''Strangers on a Train'' and ''Topaz''. While Hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films, he was fully cognisant that the actual film-making process often deviated from the best-laid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines utilised during many other film productions.\n\nKrohn's work also sheds light on Hitchcock's practice of generally shooting in chronological order, which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and, more importantly, differed from the standard operating procedure of Hollywood in the Studio System Era. Equally important is Hitchcock's tendency to shoot alternate takes of scenes. This differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how he/she chooses (often under the producer's aegis). Rather they represented Hitchcock's tendency of giving himself options in the editing room, where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work. According to Krohn, this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of Hitchcock's personal papers, script revisions and the like refute the notion of Hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films, whose vision of his films did not change during production, which Krohn notes has remained the central long-standing myth of Alfred Hitchcock. His fastidiousness and attention to detail also found its way into each film poster for his films. Hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his day—film poster designers such as Bill Gold and Saul Bass—who would produce posters that accurately represented his films.\n\n===Approach to actors===\nHitchcock became known for his alleged observation, \"Actors are cattle\". He once said that he first made this remark as early as the late 1920s, in connection to stage actors who were snobbish about motion pictures. However, the actor Michael Redgrave said that Hitchcock had made the statement during the filming of ''The Lady Vanishes'' (1938). Later, in Hollywood, during the filming of ''Mr. & Mrs. Smith'' (1941), Carole Lombard brought some heifers onto the set with name tags of Lombard, Robert Montgomery and Gene Raymond, the stars of the film, to surprise the director. Hitchcock said he was misquoted: \"I said 'Actors should be ''treated'' like cattle'.\"\n\nMuch of Hitchcock's supposed dislike of actors has been exaggerated. Hitchcock simply did not tolerate the method approach, as he believed that actors should only concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters. In a ''Sight & Sound'' interview, he stated that, 'the method actor is OK in the theatre because he has a free space to move about. But when it comes to cutting the face and what he sees and so forth, there must be some discipline'. He often used the same actors in many of his films.\n\nDuring the making of ''Lifeboat'', Walter Slezak, who played the German villain, stated that Hitchcock knew the mechanics of acting better than anyone he knew. Several critics have observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors, several actors who worked with him gave fine, often brilliant performances and these performances contribute to the film's success. As more fully discussed above, actress Dolly Haas, who was a personal friend of Hitchcock and who acted for him in the 1953 film ''I Confess'', stated that Hitchcock regarded actors as \"animated props\".\n\nFor Hitchcock, the actors, like the props, were part of the film's setting, as he said to Truffaut:In my opinion, the chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well, which is by no means as easy as it sounds. He should be willing to be utilised and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera. He must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights.\n\nAddressing his earlier statement comparing actors to cattle, Hitchcock said in an interview with François Truffaut:I'm not quite sure in what context I might have made such a statement. It may have been made ... when we used actors who were simultaneously performing in stage plays. When they had a matinee, and I suspected they were allowing themselves plenty of time for a very leisurely lunch. And this meant that we had to shoot our scenes at breakneck speed so that the actors could get out on time. I couldn't help feeling that if they'd been really conscientious, they'd have swallowed their sandwich in the cab, on the way to the theatre, and get there in time to put on their make-up and go on stage. I had no use for that kind of actor.\n\nIn the late 1950s, French New Wave critics, especially Éric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol and François Truffaut, were among the first to see and promote Hitchcock's films as artistic works. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their auteur theory, which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the filmmaking process. Hitchcock's innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and actors. His influence helped start a trend for film directors to control artistic aspects of their films without answering to the film's producer.\n", "\nEnglish Heritage Blue plaque in 153 Cromwell Road, London, SW5 commemorating Hitchcock\n\nHitchcock was a multiple nominee and winner of a number of prestigious awards, receiving two Golden Globes, eight Laurel Awards, five lifetime achievement awards (including the first BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award), as well as being nominated five times for an Academy Award for Best Director (albeit never winning). His film ''Rebecca'' (nominated for 11 Oscars) won the Academy Award for Best Picture of 1940—another Hitchcock film, ''Foreign Correspondent'', was also nominated that year. Hitchcock has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, receiving one for his contribution to television and another for his work in motion pictures. Following a 2007 critics' poll by Britain's ''Daily Telegraph'' in which he was ranked Britain's greatest filmmaker, one scholar wrote: \"Hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema, which would be utterly different without him. His flair was for narrative, cruelly withholding crucial information (from his characters and from the audience) and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else.\"\n\nAfter refusing a CBE in 1962, Hitchcock received a knighthood in December 1979 when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II in the 1980 New Year Honours. Asked by a reporter why it had taken the Queen so long, Hitchcock quipped, \"I suppose it was a matter of carelessness\". Prior to receiving his knighthood, critic Roger Ebert wrote: \"Other British directors like Sir Carol Reed and Sir Charlie Chaplin were knighted years ago, while Hitchcock, universally considered by film students to be one of the greatest filmmakers of all time, was passed over\". An English Heritage blue plaque, unveiled in 1999, marks where Hitchcock lived in London at 153 Cromwell Road, Kensington and Chelsea, SW5. In 2002, the magazine ''MovieMaker'' named Hitchcock the most influential filmmaker of all time. In 2012, Hitchcock was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork, the Beatles' ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album cover, in order to celebrate British cultural figures whom he most admires.\n\nHitchcock directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades and is often regarded as one of the most influential directors in cinematic history. In 1978, film critic John Russell Taylor described Hitchcock as \"the most universally recognizable person in the world\", and \"a straightforward middle-class Englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius\". Hitchcock has been portrayed in several films after 2010 including Anthony Hopkins in the 2012 film ''Hitchcock''. He was also portrayed by Toby Jones in the 2012 HBO telefilm ''The Girl''. In June 2013, nine restored versions of Hitchcock's early silent films, including his directorial debut, ''The Pleasure Garden'' (1925), were shown at the Brooklyn Academy of Music's Harvey Theatre. Known as \"The Hitchcock 9\", the travelling tribute was made possible by a $3 million programme organised by the British Film Institute. Roger Ashton-Griffiths portrayed Hitchcock more recently in the 2014 film ''Grace of Monaco''.\n", "The Alfred Hitchcock Collection is housed at the Academy Film Archive in Hollywood, California. The Hitchcock Collection includes home movies, 16mm film shot on the set of ''Blackmail'' (1929) and ''Frenzy'' (1972), and the earliest known colour footage of Hitchcock. The Academy Film Archive also preserved many of Hitchcock's home movies. Complementing the film material are the Alfred Hitchcock Papers housed at the Academy's Margaret Herrick Library. The David O. Selznick and the Ernest Lehman collections housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin, Texas contain material related to Hitchcock's work on the production of ''The Paradine Case'', ''Rebecca'', ''Spellbound'', ''North by Northwest'', and ''Family Plot.'' \n", "\n", "\n* List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances\n* List of film director and actor collaborations\n* List of unproduced Hitchcock projects\n", "\n", "\n* Leff, Leonard J: ''The Rich and Strange Collaboration of Alfred Hitchcock and David O. Selznick in Hollywood''. University of California Press, 1999\n* Leitch, Thomas: ''The Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock'' (). Checkmark Books, 2002. A single-volume encyclopaedia of all things about Alfred Hitchcock.\n* McGilligan, Patrick: ''Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light''. Regan Books, 2003. A comprehensive biography of the director.\n* A series of interviews of Hitchcock by the influential French director.\n", "* Auiler, Dan: ''Hitchcock's notebooks: an authorised and illustrated look inside the creative mind of Alfred Hitchcock''. New York, Avon Books, 1999. Much useful background to the films.\n* Barr, Charles: ''English Hitchcock''. Cameron & Hollis, 1999. On the early films of the director.\n* ''Clues: A Journal of Detection'' '31.1 (2013). Theme issue on Hitchcock and adaptation.\n* Conrad, Peter: ''The Hitchcock Murders''. Faber and Faber, 2000. A highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of Hitchcock's oeuvre.\n* Deutelbaum, Marshall; Poague, Leland (ed.): ''A Hitchcock Reader''. Iowa State University Press, 1986. A wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays on Hitchcock.\n* Duckett, Stephane: Hitchcock in Context. Moreton Street Books, 2014. A reappraisal of influential text on Hitchcock.\n* Durgnat, Raymond: ''The strange case of Alfred Hitchcock'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1974 \n* Durgnat, Raymond; James, Nick; Gross, Larry: ''Hitchcock'' British Film Institute, 1999 \n* \n* Giblin, Gary: ''Alfred Hitchcock's London''. Midnight Marquee Press, 2006, (Paperback: )\n* Grams, Martin, Jr. & Wikstrom, Patrik: ''The Alfred Hitchcock Presents Companion''. OTR Pub, 2001, (Paperback: )\n* Haeffner, Nicholas: ''Alfred Hitchcock''. Longman, 2005. An undergraduate-level text.\n* Hitchcock, Patricia; Bouzereau, Laurent: ''Alma Hitchcock: The Woman Behind the Man''. Berkley, 2003.\n* Henry Keazor (ed.): ''Hitchcock und die Künste'', Schüren, Marburg 2013, . Examines the way Hitchcock was inspired by other arts such as literature, theatre, painting, architecture, music and cooking, used them in his films, and how they then inspired other art forms such as dancing and media art.\n* Krohn, Bill: ''Hitchcock at Work''. Phaidon, 2000. Translated from the award-winning French edition. The nitty-gritty of Hitchcock's filmmaking from scripting to post-production.\n* Leff, Leonard J.: ''Hitchcock and Selznick''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987. An in-depth examination of the rich collaboration between Hitchcock and David O Selznick.\n* Loker, Altan: ''Film and Suspense''. Trafford Publishing, 2006. (). Discusses the psychological means by which Hitchcock created the sense of reality in his works and manipulated his audience.\n* McDevitt, Jim; San Juan, Eric: ''A Year of Hitchcock: 52 Weeks with the Master of Suspense''. Scarecrow Press, 2009, (). A comprehensive film-by-film examination of Hitchcock's artistic development from 1927 through 1976.\n* Modleski, Tania: ''The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory''. Routledge, 2005 (2nd edition). A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films; argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was ambivalent, rather than simply misogynist or sympathetic (as widely thought).\n* Mogg, Ken. ''The Alfred Hitchcock Story''. Titan, 2008 (revised edition). Note: the original 1999 UK edition, from Titan, and the 2008 re-issue worldwide, also from Titan, have significantly more text than the 1999 abridged US edition from Taylor Publishing. New material on all the films.\n* Poague, Leland and Thomas Leitch: ''A Companion to Alfred Hitchcock''. Wiley-Blackwell, 2011. Collection of original essays by leading scholars examining all facets of Hitchcock's influence\n* Rebello, Stephen: ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho''. St. Martin's, 1990. Intimately researched and detailed history of the making of ''Psycho,''.\n* Rohmer, Eric; Chabrol, Claude. ''Hitchcock, the first forty-four films'' (). F. Ungar, 1979. First book-long study of Hitchock art and probably still the best one.\n* Rothman, William. ''The Murderous Gaze''. Harvard Press, 1980. Auteur study that looks at several Hitchcock films intimately.\n* San Juan, Eric; McDevitt, Jim: ''Hitchcock's Villains: Murderers, Maniacs and Mother Issues''. Scarecrow Press, 2013, (). An in-depth analysis of the villains who were critically important to Hitchcock's films and were often emblematic of Hitchcock himself.\n* Spoto, Donald: ''The Art of Alfred Hitchcock''. Anchor Books, 1992. The first detailed critical survey of Hitchcock's work by an American.\n* Sullivan, Jack: ''Hitchcock's Music''. Yale University Press, 2006. The first book to fully explore the role music played in the Hitchcock's films. \n* Vest, James: ''Hitchcock and France: The Forging of an Auteur''. Praeger Publishers, 2003. A study of Hitchcock's interest in French culture and the manner by which French critics, such as Truffaut, came to regard him in such high esteem.\n* Weibel, Adrian: ''Spannung bei Hitchcock. Zur Funktionsweise der auktorialen Suspense.'' () Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2008\n* Wikstrom, Patrik & Grams, Martin, Jr.: ''The Alfred Hitchcock Presents Companion''. OTR Pub, 2001, (Paperback: )\n* Wood, Robin: ''Hitchcock's Films Revisited''. Columbia University Press, 2002 (2nd edition). A much-cited collection of critical essays, now supplemented and annotated in this second edition with additional insights and changes that time and personal experience have brought to the author (including his own coming-out as a gay man).\n* Contains interviews with Alfred Hitchcock and a discussion of the making of ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1934) and ''Secret Agent'' (1936), which co-starred classic film actor Peter Lorre.\n* Žižek, Slavoj: ''Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Lacan ... But Were Afraid to Ask Hitchcock'', London: Verso, 1993\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Aesthetic", "Style of working", "Awards and honours", "Archives", "Filmography", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]

[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anacondas''' are a group of large snakes of the genus '''''Eunectes'''''. They are found in tropical South America. Four species are currently recognized.\n", "Although the name applies to a group of snakes, it is often used to refer only to one species in particular, the common or green anaconda (''Eunectes murinus'') which is the largest snake in the world by weight, and the second longest.\n", "The South American names ''anacauchoa'' and ''anacaona'' were suggested in an account by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera but the idea of a South American origin was questioned by Henry Walter Bates who, in his travels in South America, failed to find any similar name in use. The word anaconda is derived from the name of a snake from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) that John Ray described in Latin in his ''Synopsis Methodica Animalium'' (1693) as ''serpens indicus bubalinus anacandaia zeylonibus, ides bubalorum aliorumque jumentorum membra conterens''. Ray used a catalogue of snakes from the Leyden museum supplied by Dr. Tancred Robinson, but the description of its habit was based on Andreas Cleyer who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling and crushing their bones. Henry Yule in his Hobson-Jobson notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the Scots Magazine by a certain R. Edwin. Edwin described a ''tiger'' being crushed and killed by an anaconda when in fact tigers never occurred in Sri Lanka. Yule and Frank Wall noted that the snake was in fact a python and suggested a Tamil origin ''anai-kondra'' meaning elephant killer. A Sinhalese origin was also suggested by Donald Ferguson who pointed out that the word ''Henakandaya'' (''hena'' lightning/large and ''kanda'' stem/trunk) was used in Sri Lanka for the small whip snake (''Ahaetulla pulverulenta'') and somehow got misapplied to the python before myths were created.\n\nThe name commonly used for the anaconda in Brazil is ''sucuri'', ''sucuriju'' or ''sucuriuba''.\nSkeleton at the Redpath Museum \n", "The term \"anaconda\" has been used to refer to:\nEunectes murinus in Columbia\n* Any member of the genus ''Eunectes'', a group of large, aquatic snakes found in South America:\n** ''Eunectes murinus'', the green anaconda – the largest species, found east of the Andes in Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil and Trinidad and Tobago\n** ''Eunectes notaeus'', the yellow anaconda – a small species, found in eastern Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay and northeastern Argentina\n** ''Eunectes deschauenseei'', the darkly-spotted anaconda – a rare species, found in northeastern Brazil and coastal French Guiana\n** ''Eunectes beniensis'', the Bolivian anaconda – the most recently defined species, found in the Departments of Beni and Pando in Bolivia\n* The giant anaconda, a mythical snake of enormous proportions said to be found in South America\n* The term was previously applied imprecisely, indicating any large snake that constricts its prey, though this usage is now archaic\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n* Ray J. 1693. Synopsis methodica animalium quadrupedum et serpentini generis. Vulgarium natas characteristicas, rariorum descriptiones integras exhibens: cum historiis & observationibus anatomicis perquam curiosis. Præmittuntur nonnulla de animalium in genere, sensu, generatione, divisione, &c. - pp. 1-14, 1-336, 1-9. Londini. (Smith & Walford).\n* Yule H, Burnell AC. 1886. Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical, and Discursive. London: J. Murray. pp. 133–134. (reprinted in 1903 by W. Crooke).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "Description", "Etymology", "Species and other uses of the term \"anaconda\" ", "References", "Further reading" ]

[ "\n\n\n'''Altaic''' () is a proposed language family of central Eurasia and Siberia, now widely seen as discredited.\n\nThe Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic groups are invariably included in the family; some authors added Korean and Japonic languages. These languages are spoken in a wide arc stretching from eastern Europe, through Central Asia to Anatolia and to the Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago in East Asia. The group is named after the Altai mountain range in Central Asia.\n\nAnother view includes only Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic. This view was widespread prior to the 1960s, but has almost no supporters among specialists today. The expanded grouping, including Korean and sometimes Japanese, came to be known as \"Macro-Altaic\", leading to the designation of the smaller grouping as \"Micro-Altaic\" by retronymy. Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean.\n\nMicro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages, to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages, for a total of about 74. (Depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect. They do not include earlier states of languages, such as Middle Mongol, Old Korean or Old Japanese.)\n\nOpponents of the Altaic hypothesis maintain that the similarities are due to areal interaction between the language groups concerned. The inclusion of Korean and Japanese has also been criticized and disputed by other linguists.\n\nAs for Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic, if they were related genetically, earlier forms would be closer than modern forms. This is true for all accepted linguistic families. However, an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows fewer similarities rather than more, which suggests that they do not share a common ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects. Because of this, most modern linguists do not accept the Altaic family.\n\nA 2015 analysis using the Automated Similarity Judgment Program resulted in the Japonic languages being grouped with the Ainu and Austroasiatic languages, but showed no connection to Turkic and Mongolic. However, the similarity of Japonic and Ainu languages can be partially explained by a large amount of loanwords as a result of contact between the Ainu and Japanese peoples. \n", "The Altai Mountains in East-Central Asia give their name to the proposed language family.\n\nThe idea that the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages are closely related was allegedly first published in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire while a prisoner of war after the Great Northern War. However, as has been pointed out by Alexis Manaster Ramer and Paul Sidwell (1997), von Strahlenberg actually opposed the idea of a closer relationship among the languages that later became known as \"Altaic\". Von Strahlenberg's classification was the first attempt to classify a large number of languages, some of which are Altaic.\n\nThe term \"Altaic\", as applied to a language family, was introduced in 1844 by Matthias Castrén, a Finnish philologist who made contributions to the study of the Uralic languages. As originally formulated by Castrén, Altaic included not only Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic), but also Finno-Ugric and Samoyed.\n\nThe original Altaic family came to be known as the Ural–Altaic. In the \"Ural–Altaic\" nomenclature, Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic are \"Uralic\", whereas Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic are \"Altaic\", as are Korean and Japanese if they are included at all.\n\nFor much of the 19th and the early 20th centuries, the theory of a common Ural–Altaic family was widespread, based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination. However, while the Ural–Altaic hypothesis can still be found in encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, it has generally been abandoned by linguists. For instance, it was characterized by Sergei Starostin as \"an idea now completely discarded\".\n\nIn 1857, the Austrian scholar Anton Boller suggested adding Japanese to the Ural–Altaic family. In the 1920s, G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov advocated the inclusion of Korean. However, Ramstedt's three-volume, ''Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft'' ('Introduction to Altaic Linguistics'), published in 1952–1966, rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis and again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists to date. The first volume of his work, ''Lautlehre'' ('Phonology'), contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families.\n\nIn 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt’s volume on phonology that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled. In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes.\n\n===Development of the Macro-Altaic theory===\nRoy Andrew Miller's 1971 book ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages'' convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic. Since then, the standard set of languages included in Macro-Altaic has been Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese.\n\nAn alternative classification, though one with much less currency among Altaicists, was proposed by John C. Street (1962), according to which Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic forms one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu another, the two being linked in a common family that Street designated as \"North Asiatic\". The same schema was adopted by James Patrie (1982) in the context of an attempt to classify the Ainu language. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited by Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002); however, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed Eurasiatic.\n \n\nAnti-Altaicists Gerard Clauson (1956), Gerhard Doerfer (1963), and Alexander Shcherbak argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing. Furthermore, they argued that many of the typological features of the supposed Altaic languages, such as agglutinative morphology and subject–object–verb (SOV) word order, usually simultaneously occur in languages. In sum, the idea was that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a ''Sprachbund''—the result of convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers of languages that are not necessarily closely related.\n\nDoubt was also raised about the affinities of Korean and Japanese; in particular, some authors tried to connect Japanese to the Austronesian languages.\n\nStarostin's (1991) lexicostatistical research claimed that the proposed Altaic groups shared about 15–20% of potential cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list (e.g. Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, Tungusic–Korean 21%). Altogether, Starostin concluded that the Altaic grouping was substantiated, though \"older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements\".\n\nUnger (1990) advocates a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages but not Turkic or Mongolic; and Doerfer (1988) rejects all the genetic claims over these major groups. In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time. He concluded:\n\n\n\nIn 2003, ''An Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages'' was published by Starostin, Dybo, and Mudrak. It contains 2,800 proposed cognate sets, a set of sound laws based on those proposed sets, and a number of grammatical correspondences, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by Starostin ''et al.'' lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. It tries hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and it suggests words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary (most of them already present in Starostin 1991), including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'. This work has not changed the minds of any of the principal authors in the field, however. The debate continues unabated – e.g. S. Georg 2004, A. Vovin 2005, S. Georg 2005 (anti-Altaic); S. Starostin 2005, V. Blažek 2006, M. Robbeets 2007, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008 (pro-Altaic).\n\nAccording to Roy Andrew Miller (1996: 98–99), the Clauson–Doerfer critique of Altaic relies exclusively on lexicon, whereas the fundamental evidence for Altaic comprises verbal morphology. Lars Johanson (2010: 15–17) suggests that a resolution of the Altaic dispute may yet come from the examination of verbal morphology and calls for a muting of the polemic: \"The dark age of ''pro'' and ''contra'' slogans, unfair polemics, and humiliations is not yet completely over and done with, but there seems to be some hope for a more constructive discussion\" (ib. 17).\n", "The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the Orkhon inscriptions, 720–735 AD. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions.\n\nThe first Tungusic language to be attested is Jurchen, the language of the ancestors of the Manchus. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see List of Jurchen inscriptions).\n\nThe earliest Mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as Middle Mongol. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD and by the ''Secret History of the Mongols'', written in 1228 (see Mongolic languages). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the Memorial for Yelu Yanning, written in the Khitan Large Script and dated to 986 AD.\n\nThe prehistory of the peoples speaking these languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of Indo-European, Uralic, and Austronesian, we are able to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done. In the absence of written records, there are several ways to study the (pre)history of a people:\n\n*Identification of archaeological cultures: the material remains found at dwelling sites, burial grounds, and other places where people left traces of their activity.\n*Physical anthropology, which studies the physical characteristics of peoples, ancient and modern.\n*Genetics, particularly the study of ancient DNA. \n*Philology, which studies the evidence in language families for their primitive locations and the nature of their cultures. (For an example, see Proto-Uralic language.) Mythology and legend often contain important clues to the earlier history of peoples.\n*Glottochronology, which attempts to estimate the time depth of a language family based on an assumed rate of change in languages. Related to this is lexicostatistics, which attempts to determine the degree of relation between a set of languages by comparing the percentage of basic vocabulary (words like \"I\", \"you\", \"heart\", \"stone\", \"two\", \"be\", \"and\") they share in common.\n*The development of a family tree of languages that notes the relative distance of the splits that occur in it.\n*The observation of evidence for contact between languages, which may approximate when and where they were adjacent to each other.\n\nAll of these methods remain to be applied to the languages attributed to Altaic with the same degree of focus and intensity with which they have been applied to the Indo-European family (e.g. Mallory 1989, Anthony 2007). Some scholars bear in mind a possible Uralic and Altaic Urheimat in the Central Asian steppes.\n\n===Macro-Altaic Urheimat===\nJapanese is first attested in a few short inscriptions from the 5th century AD, such as the Inariyama Sword. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the Kojiki, which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the Nihon shoki, completed in 720, and that by the Man'yōshū, which dates from c. 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier.\n\nThe most important text for the study of early Korean is the Hyangga, a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century AD. Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise Hangul system of writing.\n\nAccording to Juha Janhunen, the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen (1992) is skeptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that \"the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge\". Recent studies show no genetic relation of Japanese and Koreans to Altaic people (Turkic and Mongolian people).\n\nSupporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC or 6000 BC. This would make Altaic a language family about as old as Indo-European (4000 to 7,000 BC according to several hypotheses) but considerably younger than Afroasiatic (c. 10,000 BC or 11,000 to 16,000 BC according to different sources).\n", "''Note: This list is limited to linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's ''Einführung'' in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For Altaicists, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese.''\n\n===Altaicists===\n*Pentti Aalto (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean.\n*Anna V. Dybo (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008).\n*Karl H. Menges (1975). Common ancestor of Korean, Japanese and traditional Altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium BC (1975: 125).\n*Roy Andrew Miller (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Supported the inclusion of Korean and Japanese.\n*Oleg A. Mudrak (S. Starostin et al. 2003).\n*Nicholas Poppe (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean.\n*Alexis Manaster Ramer.\n*Martine Robbeets (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008).\n*G.J. Ramstedt (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean.\n*George Starostin (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008).\n*Sergei Starostin (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003).\n*John C. Street (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as \"North Asiatic\".\n*Talat Tekin (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean.\n\n===Major critics of Altaic===\n*Gerard Clauson (1956, 1959, 1962).\n*Gerhard Doerfer (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993).\n*Susumu Ōno (1970, 2000)\n*Nak-chun Paek (1987)\n*Juha Janhunen (1992) (supporter of Mongolic-Tungusic).\n*Ho-min Sohn (2001) (supporter of Dravido-Koreanic)\n*Claus Schönig (2003).\n*Stefan Georg (2004, 2005).\n*Alexander Vovin (2005, 2010). Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), now a critic.\n*Alexander Shcherbak.\n*Alexander B. M. Stiven (2008, 2010).\n*Choong-Soon Kim (2011) (supporter of Dravido-Koreanic)\n*Ryumine Katayama (2004)\n*Takeshi Umehara (2004)\n*Akira Fujiwara (2000)\n*Tsutomu Kambe (2011)\n\n===Advocates of alternative hypotheses===\n*James Patrie (1982). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common taxon (cf. John C. Street 1962).\n*J. Marshall Unger (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese (\"Macro-Tungusic\"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families.\n*Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in Eurasiatic.\n*Lars Johanson (2010). Agnostic, proponent of a \"Transeurasian\" verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked.\n", "\n===Reconstructed phonology===\nBased on the proposed correspondences listed below, the following phoneme inventory has been reconstructed for the hypothetical Proto(-Macro)-Altaic language (taken from Blažek's 2006 summary of the newest Altaic etymological dictionary Starostin et al. 2003 and transcribed into the IPA):\n\n====Consonants====\n\n\n\n Bilabial\n Alveolar or dental\n Alveolopalatal\n Postalveolar\n Palatal \n  Velar  \n\n Plosives\n aspirated\n /pʰ/\n /tʰ/\n\n\n\n /kʰ/\n\n voiceless\n /p/\n /t/\n\n\n\n /k/\n\n voiced\n /b/\n /d/\n\n\n\n /ɡ/\n\n Affricates\n aspirated\n\n\n\n /tʃʰ/\n\n\n\n voiceless\n\n\n\n /tʃ/\n\n\n\n voiced\n\n\n\n /dʒ/\n\n\n\n Fricatives\n voiceless\n\n /s/\n\n /ʃ/\n\n\n\n voiced\n\n /z/-1\n\n\n\n\n\n Nasals\n /m/\n /n/\n /nʲ/\n\n\n /ŋ/\n\n Trills\n\n -/r/-2\n /rʲ/\n\n\n\n\n Approximants\n\n /l/\n /lʲ/\n\n -/j/-2\n\n\n\n1 This phoneme only occurred at the beginnings of words.\n2 These phonemes only occurred in the interior of words.\n\n====Vowels====\n\n\n\n Front\n Back\n\n unrounded\n rounded\n\n Close\n /i/\n /y/\n /u/\n\n Mid\n /e/\n /ø/\n /o/\n\n Near-open\n /æ/\n\n\n\n Open\n /a/\n\n\nIt is not clear whether , , were monophthongs as shown here (presumably ) or diphthongs (); the evidence is equivocal. In any case, however, they only occurred in the first (and sometimes only) syllable of any word.\n\nEvery vowel occurred in long and short versions which were different phonemes in the first syllable. Starostin et al. (2003) treat length together with pitch as a prosodic feature.\n\n====Prosody====\nAs reconstructed by Starostin et al. (2003), Proto-Altaic was a pitch accent or tone language; at least the first and probably every syllable could have a high or a low pitch.\n\n===Sound correspondences===\nIf a Proto(-Macro)-Altaic language really existed, it should be possible to reconstruct regular sound correspondences between that protolanguage and its descendants; such correspondences would make it possible to distinguish cognates from loanwords (in many cases). Such attempts have repeatedly been made. The latest version is reproduced here, taken from Blažek's (2006) summary of the newest Altaic etymological dictionary (Starostin et al. 2003) and transcribed into the IPA.\n\nWhen a Proto-Altaic phoneme developed differently depending on its position in a word (beginning, interior, or end), the special case (or all cases) is marked with a hyphen; for example, Proto-Altaic disappears (marked \"0\") or becomes at the beginning of a Turkic word and becomes elsewhere in a Turkic word.\n\n====Consonants====\nOnly single consonants are considered here. In the middle of words, clusters of two consonants were allowed in Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by Starostin et al. (2003); the correspondence table of these clusters spans almost 7 pages in their book (83–89), and most clusters are only found in one or a few of the reconstructed roots.\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Korean\n Proto-Japonic\n\n /pʰ/\n 0-1, /j/-, /p/\n /h/-2, /j/-, -/b/-, -/h/-2, -/b/\n /p/\n /p/\n /p/\n\n /p/\n /b/\n /b/-6, /h/-2, /b/\n /p/-, /b/\n\n /b/\n /b/-, -/h/-, -/b/-9, -/b/\n /b/\n /p/, -/b/-\n /p/-, /w/, /b/10, /p/11\n\n /tʰ/\n /t/-, /d/-3, /t/\n /t/, /tʃ/4, -/d/\n /t/\n /t/\n /t/\n\n /t/\n /d/-, /t/\n /t/, /tʃ/4\n /d/-, /dʒ/-7, /t/\n /t/, -/r/-\n /t/-, /d/-, /t/\n\n /d/\n /j/-, /d/\n /d/, /dʒ/4\n /d/\n /d/-, /t/-, /t/, /j/\n\n /tʃʰ/\n /tʃ/\n /tʃ/\n /tʃ/\n /tʃ/\n /t/\n\n /tʃ/\n /d/-, /tʃ/\n /d/-, /dʒ/-4, /tʃ/\n /s/-, -/dʒ/-, -/s/-\n /t/-, -/s/-\n\n /dʒ/\n /j/\n /dʒ/\n /dʒ/\n /d/-, /j/\n\n /kʰ/\n /k/\n /k/-, -/k/-, -/ɡ/-5, -/ɡ/\n /x/-, /k/, /x/\n /k/, /h/\n /k/\n\n /k/\n /k/-, /k/, /ɡ/8\n /k/-, /ɡ/\n /k/-, /ɡ/-, /ɡ/\n /k/-, -/h/-, -0-, -/k/\n\n /ɡ/\n /ɡ/\n /ɡ/-, -/h/-, -/ɡ/-5, -/ɡ/\n /ɡ/\n /k/, -/h/-, -0-\n /k/-, /k/, 012\n\n /s/\n /s/\n /s/\n /s/\n /s/-, /h/-, /s/\n /s/\n\n /z/\n /j/\n /s/\n\n /ʃ/\n /s/-, /tʃ/-13, /s/\n /s/-, /tʃ/-13, /s/\n /ʃ/\n\n /m/\n /b/-, -/m/-\n /m/\n /m/\n /m/\n /m/\n\n /n/\n /j/-, -/n/-\n /n/\n /n/\n /n/\n /n/\n\n /nʲ/\n /j/-, /nʲ/\n /dʒ/-, /j/, /n/\n /nʲ/\n /n/-, /nʲ/14\n /m/-, /n/, /m/\n\n /ŋ/\n 0-, /j/-, /ŋ/\n 0-, /j/-, /ɡ/-15, /n/-16, /ŋ/, /n/, /m/, /h/\n /ŋ/\n /n/-, /ŋ/, 0\n 0-, /n/-, /m/-7, /m/, /n/\n\n /r/\n /r/\n /r/\n /r/\n /r/\n /r/, /t/4, 15\n\n /rʲ/\n /rʲ/\n /r/, /t/\n\n /l/\n /j/-, /l/\n /n/-, /l/-, /l/\n /l/\n /n/-, /r/\n /n/-, /r/\n\n /lʲ/\n /j/-, /lʲ/\n /d/-, /dʒ/-4, /l/\n /n/-, /s/\n\n /j/\n /j/\n /j/, /h/\n /j/\n /j/, 0\n /j/, 0\n\n\n1 The Khalaj language has instead. (It also retains a number of other archaisms.) However, it has also added in front of words for which no initial consonant (except in some cases , as expected) can be reconstructed for Proto-Altaic; therefore, and because it would make them dependent on whether Khalaj happens to have preserved any given root, Starostin et al. (2003: 26–28) have not used Khalaj to decide whether to reconstruct an initial in any given word and have not reconstructed a for Proto-Turkic even though it was probably there.\n2 The Monguor language has here instead (Kaiser & Shevoroshkin 1988); it is therefore possible that Proto-Mongolian also had which then became (and then usually disappeared) in all descendants except Monguor. Tabgač and Kitan, two extinct Mongolic languages not considered by Starostin et al. (2003), even preserve in these places (Blažek 2006).\n3 This happened when the next consonant in the word was , , or .\n4 Before .\n5 When the next consonant in the word was .\n6 This happened \"in syllables with original high pitch\" (Starostin et al. 2003:135).\n7 Before , or .\n8 When the next consonant in the word was .\n9 When the preceding consonant was , , , or , or when the next consonant was .\n10 Before , , or any vowel followed by .\n11 Before , or and then another vowel.\n12 When preceded by a vowel preceded by .\n13 Before .\n14 Starostin et al. (2003) follow a minority opinion (Vovin 1993) in interpreting the sound of the Middle Korean letter ᅀ as or rather than . (Dybo & Starostin 2008:footnote 50)\n15 Before .\n16 Before , , or .\n\n====Vowels====\nVowel harmony is pervasive in the languages attributed to Altaic: most Turkic and Mongolic as well as some Tungusic languages have it, Korean is arguably in the process of losing its traces, and it is controversially hypothesized for Old Japanese. (Vowel harmony is also typical of the neighboring Uralic languages and was often counted among the arguments for the Ural–Altaic hypotheses.) Nevertheless, Starostin et al. (2003) reconstruct Proto-Altaic as lacking vowel harmony. Instead, according to them, vowel harmony originated in each daughter branch as assimilation of the vowel in the first syllable to the vowel in the second syllable (which was usually modified or lost later). \"The situation therefore is very close, e.g. to Germanic see Germanic umlaut or to the Nakh languages in the Eastern Caucasus, where the quality of non-initial vowels can now only be recovered on the basis of umlaut processes in the first syllable.\" (Starostin et al. 2003:91) The table below is taken from Starostin et al. (2003):\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic\n Proto-Tungusic\n Middle Korean\n Proto-Japonic\n\n first s.\n second s.\n first syllable\n\n /a/\n /a/\n /a/, /a/1, /ʌ/1\n /a/\n /a/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /a/, /ɯ/\n /a/, /i/\n /ə/\n\n /i/\n /ɛ/, /a/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/, /e/, /i/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /o/, /ja/, /aj/\n /a/, /i/, /e/\n /ə/, /o/\n /a/\n\n /u/\n /a/\n /a/, /o/, /u/\n /a/, /ə/, /o/, /u/\n /u/\n\n /e/\n /a/\n /a/, /ʌ/, /ɛ/\n /a/, /e/\n /e/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /ja/-, /ɛ/, /e/2\n /e/, /ja/\n /a/, /e/, /i/, /ɨ/\n /ə/\n\n /i/\n /ja/-, /ɛ/, /e/2\n /e/, /i/\n /i/, /ɨ/, /a/, /e/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /ʌ/, /e/\n /a/, /e/, /y/3, /ø/3\n /ə/, /o/, /u/\n /ə/, /a/\n\n /u/\n /ɛ/, /a/, /ʌ/\n /e/, /a/, /o/3\n /o/, /u/, /a/\n /u/\n\n /i/\n /a/\n /ɯ/, /i/\n /i/\n /i/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n , /e/2\n /e/, /i/\n /i/, /ɨ/\n /i/\n\n /i/\n /i/\n /i/, /e/1\n /i/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /ɯ/\n /i/\n /o/, /u/, /ɨ/\n /i/, /ə/\n\n /u/\n /ɯ/, /i/\n /i/, /ɨ/\n /u/\n\n /o/\n /a/\n /o/\n /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /ø/, /o/\n /ø/, /y/, /o/\n /ɨ/, /o/, /u/\n /ə/\n\n /i/\n /ø/, /o/\n /ø/\n /o/, /u/\n /u/\n\n /o/\n /o/\n /u/\n /a/, /e/\n /ə/\n\n /u/\n /o/\n /o/, /u/\n /ə/, /o/, /u/\n /u/\n\n /u/\n /a/\n /u/, /o/\n /a/, /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /y/\n /o/, /u/, /y/\n /u/\n /a/, /e/\n /ua/, /a/1\n\n /i/\n /y/, /u/\n /y/, /ø/\n /o/, /u/, /ɨ/\n /u/\n\n /o/\n /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/, /ɨ/\n /ə/\n\n /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /u/\n\n /æ/\n /a/\n /ia/, /ja/, /ɛ/\n /a/\n /ia/, /i/4\n /ə/, /a/3\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /ia/, /ja/\n /i/, /a/, /e/\n /i/\n /i/, /e/, /je/\n /ə/\n\n /i/\n /ia/, /ja/, /ɛ/\n /i/, /e/\n /ia/, /i/4\n /ə/, /e/, /je/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /ia/, /ja/, /a/1\n /e/\n /o/, /u/\n /ə/, /o/, /u/\n /a/\n\n /u/\n /e/, /a/, /ʌ/1\n /a/, /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/, /e/, /je/\n /u/\n\n /ø/\n /a/\n /ia/, /ja/, /a/1\n /a/, /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/, /ə/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /e/, /a/, /ʌ/1\n /e/, /ø/\n /o/, /u/, /je/\n /ə/, /u/\n\n /i/\n /ia/, /ja/, /a/1\n /i/, /e/, /ø/\n /o/, /u/, /ə/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /o/, /u/\n /ø/, /y/, /o/, /u/\n /i/\n /i/, /e/, /je/\n /ə/, /a/\n\n /u/\n /u/, /o/\n /e/, /i/, /u/\n /ia/, /i/4\n /ə/, /u/, /je/\n /u/\n\n /y/\n /a/\n /ɯ/\n /o/, /u/, /i/\n /o/, /u/\n /a/, /e/\n /a/\n\n /e/\n /y/, /ø/, /i/2\n /ø/, /y/, /o/, /u/\n /y/, /u/1\n /a/, /e/, /ja/, /je/, /o/, /u/\n /u/, /ə/\n\n /i/\n /y/, /ø/\n /i/, /u/1\n /ɨ/, /i/, /o/, /u/\n /i/\n\n /o/\n /u/, /o/\n /o/, /u/\n /y/\n /a/, /e/, /ja/, /je/, /o/, /u/\n /u/, /ə/\n\n /u/\n /ɯ/\n /i/, /o/, /u/, /y/, /ø/\n /o/, /u/\n /o/, /u/, /i/, /ɨ/\n /u/\n\n\n1 When preceded by a bilabial consonant.\n2 When followed by a trill, , or .\n3 When preceded or followed by a bilabial consonant.\n4 When preceded by a fricative ().\n\n====Prosody====\nLength and pitch in the first syllable evolved as follows according to Starostin et al. (2003), with the caveat that it is not clear which pitch was high and which was low in Proto-Altaic (Starostin et al. 2003:135). For simplicity of input and display every syllable is symbolized as \"a\" here:\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Korean\n Proto-Japonic\n\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n¹ \"Proto-Mongolian has lost all traces of the original prosody except for voicing *p > *b in syllables with original high pitch\" (Starostin et al. 2003:135).\n² \"... several secondary metatonic processes happened ... in Korean, basically in the verb subsystem: all verbs have a strong tendency towards low pitch on the first syllable.\" (Starostin et al. 2003:135)\n\n===Morphological correspondences===\nStarostin et al. (2003) have reconstructed the following correspondences between the case and number suffixes (or clitics) of the (Macro-)Altaic languages (taken from Blažek, 2006):\n\n\n\n Case\n\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic (*), Old Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic (*), Classical Mongolian\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Korean (*), Middle Korean\n Proto-Japonic (*), Old Japanese\n\n nominative: -\n -\n -\n -\n -\n -\n\n accusative: \n\n\n \n\n \n\n partitive: \n \n (accusative)\n \n\n (possessive)\n\n genitive: \n \n \n \n \n \n\n dative-locative: \n (locative-ablative)\n (dative-locative), (attributive)\n (dative), (locative)\n\n (attributive-locative)\n\n dative-instrumental: \n (instrumental)\n\n\n\n (dative-locative)\n\n dative-directive: \n (dative)\n\n (directive)\n\n\n\n comitative-locative: \n \n\n (locative), (prolative), (comitative)\n (instrumental-lative)\n\n\n comitative-equative: \n (equative)\n (ablative), (terminative)\n\n\n (comitative)\n\n allative: \n (directive)\n \n (allative)\n \n\n\n directive: \n \n \n\n (lative)\n\n\n instrumental-ablative: \n *? terminal dative\n\n \n\n (ablative)\n\n singulative: \n\n \n \n\n\n\n Number\n\n dual: \n (plural for paired objects)\n\n (plural)\n\n (plural for paired objects)\n\n plural: \n \n \n \n \n \n\n plural: \n\n \n \n\n\n\n plural: \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n/V/ symbolizes an uncertain vowel. Suffixes reconstructed for Proto-Turkic, Proto-Mongolic, Proto-Korean, or Proto-Japonic, but not attested in Old Turkic, Classical Mongolian, Middle Korean, or Old Japanese are marked with asterisks.\n\nThis correspondences, however, have been harshly criticized for several reasons: There are significant gaps resulting in the absence of etymologies for certain initial segments: an impossible situation in the case of a genetic relationship; lack of common paradigmatic morphology; in many cases, there are ghosts, invented or polished meanings; and word-list linguistics rules supreme, as there are few if any references to texts or philology.\n\nThere are also many reconstructions proved to be totally false. For instance, regarding Korean, Starostin et al. state that Middle Korean genitive is /nʲ/, while it actually was /s/ in its honorific form, and /ój/ or /uj/ as neutral forms.\n\nIn addition, some \"cognates\" are visibly forced, like the comparison between Turkish instrumental and Japanese locative /ni/. A locative postposition expresses an absolutely different meaning to that of an instrumental, so it is evident that both of them are not related whatsoever. The same applies for Japanese /ga/ and Proto Tungusic /ga/. The first of those particles expresses genitive case, while the second is the partitive case, which bear no resemblance of meaning at all either. Therefore, those two are not cognates. A different kind of issue is that of the Old Turkish genitive /Xŋ/ (where \"X\" stands for any phoneme) and Old Japanese genitive /no/. Although they share the same consonant, the fact that the former is a vowel plus a consonant, and the second is a fixed set of the consonant /n/ plus vowel /o/ makes the fact that those two are cognates extremely unlikely.\n\n===Selected cognates===\n\n====Personal pronouns====\nThe table below is taken (with slight modifications) from Blažek (2006) and transcribed into IPA.\n\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic (*), Classical Mongolian\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Korean (*), Middle Korean\n Proto-Japonic\n\n \"I\" (nominative)\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \"me\" (oblique cases)\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n \"I\"\n Old Chinese: \n\n (oblique)\n\n (Korean: 나) (Sino-Korean: */我/, */吾/), (矣)1\n (Sino-Japanese: */我,吾/, '''わ'''- 私)\n\n \"thou\" (nominative)\n and/or \n (Turkic: Sen, Сен)\n (Mongolian: чи)\n (Manchu: Si, Nanai: Си)\n 1\n \n\n \"thee\" (oblique cases)\n \n (Turkic: Sen, Сен)\n ?\n\n\n\n\n \"thou\"\n Proto-Tibeto-Burman \n \n\n\n (Korean: 너)\n (Japanese: な */那/)\n\n \"we\" (nominative)\n \n (Turkic: Biz, Біз)\n (Mongolian: Бид)\n (Nanai: Буэ Manchu: be)\n (Korean: 우리,울 */于尸/)\n \n\n \"us\" (oblique cases)\n \n\n \n (Manchu: muse)\n\n\n\n \"ye\" (nominative)\n and/or \n (Turkic: Siz, Сіз)\n (Mongolian: та нар)\n (Manchu: suwe)\n\n\n\n \"you\" (oblique)\n \n\n\n \n\n\n\n\nAs above, forms not attested in Classical Mongolian or Middle Korean but reconstructed for their ancestors are marked with an asterisk, and /V/ represents an uncertain vowel.\n\nThere are, however, several problems with this proposed list. Aside from the huge amount of non-attested, free reconstructions, some mistakes on the research carried out by altaicists must be pointed out. The first of them is that Old Japanese for the first person pronoun (\"I\", in English) was neither /ba/ or /a/. It was /ware/ (和禮), and sometimes it was abbreviated to /wa/ (吾). Also, it is not a Sino-Japanese word, but a native Japanese term. In addition, the second person pronoun was not /si/, but either /imasi/ (汝), or /namu/ (奈牟)　, which sometimes was shortened to /na/. Its plural was /namu tachi/ (奈牟多知).\n\n====Other basic vocabulary====\nThe following table is a brief selection of further proposed cognates in basic vocabulary across the Altaic family (from Starostin et al. 2003). Their reconstructions and equivalences are not accepted by the mainstream linguists and therefore remain very controversial.\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic meaning\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Koreanic\n Proto-Japonic\n\n that\n \n /di/- or /ti/-\n /te-re/\n /ta/\n /tjé/\n /tso-re/\n\n eye\n \n\n /ni-dy/\n 5\n /nú-n/\n /mà/-\n\n neck\n \n \n\n \n /mje-k/\n /nəmpV/\n\n breast\n \n 1\n /køkø-n/2\n /kuku-n/2\n /kokajŋi/ \"pith; medulla; core\"\n /kəkə-rə/1 \"heart\"\n\n stone\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n\n star\n \n \n /ho-dun/\n /osi/4\n \n \n\n oath, god, sky\n \n \n /taŋgarag/\n /taŋgura/\n\n \n\n\n1 Contains the Proto-Altaic dual suffix : \"both breasts\" – \"chest\" – \"heart\".\n2 Contains the Proto-Altaic singulative suffix -/nV/: \"one breast\".\n3 Compare Baekje */turak/ \"stone\" (Blažek 2006).\n4 This is in the Jurchen language. In modern Manchu it is ''usiha''.\n5 This is disputed by Georg (2004), who states: \"The traditional Tungusological reconstruction ''*yāsa'' = cannot be replaced by the nasal-initial one espoused here, needed for the comparison.\" However, Starostin (2005) mentions evidence from several Tungusic languages cited by Starostin et al. (2003). Georg (2005) does not accept this, referring to Georg (1999/2000) and a then upcoming paper.\n\n====Numerals and related words====\nIn the Indo-European family, the numerals are remarkably stable. This is a rather exceptional case; especially words for higher numbers are often borrowed wholesale. (Perhaps the most famous cases are Japanese and Korean, which have two complete sets of numerals each – one native, one Chinese.) Indeed, the Altaic numerals are less stable than the Indo-European ones, but nevertheless Starostin et al. (2003) reconstruct them as follows. They are not accepted by the mainstream linguists and are controversial. Other reconstructions show little to no similarities in numerals of the proto-languages.\n\n\n\n Proto-Altaic meaning\n Proto-Altaic\n Proto-Turkic\n Proto-Mongolic\n Proto-Tungusic\n Proto-Korean\n Proto-Japonic\n\n 1\n /byri/\n /bir/\n /byri/ \"all, each\"\n\n \"at first\"\n /pi-tə/\n\n single\n /nøŋe/\n \n /nige/ '''\"1\"'''\n /noŋ/~/non/ \"be the first, begin\"\n\n /nəmi/ \"only\"\n\n front\n /emo/\n /øm-gen/ \"upper part of breast\"\n /emy/-\n /emu/~/ume/ '''\"1\"'''\n /maen-/~/môn-chô \"first of all\"26\n /upe/ \"upper\" /mape/ \"front\"\n\n single, one of a pair\n \n \"one of a pair\"\n /son-du-/ \"odd\"\n 1\n '''\"1\"''' or /hə̀t-/ 1\n /sa/- \"together, reciprocally\"\n\n 2\n /tybu/\n 2\n \"2 (feminine)\"3\n \n 4\n\n\n pair, couple\n \n /eki/ '''\"2\"''', \"twins\"; ? \"20\"\n /(h)ekire/ \"twins\"\n\n\n\n\n different, other\n /gojV/\n\n /gojar/ '''\"2\"'''\n /goj/~/gia/\n\n /kía/\n\n pair, half\n \n \n\n\n \n /puta/- '''\"2\"'''\n\n 3\n /ŋy/\n \"30\"5\n /gu-rban/; \"30\"\n\n 6\n /mi/-7\n\n (footnote 8)\n /ìlù/\n /øløŋ/9\n\n /ila-n/ '''\"3\"'''\n\n /ùrù-pu/ \"bissextile (year or month)\"\n\n object consisting of 3 parts\n /séjra/\n\n \"trident, pitchfork\"\n\n '''\"3\"'''\n /sárápi/ \"rake, pitchfork\"\n\n 4\n \n \n /dø-rben/; \"40\"10\n /dy-gin/\n\n /də/-\n\n 5\n \n\n /ta-bun/; /ta-bin/ \"50\"11\n \n /tà/-\n /i-tu-/12\n\n 6\n \n\n ; \"60\"13\n \n 14\n /mu/-\n\n 7\n 15\n /jeti/\n ; /dala-n/ \"70\"15\n /nada-n/\n /nìr-(kúp)/16\n /nana/-\n\n 8\n \n\n\n \n /jè-t-/17\n /da/-\n\n 9\n \n\n\n /xegyn/\n\n /kəkənə/\n\n 10\n or /tøbe/\n\n\n \n\n /təwə/18,/-so/\"-0\"/i-so/50\n\n many, a big number\n \n \"100\"\n\n 19\n /jér(h)/ \"10\" /jə̀rə̀/ \"many\"\n \"10,000\" /jə̀rə̀/ \"many\"\n\n \n '''\"10\"'''\n /ha-rban/ '''\"10\"''', /ha-na/ \"all\"\n 20\n\n -/pə/, -/pua/ \"-00\"21\n\n 20\n \n or \"40\"22\n /kori-n/\n /xori-n/\n\n /pata-ti/23\n\n 100\n \n ?/jom/ \"big number, all\"\n 24\n \n\n \n\n 1000\n \n /dymen/ or /tymen/ \"10,000\"25\n\n\n \n /ti/\n\n\n1 Manchu /soni/ \"single, odd\".\n2 Old Bulgarian /tvi-rem/ \"second\".\n3 Kitan has '''\"2\"''' (Blažek 2006).\n4 is probably a contraction of -/ubu/-.\n5 The /y/- of \"3\" \"may also reflect the same root, although the suffixation is not clear.\" (Starostin et al. 2003:223)\n6 Compare Silla /mir/ \"3\" (Blažek 2006).\n7 Compare Goguryeo /mir/ \"3\" (Blažek 2006).\n8 \"third (or next after three = fourth)\", \"consisting of three objects\"\n9 \"song with three out of four verses rhyming (first, second and fourth)\"\n10 Kitan has '''\"4\"''' (Blažek 2006).\n11 Kitan has '''\"5\"''' (Blažek 2006).\n12 \"(the prefixed i- is somewhat unclear: it is also used as a separate word meaning ‘fifty’, but the historical root here is no doubt ''*tu-'')\" (Starostin et al. 2003:223). – Blažek (2006) also considers Goguryeo '''\"5\"''' (from ) to be related.\n13 Kitan has '''\"6\"''' (Blažek 2006).\n14 Middle Korean has \"6\", which may fit here, but the required loss of initial \"is not quite regular\" (Starostin et al. 2003:224).\n15 The Mongolian forms \"may suggest an original proto-form\" or \"with dissimilation or metathesis in\" Proto-Mongolic (Starostin et al. 2003:224). – Kitan has '''\"7\"'''.\n16 in Early Middle Korean (タリクニ/チリクヒ in the '''').\n17 \"Problematic\" (Starostin et al. 2003:224).\n18 Compare Goguryeo \"10\" (Blažek 2006).\n19 Manchu \"a very big number\".\n20 Orok \"a bundle of 10 squirrels\", Nanai \"collection, gathering\".\n21 \"Hundred\" in names of hundreds.\n22 Starostin et al. (2003) suspect this to be a reduplication: \"20 + 20\".\n23 would be expected; Starostin et al. (2003) think that this irregular change from to is due to influence from \"2\" .\n24 From .\n25 Also see Tümen.\n26 Modern Korean – needs further investigations\n", "*Classification of the Japonic languages\n*Nostratic languages\n*Uralo-Siberian languages\n*Xiongnu\n*Turco-Mongol \n*Yeniseian languages\n", "\n", "\n===Works cited===\n*Aalto, Pentti. 1955. \"On the Altaic initial *''p-''.\" ''Central Asiatic Journal'' 1, 9–16.\n*Anonymous. 2008. title missing. ''Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas'', 31 March 2008, 264: ____.\n*\n*Anthony, David W. 2007. ''The Horse, the Wheel, and Language.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press.\n*Blažek, Václav. 2006. \"Current progress in Altaic etymology.\" ''Linguistica Online'', 30 January 2006.\n*Boller, Anton. 1857. ''Nachweis, daß das Japanische zum ural-altaischen Stamme gehört.'' Wien.\n*Clauson, Gerard. 1956. \"The case against the Altaic theory.\" ''Central Asiatic Journal'' 2, 181–187 \n*Clauson, Gerard. 1959. \"The case for the Altaic theory examined.\" ''Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses'', edited by H. Franke. Wiesbaden: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, in Komission bei Franz Steiner Verlag.\n*Clauson, Gerard. 1968. \"A lexicostatistical appraisal of the Altaic theory.\" ''Central Asiatic Journal'' 13: 1–23.\n*Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. ''Afrasian Languages.'' Moscow: Nauka.\n*Doerfer, Gerhard. 1963. \"Bemerkungen zur Verwandtschaft der sog. altaische Sprachen\", 'Remarks on the relationship of the so-called Altaic languages'. In Gerhard Doerfer, ''Türkische und mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen, Bd. I: Mongolische Elemente im Neupersischen'', 1963, 51–105. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.\n*Doerfer, Gerhard. 1973. \"Lautgesetze und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnicomparativismus.\" ''Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft'' 10.\n*Doerfer, Gerhard. 1974. \"Ist das Japanische mit den altaischen Sprachen verwandt?\" ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft'' 114.1.\n*Doerfer, Gerhard. 1985. ''Mongolica-Tungusica.'' Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.\n*Doerfer, Gerhard. 1988. ''Grundwort und Sprachmischung: Eine Untersuchung an Hand von Körperteilbezeichnungen.'' Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.\n*Dybo, Anna V. and Georgiy S. Starostin. 2008. \"In defense of the comparative method, or the end of the Vovin controversy.\" ''Aspects of Comparative Linguistics'' 3, 109–258. Moscow: RSUH Publishers.\n*Georg, Stefan, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell. 1999. \"Telling general linguists about Altaic.\" ''Journal of Linguistics'' 35:65–98.\n*Georg, Stefan. 1999 / 2000. \"Haupt und Glieder der altaischen Hypothese: die Körperteilbezeichnungen im Türkischen, Mongolischen und Tungusischen\" ('Head and members of the Altaic hypothesis: The body-part designations in Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic'). ''Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, neue Folge B'' 16, 143–182.\n*Georg, Stefan. 2004. Review of ''Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages''. ''Diachronica'' 21.2, 445–450.\n*Georg, Stefan. 2005. \"Reply to Starostin 2005.\" ''Diachronica'' 22(2), 455–457.\n*Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. ''Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family'', 2 volumes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.\n*Johanson, Lars. 2010. \"The high and low spirits of Transeurasian language studies\" in Johanson and Robbeets (2010), 7–20. \n*Johanson, Lars and Martine Robbeets (editors). 2010. ''Transeurasian Verbal Morphology in a Comparative Perspective: Genealogy, Contact, Chance.'' Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (Includes contributions by Róna-Tas, Janhunen, Comrie, and others.)\n*Kuzmina, Elena E. edited by J. P. Mallory. 2007. '' The Origin of the Indo-Iranians''. BRILL. \n*Lee, Ki-Moon and S. Robert Ramsey. 2011. ''A History of the Korean Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.\n*Manaster Ramer, Alexis and Paul Sidwell. 1997. \"The truth about Strahlenberg's classification of the languages of Northeastern Eurasia.\" ''Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne'' 87, 139–160.\n*Menges, Karl. H. 1975. ''Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch.'' Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.\n*Mallory, J.P. 1989. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans.'' London: Thames and Hudson.\n*Miller, Roy Andrew. 1971. ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .\n*Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. ''Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977–1978.'' Seattle: University of Washington Press. .\n*Miller, Roy Andrew. 1986. ''Nihongo: In Defence of Japanese.'' London: Athlone Press. .\n*Miller, Roy Andrew. 1991. \"Genetic connections among the Altaic languages.\" In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), ''Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages'', 1991, 293–327. .\n*Miller, Roy Andrew. 1996. ''Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic.'' Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. .\n*Patrie, James. 1982. ''The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language.'' University of Hawaii Press. .\n*Poppe, Nicholas. 1960. ''Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen. Teil I. Vergleichende Lautlehre'', 'Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages, Part 1: Comparative Phonology'. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Only part to appear of a projected larger work.)\n*Poppe, Nicholas. 1965. ''Introduction to Altaic Linguistics.'' Ural-altaische Bibliothek 14. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.\n*Poppe, Nicholas. 1976. Review of Karl H. Menges, ''Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch'' (1975). In ''The Journal of Japanese Studies'' 2.2, 470–474.\n*Ramsey, S. Robert. 2004. ''Accent, Liquids, and the Search for a Common Origin for Korean and Japanese'', 'Japanese Language and Literature Vol.38, No.2, Special Issue: In Honor of Samuel E. Martin', American Association of Teachers of Japanese.\n*Ramstedt, G.J. 1952. ''Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft I. Lautlehre'', 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 1: Phonology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.\n*Ramstedt, G.J. 1957. ''Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft II. Formenlehre'', 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 2: Morphology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.\n*Ramstedt, G.J. 1966. ''Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft III. Register'', 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 3: Index', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.\n*Robbeets, Martine. 2004. \"Swadesh 100 on Japanese, Korean and Altaic.\" Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, TULIP 23, 99–118.\n*Robbeets, Martine. 2005. ''Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic?'' Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.\n*Robbeets, Martine. 2007. \"How the actional suffix chain connects Japanese to Altaic.\" In ''Turkic Languages'' 11.1, 3–58.\n*Schönig, Claus. 2003. \"Turko-Mongolic Relations.\" In ''The Mongolic Languages'', edited by Juha Janhunen, 403–419. London: Routledge.\n*Starostin, Sergei A. 1991. ''Altajskaja problema i proisxoždenie japonskogo jazyka'', 'The Altaic Problem and the Origin of the Japanese Language'. Moscow: Nauka.\n*Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. ''Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages'', 3 volumes. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. .\n*Starostin, Sergei A. 2005. \"Response to Stefan Georg's review of the ''Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages''.\" ''Diachronica'' 22(2), 451–454.\n*Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1730. ''Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia....'' Stockholm. (Reprint: 1975. Studia Uralo-Altaica. Szeged and Amsterdam.)\n*Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1738. ''Russia, Siberia and Great Tartary, an Historico-geographical Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia....'' (Reprint: 1970. New York: Arno Press.) English translation of the previous.\n*Street, John C. 1962. Review of N. Poppe, ''Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen, Teil I'' (1960). ''Language'' 38, 92–98.\n*Tekin, Talat. 1994. \"Altaic languages.\" In ''The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', Vol. 1, edited by R.E. Asher. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press.\n*Unger, J. Marshall. 1990. \"Summary report of the Altaic panel.\" In ''Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology'', edited by Philip Baldi, 479–482. Berlin – New York: Mouton de Gruyter.\n*Vovin, Alexander. 1993. \"About the phonetic value of the Middle Korean grapheme ᅀ.\" ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' 56(2), 247–259.\n*Vovin, Alexander. 1994. \"Genetic affiliation of Japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison.\" ''Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne'' 85, 241–256.\n*Vovin, Alexander. 2001. \"Japanese, Korean, and Tungusic: evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology.\" ''Altaic Affinities'' (Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of PIAC, Provo, Utah, 1997), edited by David B. Honey and David C. Wright, 83–202. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies.\n*Vovin, Alexander. 2005. \"The end of the Altaic controversy\" (review of Starostin et al. 2003). ''Central Asiatic Journal'' 49.1, 71–132.\n*Vovin, Alexander. 2010. ''Koreo-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin''. University of Hawaii Press.\n*Whitney Coolidge, Jennifer. 2005. ''Southern Turkmenistan in the Neolithic: A Petrographic Case Study.'' Oxbow Books.\n\n===Further reading===\n*Greenberg, Joseph H. 1997. \"Does Altaic exist?\" In Irén Hegedus, Peter A. Michalove, and Alexis Manaster Ramer (editors), ''Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: A Festschrift for Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin'', Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 1997, 88–93. (Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, ''Genetic Linguistics'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 325–330.)\n*Hahn, Reinhard F. 1994. ''LINGUIST List'' 5.908, 18 August 1994.\n*Janhunen, Juha. 1992. \"Das Japanische in vergleichender Sicht.\" ''Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne'' 84, 145–161.\n*Johanson, Lars. 1999. \"Cognates and copies in Altaic verb derivation.\" ''Language and Literature – Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages: Studies in Honour of Roy Andrew Miller on His 75th Birthday'', edited by Karl H. Menges and Nelly Naumann, 1–13. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Also: HTML version.)\n*Johanson, Lars. 1999. \"Attractiveness and relatedness: Notes on Turkic language contacts.\" ''Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Caucasian, Dravidian, and Turkic Linguistics'', edited by Jeff Good and Alan C.L. Yu, 87–94. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society.\n*Johanson, Lars. 2002. ''Structural Factors in Turkic Language Contacts'', translated by Vanessa Karam. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press.\n*Kortlandt, Frederik. 1993. \"The origin of the Japanese and Korean accent systems.\" ''Acta Linguistica Hafniensia'' 26, 57–65.\n*Martin, Samuel E. 1966. \"Lexical evidence relating Korean to Japanese.\" ''Language'' 12.2, 185–251.\n*Nichols, Johanna. 1992. ''Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press.\n*Robbeets, Martine. 2004. \"Belief or argument? The classification of the Japanese language.\" ''Eurasia Newsletter'' 8. Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University.\n*Robbeets, Martine. 2015. ''Diachrony of verb morphology - Japanese and the Transeurasian languages''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.\n*Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. ''A Guide to the World's Languages.'' Stanford University Press.\n*Sinor, Denis. 1990. ''Essays in Comparative Altaic Linguistics.'' Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. .\n*Vovin, Alexander. 2009. Japanese, Korean, and other ‘non-Altaic’ languages. ''Central Asiatic Journal 53 (1)'': 105-147.\n", "* Altaic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Ramstedt 1957, Miller 1971, and Poppe 1982\n* Swadesh vocabulary lists for Altaic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)\n* Monumenta altaica Altaic linguistics website, maintained by Ilya Gruntov\n* ''Altaic Etymological Dictionary'', database version by Sergei A. Starostin, Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak (does not include introductory chapters)\n* LINGUIST List 5.911 defense of Altaic by Alexis Manaster Ramer (1994)\n* LINGUIST List 5.926 1. Remarks by Alexander Vovin. 2. Clarification by J. Marshall Unger. (1994)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]

[ "Introduction", "History of the Altaic idea", "Postulated Urheimat", "List of Altaicists and critics of Altaic", "Comparative grammar", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]