text: Photo: Science & Society Picture Librar/SSPL Via Getty Images Image 1 of / 145 Caption Close 
   
   Image 1 of 145 PHOTOS: The history of the Apollo program 
   
   It took thousands of men and women to make NASA's Apollo program work. 
   
   See what it took to put men on the moon... PHOTOS: The history of the Apollo program 
   
   It took thousands of men and women to make NASA's Apollo program work. 
   
   See what it took to put men on the moon... Photo: Science & Society Picture Librar/SSPL Via Getty Images 
   
   Image 2 of 145 Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, stands on the lunar surface after the Apollo 11 moon landing on July 20, 1969. The Lunar Module is seen in the background. Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, stands on the lunar surface after the Apollo 11 moon landing on July 20, 1969. The Lunar Module is seen in the background. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 3 of 145 In this July 12, 1969, file photo, the spot on the moon where Apollo 11 astronauts will aim for in their landing in the first attempt by man to land on the moon is pointed out by Rocco Petrone, director of launch operations at the space complex, Cape Kennedy, Fla. less In this July 12, 1969, file photo, the spot on the moon where Apollo 11 astronauts will aim for in their landing in the first attempt by man to land on the moon is pointed out by Rocco Petrone, director of ... more Photo: Jim Kerlin, AP 
   
   Image 4 of 145 Apollo astronauts listen to Deke Slayton, director of flight crew operations for historic Apollo 11 flight, right, as they have their pre-flight breakfast at Cape Kennedy, Florida, on July 16, 1969. From left, they are Command Module pilot Michael Collins, Command Pilot Neil A. Armstrong, William A. Anders, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. Anders is a member of the Apollo 11 backup crew. less Apollo astronauts listen to Deke Slayton, director of flight crew operations for historic Apollo 11 flight, right, as they have their pre-flight breakfast at Cape Kennedy, Florida, on July 16, 1969. From left, ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 6 of 145 Newsmen and neighbors gather in front of a mobile television unit at the home of Astronaut Michael Collins, near the Manned Spacecraft Center, July 16, 1969, Houston, Texas. They were gathered to watch the blastoff of the Saturn rocket carrying the Apollo 11 spacecraft on its way to the moon. less Newsmen and neighbors gather in front of a mobile television unit at the home of Astronaut Michael Collins, near the Manned Spacecraft Center, July 16, 1969, Houston, Texas. They were gathered to watch the ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 7 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file, photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong steps down from the lunar module lander and becomes the first man to set foot on the moon. A huge shadow of the Lunar module is cast on the moon's surface. The photo was made from 16mm color film and was taken with a Mauer camera at six and 12 frames per second. less In this July 20, 1969 file, photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong steps down from the lunar module lander and becomes the first man to set foot on the moon. A huge shadow of the Lunar module is cast on the ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP 
   
   Image 8 of 145 here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, signs an OK from the top of his treehouse. Apollo 11 video here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, signs an OK from the top of his treehouse. Apollo 11 video Photo: Tom Colburn, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 9 of 145 American servicemen pause on a downtown Saigon Street to read a local newspaper account of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 21, 1969, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. From left are Air Force. Sgt. Michael Chivaris, Clinton, Mass., Army Spec. 4 Andrew Hutchins, Middlebury, Vt.; Air Force Sgt. John Whalin, Indianapolis, Ind.; and Army Spec. 4 Lloyd Newton, Roseburg, Ore. less American servicemen pause on a downtown Saigon Street to read a local newspaper account of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 21, 1969, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. From left are Air Force. Sgt. Michael Chivaris, ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 11 of 145 The president greets the crew at the White House on the 40th anniversary of the landing. The president said he recalled watching Apollo astronauts return to Hawaii after splashing down in the Pacific Ocean. He said he'd sit on his grandfather's shoulders and "we'd pretend like they could see us as we were waving at folks coming home." less The president greets the crew at the White House on the 40th anniversary of the landing. The president said he recalled watching Apollo astronauts return to Hawaii after splashing down in the Pacific Ocean. He ... more Photo: Alex Brandon, AP 
   
   Image 12 of 145 here. Here's who was on the rocket that day: Astronauts Neil Armstrong, left, Michael Collins, center, and Edwin A. Aldrin, are pictured in this 1969 Apollo II crew portrait. Apollo 11 video here. Here's who was on the rocket that day: Astronauts Neil Armstrong, left, Michael Collins, center, and Edwin A. Aldrin, are pictured in this 1969 Apollo II crew portrait. Apollo 11 video Photo: AP 
   
   Image 13 of 145 This oblique photograph of the moon looks generally northwest into the Sea of Tranquility, projected landing site for the Apollo 11 astronauts. The lower (nearest) linear feature is the Cauchy Scarp. The upper linear feature is the Cauchy Rille. The prominent crater Cauchy lies between the rille and the scarp. This picture was made from the Apollo 8 spacecraft late December, 1968. less This oblique photograph of the moon looks generally northwest into the Sea of Tranquility, projected landing site for the Apollo 11 astronauts. The lower (nearest) linear feature is the Cauchy Scarp. The ... more Photo: NASA, Associated Press 
   
   Image 14 of 145 In this July 5, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil Armstrong, left, the first man scheduled to walk on the moon, displays a plaque that will be attached to a landing leg of the lunar module descent stage and will be left on the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts as Col. Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, center, holds the Apollo 11 insigna at a news conference at the Space Center. Command Module pilot Lt. Col. Michael Collins is at right. less In this July 5, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil Armstrong, left, the first man scheduled to walk on the moon, displays a plaque that will be attached to a landing leg of the lunar module descent stage and will ... more Photo: AP 
   
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   Image 16 of 145 here. This photo shows Apollo 11 crew members, led by Neil Armstrong, heading for the van that will take them to the rocket for the launch to the moon. Apollo 11 video here. This photo shows Apollo 11 crew members, led by Neil Armstrong, heading for the van that will take them to the rocket for the launch to the moon. Apollo 11 video Photo: AP 
   
   Image 17 of 145 The launch control team watches in Cape Canaveral, Fla. The launch control team watches in Cape Canaveral, Fla. Photo: New York Times 
   
   Image 18 of 145 here. less The Saturn V makes history. The launch is marked in the annals of time by a period that included two other key events: Sen. Edward Kennedy's crash at Chappaquiddick (July 18) and Woodstock (Aug. 15). Apollo 11 video The Saturn V makes history. The launch is marked in the annals of time by a period that included two other key events: Sen. Edward Kennedy's crash at Chappaquiddick (July 18) and Woodstock (Aug. 15). Apollo 11 ... more Photo: NASA 
   
   Image 19 of 145 here. The 3,817 ton ship rises from the earth. Who gave the order for ignition? Jack King, the "voice of Apollo." Apollo 11 video here. The 3,817 ton ship rises from the earth. Who gave the order for ignition? Jack King, the "voice of Apollo." Apollo 11 video Photo: AP 
   
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   Image 21 of 145 here. Apollo 11 launches into orbit. Apollo 11 video here. Apollo 11 launches into orbit. Apollo 11 video Photo: NASA 
   
   Image 22 of 145 here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, with some neighborhood friends. Left to right: Mark Frantz (10), Charley Merrifield (11) and Andrew. Apollo 11 video here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, with some neighborhood friends. Left to right: Mark Frantz (10), Charley Merrifield (11) and Andrew. Apollo 11 video Photo: Tom Colburn, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 23 of 145 Berliners stand in front of a TV shop and look through the window to observe the start of the Apollo 11 space mission on television, June 16, 1969, Berlin, Germany. Berliners stand in front of a TV shop and look through the window to observe the start of the Apollo 11 space mission on television, June 16, 1969, Berlin, Germany. Photo: Edwin Reichert, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 24 of 145 A group of unidentified people gather around televisions in a Sears Dept. store in White Plains, N.Y. to watch the lift off of Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969. A group of unidentified people gather around televisions in a Sears Dept. store in White Plains, N.Y. to watch the lift off of Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 26 of 145 Wives of the three Apollo 11 astronauts make a joint apperance today today at one of their homes near the Space Center in Houston as their husbands continued the historical flight to the moon. From left: Mrs. Neil A. Armstrong, whose husband is scheduled to be the first man to step on the moon; Mrs. Michael Collins and Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. less Wives of the three Apollo 11 astronauts make a joint apperance today today at one of their homes near the Space Center in Houston as their husbands continued the historical flight to the moon. From left: Mrs. ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 27 of 145 In this July 1969 file photo, most of Africa and portions of Europe and Asia can be seen in this spectacular photograph taken from the Apollo 11 spacecraft during its translunar coast toward the moon, during the month of July, 1969. Apollo 11 was already about 98,000 nautical miles from earth when this picture was made. less In this July 1969 file photo, most of Africa and portions of Europe and Asia can be seen in this spectacular photograph taken from the Apollo 11 spacecraft during its translunar coast toward the moon, during ... more Photo: NASA, AP 
   
   Image 28 of 145 A View of the Apollo Command Module with Astronaut Michael Collins aboard as seen from the Lunar Module, July 20, 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin in the LM have separated from Apollo 11 and prepare to go to the lunar surface. Moon terrain in background is the far side of the moon. less A View of the Apollo Command Module with Astronaut Michael Collins aboard as seen from the Lunar Module, July 20, 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin in the LM have separated from Apollo 11 and ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 29 of 145 Past Apollo mission astronaut Frank Borman talks about the successful lunar landing of Apollo 11 and of the future of the space missions during a news conference at the White House, July 20, 1969. Borman viewed the telecast from the moon with President Nixon. less Past Apollo mission astronaut Frank Borman talks about the successful lunar landing of Apollo 11 and of the future of the space missions during a news conference at the White House, July 20, 1969. Borman viewed ... more Photo: JOHN DURICKA, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 31 of 145 The Apollo 11 Lunar Module ascent stage can be seen from the command service module during rendezvous in lunar orbit July 20, 1969. The large, dark-colored area in the background is Smith's Sea, centered at 85 degrees east longitude and 2 degrees south latitude on the lunar near side, looking west as the Earth rises above the Lunar horizon. It was announced Thursday, March 5, 1998, that small, scattered pockets of ice have been found beneath the lunar surface by a robot survey spacecraft that has spent the last month mapping the moon. less The Apollo 11 Lunar Module ascent stage can be seen from the command service module during rendezvous in lunar orbit July 20, 1969. The large, dark-colored area in the background is Smith's Sea, centered at 85 ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 32 of 145 Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot, descends steps of Lunar Module ladder as he prepares to walk on the moon, July 20, 1969. He had just egressed the Lunar Module. This picture was taken by Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Commander, with a 70mm surface camera during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity. less Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot, descends steps of Lunar Module ladder as he prepares to walk on the moon, July 20, 1969. He had just egressed the Lunar Module. This picture was taken by ... more Photo: NEIL A. ARMSTRONG, AP 
   
   Image 33 of 145 Apollo 11 Astronaut Neil Armstrong is shown making history as he climbs down the ladder from the lunar module (left photo) and a few seconds later becomes the first human to set foot on the moon (right photo). The photos were taken during a telecast back to earth of the history-making achievement. less Apollo 11 Astronaut Neil Armstrong is shown making history as he climbs down the ladder from the lunar module (left photo) and a few seconds later becomes the first human to set foot on the moon (right photo). ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 34 of 145 In this , July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong walks slowly away from the lunar module to explore the surface of the moon. In this , July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong walks slowly away from the lunar module to explore the surface of the moon. Photo: AP 
   
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   Image 36 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, right, trudges across the surface of the moon leaving behind footprints. The U.S. flag, planted on the surface by the astronauts, can be seen between Armstrong and the lunar module. Edwin E. Aldrin is seen closer to the craft. The men reported the surface of the moon was like soft sand and they left footprints several inches deep wherever they walked. less In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, right, trudges across the surface of the moon leaving behind footprints. The U.S. flag, planted on the surface by the astronauts, can be ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 37 of 145 Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. 'Buzz' Aldrin, the first men to land on the moon, plant the U.S. flag on the lunar surface, July 20, 1969. Photo was made by a 16mm movie camera inside the lunar module, shooting at one frame per second. less Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. 'Buzz' Aldrin, the first men to land on the moon, plant the U.S. flag on the lunar surface, July 20, 1969. Photo was made by a 16mm movie camera inside the ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 38 of 145 This NASA handout photo taken on July 20, 1969 shows Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, posing beside the deployed United States flag during Apollo 11 Extravehicular Activity (EVA) on the lunar surface area called the Sea of Tranquility. With one small step off a ladder, Neil Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 mission, became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. The Lunar Module (LM) is on the left, and the footprints of the astronauts are clearly visible in the soil of the Moon. less This NASA handout photo taken on July 20, 1969 shows Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, posing beside the deployed United States flag during Apollo 11 ... more Photo: HO, AFP/Getty Images 
   
   Image 39 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a crowd watches, as the Apollo 11 crew lands on the moon, in Central Park, New York. In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a crowd watches, as the Apollo 11 crew lands on the moon, in Central Park, New York. Photo: Marty Lederhandler, AP 
   
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   Image 41 of 145 A Japanese family watch their TV screen as President Richard Nixon is superimposed on a live TV Broadcast of the Apollo 11 astronauts salute from the Moon, July, 1969, Tokyo, Japan. The family is unidentified. A Japanese family watch their TV screen as President Richard Nixon is superimposed on a live TV Broadcast of the Apollo 11 astronauts salute from the Moon, July, 1969, Tokyo, Japan. The family is unidentified. Photo: AP 
   
   Image 42 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a footprint left by one of the astronauts of the Apollo 11 mission shows in the soft, powder surface of the moon. In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a footprint left by one of the astronauts of the Apollo 11 mission shows in the soft, powder surface of the moon. Photo: Anonymous, AP 
   
   Image 43 of 145 Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the Apollo 11 lunar module on the moon. The girls carry signs reading "Congratulation for successful landing on the Moon." less Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 44 of 145 Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the Apollo 11 lunar module on the moon. The girls carry signs reading "Congratulation for successful landing on the Moon." less Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 46 of 145 A crowd gathers to watch the Apollo 11 crew land on the moon, July 20, 1969, Central Park, New York. A crowd gathers to watch the Apollo 11 crew land on the moon, July 20, 1969, Central Park, New York. Photo: Marty Lederhandler, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 47 of 145 This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US near the lunar lander and the US flag, taken by Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. on the surface of the Moon. With one small step off a ladder, Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. less This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US near the lunar lander and the US flag, taken by Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. ... more Photo: NASA, AFP/Getty Images 
   
   Image 48 of 145 This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. removing a scientific experiment from the Lunar Module "Eagle" during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. As an estimated 500 million people around the world waited with bated breath crowded around fuzzy television screens and radios, Armstrong stepped down the lunar module's ladder and onto the lunar surface. "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," Armstrong intoned, his words slightly distorted by distance and communications equipment, in a phrase now etched forever into the history books. less This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. removing a scientific experiment from the Lunar Module "Eagle" during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. As ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images 
   
   Image 49 of 145 Edwin Buzz Aldrin carries scientific experiments to a deployment site south of the lunar module Eagle. One experiment involved the inner composition of the moon, and another tried to determine the exact distance from Earth. Photo was taken by Neil Armstrong of the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969. From the book Full Moon (Knopf) by Michael Light. less Edwin Buzz Aldrin carries scientific experiments to a deployment site south of the lunar module Eagle. One experiment involved the inner composition of the moon, and another tried to determine the exact ... more Photo: AP 
   
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   Image 51 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo provided by NASA, mission control personnel watch the moon walk by Apollo 11 astronauts, in Houston. In this July 20, 1969 file photo provided by NASA, mission control personnel watch the moon walk by Apollo 11 astronauts, in Houston. Photo: Anonymous, AP 
   
   Image 52 of 145 Picture taken by US astronaut Neil Armstrong of astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin conducting an experiment on the moon's surface on July 20, 1969, during the Apollo XI space mission. As an estimated 500 million people around the world waited with bated breath crowded around fuzzy television screens and radios, Armstrong stepped down the lunar module's ladder and onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," Armstrong intoned, his words slightly distorted by distance and communications equipment, in a phrase now etched forever into the history books. less Picture taken by US astronaut Neil Armstrong of astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin conducting an experiment on the moon's surface on July 20, 1969, during the Apollo XI space mission. As an estimated 500 million ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images 
   
   Image 53 of 145 In this July 1969 file photo, Astronaut Edwin Aldrin walks by the footpad of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module. In this July 1969 file photo, Astronaut Edwin Aldrin walks by the footpad of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module. Photo: NASA, AP 
   
   Image 54 of 145 Picture taken on July 20, 1969 shows astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, walking on the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity (EVA). Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong took this photograph with a 70mm lunar surface camera. With one small step off a ladder, commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. less Picture taken on July 20, 1969 shows astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, walking on the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity (EVA). Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong took ... more Photo: NASA, AFP/Getty Images 
   
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   Image 56 of 145 The Moon hangs high over the Neil Armstrong residence in El Lago, but when this picture was taken, Mrs. Janet Armstrong, her children, and a few friends were watching her husband, Neil and fellow astronaut Edwin Aldrin walk around on the surface of the Moon. less The Moon hangs high over the Neil Armstrong residence in El Lago, but when this picture was taken, Mrs. Janet Armstrong, her children, and a few friends were watching her husband, Neil and fellow astronaut ... more Photo: Curtis McGee, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 57 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Apollo 11 commander, is seen inside the Lunar Module while the LM rested on the lunar surface. Astronauts Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module Pilot, had already completed their extravehicular activity when this picture was made. less In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Apollo 11 commander, is seen inside the Lunar Module while the LM rested on the lunar surface. Astronauts Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP 
   
   Image 58 of 145 ThinkFilm provided this photo of (left to right) Neil Armstrong, Mike Collins and Buzz Aldrin after the July, 1969 Apollo 11 mission from "In the Shadow of the Moon." ThinkFilm provided this photo of (left to right) Neil Armstrong, Mike Collins and Buzz Aldrin after the July, 1969 Apollo 11 mission from "In the Shadow of the Moon." Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 59 of 145 Dr. Bill Carpenter prepares skin swab containers in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the recovery ship USS Hornet, awaiting the return to Earth of the Apollo 11 astronauts, July 21, 1969. After their return, the astronauts will be isolated in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the Hornet. less Dr. Bill Carpenter prepares skin swab containers in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the recovery ship USS Hornet, awaiting the return to Earth of the Apollo 11 astronauts, July 21, 1969. After their ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 61 of 145 The media surround Janet Armstrong, wife of astronaut Neil Armstrong. The media surround Janet Armstrong, wife of astronaut Neil Armstrong. Photo: Bill Thompson, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 62 of 145 This July 24, 1969 photo shows the re-entry of Apollo 11 into the earth's atmosphere. This July 24, 1969 photo shows the re-entry of Apollo 11 into the earth's atmosphere. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 63 of 145 Apollo 11 slashdown in the Pacific, July 24, 1969. Apollo 11 slashdown in the Pacific, July 24, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 64 of 145 U.S.Navy personnel, protected by Biological Isolation Garments, is recovering the Apollo 11 crew from the re-entry vehicle, which landed safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969, after an eight day mission on the moon. less U.S.Navy personnel, protected by Biological Isolation Garments, is recovering the Apollo 11 crew from the re-entry vehicle, which landed safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969, after an eight day mission ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 66 of 145 US Navy pararescueman Lieutenant Clancey Hatleberg disinfects Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in a life raft during recovery operations on July 24, 1969 at the successful completion of their lunar landing mission. less US Navy pararescueman Lieutenant Clancey Hatleberg disinfects Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in a life raft during recovery operations on July 24, 1969 at the ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images 
   
   Image 67 of 145 In this 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronauts stand next to their spacecraft in 1969, from left to right: Col. Edwin E. Aldrin, lunar module pilot; Neil Armstrong, flight commander; and Lt. Michael Collins, command module pilot. less In this 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronauts stand next to their spacecraft in 1969, from left to right: Col. Edwin E. Aldrin, lunar module pilot; Neil Armstrong, flight commander; and Lt. Michael Collins, ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP 
   
   Image 68 of 145 Apollo 11 crew leaving recovery helicopter, July 24, 1969. Apollo 11 crew leaving recovery helicopter, July 24, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 69 of 145 Misson control personnel wave flags to celebrate the the return to earth of Apollo 11 on July 24, 1969. Misson control personnel wave flags to celebrate the the return to earth of Apollo 11 on July 24, 1969. Photo: NASA, NYT 
   
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   Image 71 of 145 Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin (Joan) admitted to being tense during parts of the Apollo 11 mission, but she said Thursday, the day her husband splashed down, was different. Mrs. Aldrin and her children, from left, Janice, Michael and Andrew, held a hot but happy post-splashdown press conference. less Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin (Joan) admitted to being tense during parts of the Apollo 11 mission, but she said Thursday, the day her husband splashed down, was different. Mrs. Aldrin and her children, from left, ... more 
   
   Image 72 of 145 In this July 24, 1969 file photo, President Richard Nixon, back to camera, greets the Apollo 11 astronauts in the quarantine van on board the U.S.S. Hornet after splashdown and recovery. The Apollo 11 crew from left: Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin. less In this July 24, 1969 file photo, President Richard Nixon, back to camera, greets the Apollo 11 astronauts in the quarantine van on board the U.S.S. Hornet after splashdown and recovery. The Apollo 11 crew ... more Photo: AP 
   
   Image 73 of 145 Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 flight, greets his son Mark on telephone intercom system, while his wife Jan and another son Eric look on. Armstrong had just arrived in early morning with the Mobile Quarantine Facility at Ellington Air Force Base. Armstrong and fellow astronauts will remain in the MQF until arrival and confinement in the Crew Reception Area of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center. Quarantine period will end on August 10, 1969. less Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 flight, greets his son Mark on telephone intercom system, while his wife Jan and another son Eric look on. Armstrong had just arrived in early morning with the ... more 
   
   Image 74 of 145 The Apollo 11 crew in their isolation trailer, left to right: Neil Armstrong; Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins are greeted by their wives, left to right: Pat Collins; Jan Armstrong and Joan Aldrin after the spacemen arrived at Ellington AFB near the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Tex. less The Apollo 11 crew in their isolation trailer, left to right: Neil Armstrong; Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins are greeted by their wives, left to right: Pat Collins; Jan Armstrong and Joan Aldrin ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 76 of 145 Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the historic Apollo 11 lunar landing mission and the first man to set foot on the Moon, blows out the candles on his birthday cake as he celebrates his 39th birthday while still confined to the Crew Reception Area of the Manned Spacecraft Center's Lunar Receiving Laboratory. less Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the historic Apollo 11 lunar landing mission and the first man to set foot on the Moon, blows out the candles on his birthday cake as he celebrates his 39th birthday ... more Photo: NASA 
   
   Image 77 of 145 In this Aug. 13, 1969 file photo, amid ticker tape and American flags, Apollo 11 astronauts wave to welcoming New Yorkers during parade up lower Broadway on Wednesday, in New York. The spacemen, from left, are Michael Collins, Edwin Aldrin, Jr., and Neil A. Armstrong. less In this Aug. 13, 1969 file photo, amid ticker tape and American flags, Apollo 11 astronauts wave to welcoming New Yorkers during parade up lower Broadway on Wednesday, in New York. The spacemen, from left, are ... more Photo: Eddie Adams, AP 
   
   Image 78 of 145 This picture shows a display in honor of the Apollo 11 astronauts in a window of the Saks 5th Avenue store in New York in 1969. This picture shows a display in honor of the Apollo 11 astronauts in a window of the Saks 5th Avenue store in New York in 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 79 of 145 Apollo 11 ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Apollo 11 Astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. parade through downtown Houston in August 16, 1969. Apollo 11 ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Apollo 11 Astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. parade through downtown Houston in August 16, 1969. Photo: Jerry Click, Houston Chronicle 
   
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   Image 81 of 145 Michael Collins during a ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Michael Collins during a ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Photo: JERRY CLICK, HOUSTON CHRONICLE 
   
   Image 82 of 145 Neil Armstrong waves along with his wife and son from confetti-strewn car. Neil Armstrong waves along with his wife and son from confetti-strewn car. Photo: JERRY CLICK, HOUSTON CHRONICLE 
   
   Image 83 of 145 Main Street Houston - Astronaut Neil Armstrong, first man on the moon, waves to Houstonians who came by the thousands August 16, 1969 to cheer the Apollo 11 astronauts, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins after their historic moon landing in July. less Main Street Houston - Astronaut Neil Armstrong, first man on the moon, waves to Houstonians who came by the thousands August 16, 1969 to cheer the Apollo 11 astronauts, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins after ... more Photo: JIM COKER, HOUSTON CHRONICLE 
   
   Image 84 of 145 Celebration for Apollo 11 astronauts at the Astrodome, August 1969. Celebration for Apollo 11 astronauts at the Astrodome, August 1969. 
   
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   Image 86 of 145 Pope Paul VI looks through a magnifying lens as he examines a microfilm of messages from world leaders, brought to the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, during an audience in the pontiff`s private studio for them and their wives, Oct. 16, 1969. Standing behind the Pope, in front row, are (l/r:) Michael Collins; Msgr. P. Conveney, acting as interpreter; Edwin Aldrin and Neil Armstrong. less Pope Paul VI looks through a magnifying lens as he examines a microfilm of messages from world leaders, brought to the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, during an audience in the pontiff`s private studio for ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 87 of 145 President Jimmy Carter is shown at the White House with the Apollo 11 crew in July of 1979, left to right: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong. President Jimmy Carter is shown at the White House with the Apollo 11 crew in July of 1979, left to right: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 88 of 145 Apollo astronauts, from left, Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, Gene Cernan, and Walter Cunningham hold a press conference in a replica of an Apollo control room at Kennedy Space Center, Fla. Friday July 16, 1999. The men were at the center to help celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 launch. less Apollo astronauts, from left, Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, Gene Cernan, and Walter Cunningham hold a press conference in a replica of an Apollo control room at Kennedy Space Center, Fla. Friday July 16, ... more Photo: TERRY RENNA, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 89 of 145 Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, center, with fellow astronauts Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, and Michael Collins, left, laugh Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington, were they were presented the Langley Gold Medal for aviation by Vice President Al Gore. The event marks the 30th anniversay of the first landing on the moon by the three crew members. less Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, center, with fellow astronauts Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, and Michael Collins, left, laugh Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in ... more Photo: DOUG MILLS, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
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   Image 91 of 145 Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin is applauded by Vice President Al Gore after Gore presented him the Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington. The event marks the 30th anniversay of the first landing on the moon by the three Apollo 11 crew members. In the background is the original Apollo 11 capsule. less Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin is applauded by Vice President Al Gore after Gore presented him the Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and ... more Photo: DOUG MILLS, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 92 of 145 President Clinton looks at a piece of moon rock presented to him by Apollo 11 crew members Michael Collins, left, Neil Armstrong, second left, and Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, during a visit to the White House. Carol Armstrong, wife of Neil, third left, and Lois Aldrin, second right, wife of Buzz, joined the presentation. Tuesday marks 30th anniversary of the first landing on the moon, and the men of Apollo 11 received the prestigious Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, as well as, met with Clinton. less President Clinton looks at a piece of moon rock presented to him by Apollo 11 crew members Michael Collins, left, Neil Armstrong, second left, and Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, during a visit to the White ... more Photo: RON EDMONDS, ASSOCIATED PRESS 
   
   Image 93 of 145 U.S. President Barack Obama meets with Apollo 11 astronauts, from left, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, the second man to walk on the moon, Michael Collins, the command module pilot, and Neil Armstrong, who took the first step on the moon, in the Oval Office of the White House in Washington, D.C., U.S. Obama used the appearance with the astronauts to reinforce his call for greater emphasis on math and science in U.S. schools. less U.S. President Barack Obama meets with Apollo 11 astronauts, from left, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, the second man to walk on the moon, Michael Collins, the command module pilot, and Neil Armstrong, who took the first ... more Photo: MARTIN SIMON, VIA BLOOMBERG 
   
   Image 94 of 145 If you are a space buff with a large computer monitor you will likely have your hands full poring over the thousands of photos currently in Project Apollo Archive on Flickr. If you are a space buff with a large computer monitor you will likely have your hands full poring over the thousands of photos currently in Project Apollo Archive on Flickr. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 96 of 145 Here we see astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt shaving on Apollo 17. Here we see astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt shaving on Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 97 of 145 And astronaut Evans brushing his teeth. And astronaut Evans brushing his teeth. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 98 of 145 Drinking on Apollo 17. Drinking on Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 99 of 145 Sleeping on the way to the moon didn't seem easy. Sleeping on the way to the moon didn't seem easy. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 101 of 145 The crew of Apollo 17, the last one to visit the moon, consisted of Gene Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt. They seem to have had a lot of fun on their 12-day mission judging by all the photos they took in Dec. 1972. less The crew of Apollo 17, the last one to visit the moon, consisted of Gene Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt. They seem to have had a lot of fun on their 12-day mission judging by all the photos ... more Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 102 of 145 That's some entralling "blue steel" there Mr. Cernan. That's some entralling "blue steel" there Mr. Cernan. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 103 of 145 Before going clean-shaven it looks like he wanted to play a bit. Before going clean-shaven it looks like he wanted to play a bit. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 104 of 145 The moustache seems to work for him. The moustache seems to work for him. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 106 of 145 Astronaut Ron Evans shaving. Astronaut Ron Evans shaving. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 107 of 145 A possible Evans selfie. A possible Evans selfie. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 108 of 145 Astronaut Gene Cernan after a moon walk. Astronaut Gene Cernan after a moon walk. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 109 of 145 And Cernan covered in what looks like moon dust. And Cernan covered in what looks like moon dust. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 111 of 145 This could be one of the first selfies taken from lunar orbit. This could be one of the first selfies taken from lunar orbit. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 112 of 145 Apollo 17 loved selfies. Apollo 17 loved selfies. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 113 of 145 Astronaut takes astronaut photo. Astronaut takes astronaut photo. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 114 of 145 The bright light of space reflected on an Apollo 15 astronaut. The bright light of space reflected on an Apollo 15 astronaut. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 116 of 145 Looking at the sun required special glasses. Looking at the sun required special glasses. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 117 of 145 Which Instagram filter is this? Which Instagram filter is this? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 118 of 145 Golf or sample collection? Golf or sample collection? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 119 of 145 Astronaut Neil Armstrong, seen here just minutes after becoming the first man to walk on the moon. Astronaut Neil Armstrong, seen here just minutes after becoming the first man to walk on the moon. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 121 of 145 Shadow selfies were a big part of the Apollo program. Shadow selfies were a big part of the Apollo program. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 122 of 145 Some were better than others. Some were better than others. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 123 of 145 Astronaut John Glenn aboard Apollo 11. Astronaut John Glenn aboard Apollo 11. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 124 of 145 And Glenn back to work... And Glenn back to work... Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 126 of 145 Time to eat aboard Apollo 17. Time to eat aboard Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 127 of 145 Honey or scrambled eggs? Honey or scrambled eggs? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 128 of 145 Chipping away rock on the lunar surface. Chipping away rock on the lunar surface. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 129 of 145 Sometimes you gotta snooze in space and you bring your favorite sleeping mask. Sometimes you gotta snooze in space and you bring your favorite sleeping mask. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 131 of 145 A group picture featuring a few million people. A group picture featuring a few million people. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 132 of 145 Now watch me whip. Now watch me nae nae. Now watch me whip. Now watch me nae nae. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 133 of 145 Once more into the breach. Once more into the breach. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
   Image 134 of 145 Is that Russell Crowe? Is that Russell Crowe? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive 
   
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   Image 136 of 145 Javier Caldera reads a book at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Javier Caldera reads a book at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 137 of 145 Anthony Hernandez, left, Adajanae Jackson and Angel Wiggins listen to tutor Tasha Stoot during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Anthony Hernandez, left, Adajanae Jackson and Angel Wiggins listen to tutor Tasha Stoot during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 138 of 145 Pre-K students at Robinson Elementary School walks down the hallway Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Pre-K students at Robinson Elementary School walks down the hallway Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 139 of 145 Second grade teacher Yudith Vazquez, left, talks Emiliano Valdez during a reading class at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Second grade teacher Yudith Vazquez, left, talks Emiliano Valdez during a reading class at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
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   Image 141 of 145 Silbia Rojas, left, and Mayra Alcantar read during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. Rojas is seated under the desk as her "reading bubble". less Silbia Rojas, left, and Mayra Alcantar read during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 142 of 145 Tutor Fernando Lozano, center, works with Tashe Lilly, left, and Christopher Spillman during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Tutor Fernando Lozano, center, works with Tashe Lilly, left, and Christopher Spillman during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 143 of 145 Jose Manuel Hernandez reads during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Jose Manuel Hernandez reads during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle 
   
   Image 144 of 145 Tutor Ana Gonzales works with Jonathan Hernandez during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Tutor Ana Gonzales works with Jonathan Hernandez during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle ||||| You’d be a lying crazy person if you said it hasn’t crossed your mind, and in the 1960s it was one of the most common questions posed to NASA’s astronauts: how do you go to the bathroom in space? The answer is less sophisticated than you might expect and there was never a space age solution to the problem. Rather, the galactic crapper was born out of necessity. 
   
   NASA’s first manned spaceflight program flew the Mercury capsule, which was one of the most complex and intricate machines ever built when the program began manned flights in 1961. Closed negative feedback loops made all the onboard systems self-regulating. As a safety measure, the capsule could be controlled by the astronaut, mission control, or by a flight plan pre-programmed into the capsule’s computer. The cabin was pressurized, too, with 100-percent oxygen and featured an environmental control system that removed odors, carbon dioxide, and moisture. Pure oxygen also circulated through the astronauts’ pressure suit with the same effects; he stayed cool and dry because the oxygen flow promoted evaporation of his sweat. 
   
   Despite the high-tech capsule and clothing, there was one glaring oversight in the original Mercury mission planning: there was no thought to the astronaut having to urinate during the flight. McDonnell Aircraft, the company who built the capsule, makes no mention of bathrooms of any kind in the nearly 500 page familiarization manual it sent to NASA. 
   
   It wasn’t as if everyone just forgot astronauts are human and need to pee; no one thought it was something worth addressing this early on in the space age. The flights were short, surly the astronauts could hold it for a few hours while they orbited the Earth. Details of human functions in space could wait for later missions. It wasn’t a detail anyone thought should slow progress towards getting a man in space. 
   
   From the astronaut’s perspective, however, a spaceflight is a different story. No mission ever lasted the few minutes or hours planned; the astronaut spent hours waiting for launch locked inside his capsule during countdown. Any holds for technical glitches or weather just made his wait longer. A short mission could easily turn into a full day. 
   
   This was the problem facing Alan Shepard, America’s first astronaut, as he lay on his couch in his Freedom 7 capsule. Shepard’s flight was a fifteen minute suborbital hop — a very doable flight plan without a washroom handy. But Shepard’s role in the flight didn’t last a mere fifteen minutes. He entered the capsule hours before launch, and by the time he was getting close to blasting off, the astronaut had to, you know, go real bad. 
   
   He radioed fellow Mercury astronaut Gordon Cooper who was serving as capcom for the mission for permission to leave the capsule to use the washroom — the gantry was still attached to the capsule, how difficult could it be? His request was denied. Depressurizing the capsule, exiting, and then going through the whole process of ingress and repressurization would set the countdown back. Cooper advised Shepard to hold it. 
   
   Desperate, Shepard told Cooper he was going to have to wet his suit, a potentially risky move since he was covered inside and out with biomedical sensors. Sensing defeat, mission control relented. But no, they didn’t let him out to race to wherever an astronaut could potentially race at a launchpad, The biomed sensors were turned off and Shepard was free to relieve himself safely in his suit. His supine position meant he was momentarily lying in a sizable puddle of his own urine before the oxygen flow inside the suit dried his long underwear. Within minutes, he was dry and the biomed sensors were back online. Not long after, America’s first astronaut launched comfortably into history. 
   
   The second manned spaceflight was a copy of the first — Gus Grissom made the same short flight, which meant that his mission also lacked a urine collection device. Hoping to prevent a repeat of Shepard’s wet episode, Grissom was given a makeshift, homemade system: a garter belt with a condom connected to a collection bag allowed Grissom to urinate without wetting his suit. It also gave Grissom the distinction of being the only astronaut of the era to fly in lingerie. 
   
   The garter belt and condom was replaced with a properly designed urine collection system. An external urine collection device — a tube emptying into a bag with a one-way valve to prevent backflow — allowed the astronauts to relieve themselves during a mission. 
   
   Longer missions complicated things as one bag wouldn’t be sufficient. For the last Mercury flight, Gordon Cooper’s Faith 7, a urine containment system was added to the capsule. Cooper had multiple urine bags to which he could attach the tube. His urine could either be pumped out the side of the capsule or brought back to the lab for scientific analysis.The system was a little difficult to use, but it did the job. The external urine collection device became a staple of space race-era missions. 
   
   With the Gemini program, a second “function” posed a new challenge. One of the program’s central goals was to achieve long-duration spaceflight since a trip to the moon was expected to take up to two weeks. This means that a urine collection system wouldn’t be enough; Gemini mission planners had to develop a poop containment system as well. 
   
   This was a harder nut to crack since fecal matter couldn’t be dumped out of the spacecraft like urine. It had to be stored as neatly as possible. 
   
   As a preemptive measure, Gemini crews were given low residue foods in the hope of making their bowel movements smaller and less frequent. Nevertheless, they still needed a system. The solution was a foot long tube-shaped bag with an adhesive lining the open rim containing a small number of crystals designed to absorb moisture and neutralize odors. The bags were stored in the spacecraft and the samples analyzed by doctors after splashdown to determine how the body absorbs and digests nutrients without gravity. 
   
   Using this crude space crapper was a difficult task. Astronauts had to take special care to make sure everything remained contained — feces floating around a spacecraft in zero gravity has got to be a universally unappealing image. In many cases, the astronauts would try to hold off using the “fecal containment system,” as it was called, but some missions were just too long, like Gemini 7’s record two week mission. Astronauts Jim Lovell and Frank Borman broke down and had to use. The Navy SEALS who recovered the crew after splashdown commented that their spacecraft smelled worse than a latrine. 
   
   The larger Apollo spacecraft afforded the crew a very minimal amount of washroom privacy. Common practice had one astronaut strip down completely naked — wedding rings and all — while the other two crew members got has far away from him as possible. Being nude made clean up a comparatively easier affair. 
   
   For the crews who landed on the moon, using the washroom was both easier and harder. The one-sixth gravity was enough to keep anything from floating around the cabin. The flip side of a stay on the moon was that astronauts couldn’t just pop back into the lunar module to relieve themselves midway through a moonwalk. 
   
   So, NASA diapered its astronauts. (Neil Armstrong’s is pictured below.) Underneath their long johns and inside the highly sophisticated pressure suit that allowed the astronauts to travel freely around the lunar surface, delivered a steady flow of oxygen, controlled his temperature, and kept fresh drinking water within reach of his mouth, all moon-walking astronauts had a urine collection bag like the Mercury astronauts and a diaper. 
   
   The prospect of cleaning up after using a diaper was unappealing — washing on an Apollo mission meant wiping up with a damp towel, and in the LM there was no source of hot water. With this in mind, no moonwalker ever used the diaper. Still, accidents happened. Charlie Duke chose to urinate just before lifting off from the moon on Apollo 16. He only found out that his urine containment system had become unattached from his person when he felt a warm stream running down one leg. He began his trip back to Earth with a squishy left boot. 
   
   Longer term missions lasting months on the International Space Station have yielded advances in washroom technology in space, and the shift to mixed-gender crews has made moderate privacy a necessity. Still, there’s something so human about American heros dealing with diapers on the moon. And now you know how astronauts go to the bathroom on the moon. 
   
   Connections:
target: – It was a mission-critical element: the size of NASA astronauts' manhood. Seriously. The Houston Chronicle resurrects the fascinating historical tidbit by way of the Science Channel's Moon Machines documentary series, in which engineer Donald Rethke explained the very precise nature of early space diapers. The Maximum Absorbency Garment system, donned by Gemini and Apollo astronauts, featured one very specific element: a sleeve likened to a condom with a hole at the tip that enabled the men to urinate into a pouch with a one-way valve in their suits. Three sleeve sizes were available, small, medium, and large. And astronauts couldn't fib, explains Rethke. If they decided to order the next size up, the sheath wouldn't fit snugly, and liquid could potentially leak out, causing damage. To make the process a little less embarrassing, the sizes were later renamed: large, gigantic, and humongous. Motherboard notes that the urination issue was first brought to the fore by Alan Shepard, who spent hours in the Freedom 7 capsule in advance of a quick 15-minute "suborbital hop." Denied permission to leave the capsule, he opted to pee in his suit—forcing Mission Control to turn off his biomedical sensors until the flow of oxygen in the suit dried the pee, allowing the sensors to be switched on. Today's astronauts enjoy actual restrooms, though MAG systems are provided to astronauts who are operating outside space vehicles. (Other unusual NASA history: A scientist "stole" a satellite from the agency in 1983—and is ready to give it back.)