major conclusions are that there is a broad range of kinematics and that specific prostheses have specific advantages and disadvantages [ 2 , 5 , 27 ] . for example , posterior - stabilized knee prostheses were developed to prevent reversed anterior translations of the femoral condyles during flexion seen in cruciate sacrificing prostheses .
the induced posterior displacement will avoid impingement and thereby improve the range of motion of the knee .
however , it is no exception that the actual in vivo kinematics of knee prostheses is not in line with the desired kinematics as intended by the design . understanding the effect of design choices on in vivo kinematics , stability and
muscle activation has become more important because of the increasingly clear connection between knee prosthesis kinematics and clinical performance .
therefore , the aim of this study was to compare a broad range of total knee prostheses with different design parameters ( multi - radius , single - radius , fixed - bearing , mobile - bearing , posterior - stabilized , cruciate retaining and cruciate sacrificing ) to determine whether in vivo kinematics was consistently related to design .
the hypothesis was that there are no clear recognizable differences in in vivo kinematics between different design parameters or prostheses .
at two sites , data were collected by a single observer on 52 knees ( 49 subjects with rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis ) .
total knee replacements were performed by five surgeons at three hospitals in two countries ( the netherlands and united kingdom ) .
all surgeons were specialized in total knee arthroplasty , and prostheses were implanted according to the operative techniques described by the manufacturer . based on a previous fluoroscopy study ,
relative motions of 0.3 could be detected when ten patients were included in each group .
knee kinematics was recorded using fluoroscopy as the patients performed a step - up motion .
patients reported functional ability ( knee score and function score ) was quantified pre- and post - operatively for the prospective patients using the knee society score ( kss ) .
the study was approved by the respective local medical ethics committees , and all patients gave informed consent.table  1overview of the prostheses used , congruency of the insert and number of knees and patient characteristics ( mean and standard deviation)prosthesisdesign parametersnumber of kneesfollow - up ( months)male / femaleage ( years)bmi ( kg / m)pre - operativepost - operativefunction scoreknee scorefunction scoreknee scoreduraconmulti - radius1021 ( 8.9)3/768 ( 10.9)29 ( 3.7)xx88 ( 13)95 ( 3)fixed - bearingcruciate retainingtriathlon fbsingle - radius1113 ( 1.0)5/666 ( 9.1)30 ( 6.2)52 ( 18)43 ( 13)73 ( 24)92 ( 4)fixed - bearingposterior - stabilizedtriathlon mbsingle - radius912 ( 2.5)2/763 ( 9.6)31 ( 7.5)48 ( 13)49 ( 21)71 ( 26)90 ( 11)mobile - bearingposterior - stabilizedpfc - sigmamulti - radius85 ( 1.0)4/467 ( 7.6)31 ( 5.1)xxxxfixed - bearingposterior - stabilizednexgenmulti - radius743 ( 7.7)1/667 ( 8.2)30 ( 3.1)43 ( 16)44 ( 24)74 ( 30)84 ( 18)mobile - bearingposterior - stabilizedroccmulti - radius725 ( 0.8)3/463 ( 10.9)29 ( 5.6)50 ( 26)47 ( 12)79 ( 22)86 ( 11)mobile - bearingcruciate sacrificingmissing data are indicated with an 
xstryker , kalamazoo , mi , usadepuy orthopaedics inc . , warsaw , in , usazimmer inc . , warsaw , in , usabiomet , europe bv , dordrecht , the netherlands overview of the prostheses used , congruency of the insert and number of knees and patient characteristics ( mean and standard deviation ) missing data are indicated with an 
x stryker , kalamazoo , mi , usa depuy orthopaedics inc . , warsaw , in , usa zimmer inc . , warsaw ,
in , usa biomet , europe bv , dordrecht , the netherlands the patients were asked to perform a step - up motion ( height 18  cm ) with bare feet in front of a flat panel fluoroscope ( 15 frames / sec , resolution 1,024    1,024 , pulse width < 3.2  ms ) .
patients were instructed to keep their weight onto the leg of interest and to perform the motions in a controlled manner .
three - dimensional ( 3d ) models ( reverse engineered or computer aided design ) of the tibial and femoral components were used to assess the position and orientation of the components in the fluoroscopic images . in case of a mobile - bearing prosthesis , during surgery 1  mm tantalum markers were inserted in predefined non - weight bearing areas of the mobile insert to visualize the polyethylene .
roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis ( rsa ) was used to create accurate 3d models of the markers of the inserts to assess position and orientation of the mobile insert in the fluoroscopic images .
this technique showed to have an axial rotation accuracy of 0.1 and 0.1  mm .
the coordinate system was defined as the local coordinate system of the tibial component . at maximal extension
the minimal distance between the femoral condyles and the tibial base plate was calculated independently for the medial and lateral condyle and projected on the tibial plane to show the anterior - posterior motions .
this line was projected onto the transverse plane of the tibial plateau for each fluoroscopic frame .
all images were processed using a commercially available software package ( model - based rsa , medis specials b.v .
, leiden , the netherlands ) . a chi - square test ( cramer s v ) was used to test whether the prosthesis groups were different on variables , such as age , gender , bmi and functional and knee scores .
an anova was used to test for differences in outcome variables among the prosthetic groups .
levene s test was used to test for homogeneity of variances between prosthetic groups . for femoral axial rotation ( p  =  0.006 ) and insert axial rotation ( p  =  0.001 ) , the variances were not equal . to correct for this unequal variance and to correct for the different group sizes ,
when a significant effect of prosthetic design on an outcome variable was found , post hoc tests were performed to test which groups were different .
the patients were asked to perform a step - up motion ( height 18  cm ) with bare feet in front of a flat panel fluoroscope ( 15 frames / sec , resolution 1,024    1,024 , pulse width < 3.2  ms ) .
patients were instructed to keep their weight onto the leg of interest and to perform the motions in a controlled manner .
three - dimensional ( 3d ) models ( reverse engineered or computer aided design ) of the tibial and femoral components were used to assess the position and orientation of the components in the fluoroscopic images . in case of a mobile - bearing prosthesis , during surgery 1  mm tantalum markers were inserted in predefined non - weight bearing areas of the mobile insert to visualize the polyethylene . roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis ( rsa ) was used to create accurate 3d models of the markers of the inserts to assess position and orientation of the mobile insert in the fluoroscopic images .
this technique showed to have an axial rotation accuracy of 0.1 and 0.1  mm .
the coordinate system was defined as the local coordinate system of the tibial component . at maximal extension ,
the minimal distance between the femoral condyles and the tibial base plate was calculated independently for the medial and lateral condyle and projected on the tibial plane to show the anterior - posterior motions .
this line was projected onto the transverse plane of the tibial plateau for each fluoroscopic frame .
all images were processed using a commercially available software package ( model - based rsa , medis specials b.v . , leiden , the netherlands ) .
a chi - square test ( cramer s v ) was used to test whether the prosthesis groups were different on variables , such as age , gender , bmi and functional and knee scores .
an anova was used to test for differences in outcome variables among the prosthetic groups .
levene s test was used to test for homogeneity of variances between prosthetic groups . for femoral axial rotation ( p  =  0.006 ) and insert axial rotation ( p  =  0.001 ) , the variances were not equal . to correct for this unequal variance and to correct for the different group sizes ,
brown - forsythe correction was used . when a significant effect of prosthetic design on an outcome variable was found ,
age at surgery , bmi , pre - operative kss knee score and function score did not differ significantly between groups ( table  1 ) .
however , there was a small significant difference in post - operative kss knee score ( p  =  0.045 ) .
post - operatively , the duracon patients ( multi - radius fixed - bearing cruciate retaining ) scored highest on both kss function score and knee score . in all groups ,
all patients were considered clinically successful without significant pain or measurable ligamentous instability . also , no clinical deviations were reported , such as extension lags or flexion contractures . the nexgen group had significant smaller knee flexion angles compared to the other prosthetic groups ( triathlon mb p  =  0.005 ; triathlon fb p  =  0.004 ; duracon p  =  0.003 ; rocc p  =  0.007 ; pfc - sigma p  =  0.017 ) .
there were no significant differences between the other groups ( table  2).table  2mean and standard deviation of the range of knee flexion (  ) , axial rotation of the femoral component and the insert (  ) and anterior - posterior ( ap ) translation ( mm ) of the lateral and medial condyle during the step - up motion for each prosthetic groupprosthesisknee flexion ( )axial rotation ( )ap translation ( mm)femoral componentmobile insertmedial condylelateral condyleduracon59.7 ( 9.3)8.6 ( 2.3)9.0 ( 2.1)11.1 ( 3.4)triathlon fb60.3 ( 5.4)8.3 ( 2.7)6.6 ( 1.5)7.1 ( 1.8)triathlon mb62.0 ( 12.9)9.6 ( 4.3)8.7 ( 4.9)6.8 ( 2.0)6.0 ( 1.6)pfc - sigma56.5 ( 9.9)8.3 ( 4.5)5.3 ( 1.9)6.8 ( 2.5)nexgen34.5 ( 10.3)3.0 ( 0.5)2.0 ( 0.7)3.9 ( 2.1)4.8 ( 1.8)rocc59.0 ( 8.8)10.4 ( 5.4)7.3 ( 2.8)6.9 ( 2.0)7.0 ( 1.5)levene s test0.83 n.s.3.80 p  =  0.0069.60 p  =  0.0010.31 n.s.1.74 n.s.anova brown - forsythef(5 , 36.7 )  =  8.38 p  =  0.000f(5 , 25.1 )  =  3.56 p  =  0.014f(2 , 13.2 )  =  9.11 p  =  0.003f(5 , 40.7 )  =  6.46 p  =  0.000f(5 , 34.6 )  =  8.55 p  =  0.000also , the results of the levene s test and anova are presented .
there was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome variables : fixed - bearing prosthesis ; therefore , no  mobile insert datan.s .
not significant mean and standard deviation of the range of knee flexion (  ) , axial rotation of the femoral component and the insert (  ) and anterior - posterior ( ap ) translation ( mm ) of the lateral and medial condyle during the step - up motion for each prosthetic group also , the results of the levene s test and anova are presented .
there was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome variables  : fixed - bearing prosthesis ; therefore , no 
mobile insert data the nexgen group had significantly smaller femoral axial rotation compared to the duracon group ( p  =  0.000 ) , the triathlon mb group ( p  =  0.024 ) and triathlon fb group ( p  =  0.001 ) .
the mean range of axial rotation of the insert of the nexgen patients was also significantly smaller ( limited to 2.0 ) than the mean range of axial rotations of the inserts of the triathlon mb and rocc groups ( p  =  0.010 and p  =  0.006 , respectively ) .
the mobile insert of the rocc followed the motion of the femoral component until approximately 60 of knee flexion . beyond 60 of knee flexion , 3 of 7 rocc patients showed paradoxical axial rotations .
the insert of the triathlon patients followed the femoral component during the complete motion ( maximum knee flexion during step - up was 80 ) , without showing paradoxical axial rotations . under the assumption that the inserts will follow the femoral component , a centrally located pivot point of axial rotation of the femoral component
was expected . in all groups , except for the rocc patients , the measured pivot point of axial rotation varied between a medial , central or lateral position .
all the rocc patients had a central point of rotation , except for one subject having a medial pivot point of axial rotation ( fig . 
1).fig .  1example of a medial pivot point of axial rotation . the medial condyle moves to posterior and the lateral condyle to anterior during knee extension example of a medial pivot point of axial rotation . the medial condyle moves to posterior and the lateral condyle to anterior during knee extension the translations of the lateral condylar were essentially anterior throughout knee extension and translations of the medial condylar mainly posterior .
the nexgen , duracon , pfc - sigma and triathlon fb patients showed no paradoxical anterior - posterior motions .
the duracon group had larger translations of the medial condyle compared to the pfc - sigma group ( p  =  0.021 ) and the nexgen group ( p  =  0.005 ) and of the lateral condyle compared to the triathlon mb group ( p  =  0.015 ) and nexgen group ( p  =  0.003 ) . between the rest of the groups , there were no significant differences in anterior - posterior translation .
the nexgen group had significant smaller knee flexion angles compared to the other prosthetic groups ( triathlon mb p  =  0.005 ; triathlon fb p  =  0.004 ; duracon p  =  0.003 ; rocc p  =  0.007 ; pfc - sigma p  =  0.017 ) .
there were no significant differences between the other groups ( table  2).table  2mean and standard deviation of the range of knee flexion (  ) , axial rotation of the femoral component and the insert (  ) and anterior - posterior ( ap ) translation ( mm ) of the lateral and medial condyle during the step - up motion for each prosthetic groupprosthesisknee flexion ( )axial rotation ( )ap translation ( mm)femoral componentmobile insertmedial condylelateral condyleduracon59.7 ( 9.3)8.6 ( 2.3)9.0 ( 2.1)11.1 ( 3.4)triathlon fb60.3 ( 5.4)8.3 ( 2.7)6.6 ( 1.5)7.1 ( 1.8)triathlon mb62.0 ( 12.9)9.6 ( 4.3)8.7 ( 4.9)6.8 ( 2.0)6.0 ( 1.6)pfc - sigma56.5 ( 9.9)8.3 ( 4.5)5.3 ( 1.9)6.8 ( 2.5)nexgen34.5 ( 10.3)3.0 ( 0.5)2.0 ( 0.7)3.9 ( 2.1)4.8 ( 1.8)rocc59.0 ( 8.8)10.4 ( 5.4)7.3 ( 2.8)6.9 ( 2.0)7.0 ( 1.5)levene s test0.83 n.s.3.80 p  =  0.0069.60 p  =  0.0010.31 n.s.1.74 n.s.anova brown - forsythef(5 , 36.7 )  =  8.38
p  =  0.000f(5 , 25.1 )  =  3.56 p  =  0.014f(2 , 13.2 )  =  9.11 p  =  0.003f(5 , 40.7 )  =  6.46 p  =  0.000f(5 , 34.6 )  =  8.55 p  =  0.000also , the results of the levene s test and anova are presented .
there was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome variables : fixed - bearing prosthesis ; therefore , no  mobile insert datan.s .
not significant mean and standard deviation of the range of knee flexion (  ) , axial rotation of the femoral component and the insert (  ) and anterior - posterior ( ap ) translation ( mm ) of the lateral and medial condyle during the step - up motion for each prosthetic group also , the results of the levene s test and anova are presented .
there was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome variables  : fixed - bearing prosthesis ; therefore , no  mobile insert data
the nexgen group had significantly smaller femoral axial rotation compared to the duracon group ( p  =  0.000 ) , the triathlon mb group ( p  =  0.024 ) and triathlon fb group ( p  =  0.001 ) .
the mean range of axial rotation of the insert of the nexgen patients was also significantly smaller ( limited to 2.0 ) than the mean range of axial rotations of the inserts of the triathlon mb and rocc groups ( p  =  0.010 and p  =  0.006 , respectively ) .
the mobile insert of the rocc followed the motion of the femoral component until approximately 60 of knee flexion . beyond 60 of knee flexion , 3 of 7 rocc patients showed paradoxical axial rotations .
the insert of the triathlon patients followed the femoral component during the complete motion ( maximum knee flexion during step - up was 80 ) , without showing paradoxical axial rotations .
under the assumption that the inserts will follow the femoral component , a centrally located pivot point of axial rotation of the femoral component was expected . in all groups , except for the rocc patients , the measured pivot point of axial rotation varied between a medial , central or lateral position .
all the rocc patients had a central point of rotation , except for one subject having a medial pivot point of axial rotation ( fig . 
the medial condyle moves to posterior and the lateral condyle to anterior during knee extension example of a medial pivot point of axial rotation .
the translations of the lateral condylar were essentially anterior throughout knee extension and translations of the medial condylar mainly posterior .
the nexgen , duracon , pfc - sigma and triathlon fb patients showed no paradoxical anterior - posterior motions .
the duracon group had larger translations of the medial condyle compared to the pfc - sigma group ( p  =  0.021 ) and the nexgen group ( p  =  0.005 ) and of the lateral condyle compared to the triathlon mb group ( p  =  0.015 ) and nexgen group ( p  =  0.003 ) . between the rest of the groups , there were no significant differences in anterior - posterior translation .
the aim of this study was to compare different total knee prostheses ( multi - radius , single - radius , fixed - bearing , mobile - bearing , posterior - stabilized , cruciate retaining and cruciate sacrificing ) to determine whether in vivo kinematics is consistently related to kinematics intended by the knee prosthesis design . according to several authors , in vivo knee kinematics after total knee arthroplasty
is directly related to the constraints of the design of the prosthesis [ 4 , 5 , 9 ] . on the other hand , several studies found aberrant and highly unpredictable kinematics , and there was no distinction in clinical results and kinematics between different types of prostheses [ 9 , 14 , 15 , 20 , 2224 ] .
this study showed that despite kinematics being generally consistent with the kinematics intended by their design , there were no clear recognizable differences in in vivo kinematics between different design parameters or prostheses .
patients with a cruciate sacrificing prosthesis ( rocc ) can not rely on the cruciate ligaments to provide stability . to compensate for this
, the congruency of the insert is increased , providing more intrinsic stability between the insert and the femoral component .
the increased congruency is also expected to lead to increased axial rotation of the mobile insert .
this is supported by our fluoroscopic data , showing that the insert was following the femoral component until approximately 60 of knee flexion . beyond 60 of knee flexion ,
diversion between the insert and the femoral component and reversed axial rotations occurred . despite the lower congruency
, the triathlon mb group showed equal motion of the insert and femoral component during the whole range of flexion , without occurrence of reversed axial rotations .
a more uniform motion may reduce wear of the polyethylene , due to a reduction in shear forces at the liner interface [ 6 , 19 ] . according to knee simulator studies ,
the reduction in sliding distance reduces the surface area of polyethylene being worn which in turn reduces wear [ 18 , 19 ] .
the cruciate retaining group ( duracon ) had the largest anterior - posterior motions , without revealing any reversed femoral tibial motion patterns .
this is in accordance with the intended kinematics , keeping the posterior ligament to preserve normal rollback .
the retained posterior ligament is assumed to increase joint stability compared to cruciate sacrificing total knees .
this assumption is supported by the duracon group having the highest post - operative kss knee and function scores .
possibly , this patient group had also better function pre - operatively . pre - operative scores and function are good indicators for post - operative scores and functions .
all total knees showed comparable axial rotations of the femoral component with respect to the tibial component , except for the nexgen patients .
the mobile inserts did not add additional mobility to the knee joint compared to the fixed - bearing groups .
however , additional mobility was possibly not needed during the step - up motion performed .
the inserts of two of the three mobile - bearing groups moved as predicted on theoretical grounds .
the absence or reduced mobility in the nexgen patients makes this implant very similar to a fixed - bearing prosthesis .
this absence or reduced mobility will also enhance wear of the polyethylene and could induce a higher incidence of loosening by transmitting larger forces to the bone - implant interface [ 1 , 6 , 7 , 10 , 12 , 25 , 26 ] . in all three mobile - bearing prostheses
used , the centrally located trunnion imposed a centrally located pivot point of rotation of the insert on top of the tibial plateau . under the assumption that the inserts will follow the femoral component , a centrally located pivot point of axial rotation of the femoral component
only the rocc patients had a measured central pivot point of axial rotation of the femoral component with respect to the tibial component . in the other two mobile - bearing groups ,
these deviant pivot points might be caused by low congruency between the insert and femoral component and by laxity of the surrounding ligaments .
however , no manifest laxity was seen in these patients . a possible limitation of this and other multicenter studies , which could explain the variability in kinematics , is patient diversity ( osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis ) , pre - operative deformities , muscle adaptations and the different surgeons .
it is known that surgeons are still the biggest variable in outcome after total knee arthroplasty .
factors that play a major role in dysfunction of any knee and are determined by the surgeon are frontal plane malalignment , axial malrotation of the prosthesis , sagittal overstuffing of the knee , inappropriate level of joint space , inappropriate constraint or ligamentous imbalance and poor initial fixation of the implant [ 3 , 8 , 21 ] . statistics showed that there was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome parameters ; however , post hoc tests showed that the nexgen group was responsible for 80% of the significant values . in this group ,
the range of knee flexion was much smaller , resulting in smaller anterior - posterior translations and rotations .
it is not clear whether and why this patient group performed the step - up task differently .
this study showed that the in vivo kinematics of most included total knee prostheses were consistent with the kinematics intended by their design .
however , some prostheses showed reversed or paradoxical kinematics in some parts of their functional range of motion .
if the theoretical kinematics is not in accordance with the in vivo kinematics , the manufacture should optimize the new prosthetic design to prevent large scale polyethylene wear with subsequent prosthesis loosening .
this is of importance because of the growing population of younger patients who will require an implant to function for at least two decades .
because of the high accuracy , it is recommended that fluoroscopy is used for evaluating the kinematics of new total knee prostheses before introducing the new knee worldwide on the market .
despite kinematics being generally consistent with the kinematics intended by their design , there were no clear recognizable differences in in vivo kinematics between different design parameters or prostheses .
hence , the differences in design parameters or prostheses are not distinct enough to have an effect on clinical outcome of patients .
 purposethe aim of this study was to compare a broad range of total knee prostheses with different design parameters to determine whether in vivo kinematics was consistently related to design . 
 the hypothesis was that there are no clear recognizable differences in in vivo kinematics between different design parameters or prostheses.methodsat two sites , data were collected by a single observer on 52 knees ( 49 subjects with rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis ) . 
 six different total knee prostheses were used : multi - radius , single - radius , fixed - bearing , mobile - bearing , posterior - stabilized , cruciate retaining and cruciate sacrificing . 
 knee kinematics was recorded using fluoroscopy as the patients performed a step - up motion.resultsthere was a significant effect of prosthetic design on all outcome parameters ; however , post hoc tests showed that the nexgen group was responsible for 80% of the significant values . 
 the range of knee flexion was much smaller in this group , resulting in smaller anterior - posterior translations and rotations.conclusiondespite kinematics being generally consistent with the kinematics intended by their design , there were no clear recognizable differences in in vivo kinematics between different design parameters or prostheses . 
 hence , the differences in design parameters or prostheses are not distinct enough to have an effect on clinical outcome of patients.level of evidencetherapeutic study , level iii . 